Food Research International 130 (2020) 108924

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Food Research International

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Review

A paradigm of volatile aroma compounds in rice and their product with T

extraction and identification methods: A comprehensive review
Deepak Kumar Verma , Prem Prakash Srivastav
⁎

Agricultural and Food Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur 721 302, West Bengal, India

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: The aroma in rice and its products is one of the important quality characteristics. It is contributed by more than
Rice aroma 500 different volatile compounds and the extraction and quantification of aroma compounds are equally es-
2-AP sential, determining the threshold of aroma. Till date, a complete review of the aromatic consideration of rice is
Simultaneous distillation and supercritical fluid lacking in the literature. Therefore, the present paper is prepared with the aim of summarizing the data and
extraction
other significant information in respect of the aroma characteristics of different types of rice and rice pro-
Solid-phase microextraction
ducts from the early 1980s to 2019. This review discusses all the studies on extraction, isolation, and char-
Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry
Gas chromatography-flame ionization detector acterization of volatile aroma compounds (VACs) done in different types of rice and their products which will
further help researchers to continue their work on the lacking aspects of rice aroma. A special focus has been
given to the 2-AP compound which signified the difference between aromatic and non-aromatic rice cultivars.

1. Introduction development and application of chromatography, especially gas chroma-

The staple food in several parts of the world, especially in Asia and
India is rice (Oryza sativa L.). In the world, there are several types of rice
found which are used in the preparation of numerous products. Some of
them are known for their aroma, flavor, and fragrance, due to the pre-
sence of aroma, flavor, and fragrance, rice’s products are more preferred
by majority of consumers. Aroma quality of rice is a key characteristic
that increases the value of rice in the international market. The Indian
subcontinent is a home for aromatic rice diversity. Traditionally, many
cultivars of aromatic and non-aromatic rice are grown by Indian farmers
(Singh, Singh, & Khush, 2000; Verma, Mohan, Yadav, Asthir, & Soni,
2012; Verma, Mohan, & Asthir, 2013; Verma, Mohan, Prabhakar, &
Srivastav, 2015; Verma, Srivastav, & Nadaf, 2018c).
Rice aroma – the vital quality parameter may determine the ac-
ceptance or rejection of rice before it is tasted. On the other hand, it is a
primary sensory quality characteristic for consumers, is composed of
taste and odor. Consumers of traditional rice consider aroma as the
major criteria. It is conjointly thought of as a crucial property of rice
that indicates the top quality and value within the market (Singh et al.,
2000; Verma & Srivastav, 2018b).
Early research on rice aroma can be traced 30 years back (Okpalaa,
Moa, Duana, & Tanga, 2019; Routray & Rayaguru, 2018; Verma &
Srivastav, 2018b; Wakte et al., 2016), but more scientifically progress in
modern analytical techniques has been achieved since the discovery,
tography (GC) which was widely used. GC received tremendous advances
and innovations and in particular, when combined with mass spectrometry
(MS) known as GC–MS, made much easier to the identification and
quantification of VACs in mixtures of the sample matrix and have greatly
increased our knowledge on chemistry of rice aroma. From an appraisal of
all known information shows that there were more than 500 volatile aroma
compounds (VACs) which have been documented so far in various cultivars
of scented and non-scented rice (Verma & Srivastav, 2016, 2018a).
As a result, there are many studies have been focused on extraction,
identification, and quantification of the VACs of rice and rice products.
The aim of most of the studies was for much better understanding of all
those compounds which responsible characteristic aroma
(Bhattacharjee, Singhal, & Kulkarni, 2002; Itani, Tamaki, Hayata,
Fushimi, & Hashizume, 2004; Nadaf, Krishnan, & Wakte, 2006; Singh
et al., 2000). However, some research focussed on other aspects of rice
VACs like aroma synthesis and development, development of rapid
extraction and identification methods, etc. The works of many re-
searchers and research groups associated with rice VACs throughout the
different parts of the world were appreciable. Among them, the major
researchers and research groups are given as follow since its first report:
Buttery, Ling, and Juliano (1982, 1983a, 1983b, 1986, 1988, 1999),
Widjaja, Craske, and Wootton (1996a), Widjaja, Craske, and Wootton
(1996b), Bergman et al., 2000, 2001), Grimm, Champagne, Bett-
Garber, and Ohtsubo (2000), Grimm, Bergman, Delgado, and Bryant

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: deepak.verma@agfe.iitkgp.ernet.in (D.K. Verma).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2019.108924
Received 29 September 2019; Received in revised form 11 December 2019; Accepted 15 December 2019
Available online 18 December 2019
0963-9969/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
D.K. Verma and P.P. Srivastav
(2001), Grimm et al. (2011), Wongpornchai, Sriseadka, and
Choonvisase (2003), Wongpornchai, Dumri, Jongkaewwattana, and Siri
(2004), Bhattacharjee, Ranganathan, Singhal, and Kulkarni (2003),
Champagne et al. (1997), Champagne et al. (2004), Champagne et al.
(2005), Champagne (2008), Itani et al. (2004), Yoshihashi (2002),
Yoshihashi et al. (2004), Yoshihashi et al. (2005), Bryant, Jones, and
Grimm (2006, 2011), Nadaf et al. (2006), Ghiasvand, Setkova, and
Pawliszyn (2007), Zeng, Zhang, Chen, Zhang, and Matsunaga (2008a),
Zeng, Zhang, Zhang, and Chen (2008b), Zeng, Zhang, Zhang,
Tamogami, and Chen (2009), Maraval et al. (2008), Maraval et al.
(2010), Yang, Lee, Jeong, Kim, and Kays (2008a), Yang, Shewfelt, Lee,
and Keys (2008b), Yang et al. (2010), Yang et al. (2012), Goufo et al.
(2010), Goufo et al. (2011), Mathure, Wakte, Jawali, and Nadaf (2011),
Mathure, Jawali, Thengane, and Nadaf (2014), Poonlaphdecha et al.
(2012), Poonlaphdecha et al. (2016), Deng et al. (2013), Deng et al.
(2016), Mo et al. (2015), Mo et al. (2016), Mo et al. (2018), Mo et al.
(2017), Hinge, Patil, and Nadaf (2016a, b), Li et al. (2016), Li et al.
(2019), and Sansenya, Hua, and Chumanee (2018).
The primary goals of the researchers and research groups were to
distinguish those compounds which were answerable for the char-
acteristic rice aroma. For rice aroma, there were many attempts made
to search for the key compounds in past many years back to till the date,
but could not reported any single compound or set of compounds which
are answerable for the full rice aroma. Buttery et al. (1982) revealed the
first VAC, 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline (2-AP) in 1982 while the same authors in
1983 discovered it in aromatic rice due to its impact volatile character.
After the recognition of 2-AP as a key aroma constituent in cooked rice,
it is generally believed that the characteristics of various kinds of rice
consist of a balance of very complicated mixtures of volatile/aromatic
compounds in the rice (Mahatheeranont, Keawsa-ard, & Dumri, 2001;
Yang et al., 2008a; Park, Kim, & Baek, 2010; Wu, Shan, & Ren, 2011;
Deng et al., 2013; Fukuda, Takeda, & Yoshida, 2014; Lee, Oh, Kim, &
Cho, 2019). There are no single selected analytical techniques used for
the investigation of VACs from rice and rice’s products sample matrix.
Although, presently numerous technological innovations are accessible
for extraction of rice VACs and also these innovations have been
changed time-to-time according to requirement and many are still being
in under process to emerge a new development, mainly the distillation
and extraction concept.
Some studies discussed many cultivars of rice as a bland tasting food
and reported that minor chemical alterations may turn the rice and its
products into totally unacceptable food (Maga, 1984). This was the
main driving force for flavor chemists to insight into the aroma science
of rice. This discussion on the aroma of rice began with a number of
significant further advances. Thus, this review paper is written with the
aim of collecting, analyzing and summarizing the data and other im-
portant information obtained from the studies of the early 1980s to
2019. All the information will be compiled in an easy way in this paper
for researchers and scientists which may not be readily available to
them.
The present review overviews the specific topics which highlight the
importance of rice aromas, their classification, and odor description, as
well as different types of rice and their major products which are em-
ployed for aroma study and VACs identified from these sample ma-
trices, have been focused. In addition, traditional and recently used
methodologies for extraction, identification, and quantification of VACs
have also been discussed.
2. Importance of rice aromas
The aroma in rice grains that is contributed by several different
VACs have been identified which are the result and synthesized from
distinct biochemical pathways. Two hundred or more different rice
varieties are outreaching in which numerous VACs were recorded
(Verma & Srivastav, 2018b). These VACs include a series of compounds
like; aldehydes, ketones, organic acids, alcohols, esters, hydrocarbons,
2
Food Research International 130 (2020) 108924
phenols, pyrazines, pyridines, and other compounds. Including these,
some other compounds are also but they are extracted by the break-
down chemicals like fatty acids (FAs) which are presented in samples
(Bergman et al., 2000). The VACs released after cooking is different
from those released in the field at flowering time.
The aroma is considered by rice consumers in India and the world as
the 3rd most desired characteristic taken after by taste and elongation
after cooking (Bhattacharjee et al., 2002; Verma & Srivastav, 2016,
2018b). In cooked rice, there are studied on several aroma attributes;
for instance, bland-like, bran-like, brown rice, burned-like, burnt-like,
buttery-like, cold-steam-bread-like, corn-like, corn-leaf-like, cracker-
like, dusty-like, earthy-like, fermented-sour-like, floral-like, gasoline
aroma-like, grainy-like, hot-steam-bread-like, musty-like, nut-like,
paint-like, pandan-like, pearl-barley, plastic-like, popcorn-like, potato-
like, rancid-like, raw-dough-like, rice milk-like, smoky-like, spicy-like,
sulfur-like, tortilla-like, vegetable-like and white glue-like (Verma &
Srivastav, 2018a). Popcorn aroma, which occasionally called as pandan
(Pandanus amaryllifolius) like aroma, was contributed by 2-AP in rice.
The 2-AP is the most important and prominent aroma chemical since it
was used to identify in rice cultivars (Petrov, Danzart, Giampaoli,
Faure, & Richard, 1996; Verma & Srivastav, 2018b). Yajima, Yani,
Nakmura, Sakakibara, and Hayashi (1979) identified α-pyrrolidone as
the main odorant in Kaorimai (O. sativa japonica) – an aromatic rice on
cooking during the study of VACs and also reported to the presence of
indole. Buttery, Turnbaugh, and Ling (1988) identified seven com-
pounds viz. 2-AP, (E,E)-2,4-decadienal, (E)-2-decenal, (E)-2-nonenal,
decanal, nonanal and octanal with low odor thresholds from listed 64
aroma volatile chemical compounds i.e. known in rice. Latter, the
chemical compound 2-AP was considered as the key odorant con-
tributor of volatiles to rice aroma had a scent like popcorn (Bao et al.,
2018; Boontakham, Sookwong, Jongkaewwattana, Wangtueai, &
Mahatheeranont, 2019; Lei et al., 2017; Li et al., 2019; Okpalaa et al.,
2019; Routray & Rayaguru, 2018; Verma & Srivastav, 2018b; Wakte
et al., 2016). However, aldehydes, phenols, and nitrogen (N2)- and
sulfur (S)-based VACs were responsible for the flavor of aromatic rice
during cooking (Buttery et al., 1988; Jezussek, Juliano, & Schieberle,
2002). Although in rice, 2-AP odorant contributor of volatiles is found
at different concentrations (1–10 ppb to 2 ppm) (Routray & Rayaguru,
2018; Wakte et al., 2016). The study revealed that VACs, such as (E)-2-
decenal, (E,E)-2,4-nonadienal, and (E,E)-2,4-decadienal obtained from
fragrant as well as non-fragrant rice, are the products of lipid oxidation
responsible for contributing their distinctive aroma to glutinous or
waxy rice (Grimm et al., 2000; Widjaja et al., 1996b).
3. Classification and odor description of rice aromas
3.1. Classification of rice aromas
The majority of rice VACs have popcorn-like smell due to 2-AP
content. Aroma similar to taste and elongation after cooking of rice is
considered as a desirable quality for consumer acceptability. Rice ar-
omas were classified into five major groups as given in Table 1. Al-
though, any single chemical compound is not responsible for any spe-
cific aroma in cooked rice, a combination of compounds in the fix
proportions is responsible for specific aromas in cooked rice. It has
shown very clear in Table 1. For instance, fresh green or woody smells
were contributed mainly by aldehydes, ketones, and some alcohol;
fruity and floral smell is due to the presence of heptanone, ketones, and
6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one while benzaldehyde and 2-pentyfuran pro-
vided nutty aromas (Widjaja et al., 1996b).
3.2. Odor description of rice aromas
Odor does not receive more attention as compared with other sense
organs. This is much undeserved as the odor is applied more than of our
knowledge and understandings. For illustration, the taste of a product is
D.K. Verma and P.P. Srivastav Food Research International 130 (2020) 108924

Table 1
Classification of rice VACs.
S. N. Type of Rice Aroma Responsible Chemical Compounds

1. Green Aldehydes, Some alcohol and Ketones, (E)-2,(E)-4-hexadienal, (E)-2-hexenal, (E)-2-octenal, (E)-3-octen-2-onea, 2-heptanone, 2-methyl-2-pentanol,
Benzaldehyde, Decanal, Geranyl acetone, Methyl heptanoate, and n-hexanal
2. Fruity/Floral (E)-2,(E)-4-hexadienal, (E)-3-octen-2-onea, 2-hexanone, 2-nonanone, 2-undecanone, 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one, Heptanone, Ketones, Methyl
heptanoate, n-heptanal, n-nonanal and n-octanol
3. Roasty 2, 3-octanedione
4. Nutty (E,E)-2,4-nonadienal, 2-pentyfuran, 4-vinyl guaiacol, and Benzaldehyde
5. Bitter Benzaldehyde and Pyridine

Sources: Verma and Srivastav (2018a).

Table 2
Odour description of VACs of rice (cooked and uncooked, both).
VACs Odour Description VACs Odour Description

(E) −3-Octene-2-one Green and fruity-like 2-undecanone Fruity and floral-like

(E)-2, (E)-4-decadienal Fatty and waxy-like 3-Octen-2-one Citrus, floral, herbal
(E,Z)-2,4-decadienal Fatty, waxy and green-like 3-Ethyl-2,5-dimethylpyrazine Cooked rice, nutty
(E,E)-2,4-decadienal Chicken, fatty 4-vinyl-guaiacol Unpleasant, nutty, spicy and clove-like
(E)-2, (E)-4-heptadienal Fatty and hay-like 4-vinylphenol Unpleasant and Phenolic-like
(E,E)-3,5-octadien-2-one Fruity, green, medicinal 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one Banana-like
3,5-Octadien-2-one Fruity 2-Ethyl-6-methylpyrazine Almond
(E,E)-2,4-heptadienal Citrus, fruity, green Acetophenone Sweet and floral-like
(E,Z)-2,4-heptadienal Citrus, grass Benzaldehyde, Nutty and bitter-like
(E)-2, (E)-4-hexadienal Green and floral-like Benzothiazole Slightly and sweet-like
(E)-2, (E)-C nonadienal Waxy-like Benzeneacetaldehyde Floral, herbal
(E,E)-2,4-nonadienal Fatty, waxy and nutty-like Benzyl alcohol Slightly and sweet-like
(E)-2-decenal Fatty and waxy-like Decanal Green, soapy, citrus, sweet, waxy and floral-like
(E)-2-heptenal Herbaceous-like Decanoic acid Fatty-like
(E)-2-hexenal Fresh, fruity, Green-like, sweet d-limonene Fresh and sweet-like
(E)-2-nonenal Fatty, tallow, beany, cucumber and woody-like Ethanol Sweet-like
(E)-2-octenal Green and fatty-like Furfural Cooked rice, nutty, roasted, sweet
(E)-2-undecenal Fatty and sweet-like Geranyl acetone Magnolia and green-like
(E,E)-farnesyl acetone Flower-like Heptanal Fresh, Fruity, fatty, grass and rancid-like
(Z)-2-octen-1-ol Fatty-like Hexanoic acid Sweet and cheesy-like
1-heptanol Green and fruity-like Hexanol Herbaceous-like
1-hexanol Herbaceous-like Hexyl hexanoate Peach-like
1-nonanol Floral and citrus-like Indole Sweet, burnt, floral and mothball-like
1-octanol Citrus, fruity and floral-like l-pentanol Fusel oil-like
l-octen-3-o1 Raw mushroom-like Methyl heptanoate Green and fruity-like
2, 3-octanedione Roasted nuts-like Methylpyrazine Cooked rice, nutty, roasted
2-AP Sweet and pleasant, popcorn-like Naphthalene Naphthalene-like
2-decanone Fruity and orange-like n-heptanol Woody and sweet-like
2-Ethylhexenal Beany n-hexanal Green tomato, green and grass-like
2-decen-1-ol Citrus and rose-like n-hexanol Herbaceous-like
2-heptanone Fruity and floral-like n-octanol Fruity and floral-like
2-hexanone Fruity-like Nonanal Cucumber, floral, fruity, fresh, grass soapy and citrus-like
2-Ethylbenzaldehyde Nutty, roasted Nonanoic acid Fatty-like
2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol Spicy and clove-like n-pentanol Fuel oil-like
2-Methyl-2-pentenal Cooked rice, fruity, roasted, sweet Octanal Citrus, floral, green and slightly fruity-like
2-methoxy-phenol Smoky-like Octanoic acid Sweet and cheesy-like
2-n-Butylfuran Nutty, roasted Pentanal Woody and fruity-like
2-nonanone Fruity and herbaceous-like Pentyl hexanoate Fruity-like
3-Nonanone Caramel, spicy, sweet Phenol Medicinal and phenolic-like
2-ocetenal (E) Nutty, green, and fatty-like Phenylacetaldehyde Sweet (dilute) –like
2-octanone Fruity and floral-like Pyridine Pungent-like
2-pentylfuran Almond, beany, Floral, fruity, nutty, green and beany-like Dimethyl sulfide Sulfury
2-phenylethanol Sweet and floral-like Toluene Ethereal-like
2, 5-Dimethylpyrazine Nutty, roasted Undecanal Fresh and lemon-like
2, 3-Dimethylpyrazine Almond, nutty Vanillin Vanilla-like
2-tridecanone Oily and nutty-like γ-nonalactone Sweet and coconut-like

Source: Modified from Weber et al. (2000); Lam and Proctor (2003); Mottram (2007); Yang et al. (2008a); Yang et al. (2008b); Zeng et al. (2008a), Zeng et al.
(2008b); Zeng et al. (2009; Tananuwong and Lertsiri (2010); Khorheh et al. (2011); Bryant and McClung (2011); and Cho and Kays (2013)

determined by its odor for 90%. Our tongue is the only sense organs
among all parts of the body that has an ability to taste acids, acrid, salts,
and sweets. Unknowingly odor plays an important part in perception.
Rice odor is an important factor for quality and consumer satisfaction.
Probably, pleasant aroma of rice is due to the blend of chemical VACs
(over 500) including aldehydes, ketones, organic acids, alcohols, esters,
hydrocarbons, phenols, pyrazines, pyridines, and other compounds have
been reported in rice that describes to the odor description (Table 2).
Most VACs noted so far from cooked aromatic and non-aromatic rice
are the same except for their relative proportion. Even, researchers
reported 2-AP in both types of rice varieties/cultivars. Generally, rice is
consumed as it's cooked form, so its VACs are of the great interest have
among consumers but aromatic rice cultivars/varieties are an exception
because its pleasant and sweet popcorn-like aroma is not only related
with cooked rice. Although, in a cultivated field of these cultivars/
varieties quite often emit aroma during flowering time. For rapid

3
D.K. Verma and P.P. Srivastav
identification of aromatic rice varieties in the field, generally done by
chewing of immature grains is one among the methods quite often used
(Mittal, Preet, Singh, Shukla, & Saini, 1995).
Whether VACs are released in the field during the flowering time
which far differs from those VACs released after cooking of the rice is an
important question to be answered. Of particular significance, these
VACs are the particular factor that is very essential for quality of cooked
rice because aroma is fetched as the second utmost desired character-
istic among the consumers next to the taste and elongation after
cooking of rice. These VACs are representative of their different che-
mical class according to their significance as possible impact aroma
compounds (Table 2) which have been described previously as odor-
active compounds (OACs) for description in cultivars/varieties of rice
like cooked white or black rice of several japonica and indica cultivars
(2008b; Yang et al., 2008a) and/or flavour molecular markers used to
distinguish three cultivars of Japanese rice (Zeng et al., 2008a). Other
studies have indicated that the distinctive aroma of cooked rice consists
of a cross-section of important OACs and can't be satisfactorily char-
acterized by considering solely 2-AP concentration (2008b; Yang et al.,
2008a).
2-AP is being the major volatile in fragrant rice which can be used to
distinguish between aromatic and non-aromatic rice. The nitrogen
carrying volatile compound indole, even at lower concentrations pos-
sesses a floral or fruity and herbaceous fragrance (Kaiser, 2006). 2-AP
and indole, both VACs were selected as the indices of rice aroma
(Grimm, Lloyd, Godshall, & Braggins, 2004).
γ-Nonalactone possesses the coconut-like and sweet fragrance while
other lactones may provide aroma to rice bran and other food products
like rice cakes, fruits, wines, or liquors (Buttery, Orts, Takeoka, & Nam,
1999; Fan & Qian, 2006; Fujimaki, Tsugita, & Kurata, 1977; Tsugita,
Kurata, & Fujimaki, 1978; Zeng et al., 2008a, 2008b; Zeng et al., 2009).
On the other side, rice during storage may get rancid and generate
oxidative off-flavors which are identified by the higher concentration of
hexanal (Bergman et al., 2000; Wongpornchai et al., 2004).
In the early stages of the aroma study, the following four com-
pounds were considered to be important VACs of rice: 4-vinylphenol,
(E)-2-nonenal, (E,E)-2,4-decadienal and 2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol
(Buttery et al., 1988). (E)-2-nonenal is considered to produce a fatty,
tallow, beany, cucumber and woody-like aroma (2008b; Bryant &
McClung, 2011; Khorheh, Givianrad, Ardebili, & Larijani, 2011; Lam &
Proctor, 2003; Tananuwong & Lertsiri, 2010; Yang et al., 2008a; Zeng
et al., 2008a, 2008b, 2009) while (E,E)-2,4-decadienal possesses a fatty
and waxy-like odor (Weber, Rochelle, & Singh, 2000; Zeng et al.,
2008a, 2008b, 2009). Two VACs of them viz. (E,E)-2,4-decadienal and
(E)-2-nonenal were evaluated against other VACs & and reported as
important odorants for rice flavor (Zeng et al., 2008a). However, the
VACs viz. 2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol, (E,E)-2,4-decadienal, and vanillin
were confirmed as the most important odorants in four brown rice
cultivars in the previous study (Jezussek et al., 2002).
4-vinyl guaiacol is another VAC of rice that has contributed off-
flavor in many of the food and food products viz. beer, apple juice,
orange juice, and wort. This compound is one of the impact aroma
characters of cooked flavors and Maillard-type systems (McGorrin,
2002). This VAC is a guaiacol derivative that has an unpleasant, nutty,
spicy and clove-like odor description in rice (2008b; Lam & Proctor,
2003; Tananuwong & Lertsiri, 2010; Weber et al., 2000; Yang et al.,
2008a), and has been reported as an OAC in the cooked aroma of hulled
and milled rice of scented and non-scented cultivars (Jezussek et al.,
2002; Maraval et al., 2008). While this compound was identified by
another researchers as a unique odorant in black rice (Yang et al.,
2008a). In rice aroma, the undesirable changes may be caused by the
structural breakdown and migratory loss of aroma-active compound
(AAC) and/or formation of off-flavors associated with volatile products
of lipid oxidation (Widjaja et al., 1996b).
Benzaldehyde has been found as a vital aroma for wild rice (Cho &
Kays, 2013). This is the 5th most important and abundant aroma
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Food Research International 130 (2020) 108924
compound which is found commonly in plenty of conventional rice
cultivars, including glutinous, black, scented, and non-scented (2008b;
Yang et al., 2008a; Zeng et al., 2009) wherein it provides ‘almond’ and
‘nutty’ like odor. A strong characteristic of nutty and bitter-like aroma
exhibited by benzaldehyde and 2-pentylfuran, were also identified
(Zeng et al., 2008a, 2008b). 1-octen-3-ol was identified to have raw
mushroom-like marked odor (Kaiser, 2006) and reported in rice by
many workers (2008b; Bryant & McClung, 2011; Khorheh et al., 2011;
Lam & Proctor, 2003; Tananuwong & Lertsiri, 2010; Weber et al., 2000;
Yang et al., 2008a; Zeng et al., 2008a, 2008b, 2009). The compound viz.
alka-2, alk-2-enals, 2-pentylfuran, and 4-dienals were the most im-
portant among VACs listed by Widjaja et al. (1996a) thus accounting to
the rice aroma profile.
4. Aroma in different types of rice
Globally, several types of rice are found and cultivated which differ
from each other by the means of their wide range of specifications.
These specifications include physical characteristics, milling char-
acteristics, chemical characteristics, and cooking and thermal char-
acteristics. Some of them are described as:
4.1. Rice wild type
Rice wild type is distinct type of annual grasses of the genus Zizania.
They are also known by different names as Indian rice, Canada rice as
well as water oats. Wild rice (Zizania aquatics) is one of four species
grown in the United States and Canada. Other species have been
identified in North America (Z. palustris and Z. texana) and in
Manchuria and the Far East (Oelke & Boedicker, 2000; Zhai, Lu, Zhang,
Sun, & Lorenz, 2001). This type of rice is very distinctive in that the
grain is harvested under the moist conditions by American Indians for
centuries as a staple of their diets and the kept for fermentation thus
leading to biochemical and microbiological changes finally resulting in
a dark-colored product having distinct aroma, described as earthy,
grainy, nutty, toasted, roasted or tea-like (Withycombe, Lindsay, &
Stuiber, 1978).
These rices are gaining popularity among consumers and have been
commercially marketed to meet the increasing consumer’s demands due
to its unique flavors (nutty), texture, and nutritional benefits (Cho &
Kays, 2013). Studies report that wild rice is high in starch, protein,
dietary fiber, minerals, and vitamins but it is low in fat. Wild rice is
gluten-free (Gallaher & Bunzel, 2012) and is suitable for human con-
sumption. Most importantly, wild rice is investigated to be a good
source of essential FAs such as linoleic and α-linolenic acid, antioxidant
phytochemicals especially ferulic, p-coumaric and vanilic acids, as well
as nutraceuticals like γ-oryzanol (Przybylski, Klensprof-Pawlik, &
Anwar, 2009; Qiu, Liu, & Beta, 2009).
Wild rice is usually found in grocery and specialty stores where it is
sold either as dried grain or blended with other grains like O. sativa. It is
also incorporated in a variety of gourmet foods like breakfast cereals,
desserts, soups, and meat dishes and available in that form also (Oelke
& Boedicker, 2000; Qiu et al., 2009; Zhai et al., 2001). The grains of
wild type rice have achieved wide recognition since the 1950s for its
distinctive flavor by the gourmet food market. Recently, these rices
have been increasingly used in rice mixes and casserole items which
feature wild rice as an ingredient since its first report in the literature
(Lund, Lindsay, Marth, & Stuiber, 1977; Withycombe et al., 1978). The
essential steps during the processing of wild rice are fermentation and
parching for developing the distinct flavor. Rice inoculated with -
Streptomyces spp. in a circulating nutrient medium to produce an
“earthy” flavor was rapidly spoiled by microorganisms indigenous to
rice. Cultures of Pseudomonas perolens and P. taetrolens inoculated into
rice stored at 5 °C gave only mild methoxylated-pyrazine (green-earthy)
flavors to resulting processed rice (Mellinger, Marth, Lindsay, & Lund,
1982).
 Table 3
Summary of some studies on VACs of different type of rice and their product.
Substrate Isolation and Extraction Identification and Quantification Number of Total Major/New Compound References
Method Method Identified
Compound

Black rice Sintoheugmi HsSPME GC–MS 54 2,5-dimethylnonane, 2-methylundecane, 4- (Choi et al., 2019)
propylbenzaldehyde, 5-methyldecane, methyl 2-
D.K. Verma and P.P. Srivastav

hydroxybenzoate, and methyl 2-methylpentanoate

Gluten-free Crumb and crust powders and rice flour SynDE GC-O 54 2-butyl-2-heptenal, 2-propyl-2-octenal, 4-hydroxy-2- (Boeswetter, Scherf, Schieberle, &
nonenoic acid lactone, 4-hydroxy-2-octenoic acid Koehler, 2019)
lactone, and 4-methylquinazoline
Meixiangzhan2 SynDE GC–MS – 2-AP (Li et al., 2019)
Thai fragrant rice cultivars, KDML 105 and PTT 1 SPME GC–MS – 2-AP (Boontakham et al., 2019)
‘Yungengyou 14′, Aromatic rice japonica type SynDE GC–MS – 2-AP (Mo et al., 2018)
Five hundred and fifty‐six rice genotypes (552 aromatic SvE GC–MS – 2-AP (Peddamma et al., 2018)
and four non-aromatic)
Meixiangzhan2 and Xiangyaxiangzhan fragrant rice SynDE GC–MS – 2-AP (Bao et al., 2018)
cultivars
Rice variety ‘Cheonjihyang-1-se’ HsSPME GC–MS 43 2-AP, dodecane, nonanal, octan-1-ol and tetradecane (Mahmud, Oh, Kim, Cho, & Lee,
2018)
Twenty-four different commercial white rice samples SPME GC–MS – – (Lim et al., 2018)
(12 from Korea and 12 from China)
Milled rice flour samples of nine Cambodian rice HsE Two-dimensional 231 – (Concepcion et al., 2018)
varieties GC × GC-time-of-flight-MS
Two rice cultivar: Apo and IR64 HsSPME GC–MS – – (Calingacion et al., 2017)
Aromatic rice cultivars, Yuxiangyouzhan and Nongxiang SynDE GC–MS – 2-AP (Mo et al., 2017)
18
Xiangyaxiangzhan and Guixiangzhan rice cultivars SynDE GC–MS – 2-AP (Lei et al., 2017)

5
Basmati-370, Ambemohar-157 (non-basmati scented), HsSPME GC–MS 54, 51, 39, – (Hinge et al., 2016b)
and IR-64 (non-scented) rice cultivars respectively
‘Basmati 385′ and ‘Nongxiang 18′ cultivars of aromatic SynDE GC–MS – 2-AP (Deng et al., 2016)
rice
Pare Wangi HsSPME GC–MS – 2-AP Adwita Arsa, Ariffin, and Aini
(2016)
Rice callus culture SPME GC–MS – 2-AP (Poonlaphdecha et al., 2016)
Scented rice cultivars Ambemohar-157 (AM-157) and HsSPME GC–MS 88 – (Hinge et al., 2016a)
Basmati-370 (BA-370) and non-scented rice cultivar
IR-64
Thirty one rice varieties HsSPME GC–MS – – (Mumm, Hageman, & Calingacion,
2016)
Two aromatic rice cultivars: Meixiangzhan and SynDE GC–MS – 2-AP (Li et al., 2016)
Nongxiang 18
Aromatic rice cultivars, Yuxiangyouzhan and Nongxiang SDCE GC–MS – 2-AP (Mo et al., 2015)
18
Four non-aromatic cultivars (Carnaroli, Carnise, Cerere, SPME GC–MS 25 1-octen-3-ol, 2-(E)-octenal, 2-AP, 2-methyl butanol, 2- (Griglione et al., 2015)
and Antares) and two aromatic (Apollo and Venere) pentyl furan, 3-methyl butanol, dec-(2E)-enal,
heptanal and octanal
Non-basmati scented indica rice varieties SPME GC–MS – 2-AP (Kaikavoosi et al., 2015)
Two rice cultivar: Apo and IR64 HsE GC-time-of-flight-MS 20 – (Calingacion et al., 2015)
Fragrant rice types (Jasmine, Basmati and Jasmati) SPME GC–MS, GC–O, and GC–PFPD 26, 23, and 22 2-acetyl-2-thiazoline, 2-AP, 2-methyl-3-furanthiol, 3- (Mahattanatawee & Rouseff, 2014)
respectively methyl-2-butene-1-thiol, α-ionone, β-damascenone, β-
damascone, dimethyl sulphide, dimethyl trisulfide,
geranyl acetate and methional
Ninety-one non-basmati scented rice cultivars HsSPME GC–MS 23 2-AP (Mathure et al., 2014)
Rice cultivars: Suwandal, Kuruluthuda, Kaluheenati, LNT and SvE GC-FID 14 1-pentanol, 2-AP, 2-butoxy ethanol, benzaldehyde, (Liyanaarachchi, Kottearachchi, &
Kuruluwee, Lanka-Samurdi, and non-fragrant rice benzyl alcohol, benzyl alcohol, hexanal, indole, Samarasekera, 2014)
variety Bg352 limonene, limonine, octanol and phenol
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Food Research International 130 (2020) 108924
 Table 3 (continued)

Substrate Isolation and Extraction Identification and Quantification Number of Total Major/New Compound References
Method Method Identified
Compound

Thirty-five rice samples HsE GC–MS 81 – (Fukuda et al., 2014)

Gbengbeng, Jebbehkomie, Buttercup, ‘Pla Camp, TTP GC–MS 33 (E,E)-2,4-heptadienal, 4-Ethylphenol, eucalyptol, (Cho, Nuijten, Shewfelt, & Kays,
Maalay’, Binta Sambou and ‘Painy Painy rice myrtenal, and pyridine, 2014)
D.K. Verma and P.P. Srivastav

cultivars
Two commercial rice varieties (Wuchang brand SPME GC–MS 77 – (Deng et al., 2013)
Japonica rice)
Wild rice cultivar “Minnesota” and brown rice TTP GC–MS and GC-O 71 and 33 2,3-dimethylpyrazine, 2,5-dimethylpyrazine, 2-ethyl- (Cho & Kays, 2013)
respectively 6- methylpyrazine, 2-n-butylfuran, 2-pentylfuran, 3-
ethyl-2,5-dimethylpyrazine, benzaldehyde, and
furfural, methylpyrazine
Iranian fragrant rice (Hashemi, HD5, and HD6) HsSPME GC–MS 74, 55 and 66 56 including 2-AP (Givianrad, 2012)
respectively
Rice cultivar leaves and grains -Gladio × Fidji K2 SPME GC–MS – 2-AP (Poonlaphdecha et al., 2012)
Whole and ground rice HsE GC–MS – Hexanal (Wang & Ha, 2012)
Aromatic (Aromatic se2, Dellmati, Dellrose, IAC 600, SPME GC–MS 93 64 Bryant and McClung (2011)
Jasmine 85, JES, and Sierra) and non-aromatic
(Cocodrie and Wells) rice cultivars
Chinese rice cultivars, Zhengxian 8 (ZX), Nanjing 38 SPME GC–MS 40 (Wu et al., 2011)
(NJ), and Yannuo 12 (YN)
Fragrant rice cultivars (Guixiangzhan and SHsE GC-FID 12 2-AP (Goufo, Wongpornchai, & Tang,
Peizaruanxiang) 2011)
Iranian fragrant rice viz. Hashemi, HD5, and HD6 HsSPME GC–MS 75, 55 and 66 – (Khorheh et al., 2011)
respectively
Jasmine 85 SPME GC–MS – 2-AP (Bryant et al., 2011)

6
Jasmine rice and commercial rice brands SvE GC-FID – 2-AP (Grimm et al., 2011)
Mesona Blumes gum/rice extrudates LNT GC–MS 54 – (Fenga et al., 2011)
Pre-fluffed long grain rice (Sea Isle) SHsE GC-FID – 2-AP (Yahya et al., 2011)
Scented Rice HsSPME GC-FID – 2-AP (Mathure et al., 2011)
Aroma rice varieties SvE GC–MS – 2-AP (Ying et al., 2010)
Fragrant rice cultivars (Guixiangzhan and HsSPME GC–MS 42 – (Goufo et al., 2010)
Peizaruanxiang)
Fragrant rice cultivars (Guixiangzhan and SHsE GC-NPD – 2-AP (Goufo et al., 2010)
Peizaruanxiang)
Fragrant temperate japonicatype rice cultivars - SPME GC–MS – 2-AP (Gaya et al., 2010)
Aychade, Giano and Fidji
Korean non-aromatic rice DHsE and SDSvE GC–MS 10 and 16 2-MF and 2-AP (Park et al., 2010)
respectively
Organic red fragrant rice (Hom Daeng) SPME GC–MS 13 – (Tananuwong & Lertsiri, 2010)
Paddy rice SPME GC–MS 108 – (Lin et al., 2010)
Scented rice (Aychade, Fidji, Giano) and non-scented HsSPME Tandem GC–MS – 2-AP (Maraval et al., 2010)
cultivars (Ruille, Ariette)
Six premium-quality cultivars [Hwaseongbyeo (P1), DHsE with TTP GC-O 21 and 23 (E)-2-nonenal, 2-AP, guaiacol, heptanal, hexanal, and (Yang, Lee, & Kays, 2010)
Ilpumbyeo (P2), Gopumbyeo (P3), Taebongbyeo octanal
(P4), Chucheongbyeo (P5), and Samkwangbyeo
(P6)], two waxy cultivars [Hwaseonchalbyeo (W1)
and Hangangchalbyeo (W2)], and two black-
pigmented cultivars [Heugjinjubyeo (B1) and
Heugkwangbyeo (B2)]
Glutinous rice cultivars Modified HsSPME GC–MS 96 27 (Zeng et al., 2009)
Aromatic and non-aromatic rice DHsE with TTP GC–MS and GC-O 30 and 13 – Yang et al. (2008b)
respectively
Black and white glutinous SvE GC–MS 26 Benzaldehyde, 2-butanol, 1-propanol, 1,2- (Ajarayasiri & Chaiseri, 2008)
Rice (Kheow Ngu) propanediol, 1,2-propanediol, and 2,3-butanediol,
Food Research International 130 (2020) 108924

(continued on next page)

 Table 3 (continued)

Substrate Isolation and Extraction Identification and Quantification Number of Total Major/New Compound References
Method Method Identified
Compound

Black glutinous rice SvE GC-FID – 2-AP (Bounphanousay et al., 2008)

Brown aroma rice SvE GC-FID – 2-AP Kim et al. (2008b)
Cooked black rice DHsE with TTP GC–MS and GC-O 35 and 25 2-AP and guaiacol (Yang et al., 2008a)
D.K. Verma and P.P. Srivastav

respectively
Japanese rice cultivars (Nihonbae, Koshihikari, and HsSPME GC–MS 46 – (Zeng et al., 2008a)
Akitakomachi)
Rice cultivar Tainung 67, SvE GC–MS – 2-AP (Huang et al., 2008)
Tainung 71 and 72
Rice cultivars with low-glutelin content (Shunyou, LGC- HsSPME GC–MS 77 (E,E)-2,4-decadienal, (E)-2-nonenal, 2-methoxy-4- (Zeng et al., 2008b)
katsu, and LGC-soft) vinylphenol, 2-pentylfuran, indole, and vanillin
Thirteen fragrant and six non-fragrant cultivars SvE GC–MS – 2-AP (Niu et al., 2008)
Thirteen specialty Korean rice samples TTP GC–MS and GC-O 19 (E,E)-2,4-decadienal, naphthalene, guaiacol, 2- (Limpawattana, Yang, Kays, &
heptanone, 2-AP, and (E)-2-hexenal Shewfelt, 2008)
Three scented cultivars (Aychade, Fidji, and Giano), SvE GC-O-FID and GC–MS 40 and 60 oct-1-en-3-one and 2-AP (Maraval et al., 2008)
non-scented cultivar (Ruille) and one scented respectively
commercial rice sample
Thai fragrant rice (Khao Dawk Mali 105) HsE GC-FID – 2-AP (Borompichaichartkul et al., 2007)
Iranian and Indian fragrant rice Cold fibre SPME GC-time-of-flight-MS – 2-AP (Ghiasvand et al., 2007)
Rice cultivar Aychade and commercially milled Basmati SPME GC–MS and GC-FID – 2-AP (Laguerre, Mestres, Davrieux,
rice Ringuet, & Boulanger, 2007)
Non-aromatic rice varieties, RD23, Supanburi 1 and SvE GC–MS – 2-AP, n-hexanal, (Laohakunjit & Kerdchoechuen,
Supanburi 90, and three aromatic varieties, KDML 2007)
and Pathumthani 1
Paddy rice SPME GC–MS 38 (E)-4-nonenal, hexadecanoic acid, ndecanal, n- (Zeng et al., 2007)

7
nonanal, and tetradecanoic acid
Aromatic rice cultivar, Kao Dawk Mali 105 (KDML 105) SvE GC–MS – 2-AP (Sirisoontaralak & Noomhorm,
2006)
Forty rice varieties SvE GC–MS with SIM – 2-AP (Hien, Yoshihashi, Sarhadi, &
Hirata, 2006)
Fragrant rice cv. Khao Dawk Mali 105 (KDML 105) MHsE SHs-GC-FID and SHs-GC-NPD – 2-AP (Sriseadka et al., 2006)
Premium rice (Koshihikari and Basmati) SPME GC–MS – Dodecanal and hexanal (Bryant et al., 2006)
Scented cultivated variety ‘Pusa’ basmati, non-scented SvE GC – 2-AP (Nadaf et al., 2006)
variety ‘Krishnahansa’ and marketed basmati rice
Aromatic variety, KDML 105 SvE GC–MS with SIM – 2-AP (Yoshihashi, Huong,
Surojanametakul, Tungtrakul, &
Varanyanond, 2005)
M−202 medium grain rice SPME GC–MS 14 2-heptanal, hexanal, I-pentanol, and nonanal (Champagne et al., 2005)
Thai fragrant rice LNT SDSvE GC–MS 94 2-AP (Sunthonvit et al., 2005)
Aromatic variety, KDML 105 SvE GC–MS with SIM – 2-AP (Yoshihashi, Nguyen, & Kabaki,
2004)
Commercial rice (Wells, Cocodrie, and Drew) SPME GC–MS 28 Hexanal, nonanal octanal, pentanal, pentanol, and (Monsoor & Proctor, 2004)
pentylfuran
Fortified Rice SPME GC–MS – – (Bett-Garber, Champagne, Ingram, &
Grimm, 2004)
Japanese aromatic rice: Hieri, Miyakaori and Sari Queen SvE GC–MS – 2-AP (Itani et al., 2004)
Rice cultivar Khao Dawk Mali 105 SvE and SPME GC–MS and GC-FID – 2-AP (Wongpornchai et al., 2004)
Rice cultivar: M−202 and Akitakomachi SPME GC–MS 10 – (Champagne et al., 2004)
Basmati rice of commercial brand LNT SDSvE and SCFs GC–MS 17 and 18 – (Bhattacharjee et al., 2003)
with CO2 respectively
Aromatic rice variety SvE GC–MS with SIM – 2-AP (Yoshihashi, Huong, & Inatomi,
(Khao Dawk Mali 105) 2002)
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Food Research International 130 (2020) 108924
 Table 3 (continued)

Substrate Isolation and Extraction Identification and Quantification Number of Total Major/New Compound References
Method Method Identified
Compound

Brown rice cultivars: Improved Malagkit SvAFEvE HR GC-O and HR GC–MS 41 (E,E)-deca-2,4-dienal, 2-amino acetophenone, 2-AP, 2- (Jezussek et al., 2002)
Sungsong, 370 Basmati and Khashkani methoxy-4-vinylphenol, 3-hydroxy-4,5-dimethyl-
2(5H)-furanone, 4,5-epoxy-(E)-dec-2-enal, bis-(2-
D.K. Verma and P.P. Srivastav

methyl-3-furyl)-disulfide, phenylacetic acid and

vanillin
Della and Dellmont HsSPME GC–MS – 2-AP (Bergman et al., 2001)
Jasmine rice SvE and SPME GC–MS – 2-AP (Grimm et al., 2001)
Khao Dawk Mali 105 brown rice Indirect SDE under Capillary GC–MS > 140 2-AP (Mahatheeranont et al., 2001)
reduced pressure and
controlled temperature
Della and Dellmont SvE GC-FID – 2-AP and hexanal (Bergman et al., 2000)
Basmati and Italian Line B5‐3 SDSvE GC and GC–MS 64 2-AP, 4-vinylguaiacol, benzaldehyde, hexanal, (Tava & Bocchi, 1999)
hexanol, indole, oct-1-en-3-ol, pentanal, and trans-2-
nonenal
Original, Brown, and white Paddy LNT SDE GC–MS 39 2-AP (Widjaja et al., 1996b)
Pelde, Basmati, Jasmine, Goolarah, YRF9 LNT SDE GC–MS 70 (E)-2,(E)-4-decadienal, (E)-2-octenal, (E)-Zheptenal, (Widjaja et al., 1996a)
2-AP, 2-pentylfuran, 2-phenylethanol, 4-
vinylguaiacol, 4-vinylphenol, alk-2-enals, alka-2,4-
dienals, alkanals, l-octen-3–01, n-hexanal, and n-
nonanal
Della, Basmati 370, and Jasmine SDSvE at low density HR GC–MS with SIM – 2-AP (Tanchotikul & Hsieh, 1991)
Louisiana Della rice and non-aromatic rice Lemont SDSvE GC–MS – 2-AP (Lin, Hsih, & Hoff, 1990)
Californialong-grain rice TTP GLC 64 (E)-2-nonenal, (E,E)-2,4-decadienal, 2-AP, 4- (Buttery et al., 1988)
vinylguaiacol, 4-vinylphenol, decanal, hexanal,

8
nonanal, and octanal
Milled rice SDCE Capillary GC–MS – 2-AP (Buttery et al., 1983b)
Wild Rice Vacuum SDSvE GC–MS 112 – (Withycombe et al., 1978)

Abbreviations: CO2: Carbon dioxide; DHsE: Dynamic headspace extraction; FID Flame ionization detector; GC: Gas chromatography; GC-O: Gas chromatography-olfactometry; GLC: Gas-liquid chromatography; HR: High
resolution; HsE: Headspace extraction; HsSPME: Headspace solid phase microextraction; LNT: Likens–Nickerson type; MHsE: Multiple Headspace Extraction; MS: Mass spectrometry; NPD: Nitrogen phosphorus detector;
PFPD: Pulsed flame photometric detector; SCFs: Supercritical fluids; SDCE: Steam distillation continuous extraction; SDE: Simultaneous/Steam distillation extraction; SDSvE: Simultaneous/Steam distillation and solvent
extraction; SHs: Static headspace; SHsE: Static headspace extraction; SIM: Selected ion monitoring; SPME: solid phase microextraction; SvAFEvE: Solvent-assisted flavour evaporation extraction; SvE: Solvent extraction;
SxLE: Soxhlet extraction; SynDE: Synchronization distillation and extraction; TTP: Tenax trap procedure.
- Not Reported.
Food Research International 130 (2020) 108924
D.K. Verma and P.P. Srivastav Food Research International 130 (2020) 108924

Table 4
Important world-wide scented rice varieties with grain-type and their geographical location of the origin and cultivation.
SRCs Grained type GLO&C SRCs Grained type GLO&C

A-301 cultivar (Jasmine-derived rice L-gT USA Kon Joha (1 and 2) S-gT India (Assam)
variety)
A-201 cultivar (Jasmine-derived rice L-gT USA Krishna Joha S-gT India (Assam)
variety)
Abdul M−gT India (Bihar) Kunkuni Joha S-gT India (Assam)
Achhu M−gT India (Himachal Pradesh) Kyeema** (Jasmine type rice L-gT Australia
variety)
Adamchini S-gT India (Uttar Pradesh) Lalmati** L-gT India (Uttar Pradesh)
Ahalami tarom** (Indica type traditional L-gT Iran Laloo L-gT India (Madhya Pradesh)
rice variety)
Ambemohar 102, 157 and 159 (Non- S-gT India (Maharashtra) Lam Thao** – Vietnam
basmati local type Indica rice variety)
Amod M−gT India (Bihar) Laungchoor S-gT India (Uttar Pradesh)
Amritsari S-&M−gT India (Andhra Pradesh) Lawangi** – Afghanistan
Anbarboo** (Indica type traditional rice M−gT Iran Lua Tam** (Traditional rice M−gT Vietnam
variety) variety)
Azucena (Japonica rice variety) L-gT Philippines Lua Thom** L-gT Vietnam
Badshah Pasand** S-gT India (Uttar Pradesh**, Bihar and Luke Qasan – Afghanistan
West Bengal,)
Badshahbhog* S-gT Bangladesh* and India (West Madhuri M−gT India (Madhya Pradesh)
Bengal, Orissa, Assam, Bihar and
Madhya Pradesh)
Bahami M−gT India (Bihar) Mahi Sugandha M−gT India
Bahantapul S-gT India (Uttar Pradesh) Malagkit Sungsong S-gT Philippines
Bahra* L-gT Afghanistan Malbhog S-gT India (Assam)
Baikani L-gT India (Bihar) Manikimadhuri Joha S-gT India (Assam)
Barangomati S-&M−gT India (Orissa) Mehr** – Iran
Basmati (Local) L-gT India (Rajasthan) Mentik Wangi – Indonesia
Basmati 50021–1 L-gT Pakistan Minghoutsiutsao – China
Basmati Pak L-gT Pakistan Mir tarom** (Indica type traditional L-gT Iran
rice variety)
Basmati* (Indica rice variety) L-gT India Mircha S-gT India (Bihar)
Basmati-185 L-gT Pakistan Mirza** – Iran
Basmati-370 L-gT India (Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan Miyakaori* – Japan
and Uttar Pradesh) and Pakistan
Basmati-385 L-gT India (Punjab) and Pakistan Mohanbhog S-gT India (Bihar)
Basmati-386 L-gT India Monda Mashruqi – Afghanistan
Basmati-6129 L-gT Pakistan Moongphali S-gT India (Uttar Pradesh)
Basmati-D L-gT Bangladesh Mosa Tarom – Iran
Baspatri S-&M−gT India (Madhya Pradesh) Motachinaeum S-&M−gT India (Uttar Pradesh)
Basumati (Non-basmati local type Indica L-gT India Muskh Budgi S-gT India (Jammu and
rice variety) Kashmir)
Begmi M−gT India (Himachal Pradesh) Nagina 12 L-gT India (Uttar Pradesh)
Bengal Juhi S-gT India (Uttar Pradesh) Nahg Mort S4 – Thailand
Bengawan Solo* – Indonesia Nang Thom Cho Dao*,** L-gT Vietnam
(Traditional rice variety)
Bhabeli Joha S-gT India (Assam) Nang Thom Muon** (Traditional L-gT Vietnam
rice variety)
Bhantaphool S-gT India (Uttar Pradesh) Neda** (Indica type traditional rice L-gT Iran
variety)
Bhilahi Basmati M−gT India (Bihar) Nemat** Type (Indica type Long-grained Iran
traditional rice variety)
Bhugui S-gT India (Assam) Nep Bac** (Traditional rice variety) B-gT Vietnam
Bindli*** S-gT India (Uttar Pradesh Nep Hoa Vang*,** (Traditional rice B-gT Vietnam
variety)
Boga Joha S-gT India (Assam) Nep Rong** (Traditional rice B-gT Vietnam
variety)
Boga Tulsi S-gT India (Assam) Nizershail – Bangladesh
Bogamanikimadhuri S-gT India (Assam) Oitakoutou – Japan
Bogi Joha S-gT India (Assam) Pakistani Basmati L-gT India (Punjab and
Haryana)
Bokul Joha S-gT India (Assam) Panarsa local M−gT India (Himachal Pradesh)
Borjoha S-gT India (Assam) Pandanwangi – Indonesia
Borsal S-gT India (Assam) Pankhali-203 S-gT India (Gujarat)
BR-16** (Shahibalam) – Bangladesh Pare Kembang – Indonesia
BR-5** (Dolhabhog) – Bangladesh Parsam M−gT India (Uttar Pradesh)
Brahmabhusi S-gT India (Bihar) Pashadi – Afghanistan
BRRI Dhan-34*,** (Locally known as L-gT Bangladesh Pashadi Konar – Afghanistan
Khashkhani)
Chahao Amubi (black) M−gT India (Manipur) Permel – Afghanistan
Chahao Angangbi (pink/red) M−gT India (Manipur) Phu Xuyen – Vietnam
Champa* M−gT Iran Poya – Iran
Champaran Basmati (Bhuri, Kali and Lal) M−gT India (Bihar) Prabhavati M−gT India (Maharashtra)
Chatri M−gT India (Madhya Pradesh) Prasadbhog S-gT India (Assam)
(continued on next page)

9
D.K. Verma and P.P. Srivastav Food Research International 130 (2020) 108924

Table 4 (continued)

SRCs Grained type GLO&C SRCs Grained type GLO&C

Chenaur S-gT India (Bihar) Pulu mandoti – Indonesia

Cheniguti S-gT India (Assam) Punjab Basmati-l L-gT India
Chhoti Chinnawar S-gT India (Uttar Pradesh) Pusa Basmati-1** L-gT India
Chinigura* S-gT Bangladesh Qingbuxiangjingmi** – China
Chinisakkar S-gT India (West Bengal) Qufuxiangmi** – China
Chinni gauri S-&M−gT India (Madhya Pradesh) Radhuni Pagal – Bangladesh
Chinni sagar S-&M−gT India (Madhya Pradesh) Raibhog (Non-basmati local type – India
Indica rice variety)
Chinoor S-gT India (Maharashtra and Madhya Ram Tulsi S-gT India (Bihar)
Pradesh)
Chufon S-gT India (Assam) Rambhog S-gT India (Uttar Pradesh)
Congjiangxixiangmi** – China Ramjain S-gT India (Bihar)
Dadkhani** – Bangladesh Ramjawain S-gT India (Uttar Pradesh)
Danaguri S-gT India (West Bengal) Ramjinwain (T1) L-gT India (Uttar Pradesh)
De Chang Xiang Mi** – China Ramphal Joha S-gT India (Assam)
Dehradun or Amritsari Basmati L-gT India Ranbir Basmati** L-gT India
Dehraduni Basmati L-gT India (Uttar Pradesh) Randhunipagal S-gT India (West Bengal)
Della* (Jasmine-derived rice variety) L-gT USA Ranga Joha S-gT India (Assam)
Dellamont L-gT USA Rojo Lele – Indonesia
Deobhog S-gT India (Bihar) Royal L-gT India
Dewtabhog S-gT India (Bihar) Sabarmati L-gT India
Dhania S-gT India (Uttar Pradesh) Sadri*,** L-gT Iran
Di Huong** (Traditional rice variety) L-gT Vietnam Safeda L-gT India (Uttar Pradesh)
Domsiah** (Indica type traditional rice L-gT Iran Sagartara S-gT India (Orissa)
variety)
Dubraj L-gT India (Uttar Pradesh) Sakkarchinni S-&M−gT India (Uttar Pradesh)
Dubraj-354 S-gT India (Madhya Pradesh) Sakkorkhora M−gT Bangladesh
Duniapet (T9) L-gT India (Uttar Pradesh) Sakoli-7 M−gT India (Maharashtra)
Fajr** – Iran Salari** (Indica type traditional rice L-gT Iran
variety)
Gandheshwari S-gT India (West Bengal) Sang tarom** (Indica type L-gT Iran
traditional rice variety)
Gandhkasala S-gT India (Kerala) Sarda Bala – Afghanistan
Ganwanxian 22** – China Sari Queen – Japan
Gerdeh* S-&R-gT Iran Sasaminori – Japan
Ghansal** (Non-basmati local type Indica – India (Maharashtra) Sataria S-gT India (Bihar)
rice variety)
Goalporia Joha (1 and 2) S-gT India (Assam) Sawakaori – Japan
Goemjeongssal (Japonica black rice M−gT Korean Sela – Afghanistan
variety)
Golden Elephant* (Jasmine type indica L-gT Thailand Sela Doshi – Afghanistan
rice variety)
Gopalbhog M−gT India (Bihar) Sherkati – Afghanistan
Govindbhog S-gT India (Assam) Shiroudi – Iran
Hansraj L-gT India (Uttar Pradesh) Shuang-Zhu-Zhan** – China
Haryana Basmati-1** L-gT India Shyam Jeera S-gT India (Bihar)
Hassan Saraie** (Indica type traditional L-gT Iran Siamati* – Thailand
rice variety)
Hassani** (Indica type traditional rice L-gT Iran Sindigi Local S-gT Karnataka, India
variety)
Hawm Klong Luang** – Thailand Sintanur – Indonesia
Hawm Supanburi** – Thailand Sitabhog S-gT India (West Bengal)
Hieri** – Japan (Kochi) Situpatenggang – Indonesia
Huanglongxiangmi** – China Sona Lari S-gT India (Bihar)
Huyet Rong** L-gT Vietnam Sonachur M−gT India (Uttar Pradesh and
Bihar)
Hyangmibyeo 1 and 2 (Japonica rice M−gT Korean Sukhdas S-gT India (Andhra Pradesh)
variety)
Improved Basmati** L-gT India Super Basmati* (Premium variety L-gT Pakistan
of Pakistan)
Indrayani (Non-basmati local type Indica – India Surkha-Bala – Afghanistan
rice variety)
Izayoi – Japan Surkha-Daraz-Baghlan – Afghanistan
Jakou – Japan Surkhamabain – Afghanistan
Jakouine – Japan Suyunuo (Japonica rice variety) – China
Jasmine* (Jasmine type indica rice L-gT Thailand T (412 and 812) S-gT India (Orissa)
variety)
Jauphool S-gT India (Madhya Pradesh) T-9 L-gT India (Uttar Pradesh)
Jeerabattis S-gT India (Uttar Pradesh) Tainung Sen 20 – China
Jeeraga Samba M−gT India (Tamilnadu and Andhra Takhar – Afghanistan
Pradesh)
Jeerakasala S-gT India (Kerala) Takurabhoga S-gT India (Orissa)
Jiangyongxiangdao** – China Tam Canh** (Traditional rice L-gT Vietnam
variety)
Jiangyongxiangdao** – China Tam On** (Traditional rice variety) L-gT Vietnam
(continued on next page)

10
D.K. Verma and P.P. Srivastav Food Research International 130 (2020) 108924

Table 4 (continued)

SRCs Grained type GLO&C SRCs Grained type GLO&C

** *,**
Jingcixiangdao – China Tam Xoan (Traditional rice L-gT Vietnam
variety)
Jingxixiangdao** – China Ta-pei-mang – China
Joha Bora S-gT India (Assam) Tapovan Basmati L-gT India (Uttar Pradesh)
Kabashiko** – Japan Taraori Basmati L-gT India (Haryana)
Kagasali M−gT India (Karnataka and Maharashtra) Taraori Basmati** L-gT India
Kaki Rekhalu S-gT India (Andhra Pradesh) Tarom amiri** (Indica type L-gT Iran
traditional rice variety)
Kala Sukhdas L-gT India (Uttar Pradesh) Tarom deylamani** (Indica type L-gT Iran
traditional rice variety)
Kalanamak** M−gT India (Uttar Pradesh** and Bihar) Tarom mahalli** (Indica type L-gT Iran
traditional rice variety)
Kali Kamod S-&M−gT India (Madhya Pradesh) Tarom** (Indica type traditional L-gT Iran
rice variety)
*, ** *,**
Kalijeera S-gT Bangladesh and India (Assam) Tau Huong Lo** (Traditional rice L-gT Vietnam
variety)
Kalo Nunia S-gT India (West Bengal) Tau Huong Muon** (Traditional L-gT Vietnam
rice variety)
Kalu Mooch S-gT India (Madhya Pradesh) Tau Huong Som** (Traditional rice L-gT Vietnam
variety)
Kamina S-gT India (Bihar) Texmati* (A traditional American L-gT USA
white rice variety)
Kamini Joha S-gT India (Assam) Thai Hom Mali Rice – Thailand
Kamod (Non-basmati local type Indica – India Thakurbhog S-gT India (Uttar Pradesh)
rice variety)
Kamod-118 S-gT India (Gujarat) Tilak chandan** M−gT Uttar Pradesh**, India
Kanak Jeera S-gT India (Bihar and Uttar Pradesh) Tinsukhia S-gT India (Uttar Pradesh)
Kanakchur M−gT India (West Bengal) Torishi – Afghanistan
Kanakjeeri S-gT India (Bihar) Tulai Panji S-gT India (West Bengal)
Karia Kamod S-gT India (Bihar) Tulshimala – Bangladesh
Karmuhi M−gT India (Uttar Pradesh) Tulsi Manjari S-gT India (Bihar and Madhya
Pradesh)
Karnal local** L-gT India (Haryana) Tulsi Pasand S-gT India (Bihar)
Karpurkali S-gT India (Orissa) Tulsibhog S-gT India (West Bengal)
Kasmati* (Basmati type rice variety) L-gT USA Type 3 L-gT India (Uttar Pradesh)
Kasturi L-gT India Ukunamodhu – Bangladesh
Kataktara** – Bangladesh Vishnu Parag M−gT India (Uttar Pradesh and
Madhya Pradesh)
Katami S-gT India (Bihar) Vishnubhog S-gT India (Madhya Pradesh)
Katanbhog M−gT India (West Bengal) VRF6 – Australia
Kataribhog S-&M−gT India (Assam and West Bengal) Wuxiangjing** (Japonica rice – China
variety)
Kataribhog*, ** L-gT Bangladesh Xiang Keng 3** – China
KDML-105*, ** (Jasmine type indica rice L-gT Thailand Xiang Nuo 4** – China
variety)
Kesar M−gT India (Bihar and Uttar Pradesh) Xiangyou 63** – China
Khalsa 7 L-gT India (Haryana) Yongshunxiangdao** – China
Khao Hawm*,** (National pride of – Thailand Yuvraj S-gT India (Uttar Pradesh)
Thailand)
Khorika Joha S-gT India (Assam) Zeerasal S-gT India (Gujarat)
Kodus** – Ira Zhao Xing 17** – China
Kola Joha S-gT India (Assam) Zhe 9248** – China
Kolhapur Scented S-gT India (Gujarat)

Sources: Modified from Singh et al. (2000); Moulmein, Samadi, Wu, and Leung (2003); Shobha Rani, Pandey, Prasad, and Sudharshan (2006); Yang et al. (2012) and
Verma, Srivastav, and Nadaf (2018c)
Abbreviations: B-gT: Bold-grained type; L-gT: Long-grained type; M−gT: Medium-grained type; S-&M−gT: Short- and Medium-grained type; S-&R-gT: Short- and
round-grained type; S-gT: Small-grained type; GLO&C: Geographical Location of the Origin and Cultivation; SRCs: Scented Rice Cultivars; *Cultivar of Global Impact
and International Demand from respective geographical location of cultivation; **Popular land races from respective geographical location of cultivation; ***Far more
aromatic than popular varieties.

Literature concerned with the flavor chemistry of wild rice is non-
existent. A handful of studies reported the chemical composition of wild
rice aroma (Table 3) without any information and data about the
consumer preference towards the cooked wild rice on the basis of
aroma volatiles. A major study was first published on the isolation and
identification of VACs in relation to the product of wild rice grain using
vacuum steam distillation, and 112 compounds were found to con-
tribute to the distinctive aroma of wild rice (Withycombe et al., 1978).
GC–MS identified the 71 VACs from cooked wild rice out of which the
major groups were aldehydes (total 5 aromatic compounds out of 23)
and pyrazines (12 compounds). Earlier, 17 volatile compounds were
discussed including 6 pyrazines. The widely present 6 compounds were:
benzaldehyde, 2,5-dimethylpyrazine, (E,E)-2,4-decadienal, hexanal,
(E,E)-2,4-heptadienal, and methylpyrazine; and other 67 aroma com-
pounds consisted of half of the total, nearly 49.8%. Approximately
34.7% of total relative aroma concentration included the 12 pyrazines:
2,3-dimethyl-5-ethylpyrazine, 2,3-dimethylpyrazine, 2,5-dimethylpyr-
azine, 2-ethyl-3,5-dimethylpyrazine, 2-ethyl-3-methylpyrazine, 2-ethyl-
5-methylpyrazine, 2-ethyl-6-methylpyrazine, 2-isoamyl-6-methylpyr-
azine, 3-ethyl-2,5-dimethylpyrazine, ethenylpyrazine, ethylpyrazine
and methylpyrazine. The wild rice contains unique alkylpyrazines
which are not present in conventional black, brown, aromatic, and non-

11
D.K. Verma and P.P. Srivastav
aromatic rice (2008b; Jezussek et al., 2002; Maraval et al., 2008; Yang
et al., 2008a).
Likewise, GC-O detected the presence of 22 aroma compounds
which included the aldehydes (16 compounds), pyrazines (5 com-
pounds), ketones (4 compounds), and furans (3 compounds). The aroma
of wild rice was mainly attributed to benzaldehyde which was 5th most
prevalent chemical compound, usually found in black, glutinous, aro-
matic and non-aromatic rice (2008b; Yang et al., 2008a; Zeng et al.,
2009). Wild rice - popular for nutty aroma contained a higher amount
of 2-pentylfuran that contributed to the ‘beany’, ‘green’, and ‘almond’
aroma in conventional rice cultivars (Maga, 1979; Zeng et al., 2009). 2-
butylfuran was detected in glutinous rice from Japan which was how-
ever not related to aroma (Zeng et al., 2009). The food products usually
contain ‘roasted’, ‘toasted’, and ‘nutty’ aroma due to the pyrazines (Ho
& Riha, 1998) while in wild rice, the distinct aroma was carried due to
the alkylpyrazines. The sensory panels recognized the moderate or
higher odor intensities compounds – pyrazines contributing wild rice
the ‘nutty’ aroma. The alkylpyrazines may be present in wild rice due to
its unique processing conditions. 2-ethyl-6-methylpyrazine, among the
five pyrazines was most potent aroma compound which deliver the
various aroma in different foods as identified in many studies such as:
nutty and roasted odor in roasted hazelnut and buckwheat tea (Qin, Ma,
Wu, Shan, & Ren, 2011), ‘fruity’ in roasted sesame (Schieberle, 1996)
and fruity/flowery aroma in coffee (Loapez-Galilea, Fournier, Cid, &
Guichard, 2006). Panelists reported the 2-ethyl-6-methylpyrazine of-
fering ‘almond’ odor and pyrazines and furans contributing to ‘nutty’
aroma in wild rice. Cho and Kays (2013) studied the impact VACs of Z.
palustris and reported a total of 71 aroma compounds while OACs were
33 identified by using GC–MS, and GC–O, respectively. The dominant
aromas were noted as unique nutty and roasted types which were pri-
marily contributed by various VACs viz. furfural, 2,3-dimethylpyrazine,
benzaldehyde, 2,5-dimethylpyrazine, methylpyrazine 3-ethyl-2,5-di-
methylpyrazine, 2-ethyl-6-methylpyrazine, 2-pentylfuran, and 2-n-bu-
tylfuran.
As discussed critically in the above section, only a few studies have
been conducted on the flavor chemistry of wild rice. A total of 112
VACs are reported from the aroma profile of wild rice since the first
study to till the date. However, advances in research on wild rice ar-
omas continue but it is not possible at this point to conclude with the
precision of wild rice aroma profiles because of (a) the lack of details on
the complete aroma profile of wild rice varieties, and (b) the lack of
data and knowledge on consumer preference for cooked wild rice based
on volatile aromas. Hence, further research and investigations are re-
quired in this area.
4.2. Rice scented type
Certain rice cultivars possess potent aroma compared to traditional
ones and are known as scented rice which is also popular from other
names like “aromatic”, “pecan” or “popcorn” rice. Among these,
Basmati and Della are the two important major far-eastern and
American varieties, respectively popular in certain regions of the world.
The majority of scented rice cultivars were short-grained, some are
medium-grained and only very few are long-grained (Table 4). These
varieties are highly thermos-photosensitive, long duration types and
low yielding performances. In scented rice, grain quality parameters
were most important to the people who engaged with the production,
processing, and consumption of rice. The essential grain quality para-
meters in scented rice were hulling, milling, head rice recovery and
kernel length and width which is very useful for the flavor chemists and
plant breeders in understanding the rice composition (Singh et al.,
2000; Verma et al., 2012; Verma, Mohan, & Asthir, 2013; Verma,
Mohan, Prabhakar, & Srivastav, 2015; Verma, Srivastav, & Mohan,
2018b. Tsuzuki who authored a series of papers found the minor in-
significant variation in aroma profile of scented and regular rice
(Tsuzuki, Morinaga, Shida, & Danio, T. 1975; Tsuzuki, Morinaga, &
12
Food Research International 130 (2020) 108924
Shida, 1977; Tsuzuki, Matsuki, Morinaga, & Shida, 1978; Tsuzuki,
Tanaka, & Shida, 1979; Tsuzuki, Machii, Shida, & Miura, 1979; Tsuzuki,
1984; Tsuzuki, & Shimokawa, 1990). The summary of some studies on
VACs of different scented type rice is stated in Table 3. The compound
2-AP has been identified as a key aroma constituent contributing to
flavour of several scented rice varieties (Table 3). Nevertheless, two of
the most extensive studies were conducted on aromatic rice, one of
which recorded 114 compounds (Yajima et al., 1979), while the other
documented more than 140 compounds (Mahatheeranont et al., 2001).
On comparing the aroma of traditional rice with scented rice, earlier
ones contained the 1-hexanal, 1-hexanol, and 4-vinylphenol in higher
concentration and contain indole in lower amount than scented rice
(Yajima et al., 1979). Further, the scented rice also contained an uni-
dentified compound − 2-pyrrolidone, missing in regular rice (Buttery
et al., 1982, 1983b). In scented rice, 2-AP is considered as the major
VACs since the first report and also in recent research (Table 3),
whereas firstly found in leaves of Pandanus species in 1 ppm reported
(Buttery, Juliano, & Ling, 1983a). It thus justified the culture of using
pandan leaves during rice cooking to impart a scented aroma to rice.
The Pandanus leaves possess nearly 100 times higher concentration of
2AP compared to regular rice varieties.
Since at that point, few studies were attempted to know the dis-
tinction in scented and non-scented rice on the premise of aroma vo-
latiles (Widjaja et al., 1996a). A detailed study has been found on vo-
latiles that contribute to the rice aroma beyond 2-AP (Yang et al.,
2008b). However, only a few studies were undertaken to quantify VACs
in non-basmati type local scented cultivars of Indian rice (Mathure
et al., 2011; Nadaf et al., 2006). The floral, fruity or sweet aroma in rice
is mainly contributed by alcohols, amines, and phenols. A total of 19
alcohol derivatives were detected among which 5 are considered as
contaminants while 11 are present in aromatic and non-aromatic cul-
tivars thus showing their insignificance in differentiating the rice cul-
tivars. The lipid degradation products such as aldehydes, alkanes, and
alkenes may be associated with the fatty, grassy, and soapy aroma
which may either be pleasant or objectionable aroma based on the
degree of these compounds. But usually, the rancid or off-flavor is re-
lated to the higher level of lipid breakdown products. The hexanal is
used as an indicator of off-flavor in rice (Bergman et al., 2000;
Wongpornchai et al., 2004). In scented rice cultivars, a huge number of
VACs (72–51) were identified during the growth phase compared with
non-scented counterparts (Hinge, Patil, & Nadaf, 2016b). In addition to
2AP, there were several differences between the VACs of scented and
non-scented rice (Bryant & McClung, 2011).
4.3. Rice raw type
Raw rice is considered to have a weak aroma which far differs from
the aroma of cooked rice. Raw rice has been considered for study to
know and understand the VACs which were eagerly contributing to rice
aroma and it was noticed that the major contributor of aroma in raw
rice was played by hydrocarbons (Mahatheeranont et al., 2001). Sur-
prisingly, little research works have been conducted to understand the
VACs of raw rice (Table 3). After harvesting when rice is stored above
1 year, it is known as “long-stored” or “old” rice and the resulting stale
flavor is not considered as agreeable regardless of cooking. Several
scientists reported the hexanal, aldehydes, and some alcohols as the
dominant VACs while preserving the rice grains (Chikubu, 1970;
Legendre, Dupuy, Ory, & McIlrath, 1978; Shin, Yoon, Rhee, & Kwon,
1986; Tsugita, Ohta, & Kato, 1983). However, the breaking-down me-
chanisms of hydroperoxides to hexanal remain ambiguous in rice
grains. The prevalent isozyme component is LOX-3 in rice grain which
generates the 9-D-hydroperoxy-10,12(E,Z)-octadecadienoic acid (9-
LOOH) from linoleic acid (Ida, Masaki, & Morita, 1983; Ohta, Ida,
Mikami, & Morita, 1986; Yamamoto, Fujii, Yasumoto, & Mitsuda,
1980). However, LOX-3 did not produce 13-L-hydroperoxy-9,11(Z,E)-
octadecadienoic acid (13-LOOH) which is a hexanal precursor in higher
 Table 5
Plants, animals and microbial sources in which 2-AP as major aroma contributor.
Sources of 2-AP Sample Type Extraction Methods Quantification Methods Concentration Level References

Plants: Sources of 2-AP

Almond (Prunus dulcis) Oil roasted type, SvED GC–MS 30 µg/kg (Erten & Cadwallader, 2017)
Dry roasted type SvED GC–MS 12 µg/kg
Baguette a French bread Crusts, a Intensifiee (INT) preparation SlED HR GC–MS 17 µg/L (Zehentbauer & Grosch, 1998)
D.K. Verma and P.P. Srivastav

preparation of wheat flours Artisanale (ART) preparation SlED HR GC–MS 11 µg/L

Bread flowers (Vallaris glabra) Dry flowers SDE GC–MS 26.12 ppm (Wongpornchai et al., 2003)
Fresh flowers SDE GC–MS 3.36 ppm
Fresh leaves SDE GC–MS 0.53 ppm
Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) Aromatic type Acidic SvE followed by GC–MS and NPD 3.29–21.98 ppm (Saensuk et al., 2016)
transferring into Organic SvE
Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) Nam-Homcultivar HsSPME GC–MS 0.6–7.5 μg/L (Luckanatinvong, Mahatheeranont, &
Siriphanich, 2018)
Liquid endosperm Acidic SvE followed by GC–MS 6.30 ppm (Dumhai et al., 2019)
Organic SvE
Young tender endosperm Acidic SvE followed by GC–MS 6.78 ppm
Organic SvE
Green tea Pan-fired type SDE GC–MS – (Kumazawa & Masuda, 2002)
Hazelnuts (Corylus avellana) Processed seed oils HVDE HR GC-O and HR GC–MS – (Matsui, Guth, & Grosch, 1998)
Honey [Linden (Tilia tomentosa)] Raw type SDE GC–MS 0.02–0.04 ng/l (Blank & Fischer, 1989)
Honey [Manuka (Leptospermum Raw type L-LE GC–MS 80–450 µg/kg (Ruckriemen, Schwarzenbolz, Adam, & Henle,
scoparium)] 2015)
Mahua (Bassia latifolia) Fresh flowers HsSPME GC–MS 3.30 ppm (Wakte, Kad, Zanan, & Nadaf, 2011)
Maize (Zea mays) Extruded flour – GC-O Traces (Bredie, Mottram, & Guy, 1998)
Mung bean (Vigna radiata) Seeds SDE GC–MS – Brahmachary and Ghosh (2002)
Seeds HsSPME GC–MS 0.19 ppm (Attar, Hinge, Zanan, Adhav, & Nadaf, 2017)

13
Seeds HsSPME GC–MS 0.19 ppm (Attar, 2014)
Leaves HsSPME GC–MS 0.119 ppm
Palm wine (Elaeis guineensis) Bottled packaged HVDE HR GC–MS 11.4 µg/kg (Lasekan, Buettner, & Christlbauer, 2007)
Pandan (P amaryllifolius) Freeze dried leaves SDE GC–MS 1.00 ppm (Buttery et al., 1983a)
Fresh leaves DSvE GC–MS 14.10 ppm (Thimmaraju, Bhagyalakshmi, Narayan,
Venkatachalam, & Ravishankar, 2005)
Fresh leaves HsSPME GC-FID 6.85 ppm (Wakte, Thengane, Jawali, & Nadaf, 2010)
Fresh leaves HsSPME GC-FID 0.09–4.98 ppm (Wakte, 2010)
Fresh leaves LNEA RDA and HP TLC 0.982 ppm (Bhattacharjee, Kshirsagar, & Singhal, 2005)
Fresh leaves SC-CO2 GC-FID 0.04–0.18 ppm (Yahya, 2011)
Fresh leaves SC-CO2 GC–MS 716.50 ng/g (Laohakunjit & Noomhorm, 2004)
Fresh leaves SC-CO2 RDA and HP TLC 7.163 ppm (Bhattacharjee et al., 2005)
Fresh leaves SC-CO2 GC–MS 0.04–0.18 ppm (Yahya, Lu, Santos, Fryer, & Bakalis, 2010)
Fresh leaves Organic SvE GC–MS 2771.10 ng/g (Laohakunjit & Noomhorm, 2004)
Fresh leaves SDE GC–MS 1.55 ng/g Laohakunjit and Noomhorm (2004)
Fresh leaves SDE RDA and HP TLC 0.965 ppm (Bhattacharjee et al., 2005)
Fresh leaves SDE GC–MS 10.26 ppm (Wongpornchai et al., 2003)
Fresh leaves SDE GC–MS 8.00 ppm (Thimmaraju et al., 2005)
Fresh leaves SDE GC–MS 3.10 ppm (Wakte, Nadaf, Krishnan, & Thengane, 2007)
Fresh leaves SlE GC–MS 0.21–0.52 ppm (Yahya, 2011)
Fresh leaves SlE GC–MS 0.06–0.45 ppm (Yahya et al., 2010)
Peanuts (Archis hypogaea) Processed seed oils HVDE HR GC-O and HR GC–MS – (Matsui et al., 1998)
Pearl millets (Pennisetum glaucum) Wetted ground SvE GC-FID – (Seitz, Wright, Waniska, & Rooney, 1993)
Popcorn Popped SlE HR GC–MS 24 µg/kg (Schieberle, 1991)
Potato (Solanum tuberosum) Extruded snacks HVDE using S-AFEvE GC–MS – (Majcher & Jelen, 2005)
Boiled SlED HR GC–MS – (Mutti & Grosch, 1999)
Pumpkin (Telfairia occidentalis) seeds Processed seed oils HVDE HR GC-O and HR GC–MS – (Matsui et al., 1998)
Roasted in-shell peanuts Fresh SvE using S-AFEvE GC–MS 1.92 mg/L (Kaneko, Sakai, Kumazawa, Usuki, &
Stored SvE using S-AFEvE GC–MS 0.462 mg/L Hishimura, 2013)
(continued on next page)
Food Research International 130 (2020) 108924
 Table 5 (continued)

Sources of 2-AP Sample Type Extraction Methods Quantification Methods Concentration Level References

Rye (Secale cereale) Breads crusts SvE HR GC-FID – (Schieberle & Grosch, 1985)
Breads crusts SDE SIDA 6.4 µg/kg
Sesame (Sesamum indicum) Roasted type SvED HR GC–MS 30 µg/kg Schieberle (1996)
Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) Grains – Hs-GC with NPD 0.3019 ppm (Yundaeng, Somta, Tangphatsornruang,
Wongpornchai, & Srinives, 2013)
D.K. Verma and P.P. Srivastav

Soybean (Glycine max) Fresh seeds SvE GC–MS 0.2853 µg/g (Wu, Chou, Wu, Chen, & Huang, 2009)
Seeds – Hs-GC with NPD 579.5–1169.ppb (Arikit et al., 2011)
Calli in wild type – Hs-GC with NPD 325.3–457.3 ppb
Sweet corn (Zea mays convar. saccharata Cooked type High flow DHsS with TTP Capillary GLC-MS 4 µg/kg (Buttery, Stern, & Ling, 1994)
var. rugose)
Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) Cured leaves SDE GC–MS 0.02 µg/g (Peng, Sheng, Liu, Tong, & Liu, 2004)
Cured leaves SDSvE GC–MS 0.12 µg/g
Cured leaves HsCo-D GC–MS 0.11 µg/g
Wild mango (Irvingia gabonensis) Roasted seeds SvE and HVDE HR GC–MS – (Tairu, Hofmann, & Schieberle, 2000)
Winter melon (Benincasa hispida) Flesh SvE GC–MS 25.90 ppm Ruangnam et al. (2017)
Animals: Sources of 2-AP
Acha (Digitaria exilis Stapf) Cooked TTP GC–MS – (Lasekan, Feijao Teixeira, & Salva, 2001)
American lobster (Homarus americanus) Cooked tail meat DSvE and Vacuum SDE GC–MS Presented at below levels of (Lee, Suriyaphan, & Cadwallader, 2001)
detection limits.
Anchovy (Engraulis encrasicholus) Cooked ripened MDE GC–MS Trace amounts (Triqui & Reineccius, 1995)
Blue crab claw meat (Callinectes sapidus) Cooked type ASDE and Vacuum SDE GC–MS – (Chung & Cadwallader, 1994)
Boiled cod, salmon and trout Boiled SlE SIDA – (Milo & Grosch, 1996)
Carp fillet (Cyprinus carpio) Boiled carp extracts SlED HR GC-O 1.45–6.7 µg/kg (Schluter, Steinhart, Schwarz, & Kirchgessner,
1999)
Criollo cocoa beans Roasted type SvE GC–MS 4.2 µg/kg (Frauendorfer & Schieberle, 2008)
Egg yolk Heated type SDE GC–MS – (Cerny & Guntz, 2004)

14
Freshwater crayfish (Procambarus clarkii) Cooked tail meat Vacuum SDE GC–MS – (Cadwallader & Baek, 1998)
Hazelnuts (Corylus avellana) Roasted type Sensomics analysis Two-dimensional GC-TOF- 85 µg/kg (Kiefl, Pollner, & Schieberle, 2013)
MS with SIDA
Korean Mugwort (Artemisia princeps Leaves and stems SDE and HsSPME GC–MS and GC-O – (Choi, Cho, Kim, & Lee, 2014)
orientalis)
Licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) Peeled, dried, and chopped raw type SvE and HVDE using S-AFEvE HR GC-O and HR GC–MS 9.41 µg/kg (Wagber, Granvogl, & Schieberle, 2016)
Milk Fresh and Dried type L-LE using S-AFEvE GC–MS 0.0073 ng/g (Bendall, 2001)
Non-fat dry milk Heat-treated DSvE followed by HVDE GC–MS – (Karagul-Yuceer, Drake, & Cadwallader, 2001)
Parma ham Italian-type Dry-cured meat products HVDE using S-AFEvE GC–MS – (Blank et al., 2001)
Prawns Boiled SDE using modified LNEA GC–MS – (Morita, Kubota, & Aishima, 2001)
Rennet casein Commercial products of enzymatic DSvE followed by HVDE GC–MS – Karagul-Yuceer, Vlahovich, and Drake (2003)
precipitation of the casein from pasteurized
skim milk
Salami Italian-type Dry-cured meat products SlE GC–MS Unequivocally identified (Blank et al., 2001)
Sardines (Sardina spp.) Stored SvE and VDE GC-FID – (Triqui & Bouchriti, 2003)
Squid broth (Illex argentinus) Frozen HsSPE GC–MS 97.3 µg/kg (Carrascon, Escudero, Ferreira, & Lopez, 2014)
Sweet whey Fresh powder SvE and VDE using S-AFEvE GC–MS – (Mahajan, Goddik, & Qian, 2004)
Tempeh Fried fermented type SvE and VDE using S-AFEvE GC–MS 14–16 µg/kg (Jeleń, Majcher, Ginja, & Kuligowski, 2013)
Tuna Sauce Vacuum SDE GC–MS – (Cha & Cadwallader, 1998)
Microbes: Sources of 2-AP
Aspergillus awamori Liquid culture L-LE GC–MS 1.11 ppm Rungsardthong and Noomhoom (2005)
A. nigricans Liquid culture L-LE GC–MS 2.08 ppm
Bacillus cereus, Liquid culture SDE GC, GC–MS, GC-AED 0.030–0.087 ppm Romanczyk, McClelland, Post, and Aitken
(1995)
Liquid culture SDE GC–MS 0.0026–0.957 ppm (Adams & Kimpe, 2007)
Lactobacillus hilgardi Liquid culture L-LE GC–MS 0.025–0.320 ppm (Costello & Henschke, 2002)
(continued on next page)
Food Research International 130 (2020) 108924
D.K. Verma and P.P. Srivastav Food Research International 130 (2020) 108924

chromatography; HsSPE: Headspace solid phase extraction; HsSPME: Headspace solid phase microextraction; HVDE: High vacuum distillation extraction; L-LE: Liquid-liquid extraction; LNEA: Likens–Nickerson extraction

extraction; SDE: Simultaneous/Steam distillation extraction; SDSvE: Simultaneous/Steam distillation and solvent extraction; SIDA: Stable isotope dilution assay; SlE: Soxhlet extraction; SlED: Soxhlet extraction with
chromatography-time-of-flight-mass spectrometry; GLC-MS: Gas-liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry; HP: High performance; HR: High resolution; HsCo-D: Headspace co-distillation; Hs-GC: Headspace-gas
Abbreviations: ASDE: Atmospheric SDE; DHsS: Dynamic headspace sampling; DSvE: Direct solvent extraction; GC: Gas Chromatography; GC-AED: Gas Chromatography with Atomic Emission Detection; GC-EOE: Gas
Chromatography-Effluent Odour Evaluations; GC-FID: Gas chromatography-flame ionization detector; GC–MS: Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry; GC-O: Gas chromatography–olfactometry; GC-TOF-MS: Gas

apparatus; MDE: Micro distillation extraction; NPD: Nitrogen-phosphorus detection; RDA: Rapid densitometric assay; S-AFEvE: Solvent-assisted flavour evaporation extraction; SC-CO2: Supercritical Carbon dioxide
plants (Gardner, 1988; Hatanaka, 1993). 2,4-decadienal is formed by β-
scission of 9-LOOH while the selective oxidation of 2,4-decadienal at
moderate temperatures produces the hexanal (Grosch, 1987). However,
(Munch, Hofmann, & Schieberle, 1997) report said that the similar aroma compounds are generated from oxi-
dation of linoleic acid and decomposition of 13-LOOH (Grosch, 1987).
(Grosshauser & Schieberle, 2013)

2-AP (i.e. popcorn aroma) have been found as the major aroma con-
tributor of raw rice (Champagne, 2008; Mahatheeranont et al., 2001;
Maraval et al., 2008; Tava & Bocchi, 1999; Zeng et al., 2008a, 2008b).
(Kim et al., 2000)

4.4. Rice cooked type

References

The stale flavor is detected in rice during cooking just after its
distillation; SvE: Solvent extraction; SvED: Solvent extraction with distillation; TLC: Thin layer chromatography; TTP: Tenax trap procedure; VDE: Vacuum distillation extraction.

storage at higher temperatures due to the free FAs synthesis and lipid
oxidation thereby forming the carbonyl compounds (Chikubu, 1970).
The VACs of cooked rice always differ from the VACs of uncooked rice
(Concepcion et al., 2018; Deng et al., 2013; Fukuda et al., 2014; Hinge
et al., 2016a, b; Park et al., 2010; Verma & Srivastav, 2016, 2018a; Xia,
Wang, Huang, & Li, 2016). There are some important factors which
Concentration Level

influence highly to the aroma of cooked rice. Among them, the im-
portant one is a genetic factor and second is conditions of pre- and post-
4.2–7.0 µg/kg

harvest which include drying, milling, and storage, etc. See, for in-
stance, VACs (especially 2-AP) affected by milling, resulted in higher
2.1 ppb

content is noticed in cooked rice compared to brown rice. However, this

compound is reported to decrease (extent up to 40–50%) during storage
–

while products of lipid oxidation are found increased (Champagne,

2008).
HR GC-O and HR GC–MS
Quantification Methods

The VACs of cooked rice have been studied by many researchers

with specific interest in the factors (Deng et al., 2013; Fukuda et al.,
2014; Lee et al., 2019; Liu, Zheng, Li, Zhao, & Xiong, 2007; Wu, Yang,
HR GC–MS

Chen, Jin, & Xu, 2011). The summary of some studies on VACs of dif-
ferent cooked rice samples is stated in Table 3. Therefore, several efforts
GC–MS

were taken to reduce or remove this particular off-flavor. For instance,

amino acids were added to boiling rice and Yamamoto and Kogure
(1969) found L-lysine hydrochloride effective in removing the stale
odor on account of the reaction of carbonyls with the amino group in
lysine which inactivates them. Furuhashi and Ayano (1971) conducted
Extraction Methods

SvE using S-AFEvE

a model system investigation and revealed the effectiveness of L-cy-

steine and L-histidine hydrochloride to regulate the rice odor during
Vacuum SDE

storage. The cooked fresh rice had 3–5 times higher volatiles compared
to stale cooked rice among which 80–90% volatiles had a lower boiling
SvE

point and this fraction is about 45% in stored rice (Aisaka, 1977). On
the other hand, the stored rice contained the C346 carbonyls which
accounted for 30% of total VACs − 10 times higher to fresh rice. In
previous reports, basic fractions representing the unique aroma of
Enzyme-hydrolyzed cooker effluent

cooked rice were shown by fractionation of the VACs of cooked rice into
acidic, neutral and basic fractions (Aisaka, 1977). A total of 40 com-
pounds were identified after varying degrees of milling in the cooked
Thermally treated extracts

rice aroma and reported a maximum volatile content in 92% of milled

rice, which decreased compared to increased milling (Tsugita, Kurata,
& Kato, 1980). This results in the conclusion that aroma of cooked rice
Pan-fried type

is caused due to the compounds from outer surface layers of rice. Pre-
Sample Type

vious reports showed 4.8 ppm of isolated volatile fraction in cooked

rice, of which 65% were in the acid fraction and 33% were in the
- Either in Trace amounts or Not Reported.

neutral fraction, while the basic fraction was below 1% (Yajima, Yanai,
Nakamura, Sakakibara, & Habu, 1978). In nutshell, out of total 100
identified compounds, over 90% of which were not identified in rice
White mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus)

previously.
The most common VACs of cooked rice are 2-AP, hexanal, octanal,
indole, (E)-2-nonenal, 4-vinyl-2-methoxyphenol and (E,E)-2,4-non-
adienal and out of which VACs, 2-AP is one of the more pronounced
Table 5 (continued)

odorants in cooked aromatic rice (Jezussek et al., 2002; Lee et al., 2019;
Liu et al., 2007; Mahattanatawee & Rouseff, 2008, 2014; Maraval et al.,
Sources of 2-AP

2008), non-aromatic rice (Jezussek et al., 2002; Lee et al., 2019;

Maraval et al., 2008; Park et al., 2010), black rice (2008b; Yang et al.,
Oyster

Yeast

2008a) and other cooked rice products viz. rice cake (Buttery et al.,
1999; Kurasawa et al., 1969). Interestingly, 2-AP was also reported in

15
D.K. Verma and P.P. Srivastav
other plants, animals, and microbes during many studies. Studies on 2-
AP in the case of the plant, animals, and microprobes are summarized
in Table 5.
Aseptic-packaging of cooked fragrant rice was used in an aroma
study conducted using by HS‐SPME/GC‐MS and the compound identi-
fied as 2-AP was reported to be the most important contributor to the
overall aroma (Lee et al., 2019). While 2-acetyl-2-thiazoline (2-AT)
reported as another compound using GC-PPFD, which was confirmed
by the GC – MS TIC chromatographic standard retention value (Buttery
et al., 1982; Mahattanatawee & Rouseff, 2008). The VAC, 2-AT was not
observed in Jasmati or Basmati rice but it was detected in cooked
Jasmine rice as an additional impact aroma characteristics. A total of 30
AACs were detected but only 27 VACs were identified. Five VACs were
detected as major AAC among 30 VACs, which were as follows: α-io-
none, β-damascenone, β-damascone, geranyl acetate, and 3-methyl-2-
butene-1-thiol. The VAC, 3-Methyl-2-butene-1-thiol was detected only
in Jasmine rice responsible for the nutty and sulphury aroma.
(Semmelroch & Grosch, 1996). The aroma volatiles consists of alcohols,
aldehydes, ester, heterocyclics, ketones, and sulfur compounds. Nu-
merically, the aldehydes comprised a major portion of all AACs in
cooked rice followed by alcohols, esters, heterocyclics, ketones, and
sulfur compounds. Other studies on VACs of cooked rice also stated that
aldehydes were encompassed as the most observed group of VACs.
(2008b; Yang et al., 2008a). There was no single VAC or set of VACs
except for the concentration used to define a cultivar when comparing
VACs of cooked brown rice (three scented and one non-scented)
(Jezussek et al., 2002). But, the compound 2-aminoacetophenone was
considered to be an important odorant due to its highest dilution value
(DV).
A total of 35 VACs were identified in cooked black rice known as
aromatic specialty rice which has popularity among the Asian peoples
due to its unique flavor (Yang et al., 2008a). The highest abundance
was 80.1% of the total relative proportion of aroma composition ex-
hibited by aldehydes and aromatics VACs. Higher concentration was
seen in 2-AP which was exceeded only by hexanal, 2-pentylfuran, and
nonanal. The difference between the VACs of cooked white and black
rice was strongly influenced by 2-AP, p-xylene, indole, and guaiacol.
The unique characteristics aroma of black rice was majorly contributed
by 2-AP (popcorn) and guaiacol (black rice-like, smoky) based on odor
thresholds, relative concentration levels, and olfactometry among the
identified 25 OACs. In another study, cooked non-aromatic rice of
Korea (‘Jeongilpum’) analyzed using GC-O to evaluate OACs. A 25
odorants out of 36 were an intermediate or of greater odor intensity
(≥3) from six manifestly different rice flavor types viz. basmati, jas-
mine, two Korean japonica cultivars, black rice, and a non-scented rice
(Yang et al., 2008b). The odorants deemed as major OACs were only 13
as follow: (E)-2-nonenal (beany, cucumber), (E)-2-octenal (nutty,
cooked flour), (E,E)-2,4-decadienal (fatty), (E,E)-2,4-nonadienal (nutty,
fatty), 1-octen-3-ol (mushroom), 2-AP (popcorn), 2-heptanone (fruity,
sweet), decanal (citrus), guaiacol (black rice-like, smoke), heptanal
(floral), hexanal (green tomato, green), nonanal (citrus, fatty), and
octanal (citrus). These 13 odorants among the six distinctly flavor types
were the primary VACs thought to describe the differences in the
aroma. Yang et al. (2008b) similarly suggested as many of the re-
searchers pointed out that 2-AP was not a single compound to explain
cooked rice aroma, although overall aroma composition was delineated
by the result of combine mixture of many VACs. In the study of Yang
et al. (2008b), 1-octen-3-ol had highest odor intensity (2.7 ng/L) fol-
lowed by order guaiacol (1.5 ng/L) and 11 aldehydes (0.09–3.1 ng/L)
while 2-AP exhibited lowest odor intensity (0.02 ng/L). The values of
odor intensity for (E)-2-nonenal, 2-AP, heptanal, hexanal, nonanal, and
octanal were comprised of more than 97% of relative odor intensity
concentration from each flavor rice, even though the relative con-
centration varied among samples.
One other study on the aroma of cooked non-aromatic rice of Korea,
two extraction methods were considered to study potent AACs (Park
16
Food Research International 130 (2020) 108924
et al., 2010); one was simultaneous/steam distillation and solvent ex-
traction (SDSvE), and another dynamic headspace sampling (DHsS).
The extracted VACs extracts were characterized by method ‘aroma ex-
tract dilution analysis (AEDA)’ and used GC-O for further evaluation. A
total of 16 and 10 OACs with an average log3 of more than one flavor
dilution (FD) were detected from the extracts of SDSvE and DHSS re-
spectively. In cooked non-aromatic rice of Korea, the record potent
AACs were considered as 2-AP (popcorn-like aroma note) and 2-Methyl-
3-furanthiol (2-MF) (meaty like aroma note) exhibited higher log3 FD
by both SDSvE and DHSS extraction methods. Although, the thiol
compound, 2-MF was first identified which is one of the important
aroma components of many food items which has already been proven
as a noteworthy odorant in the food (Hofmann & Schieberle, 1995).
However, in the previous study, Park and co-workers used non-aro-
matic Korean rice cultivar ‘Dongjin’ for studying sensory property of
cooked rice aroma and developed descriptive terminology. Boiled egg
white flavor was reported by Park, Kim, and Kim (2001) as one of
descriptive terminologies used to evaluate the aroma of cooked rice.
Although, this descriptive terminology was also described by other re-
searchers but was as sulfury or sewer animal-like (Champagne et al.,
1997; Meullenet, Marks, Griffin, & Daniels, 1999).
A group of researchers studied similarities and differences between
the VACs of three different types of non-aromatic rice (viz. Shunyou,
LGC-katsu, and LGC-soft) at four different times during cooking (Zeng
et al., 2008b). They identified a total of 77 VACs among which 13
compounds were not reported previously in rice. The main VACs were
2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol, vanillin, indole, 2-pentylfuran, (E)-2-nonenal
and (E,E)-2,4-decadienal etc. These major VACs have already been
highlighted in previous reports as flavor molecular markers in rice.
Time was the main factor found during observation which created the
major differences between the rice cultivars and VACs which had
emitted during cooking. Another group of researchers also compared 81
volatiles aroma of different class viz. alcohols, aldehydes, fatty acids,
fatty esters, heterocyclic, ketones, and phenolic, identified in the
cooked sample of three different types of rice associated with different
amylose content (Fukuda et al., 2014). The identified VACs of cooked
rice from aromatic (Aychade and Fidji) and non-aromatic (Ruille) cul-
tivars also compared them with identified VACs of marketed Asian
scented one (Thai) (Maraval et al., 2008). GC-O analyzed all four rice
extracts resulted in the perception of 40 OACs. 2-AP and oct-1-en-3-one
were two VACs which almost always perceived. While GC–MS identi-
fied and quantified 60 compounds in which some of them were a few
new OACs.
Cooked Japonica rice (Wuchang) and Jasmine rice (Complete
Wheel) for volatile profile were investigated and reported a total of 77
compounds of different class viz. aldehydes (20), alcohols (16), ketones
(14), arenes (9), esters (7), alkanes (5), olefins (3) and hetero-cycle (3)
(Deng et al., 2013). Among all identified VACs, major were 1-hexanol,
1,10-biphenyl,2,20,5,50-tetrameth1-heptanol, 1,3-hexadiene, 1-non-
anol, 1-octen-3-ol, 1-octanol, 2,4-decadienal, 2-AP, 2-heptanone, 2-
heptenal, 2-methyl-2-ethyl-3-hydroxyhexyl, 2-methyl-2-nonen-1-ol, 2-
nonanone, 2-octenal, 3-(3-methyl-1-butenyl)-(E), 3,4-diethox-
ybenzaldehyde, 3-ethyl-2-methyl, 3-nonen-2-one, 3-nonen-5-yne, 3-
octen-2-one, 4-ethyl, 6,10-dimethy-5, 6,7-dodecanedione, 7-methoxy-
2,2,4,8-tetramethyltricyclo, 9-undecadien-2-one, cyclohexene, di(iso-
butyl), glutaric acid, hexanal, isobutyl 3-methylbu, nonanal, pentade-
cane, phthalic acid, propanoic acid, and tetradecane. In the recent study
of Xia et al. (2016), the germinated brown rice (GBR) of two varieties
(viz. JZDG and CMSG) was used due to the impressive health-promoting
effects. GBR has increased the popularity as functional food among the
peoples (Heiniö et al., 2016). From cooked GBR, total detected VACs
were 35, which belong to aldehydes and alkanes as a major class of
identified VACs. Among the identified VACs, most were detected in
JZDG, follow as (E,E)-2,4-decadienal, 2-carene, 2-methyl-1-penten-3-
one, 2-n-heptylfuran, 3,3,5-trimethyl-cyclohexene, 4-decanone, 4-me-
thyl-1,5-heptadiene, 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one and cyclotetradecane,
D.K. Verma and P.P. Srivastav
while some of them as 2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol, 4-methyl-(Z)-2-pen-
tene, and 2,6,10-trimethyl-dodecane presented in CMSG. Identified
VACs viz. 2-pentyl-furan, hexanal, and pentanal exhibited relatively
higher concentration (Xia et al., 2016).
5. Aroma in different products of rice
5.1. Rice bran
Rice bran is the low-cost by-product of rice consisting of 5–8% of
total rice grain weight. It is industrially employed to extract the oil, as
animal feed and an organic fertilizer (Silva, Sanches, & Amante, 2006);
however, its consumption is very less due to distinct odor (Fujimaki
et al., 1977) and several studies were undertaken to explore the con-
stituents of rice bran VACs. Nine common alcohol and eight carbonyls
were found in rice bran after flushing with N2 gas for 4 h but none of
them was directly associated with the aroma of rice bran (Mitsuda,
Yasumoto, & Iwami, 1968). 4-vinylguaiacol and 4-vinylphenol were the
main identified VACs offering a distinctly unpleasant odor among 170
identified compounds out of more than 270 detected compounds
(Fujimaki et al., 1977; Tsugita et al., 1978). Further, rice bran like
volatiles was also possessed by neutral fraction, totally identical to
whole volatile concentrate and two phenols discussed above were the
major volatiles identified which provides aroma to cooked rice as well
as steam-distilled rice bran (Fujimaki et al., 1977). Interestingly, the
researchers found that thermal decarboxylation of ferulic and p-cou-
maric acids may result in the formation of 4-vinylphenol and 4-vi-
nylguaiacol which were present in free-form in rice (Fiddler, Parker,
Wasserman, & Doerr, 1967; Houston, Hill, Garret, & Kester, 1963). The
thermal decomposition of lipids may generate lactones while the
thermal dehydration of thiamin or heat-based interaction between
carbonyl compounds and sulfur-containing amino acids formed the
thiazoles, especially 2-acetylthiazole which are responsible for the
aroma of rice bran (Maga & Katz, 1975, 1976; Maga, 1978; Tsugita
et al., 1978). Another objectionable VAC linked with rice bran is di-
methyl sulphide, produced from S-methylmethionine sulfonium
chloride (Namba, Ohba, Kitamoto, Hirasawa, & Karahashi, 1982).
Rice bran contains limonene – monoterpene, the dominating
odorant possessing the citrus-like odor which was detected in head-
space extracts of two aromatic rice cultivars of South China, cooked
black rice and steam distilled cooked white rice extract (Goufo, Duan,
Wongpornchai, & Tang, 2010; Yajima et al., 1978, 1979; Yang et al.,
2008a). However, the bran of white Jasmine rice KDML 105 rice con-
tained the maximum amount of β-cymene, and trans-β-ocimene which
were otherwise found in all studied samples of rice bran whereas the
black rice bran samples possessed the myrcene – a significant inter-
mediate compound important for the synthesis of several volatiles. The
myrcene is therefore found as an essential aroma compound that pro-
vides an herbaceous odor to black rice. The major oxygenated mono-
terpenes detected included the linalool and cis- and trans-linalool oxide
among the oxygenated monoterpenoids group. These oxygenated
monoterpenoids were found in brans of rice: black non-glutinous Hom
Nin, BD and 16,083 as well as KDML 105 rice. These cultivars contain
nearly 10 times higher concentration of limonene and cis-linalool oxide
compared to other cultivars. These monoterpenoids offer a floral sweet
and fruity aroma thus improving the rice aroma quality. Further, rice
bran also contains trans-caryophyllene – a sesquiterpene, usually found
in spicy and dry odorant of clove oil, however, its concentration was
very less compared to 7-epi-α-selinene and α-neo-carvene normally
found in KDML 105 bran (Ghelardini, Galeotti, Di Cesare Mannelli,
Mazzanti, & Bartolini, 2001). Some rice cultivars contain the maximum
of minor terpenoids such as α-elemene, α-gurjunene, and terpinen-4-ol
were present in black glutinous rice bran only which may contain other
terpenoids also. like β-bisabolene, camphor, camphene, 1,8-cineol, α-
copaene, estrageol, fenchyl acetate, menthol, α-pinene, sabinene, α-
ylangene, and trans-cadina-1(6),4-diene. Several natural and processed
17
Food Research International 130 (2020) 108924
rice including California Brown Pearl rice, black and red Japanese rice
hydrodistillate bran extracts and Basmati, Jasmine, Australian fragrant,
and non-fragrant rices extracts contained almost all these terpenoids
(Sukhonthara, Theerakulkait, & Miyazawa, 2009; Tsugita et al., 1978;
Widjaja et al., 1996a). The KDML 105 white rice bran contained a
major amount of α-neo-carvene - caraway odorant whereas the lack of
non-glutinous rice bran of cultivars: BT No.3 and Hom Nin possessed
the essential oils of marjoram containing Sabinene (Reverchon, 1992).
All rice bran samples except BGMSN contained β-cymene, found max-
imum in Samoeng black rice bran (Sukhonthara et al., 2009). Terpe-
noids are made up of isoprene units which are generated from dehy-
drogenation of α-terpinene represent the volatile compounds found in
nature. 1,8-cineol – found only in Hom Nin and BT No.3 black non-
glutinous rice bran possesses a fresh, spicy and camphor-like aroma
while the BGMSN contained the metabolic product of limonene - Car-
veol (Degenhardt, Köllner, & Gershenzon, 2009). Likewise, Hom Nin
black non-glutinous rice bran contains α-pinene and β-form of pinene
were found in Jasmine KDML 105 white non-glutinous rice bran. Thus,
these two monoterpenes were identified in the cultivar BT No.3-hybrid
between Hom Nin and Jasmine KDML 105 like camphor (having a
pungent odor) and camphene, the Hom Nin contains fenchyl acetate.
All these monoterpenoids are generated from precursor α-terpinyl ca-
tion which was present in black non-glutinous Hom Nin rice bran
(Degenhardt et al., 2009). Further, all rice bran contained a phenolic
aldehyde - vanillin whose maximum amount was found in Jasmine
KDML 105 rice bran. Studies have also revealed the presence of palmitic
acid, hexahydrofarnesyl acetone, and phytol as the major VACs in the
straw of rice (Miyazawa, Nagai, & Oshima, 2008).
The black and red rice bran showed the presence of 129 VACs (red
rice bran-95.01% and black rice bran-94.79%) acids followed by alde-
hydes in volatile oil (Sukhonthara et al., 2009). Red rice bran had more
hexanal than black rice bran. Red rice bran contained the higher
amount of (2E)-decenal, (2E)-nonenal, (2E)-octenal, (2E,4Z)-dec-
adienal, 1-octen-3-ol, 2-heptanone, 2-methylnaphtalene, benzaldehyde,
naphthalene, nonanal, and octanal; however black rice bran was rich in
n-pentanol, isovaleric acid, valeric acid, enantic acid, guaiaol, caproic
acid, myristic acid, and pelargonic acid. The major odorant found in
black rice bran was guaicol (0.81 mg/100 g) which produces a smoky
aroma in cooked black rice (2008b; Yang et al., 2008a).
5.2. Rice cake
Rice cake is an important bakery product, developed from rice flour
derived from long- and medium-grained type brown rice. The quality
attributes of rice cakes are influenced by different factors like heating
temperature, heating time and tempering moisture (Kim, Lee, Hsieh, &
Eun, 2001). Very few studies on VACs of rice cake are available in the
literature and presented in Table 3. The VACs obtained from extraction
of rice cake using hot water include the 2-methylpropanal, 3-methyl-
butanal, ammonia, ethanal, hexanal, hydrogen sulfide, and propanal
(Kurasawa et al., 1969). The authors confirmed the presence of original
rice cake identical aroma from synthetic mixture which contained the
aldehydes in same amount present in the product together with hy-
drogen sulfide and ammonia. The characteristic odor of 2-propionyl-1-
pyrroline was detected by GC–MS. 2-AP had been first found as an
important VAC of aromatic rices (Buttery et al., 1988), and its occur-
rence in rice cakes was expected. However, the mechanism of its for-
mation at the high-temperature conditions used while preparing rice
cakes may be different from that involved in boiled rice. Alkyl pyrazines
are common in most food products cooked at temperatures well above
100 °C and are also present in rice cakes. These were similar to those
found in popcorn qualitatively but different quantitatively. The most
important VACs were 2-ethyl-3,6-dimethylpyrazine and 2-ethyl-3,5-di-
methylpyrazine, Further, the moderate concentrations of Strecker de-
gradation products 2- and 3-methylbutanal and phenylacetaldehyde are
found in the rice cakes. The lipid autoxidation synthesizes the hexanal
D.K. Verma and P.P. Srivastav
at a moderately high concentration in rice cakes (Buttery et al., 1999).
Aliphatic acids were also identified in the volatiles of brown rice which
is used to prepare the rice cakes. They had been also found in popcorn
but they are relatively weak odorants in other products (Buttery, Stern,
& Ling, 1997). These are present below their water threshold con-
centration level in rice cakes.
5.3. Soong-neung
A rice-based beverage - Soong-neung is a traditional drink from
Korea and prepared from roasted and cooked rice which is consumed
after meals. Roasting performed at 125–155 °C produces the volatiles -
carbonyls and pyrazines associated with this product (Cheigh, Nam,
Kim, & Kwon, 1975; Nam, Cheigh, & Kwon, 1973). A few compounds
were characterized and identified by GC–MS out of them, a total of only
five compounds from pyrazine fraction as follows; 2-ethyl-5-methyl-
pyrazine, 2-ethyl-3-methylpyrazine, 2,3-dimethylpyrazine, 2,5-di-
methylpyrazine, and 2-methylpyrazine were identified positively. The
compounds of pyrazines class were perhaps formed during the roasting
process. The compounds, 2,3-dimethylpyrazine and 2,5-dimethylpyr-
azine of pyrazine fraction was one of the impact aromas of Soong-neung
which is associated with the nut-like or roasted cereal-like aroma of
food. Whereas from carbonyls fraction, compounds viz. acetaldehyde,
iso-butyraldehyde, iso-valeraldehyde, and propionaldehyde were
identified positively (Cheigh et al., 1975; Nam et al., 1973).
5.4. Khanom jeen
Among the people in Southeast Asia, there are many types of rice
products are consumed in which rice noodles are well known as
common products of rice (Cham & Suwannaporn, 2010). Khanom jeen
is one kind of traditional noodle prepared from slight fermentation of
rice (Keatkrai & Jirapakkul, 2010; Pisitkul & Rengpipat, 2014). The
qualities of rice are very important in making much better noodles
preparation which plays an essential role in noodle quality. Generally,
rice varieties with high amylose have more useful compare to rice
varieties of low amylose content because such rice varieties have played
a well role in noodle preparation (Cham & Suwannaporn, 2010;
Jobling, 2004). There are two types of Kanom-jeen commercially
available in the markets throughout Thailand; they are as follows (1)
fermented, and (2) non-fermented. Consumer’s choice on fermented
Kanom-jeen because of this food exhibits characteristic fermented
flavor and unique textural properties resulting in wide consumption by
choice of Thai peoples in the country as well as outside of the country
(Keatkrai & Jirapakkul, 2010; Pisitkul & Rengpipat, 2014;
Rojanaphaiboon, 1987).
Khanom jeen exhibited 43 compounds in VACs of samples using
GC–MS where the alcohols were dominating contributing to 73% of
total volatiles followed by acids (18%) and ketones (7%) (Keatkrai &
Jirapakkul, 2010). 1-propanol was the most prevalent alcoholic com-
pound found in the headspace of khanom jeen sample volatiles in ad-
dition to 2-butanol, ethanol, and 3-methyl-1-butanol. However, these
aroma compounds contributed very less to the overall aroma due to
their higher odor threshold level but are significant because of inter-
action among odors in the mixture (Grosch, 2001). The short-chain
aliphatic acids except for 2-methylpropanoic acid and 3-methylbuta-
noic acid caused due to lipid oxidation and thermal decomposition were
reported in aroma of rice (Zeng, Zhang, Chen, Zhang, & Matsunaga,
2007). The aroma of compounds: 2-methylpropanoic acid and 3-me-
thylbutanoic acid contributes to ‘cheesy’ and ‘sweaty’ aroma, which
were also reported in sourdough bread and other cheeses (Curioni &
Bosset, 2002; Czerny & Schieberle, 2002; Kirchhoff & Schieberle, 2002).
In addition to these, many carbonyl compounds were identified and
samples of Khanom jeen rice contained the 2-butanone, diacetyl, and
acetoin among which the latter two ketones possess buttery aroma. The
fermentation-derived, sourdough bread usually carries these ketones in
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Food Research International 130 (2020) 108924
its aroma like togwa - fermented maize-sorghum gruel from Tanzania
(Hansen & Schieberle, 2005; Mugula, Narvhus, & Sorhaug, 2003). The
major compound responsible for the khanom jeen aroma is diacetyl in
terms of OAV in addition to low concentration of 3-methylbutanal and
benzaldehyde - straight-chain aldehydes, generated by fermentation.
Among aldehydes, the 3-methylbutanal exhibited the highest OAV and
this malty compound was reported in several fermented cereal products
previously (Czerny & Schieberle, 2002; Mugula et al., 2003).
5.5. Rice wine
Rice wine is a traditional alcoholic drink that is very popular in
China possessing higher nutritional value and distinct aroma (Chen &
Xu, 2010; Jung, Lee, Lim, Kim, & Park, 2014). It contains 15 VACs
including 10 esters and 5 higher alcohols similar to rice. The wine has
fruity and floral aroma due to the presence of esters whereas the al-
cohols contribute to the aroma of freshly brewed rice wine (Erten,
Tanguler, & Cakiroz, 2007). Among alcohols, ethanol is the dominating
along with other higher alcohols in rice wine and fermented or stored
wine contained the following alcohols: 1-propanol, butanediol isoamyl
alcohol, isobutanol, and phenethyl alcohol (Luo, Fan, & Xu, 2008). On
the other side, the isobutanol carries the faint smell of allyl alcohol with
slight bitterness whereas the isoamyl alcohol possesses a banana flavor
which decreases the leucine – a bitter amino acid for improving the
wine taste. Similarly, phenyl ethanol is present in a significant amount
in Chinese rice wine which contributes to the rosy and honey aromas
(Chen & Xu, 2010).
Makgeolli is a traditional Korean rice wine that has been consumed
by Koreans for many centuries. The associated predominant VACs are
follow as 2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol, 2-phenethyl acetate, 3-methyl-1-
butanol, diethyl succinate, ethanol, ethyl 9,12-octadecadienoate, ethyl
acetate, ethyl decanoate, ethyl dodecanoate, ethyl hexadecanoate, ethyl
octanoate, ethyl tetradecanoate, and ethyl(Z)-octadec-9-enoate (Jung
et al., 2014). The VACs viz. 2-methyl-1-propanol, 2-methylbutan-1-ol,
2-phenethyl acetate, 2-phenylethanol, 3-methylbut-1-ylethanoate,
ethanol, ethyl acetate, ethyl butanoate, ethyl hexanoate, ethyl oc-
tanoate, isobutyl acetate, and propan-1-ol have also been identified in
sake, a Japanese rice wine (Kiyoshi, 1999). Thirty-three esters con-
stituted the largest group among the 45 detected VACs. Among them,
10 esters (2-phenethyl acetate, 3-methylbut-1-ylethanoate, ethyl (Z)-
octadec-9-enoate, ethyl 9,12-octadecadienoate, ethyl acetate, ethyl
decanoate, ethyl dodecanoate, ethyl hexadecanoate, ethyl octanoate,
and ethyl tetradecanoate) were predominant VACs (Jung et al., 2014).
Among the 7 alcohols, ethanol, 2-phenylethanol, and 3-methyl-1-bu-
tanol were the dominant compounds. These alcohols have been con-
sistently detected as major VACs of Korean rice wines by different ex-
traction and analysis methods (Kim et al., 2008a, 2010).
6. Extraction, identification and quantification methods
The extraction process is generally the step at which most analyte
loss occurs; therefore, efficient methods of extraction are continually
being sought (Choi et al., 2019; Verma & Srivastav, 2016; Verma,
Mahato, & Srivastav, 2018d; Xia et al., 2016). It is important to assess
the VACs for the extraction, identification, and quantification of VACs
from rice by different methods viz. extraction, identification, and
quantification. There is no single method that will prove optimal for
aroma extraction, identification, and quantification of rice. In this
order, several traditional and modern methods are available for ex-
traction and isolation of rice aroma chemicals which are coupled with
analytical methods (Table 6). These analytical methods were studied
and have been used for identification, characterization, and quantifi-
cation of rice VACs at different levels of concentration ranges from 1 to
10 ppb level to 3 ppm from different sample matrix of rice and its
products (Bergman et al., 2000; Bryant et al., 2011; Buttery et al., 1988;
Buttery, Ling, & Mon, 1986; Grimm et al., 2011; Grimm et al., 2001;
D.K. Verma and P.P. Srivastav Food Research International 130 (2020) 108924

Table 6
Methods for extraction, identification, and quantification of rice VACs.
(A) Traditional and Modern Methods for Isolation and Extraction

(1) Traditional Methods

Purge and trap
Simultaneous steam distillation
Micro steam distillation
Direct solvent extraction
(2) Modern Methods
Solid-phase microextraction
Supercritical fluid extraction with CO2
(B) Analytical Methods for Identification and Quantification
Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS)
Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry with flame ionization detection (GC–MS-
FID)
Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry with alkali flame ionization detection
(GC–MS-AFID)
Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry with flame thermionic detection (GC–MS-
FTD)
Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry with selected ion monitoring (GC–MS-SIM)
Capillary gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (Capillary GC–MS)
Gas chromatography–olfactometry (GC-O)
Gas chromatography-flame ionization detection (GC-FID)
Gas chromatography-pulsed flame photometric detection (GC-PFPD)
Gas chromatography-time-of-flight- mass spectrometry (GC–TOF–MS)
Gas-liquid chromatography (GLC)
Gas-liquid chromatography with capillary or packed column (GLC-Capillary or GLC-
Packed column)

Hinge et al., 2016a, b; Khorheh et al., 2011; Peddamma et al., 2018;

Sriseadka, Wongpornchai, & Kitsawatpaiboon, 2006; Wongpornchai
et al., 2004; Yoshihashi, 2002).

6.1. Isolation and extraction methods

For extraction of VACs from sample matrix of various rice and rice’s
products have been studied by using different isolation methods and
arises from a cocktail of over 500 compounds of different chemical class
viz. alcohols, aldehydes (aliphatic and aromatic), hydrocarbons (al-
kanes, alkenes, aromatic), carboxylic acids, esters, furans, ketones, N2-
containing, phenols, sulfur-containing, and terpenes have been identi-
fied. A particular molecule of note is 2-AP which has been shown to be
the predominant OAC in sample matrix of various rice and rice’s pro-
ducts at concentrations of several hundred parts per billion (ppb) that
emitting a popcorn-like aroma, found in all rice plant parts except roots
(Yoshihashi, 2002), is also present in non-aromatic rice (Bryant &
McClung, 2011; Hinge et al., 2016a, b; Mathure et al., 2014; Park et al.,
2010; Setyaningsih, Majchrzak, Dymerski, Namieśnik, & Palma, 2019).
Zhou, Robards, Glennie-Holmes, and Helliwell (1999) reviewed the
methods viz. direct extraction, distillation, and headspace for VACs
analysis and their contribution to flavor in cereals in which headspace
complemented by solid-phase microextraction (SPME) and it has be-
come one of the best isolation and extraction methods. The typical
concentration levels (in ppb) of different VACs from rice were: alcohols
1869, aldehydes 5952, disulfides 79, heterocyclic compounds 1220,
hydrocarbons 548, ketones 234, phenols 534 and terpenes 257. The
discussed methods have been employed for the extraction of aroma
volatiles that affects considerably on the quality and quantity of rice
(Sriseadka et al., 2006). Weber et al. (2000) reported that one of the
major limitations is the lack of a quantitative assay in improvement of
scented rice for aroma through breeding because; there is no method to
quantify relative proportion of the concentrations of different VACs or
activity of some critical enzyme. Many researchers worked on best
analytical methods for extraction and isolation of rice VACs. In order to
get higher extraction yield (referred as high efficiency) and potency of
the extract (referred as efficacy), researchers have made considerable
effort to find efficient methods for extraction of VACs for rice aroma.
Currently, simultaneous distillation extraction (SDE), solid-phase
Fig. 1. Likens Nickerson simultaneous distillation extraction apparatus
(Sunthonvit et al., 2005).
microextraction (SFME) and supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) are the
most important and common procedures (Table 3) coupled with GC–MS
reported in the literature on VACs. The impact of chemical character in
rice is to be identified by the classical methods of the 21st century. The
work details of each method used as extraction methods by many re-
searchers are presented in the following sections, as they are:
6.1.1. Simultaneous distillation extraction
Simultaneous distillation extraction (SDE) is an important extrac-
tion method (Fig. 1) for VACs, merges vapor distillation and solvent
extraction so as to simplify experimental procedures (Chaintreau,
2001). In these methods, the final product is a solvent extract. SDE is
also known as the Likens–Nickerson steam distillation, more popular
among the all known methods for rice aroma chemical analysis. This
method was first reported by Likens and Nickerson (1964) and then
modified by Sunthonvit, Srzednicki, and Craske (2005) for studying
VACs of rice. SDE has been one of the most often cited methods for the
isolation of volatiles since its first report in 1964 (Chaintreau, 2001). In
previous many studies, SDE widely used to analyze VACs from a dif-
ferent type of rice viz. aromatic and non-aromatic by many researchers
(Table 3).
Buttery, Ling, Juliano, and Turnbagh (1983b) determined the con-
centration of 2-AP in the steam volatile oils of 10 different varieties of
rice varied from less than 0.006 to 0.09 ppm for Calrose and Malagkit
Sungsong rice varieties respectively which was based on the dry weight
of the rice. Later, Buttery et al. (1986) used SDE to extract VACs from
200 g of rice for quantification of 2-AP in rice samples and showed that

19
D.K. Verma and P.P. Srivastav
Fig. 2. Process flow chart and block diagram of SPME set-up coupled with GC–MS for extraction of rice aroma volatile compounds (Grimm et al., 2001; Pawliszyn, 2001).
method was sufficiently accurate for quantitative analysis of 2-AP in
rice.
A comparative study was made by Widjaja et al. (1996a) by using
the SDE method to conduct a comparative study on the VACs of fragrant
and non-fragrant rice. In the same year again used the SDE method by
Widjaja et al. (1996b) to conduct another study. This study was in
storage condition to know the changes in VACs of paddy, brown and
white fragrant rice and observed the level of total VACs in all three
forms of rice was increased. Another comparative study was made by
Laksanalamai and Ilangantileke (1993) by using SDE method to identify
the 2-AP, an impact VAC in fresh and aged (shelf-stored) Khao Dawk
Mali (KDML) 105 (a well-accepted scented Jasmine type indica rice
variety Thailand), in non-scented rice, and in leaves of pandan (Pan-
danus amaryllifolius).
A total of 100 VACs were isolated by Petrov et al. (1996) from
scented rice and non-scented rice in cooking water using the SDE
method. Identification and quantification of volatile compounds from
commercial basmati and Italian rice samples were performed by Tava
and Bocchi (1999) by using the SDE method.
A study by Bhattacharjee et al. (2003) on the extraction of VACs
from a popular commercial brand of Basmati rice was evaluated by
using Likens–Nickerson extraction and supercritical fluid extraction
(SFE) with carbon dioxide (CO2). The study reported the advantages of
smaller sample size, shorter time of extraction and the negligible pos-
sibility of artifacts with the SFE method merit, its use for recovery of
aroma volatiles from Basmati rice. A modified Likens and Nickerson
apparatus by Sunthonvit et al. (2005) for the extraction of volatiles
from Thai fragrant rice varieties in which SDE was combined with a
distillation-extraction unit (Fig. 1). Park et al. (2010) used SDE method
to detect VACs from cooked Korean non-aromatic rice.
However, the perspectives of researchers were quite different be-
hind the use of the SDE method. For instances, the aim of the study of
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Buttery et al. (1986) was to establish a practical, simple method for
extracting and isolating rice VACs. The results showed that rice sample
possessed a well-known 2-AP concentration level with this established
method and found a method best suited for quantitative analysis of 2-
AP from rice sample. While, Widjaja et al. (1996b) used the SDE
method for explaining variations of VACs in rice samples during storage
condition. After a critical discussion of these key findings and other
researchers' reports on the benefits and important features of the SDE
method, it can be concluded that (1) the variations between volatile
compounds and non-volatile compounds found in the rice sample may
be exploited. The SDE technique was selected to enhance the extraction
of rice volatile aroma compounds, as well as to restrict or exclude non-
volatile components which do not have any significance and only cause
obstruction during study. (2) The extraction period is a good analytical
factor. Rice processing usually takes 1–4 h. The extraction efficiency is
always highest in the SDE technique due to the solvent nature and the
extraction period. This is the main reason why scientists are trying to
find the best experimental conditions for the recovery of the selected
volatile rice aroma components. Therefore, in further study and ana-
lysis of rice aroma, the SDE method can be applied which gives a dif-
ferent perspective.
6.1.2. Solid-phase microextraction
Solid-phase microextraction (SPME) is a relatively and rapidly
emerging as a new robust solvent-free, simple, rapid sampling method
to implement, low cost, ease of operation, sensitive and reliable method
for among the all methods (Djozan & Ebrahimi, 2008; Kaseleht, Leitner,
& Paalme, 2011; Verma, Mahato, Billoria, & Srivastav, 2018a; Zhou
et al., 1999) that can overcome the difficulties and can be applied to the
detection of flavour volatiles (Zhang, Yang, & Pawliszyn, 1994) from a
variety of matrices by partitioning them from a liquid or gaseous
sample matrix into a polymeric liquid coating i.e. an immobilized
D.K. Verma and P.P. Srivastav
stationary phase (Steffen & Pawliszyn, 1996). SPME uses a very simple
setup and requires no additional instrumentation other than a con-
ventional GC with the traditional injection port (Djozan & Ebrahimi,
2008; Steffen & Pawliszyn, 1996) shown in Fig. 2. The device consists of
two separate steps, step first: deals with partitioning the target analytes
between the sample matrix and the fiber surface, whereas the second
deals with the direct desorption of absorbed analytes into injection port
by means of GC (Djozan & Ebrahimi, 2008). In the SPME method to
collect the volatiles from the sample, it involves the use of fused silica
fiber (1 or 2 cm in length), which is very well defined in cylindrical
surface geometry. This configuration allows easy assessment of analyte
to and from the surface. This fiber is coated with a thin polymeric film
which is known as an extracting phase. Such a phase may be a solid or a
liquid comprised of a variety of conventional stationary phases. The
chemistry of VACs may decide their behaviors of adsorption and des-
orption on a particular type of fiber. Analytes varied in polarities may
require different fiber chemistries. In the market, there are a range of
fibers viz. polar, non-polar and mixed are available and have been
considered previously (such as polyacrylate (PA), carboxen, poly-
dimethylsiloxane (PDMS) and divinylbenzene (DVB) as the commonly
used types) in SPME methods to maximize its potential applications.
Generally, the types of fiber to be considered depending on the com-
pounds that desired to be extracted from a sample (Arthur & Pawliszyn,
1990; Pawliszyn, 1997). The volatiles analytes can be extracted from
different kinds of media in either the liquid or gas phase. SPME elim-
inates pre-concentration steps by directly extracting the analytes into a
poly (dimethylsiloxane)-coated fiber with liquid polymer or solid sor-
bent during extraction followed by desorption into the chromato-
graphic mobile phase for analysis (Arthur & Pawliszyn, 1990;
Pawliszyn, 1997; Steffen & Pawliszyn, 1996).
SPME was introduced in the 1990s (Yang & Peppard, 1994) and
developed by Arthur and Pawliszyn; and Pawliszyn (1997; Arthur &
Pawliszyn, 1990; Pawliszyn, 1995) in the early 1990s which can be
used in both in the laboratory and on-site. Since, its introduction has
been used to analyze volatiles due to some advantages, such as simple,
rapid, solvent-free, inexpensive, and less time for extraction when
compared with other methods like SDE (Djozan & Ebrahimi, 2008;
Zhang et al., 1994), has been considered as one of the most brilliant
inventions as a simple, efficient and environment friendly method by
many researchers in the field of sample preparation in recent years.
Several studies have been published on the analysis of rice VACs using
SPME and many VACs have been identified (Table 3), and also have
gained popularity among scientists and researchers with the presence of
advantages in its application in various fields (Fig. 3).
In a study, 2-AP screened in the headspace of carboxen/DVB/PDMS
fiber using SPME on on twenty-one experimental rice varieties (Grimm
et al., 2001). Another study by Monsoor and Proctor (2004) reported
that SPME was employed to analyze the VACs of commercial samples of
milled heads and broken rice. Bryant et al. (2006) conducted experi-
ments for texture profile and VAC analyses of ‘koshihikari’ and ‘bas-
mati’ rice prepared in different rice cookers. Volatiles were identified by
SPME/GC–MS. A similar technique was again followed to determine the
aroma profiles of scented and non-scented rice cultivars (Bryant &
McClung, 2011). The study of Bryant et al. (2006) reported a huge
variation in the aroma profile of both aromatic and non-aromatic rice
cultivars which may provide insight depth to the combination of aroma
compounds which contribute a distinct flavor to particular cultivar.
Again in 2011, Bryant et al. (2011) used the SPME technique along with
GC–MS to distinguish non-aromatic rice (O. sativa L.) kernels from
aromatic rice kernels and developed a single kernel analysis method for
detection of 2-AP in aromatic rice germplasm.
A new powerful device cold-fiber SPME was developed by
Ghiasvand et al. (2007) for easy and rapid screening of a wide range of
flavors in the headspace of fragrant rice samples. Another new appa-
ratus was designed by Zeng et al. (2007) using SPME for direct ex-
traction of flavor volatiles from rice during cooking and tested due to
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Fig. 3. Application of solid-phase microextraction (SPME) in various fields viz.
forensic perspective, environmental, biological, pharmaceutical, field analyses,
and fragrance & aroma study.
solvent-free and no solvent contaminants in the Japanese rice cultivar
Akitakomachi. A modified HsSPME/GC–MS was employed to analyze
the volatile profile of following rice cultivars from Japan: Nihonbare,
Koshihikari, & Akitakomachi during cooking and other rice cultivars
having lower amount of digestible protein during cooking (Zeng et al.,
2008a, 2008b). A single HsSPME/GC–MS was used by Zeng et al.
(2009) to study the glutinous rice during cooking for the identification
of VACs.
In 2010, Lin, Fan, Gao, Wu, and Wang (2010) presented a paper to
demonstrate the efficiency of HS-SPME together with GCMS on VACs
study in 10th International Working Conference on Stored Product
Protection. Until that time, SPME was used solely for the study of rice
aroma and their efficacy, but later a new revolution began to be used
for a specific purpose in the rice aroma study; here are some examples
of such studies. Tananuwong and Lertsiri (2010) used SPME/GC–MS to
monitor the changes in key VACs of organic red fragrant rice cv. Hom
Daeng during storage under different conditions. While, Goufo et al.
(2010) used HsSPME and static headspace in conjunction with GC–MS
to investigate two fragrant rice (O sativa L.) cultivars viz. Guixiangzhan
and Peizaruanxiang, grown in South China. The findings indicated that
manipulating pre- and post-harvest treatments can greatly improve the
specific attributes of the domestically produced cultivars and reported
China could effectively increase its share of the domestic market of
fragrant rice and even tap into the international market (Goufo et al.,
2010). In another example, a combined GC–MS with the HsSPME
method used by Khorheh et al. (2011) for assessment of flavor volatiles
of Iranian rice cultivars including two modified Iranian rice cultivars
and Hashemi rice cultivar during gelatinization process. The proposed
combination proved a powerful system for easy and rapid detection of a
wide range of VACs in fragrant rice samples.
As discussed above, several researchers have concluded that this
was one of the best inventions because it is simple, effective and en-
vironmentally friendly. Thus, as an extraction technique prior to GC
analyzes, SPME offers significant benefits in rice volatile aroma com-
pounds study (Grimm et al., 2001). The results obtained from SPME
methods were often better in terms of both quantitative and qualitative
than conventional extraction methods (Bryant et al., 2011). The SPME's
strategies were found simple applications ranging from the quantitative
use of particular chemicals at low ppb levels to the complete identifi-
cation of volatile aroma compounds in rice samples (Bryant et al., 2011;
Grimm et al., 2001; Mathure et al., 2011). Many publications in the
field of rice volatile aroma compounds have been published in more
than decades because of the sustainability of SPME methods. Re-
searchers in this sector are still realizing the advantages of SPME.
D.K. Verma and P.P. Srivastav
Therefore, after a critical discussion of the findings in which SPME
methods were used for the rice aroma study, it can be concluded that
SPME is a potent extraction method for further analysis of the impact of
rice VACs in terms of accuracy.
6.1.3. Supercritical fluid extraction
Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) is one of the most innovative
methods of solvent extraction for separation and extraction process of
volatile/aromatic compounds by the use of supercritical fluids as the
extraction solvent (Bhattacharjee et al., 2003; King, 2002; McHugh &
Krukonis, 1986; Yahya, 2011). Supercritical fluids are a kind of clean
solvent in the view of ‘Green Chemistry,’ less toxic than organic solvents
have been considered as so as in this method. A widely used super-
critical fluid is carbon dioxide (CO2), sometimes modified by ethanol or
methanol as such co-solvents (Zhang & Li, 2010). Therefore, Lou and
Chen (1996) found that SFE is an alternative to liquid extraction and
also reported that this is proved to be an efficient sample preparation
method. Because of CO2 is quite simple to remove simply by reducing
pressure, leaving almost no trace, and is one of the greenhouse gases
(King, 2002; McHugh & Krukonis, 1986). Therefore, the consequent
treatment is simple when using SFE to the extraction of volatile/aro-
matic compounds.
The SFE process involves the separation of one VAC (the extractant)
from another (the matrix) using supercritical fluids (CO2) as an ex-
tracting solvent. Fig. 4 represents the schematic diagram of the SFE
extraction unit which comprises of CO2 cylinder, and surge tank
(stainless steel encased cylinder) having a thermostatic bath to control
the temperature. A high-pressure pump equipped with a manometer
and a micrometric valve is essential to regulate the extraction pressure.
The SFE assembly also contains the encased separators, collectors and
gas measuring devices (Fig. 4). In SFE of botanicals, the CO2 is con-
sidered as the king of extraction solvents. The supercritical CO2 had a
critical temperature of 31 °C and critical pressure of 74 bar, thereby
highly compressed gases which can possess the properties of liquids, as
well as gases, are preferred. The supercritical fluids can run the reac-
tions which were otherwise impossible using conventional solvents. SFE
is a quick technique where the process can finish within 10–60 min and
analyte can be separated from supercritical fluid by releasing the
Fig. 4. Schematic diagram of Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE) set-up. (1) CO2 cylinder, (2) Surge tank, (3) Extraction, (4) & (5) Separators, (6) Collector and Gas
measuring device, (7) & (8) Thermostatic baths, and (9) Isocratic pump (Sarmento, Ferreira, & Hense, 2006).
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pressure without leaving the traces thereby producing pure extract.
This methodology is based upon the principle that a fluid (gas) above its
critical point exhibits the solution properties of a liquid solvent. CO2 is
considered as the most suitable extractant because it has moderate
critical parameters viz. 7.38 MPa (74 bar) pressure and 31.04 °C tem-
perature (Otto & Thomas, 1967). The extraction of VACs can also be
achieved using a static or dynamic method. A few examples of the
application of this method in rice aroma research found (Table 3) which
was carried out by Bhattacharjee et al. (2003) and Yahya (2011).
In the experiments, the VACs of rice were isolated by extraction
with supercritical CO2 under pressure followed by atmospheric steam
distillation and enrichment of steam volatiles on Porapak Q. Although
SFE is able to recover the majority of the VACs, it is also more selective,
and therefore less effective, than solvent extraction, i.e. fewer com-
pounds are extracted with SFE than with solvent extraction (King,
2002; McHugh & Krukonis, 1986). At present, SFE has been applied to
the extraction of volatile/aromatic compounds from rice and other
plant samples such as fruits, vegetables, spices and so on (Khaw, Parat,
Shaw, & Falconer, 2017). Study of novel supercritical fluid and devel-
opment of small scale SFE instrument are necessary for the further
application of SFE for extraction of VACs in the rice industry in the
future.
6.2. Identification and quantification methods
The identification and characterization of VACs from sample matrix
of various types of rice and rice products are still a big challenge for
researchers and scientists, despite the availability of sophisticated
methods for aroma analysis. VACs are usually presented in the various
sample matrix at a very low level of concentrations i.e. ppm or even ppb
level which may contribute to flavors or off-flavors. These on-flavors or
off-flavors are completely depended upon the presented levels of con-
centration of the particular VACs. In order to aroma research of rice and
rice's products, our knowledge and scientific understanding are because
of the obtained results of the presence of different levels of its con-
centration.
In addition, it is also a fact and universally known that rice VACs
have seen a wide range of variations in their characteristics likewise
 Table 7
Summary of experimental condition different analytical methods employed for identification and quantification rice VACs.
(A) Experimental Conditions of GC–MS

References GC Conditions MS Conditions

Column Column Dimensions Injector Detector Oven Temperature Split Carrier Ion Source Electron Scan Range Interface Others
Types Temperature Temperature (°C) ratio Gas with temperature Energy Temperature
D.K. Verma and P.P. Srivastav

(°C) (°C) Flow (°C) (eV) (°C)

Rate

Bhattacharjee et al. DB-5 50 m × 0.3 mm × 0.25 µm 140 200 40 °C (for 5 min) – Helium, – 70 – – Electron
(2003) Capillary heated to 200 °C at 21 mL/ multiplier
Column 4 °C/min(for 5 min) min voltage: 1 kV
Boontakham et al. HP-5MS 30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 μm 230 – 45 °C heated to – Helium, 230 70 29–550 m/z – Electron
(2019) Capillary 230 °C at 2 °C/min 1 mL/min multiplier
Column (for 13 min) voltage: 1350 V
Bryant and McClung DB-5 30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 µm 260 – 50 °C (for 1 min) Splitless Helium, – – 40 to 650 m/ – –
(2011) Capillary heated to 260 °C at mode 1.0 mL/ z
Column 5 °C/min, to 260 °C min
(for 4 min)
Bryant et al. (2006, DB-5 30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 µm 270 – 50 °C (for 1 min) to Splitless Helium, 40–200 m/z
2011) Capillary 250 °C at 10 °C/min mode 40 cm/s
Column and
1.0 mL/
min
Cho and Kays (2013) Fused 30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 μm 225 – 40 °C (for 1 min), 0.5:1 Helium, 230 70 35–350 mass 280 Multiplier
Capillary heated to 65 °C at 1 mL/min units voltage: 1247 V
Column 1.5 °C/min (for

23
1 min), to 120 °C at
2 °C/min (for 1 min),
to 280 °C at 15 °C/
min (for 5 min)
Choi et al. (2019) DB-Wax 30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 μm 260 – 50 °C (for 1 min), Splitless Helium, 230 70 30–350 m/z 240 –
Capillary heated to 260 °C at mode 1 mL/min at 3.06
Column 5 °C/min (for 4-min) scans/s
Fenga et al. (2011)) HP- 60 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 μm 250 – 60 °C for 1 min to 50:1 Helium, 230 70 20–450 m/z – Electron
INNOWAX 220 °C at 3 °C/min 1 mL/min multiplier:
Capillary (for 5 min) 1035 V
Column
Ghiasvand et al. SLB-5MS 10 m × 0.18 mm × 0.18 µm 250 – 40 °C to 250 °C at Helium, 220 70 35–450 m/z – –
(2007) Fused Silica 30 °C/min 1.0 mL/ at 50 scans/s
(Si) Capillary min
Column
Goufo et al. (2010) Fused Silica 30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 µm 250 – 40 °C (for 1 min) Splitless Helium, – 70 35–400. m/z 230 Electron
(Si) Capillary heated to 150 °C at mode 1.0 mL/ multiplier
Column 4 °C/min to 220 °C at min voltage: 1365 v
3 °C/min.
Hinge et al. (2016a, b) VF5-MS 30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 μm 260 – 45 °C (for 1 min) – Helium, 180 70 35 – 275 m/z 230 –
Capillary heated to 55 °C at 1 mL/min and
Column 5 °C/min to 120 °C at 20–400 m/z
9 °C/min to 240 °C at
15 °C/min (for 1 min)
Laohakunjit and Innowax 25 m × 0.2 mm × 0.4 μm 170 – 50 °C (for 2 min) – Helium, 230 – 50 to 400 m/ – Electron
Kerdchoechuen Capillary heated to 0.6 mL/ z multiplier
(2007) Column 170 °C at 7 °C /min min Voltage: 2600 V
(for 5 min)
(continued on next page)
Food Research International 130 (2020) 108924
 Table 7 (continued)

(A) Experimental Conditions of GC–MS

References GC Conditions MS Conditions

Column Column Dimensions Injector Detector Oven Temperature Split Carrier Ion Source Electron Scan Range Interface Others
Types Temperature Temperature (°C) ratio Gas with temperature Energy Temperature
(°C) (°C) Flow (°C) (eV) (°C)
D.K. Verma and P.P. Srivastav

Rate

Lee et al. (2019) Rxi-5Sil MS 30 m × 0.25 mm – – 40 °C (for 5 min), – Helium, 200 70 35–220 m/z 270 –
Capillary heated to 160 °C at 1.0 mL/
Column 2.5 °C/min to 270 °C min
at 20 °C/min (for
5 min)
Lim et al. (2018) DB-5 30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 μm 270 – 40 °C increased to 1:2 Helium, 200 70 40–300 m/z 270 –
Capillary 100 °C at 5 °C/min 1 mL/min
Column for 3 min to 250 °C at
10 °C/min
Lin et al. (2010) Capillary 30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 μm – – 50 °C then heated to Non-split Helium, 230 70 35–350 280 –
Column 165 °C at 10 °C/min injection 1.0 mL/ amu.
(for 5 min) heated to min
250 °C at 15C/min,
(for 3 min)
Mahmud et al. (2018) Rxi-5Sil MS 30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.50 μm 250 – 40 °C (for 5 min) Splitless Helium, 200 70 35–650 m/z 270 –
Capillary heated to 160 °C at mode 1.4 mL/
Column 2.5 °C/min, to 270 °C min
at 20 °C/min (for
5 min)

24
Maraval et al. (2008) Fused Silica 0.32 mm × 30 m × 0.5 μm 240 – 40 to 240 °C at 6 °C/ 1:1 Helium, 230 70 29–350 m/z 260 –
(Si) Capillary min for 10 min. 1.5 mL/
Column min
Maraval et al. (2010) DB-Wax 30 m × 0.32 mm × 0.5 µm 250, 240 – 40 °C (for 3 min), Splitless Helium, 150, – 60–120 m/z 260 –
Fused Silica heated to 120 °C at mode 1 mL/min 230 and 29 to
(Si) Capillary 15 °C/min to 245 °C and 350 m/z
Column at 15 °C/min (for 1.5 mL/
10 min) min
Monsoor and Proctor CP-Sil8 and 30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 µm 270 – 50 °C (for 5 min) to – – 280 70 35 to – –
(2004) CB-MS Fused 200 °C at 5 °C/min 350 mg
Silica (Si) (for 1 min)
Capillary
Column
Park et al. (2010) DB-Wax 60 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 µm 200 250 40 °C (for 5 min) – Helium, – 70 33–330 amu 280 electron
Capillary heated to 200 °C at 1.0 mL/ at scan rate multiplier
Column 2 °C/min to 200 °C min 4.76 scans/ voltage of
for 20 min sec 1,894 V
Peddamma et al. Fused Silica 30 m × 0.25 mm × 1.4 μm – – 40 °C for 2 min Splitless Helium, 230 – – – Quadrupole
(2018) (Si) Capillary heated to 240 °C at mode 1 mL/min temperatures:
Column 10 °C/min 150 °C
Tananuwong and HP-FFAP 25 m × 0.32 mm × 0.50 µm 200 – 45 °C to 80 °C at 2 °C/ – Helium, – 70 20–350 m/z 250 –
Lertsiri (2010) Capillary min to 120 °C at 4 °C/ 1.5 mL/
Column min to 230 °C at min
10 °C/min
(continued on next page)
Food Research International 130 (2020) 108924
 Table 7 (continued)

(A) Experimental Conditions of GC–MS

References GC Conditions MS Conditions

Column Column Dimensions Injector Detector Oven Temperature Split Carrier Ion Source Electron Scan Range Interface Others
Types Temperature Temperature (°C) ratio Gas with temperature Energy Temperature
(°C) (°C) Flow (°C) (eV) (°C)
D.K. Verma and P.P. Srivastav

Rate

Wang and Ha (2012) HP-5 Fused 30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 µm 250 – 40 °C Splitless Helium, 230 – – 230 Quadrupole
Silica (Si) (held 4 min), mode 1.1 mL/ temperature:
Capillary increased to 120 °C at min 150
Column of 3 °C/min to 250 °C
at of 10 °C/min for
7 min
Yang et al. (2008a, b, Fused Silica 30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 µm 225 – 40 °C (for 1 min), 5:1 and Helium, 230 70 35–350 mass 280 Multiplier
2010) (Si) Capillary then heated to 65 °C 0.5:1 1.0 mL/ units voltage: 1247 V
Column (HP- (for 1 min), at 1.5 °C/ min and
5MS) min, to 120 °C (for 2.0 mL/
1 min) at 2 °C/min, min
and lastly at 15 °C/
min to 280 °C (for
5 min)
Zeng et al. (2007, DB-Wax 30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 µm 250 – 40 °C (for 2 min) – Helium, – 70 40–400. m/z 230 –
2008a, b, 2009) Capillary heated to 230 °C at 2.0 mL/
Column 4 °C/min (for min
4.5 min)

25
(B) Experimental Conditions of GC-FID

References Column Types Column Dimensions Injector Detector Oven Temperature (°C) Carrier Gas with
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C) Flow Rate

Bergman et al. (2000) DB-5 Column 30m × 0.53mm 155 300 35 °C for 1 min at 9 °C/min to 120°C to Helium, 7.2 mL/
275 °C at 25°C/min for 2 min min
Borompichaichartkul et al. HP-5 Column – – 250 45 °C heated to 65 °C at 0.5 °C/min to 3mL/min
(2007) 250 °C
Bounphanousay et al. (2008) SPB-5 Column 35 μm × 250 μm × 0.25 μm – 300 35 °C heated to 70 °C for 1.79 min at 5 °C/ –
min to 100 °C at 10°C/min to 270 °C at
25 °C/min for 2 min
Goufo et al. (2011) HP-5 Fused Silica (Si) Capillary 60 m × 0.32 mm × 1.0 μm 230 250 50 °C increased to 200 °C at 5 °C/min Helium, 3 mL/
Column min
Grimm et al. (2011) DB-WAX Capillary Column 30 m × 0.25 mm 155 – 40 °C for 1 min then heated to 120 °C at Helium, 1.1 mL/
9 °C/min then at 25 °C/min to 250 °C for 5 min
min
Kaikavoosi et al. (2015) Capillary Column 30 m × 0.32 μm – – 50 °C (for 1 min) heated to 60 °C at 4 °C/ Nitrogen
min to 120 °C at 7 °C/min to 240 °C at
15 °C/min (for 1 min)
Kim et al. (2008b) DB5MS Column 30 m × 0.32 mm × 0.25 μm 155 300 40 °C for 1 min then heated to 120 °C at 9 Nitrogen, 1 mL/
rpm for 1 min and then at 25 °C. min
Laguerre et al. (2007) DB −5 60 m × 0.32 mm × 0.25 μm 250 – 40 °C for 45 min heated to 115 °C at 3 °C/ Helium, 1.9 mL/
Fused Silica (Si) Capillary Column min, to 220 °C for 5 min. min
Liyanaarachchi et al. (2014) SUPELCOWAXTM10 Fused Silica (Si) 30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 μm – – 40 °C heated to 225 °C at 10 °C/min (for Argon, 1 mL/min
Capillary Column 40 min)
Mathure et al. (2011) Capillary Column coupled with FID; 30 m × 0.32 μm – – 50 °C (for 1 min) heated to 100 °C at 4 °C/ –
min to 240 °C at 50 °C/min (of 2 min)
(continued on next page)
Food Research International 130 (2020) 108924
 Table 7 (continued)

(B) Experimental Conditions of GC-FID

References Column Types Column Dimensions Injector Detector Oven Temperature (°C) Carrier Gas with
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C) Flow Rate

Sriseadka et al. (2006) Fused Silica (Si) Capillary Column (DB- 15 m × 0.32 mm × 0.15 µm; 30 m 230 – 50 °C to 70 °C at a 1 °C/min to 125 °C at –
1701, DB-35MS, and HP-5) × 0.53 mm × 1.0 µm and 30m × 5 °C/min
D.K. Verma and P.P. Srivastav

0.53 mm × 1.5 µm
Wongpornchai et al. (2004) Fused Silica (Si) Capillary Column 30 m ×0.25 mm× 0.25 µm 250 – 45 °C to 120 °C at 5 °C/min for 15 min. Helium, 1 mL/
min
Yahya et al. (2011) Capillary Column coupled with FID 25.0m × 0.20mm × 0.40µm 170 250 50 °C for 1 min, heated to 170 °C at 7 °C/ Helium, 1.3 mL/
min (for 5 min) min

(C) Experimental Conditions of GC-O

References GC Conditions MS//FID/O Conditions

Column Type Column Injector Detector Oven Temperature (°C) Split Carrier Ion Source Electron Scan Range Interface Others
Dimensions Temperature Temperature ratio Gas with temperature Energy Temperature (°C)
(°C) Flow Rate (°C) (eV)

Boeswetter et al. DB-FFAP and 30 m × 0.32 – – 40 °C for 2 min, heated to 1:1 Helium – – – – –
(2019) DB-5 Fused mm × 0.25 μm 230 °C at 6 °C/min gas, 1.95
Silica (Si) (DB-FFAP column) or to mL/min
Capillary 240 °C (DB-5 column) for 5
Column min
Cho and Kays (2013) Fused 30 m × 0.25 225 – 40 °C (for 1 min), heated to 0.5:1 Helium, 230 70 35–350 mass 280 Multiplier
Capillary mm × 0.25 μm 65 °C at 1.5 °C/min (for 1 2.0 mL/ units voltage: 1247 V

26
Column min), to 120 °C at 2 °C/min min
(for 1 min), to 280 °C at
15 °C/min (for 5 min)
Mahattanatawee and Column 30 m × 0.32 220 275 40–240 °C at 7 °C/min – Helium The column effluent was split, 1/3rd of the flow was conducted to the FID and the other 2/
Rouseff (2014) mm × 0.5 μm gas, 2.0 3rds to the olfactory port for sniffing.
mL/min
Limpawattana et al. Fused Silica 30 m × 0.20 225 – 40 °C (for 1 min), then 0.5:1 Helium – 70 Volatiles exiting the column were split between the mass
(2008) (Si) Capillary mm × 0.25 µm heated to 65 °C (for 1 min), gas, 2.0 spectrometer for identification and quantification and the
Column at 1.5 °C/min, to 120 °C (for mL/min sniffing port with humidified purged air for description
1 min) at 2 °C/min, and and intensity assessment.
lastly at 15 °C/min to 280 °C
(for 5 min)
Maraval et al. (2008) Fused Silica 0.32 mm × 30 240 – 40–240 °C at 6 °C/min for 10 1:1 Helium – – – – –
(Si) Capillary m × 0.5 μm min. gas, 1.5
Column DB- mL/min
Wax
Yang et al. (2008a) Fused Silica 30 m × 0.25 – – – 0.5:1 Helium – – – – –
(Si) Capillary mm × 0.25 µm gas, 2.0
Column mL/min
Yang et al. (2008b) Fused Silica 30 m × 0.25 225 – 40 °C (for 1 min), then 0.5:1 Helium 230 70 280 35–350 mass units Multiplier
(Si) Capillary mm × 0.25 µm heated to 65 °C (for 1 min), gas, 2.0 voltage of 1247
Column at 1.5 °C/min, to 120 °C (for mL/min V
1 min) at 2 °C/min, and
lastly at 15 °C/min to 280 °C
(for 5 min)
Food Research International 130 (2020) 108924
D.K. Verma and P.P. Srivastav
polarities, solubilities, volatilities, and thermal and pH stabilities (Zhou
et al., 1999). The sample matrix of rice and rice products contains an
array of VACs which may be very complex and cause interference with
the isolation and extraction methods. Thus, on the basis of observations
from available literature reports, it can be concluded that there is no
single, simple method for the identification and characterization of
VACs (Withycombe et al., 1978).
In this order, the instrumentation methods are recently evolved for
identification and characterization of rice VACs as GC–MS, GC-FID, and
GC-O. These methods are receiving wide importance, attention and its
application in the field of rice aroma research because they all are
modern and recently developed, technologically very advanced
(Table 7). These analytical methods are discussed in the following
section.
6.2.1. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry
Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC–MS) is a hyphenated
analytical method in which two tools are combined with together, one
is GC and another is MS to form a powerful instrumentation for analysis
of VACs of different class from the sample matrix of various rice and
Rice's products (Zhou et al., 1999). GC–MS has been proved to be very
sensitive with respect to the qualitative and quantitative analysis of all
known and unknown VACs of different classes which are normally
presented in sample matrix of rice and rice products in which GC per-
formed to determination and separation while identification and char-
acterization of each individual atom compound from sample matrix by
MS (Kaseleht et al., 2011; Weber et al., 2000). The samples were
quantified by injecting into GC–MS for desorption at a certain opti-
mized temperature with split or splitless mode. The VACs were iden-
tified by using a particular type if typical capillary column which may
vary in their sizes like length, width, and thickness. MS performance on
identification and characterization is based on an analysis of generated
charged particle (ions) from molecules of the analyses. MS is used for
fragmentation at electronic impact (EI) with a certain source of tem-
perature and further transfer line at a certain temperature. The com-
pounds are scanned at normal mode between particular mas units, in
the case of rice aroma study; it is seen between 50 and 500 mass units.
After this, Identification of the VACs of sample matrix is done by
comparing the mass spectra and retention time data with those sup-
plemented by NIST GC–MS library or other libraries that are fabricated
during the installation of GC–MS. Generally, various types of MS de-
tectors and introduced sampling methods enable application at a broad
spectrum for sample analysis. According to Gross (2004), there are
three specific regions for MS instrumentation; ionizer, ion analyzer, and
detector. This has made very easier to definite characterization of all
the possible information with corresponding to the characteristics VACs
of rice sample matrix than before. To date, the advance and improved
GC with their uses in different dimensional to provide the details re-
garding their molecular weight and chemical structures of identified
and quantified of complex array of VACs from sample matrix of various
types of rice and rice products, are of great importance. Many published
research reports have been summarised in Table 7(A).
6.2.2. Gas chromatography-flame ionization detector
Gas Chromatography-Flame Ionization Detector (GC-FID) is another
most powerful analytical method but comparatively, GC–MS has less
application in rice aroma research. In this analytical method, GC is
coupled with FID for the identification and quantification of VACs from
sample matrix of rice and rice products. In one aspect, a breakthrough
in rice aroma research was realized when GC-FID was introduced as
analytical method. While in another aspect, it was also a fact that
quantification of extracted amounts of the particular aroma compound
like 2-AP from sample matrix of rice by this analytical method is not
enough. There is an extensive contemplation on this method require
because it capable of performance best so that GC-FID method could
make its own identity and attention between the scientist, researchers,
27
Food Research International 130 (2020) 108924
industrialized, etc. who are engaged with research on aroma and flavor.
However, the excellency of the GC-FID over the other analytical method
is subjected to the great consideration among the peoples of rice aroma
research because it enables the identification and quantification with
the differentiation of a wide range of aroma- and flavor-active com-
pounds with their existing concentration levels from different in-
vestigate sample matrix of rice and rice products under the temperature
of GC inlet (Zhang & Li, 2010). Identification of VACs of rice using GC-
FID is done by comparing the retention time (RT) and the retention
times are further converted into the system-independent constant
known as Kovats retention index (KRI). The values of KRI are of the
normalized values of RT for adjacently eluting n-alkanes with those RT
values obtained from chromatogram. The conditions of GC-FID like
column (type and dimension), temperature (injector, detector, and
oven), and flow rate of carrier gas, etc. which are highly influenced to
the RT values. Some published works since its first report to till date are
examples of research on rice VACs which focussed and describe to the
success stories of GC-FID method (Grimm et al., 2011; Kaikavoosi, Kad,
Zanan, & Nadaf, 2015; Mathure et al., 2011; Sunthonvit et al., 2005;
Yahya, Fryer, & Bakalisa, 2011). Many research reports have already
been published in this subject matter and some are summarised in
Table 7(B).
6.2.3. Gas chromatography–olfactometry
Gas chromatography–olfactometry (GC-O) is an analytical instru-
ment like the GC–MS and GC-FID method but one of the more advanced
and effective analytical method, which is being used for the identifi-
cation of impact VACs in sample matrix of rice. In 1964, GC-O was first
mentioned in the literature after the separation of volatiles in packed
columns (Fuller, Steltenkamp, & Tisserand, 1964). In GC–O, impact
VACs are eluted from the chromatographic column by trained assessor
or group of assessors. This is perceived simultaneously with the help of
two detectors i.e. MS or FID as a conventional detector and the second
one is human olfactory system depicted in Fig. 5 (Wardencki, Chmiel, &
Dymerski, 2013). The human olfactory system means human nose as a
detector that has specific sensitivity with respect to the identification
capability of GC. Osme is a time-intensity of GC-O that directly involves
for estimation of the magnitude of intensity using human nose as ol-
factory assessor and gives a verbal descriptor for each impact aroma
compound of rice (McDaniel, Miranda-Lopez, Watson, Michaels, &
Libbey, 1990).
There are some literal advantages of GC-O application i.e. GC-O on a
sample enables work to be focused on parts of the chromatogram where
compounds of greatest interest are suspected. And another is that GC-O
particularly becomes more important when extracts obtained by solvent
extraction, especially ones from rice, can be very complex and the GC
chromatogram may contain many co-eluting compounds, which make
identification of individual VACs difficult. One way to overcome this
problem is to fractionate the extract, and hopefully move co-eluting
peaks into the different fractions for better identification.
As a result, the GC–O is applied to identify impact VACs not only an
instrumental but also a sensorial analysis (Delahunty, Eyres, & Dufour,
2006). Therefore, different methodologies have been developed which
employed to design GC-O experiments include GC-O experiments, re-
cording the data and estimating the sensory contribution of individual
VAC, etc. For instance, many studies with the successful application of
GC–O with aroma extract dilution analysis (AEDA) and detection fre-
quencies (DF) have been completed for rice aroma identification. Some
of them are summarised in Table 7(C).
7. Concluding remarks
The quality of rice is judged globally by its cooking properties,
appearance, taste, odor, and aroma. Rice aroma is an important factor
in deciding the pricing of rice in the International market. 2-AP – the
pop-corn like flavor varies among different cultivars of rice (1–10 ppb
D.K. Verma and P.P. Srivastav
Fig. 5. Schematic diagram of GC-O system (Wardencki et al., 2013).
to 2 ppm) thus is signifying the difference between aromatic and non-
aromatic rice cultivars. Till today, i.e. 2019 from 1980s more than 500
VACs had been identified in rice and rice products. Besides 2-AP,
mixture of aldehydes, ketones, organic acids, alcohols, nitrogen, and
sulfur are responsible to cause variety of flavors such as spicy-like,
fruity-like, glue-like, bran-like, plastic-like, etc. However, 2-AP and
indole have been prioritized globally as factors to evaluate the aroma of
rice varieties. Hexanal had been reported to cause oxidative rancidity in
rice. Sometimes structural breakdown also imparts off-flavor to rice and
rice products. Moreover, rice aroma must be extracted, identified and
quantified effectively using advanced techniques discussed in the re-
view paper. The GC–MS is oldest and later the application of vacuum
steam distillation in rice products identified 112 components. However,
with the advancement of time and technology several other meth-
odologies emerged to simplify this study. Those methods include SDE,
SPME, and SFE along with GC–MS to gather a complete portfolio of all
the flavor producing components, be it for on-flavour or off-flavor.
Author contributions
Deepak Kumar Verma has written the manuscript, while Prem
Prakash Srivastav being a mentor has given technical suggestions and
corrections for finalizing the manuscript.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgment
Authors, Deepak Kumar Verma, and Prem Prakash Srivastav are
indebted to the Department of Science and Technology, Ministry of
Science and Technology, Govt. of India for an individual research fel-
lowship (INSPIRE Fellowship Code No.: IF120725; Sanction Order No.
DST/INSPIRE Fellowship/2012/686 & Date: 25/02/2013). Deepak
28
Food Research International 130 (2020) 108924
Kumar Verma is highly thankful to Mamta Thakur (Department of Food
Engineering and Technology, Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering
and Technology, Punjab, India) who have made my tasks as an author
easier and pleasure by their consistent support, cooperation and timely
suggestion on technical corrections of the manuscript.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.
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