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CHAPTER 8

LIMITS

TOPICS:

1.INTERVALS AND NEIGHBOURHOODS

2.FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS
3.CONCEPT OF LIMIT
4.ONE SIDED LIMITS
5. STANDARD LIMITS
6. INFINITE LIMITS AND LIMITS AT INFINITY
7. EVALUATION OF LIMITS BYDIRECT SUBSTITUTION METHOD
8. EVALUATION OF LIMITS BY FACTORISATION METHOD
9. EVALUATION OF LIMITS BYRATIONALISATION METHOD
10. EVALUATION OF LIMITS BY APPLICATION OF THE STANDARD LIMIT

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LIMITS

INTERVALS

Definition:
Let a, b ∈ R and a < b. Then the set {x ∈ R: a ≤ x ≤ b} is called a closed interval. It is denoted by
[a, b]. Thus
Closed interval [a, b] = {x ∈ R: a ≤ x ≤ b}. It is geometrically represented by

Open interval (a,b) = { x ∈ R : a < x < b} It is geometrically represented by

Left open interval

(a, b] = { x ∈ R : a < x ≤ b} . It is geometrically represented by

Right open interval

[a, b) = { x ∈ R : a ≤ x < b} . It is geometrically represented by

[ a, ∞ ) = { x ∈ R : x ≥ a} = {x ∈ R : a ≤ x < ∞} It is geometrically represented by

( a, ∞ ) = {x ∈ R : x > a} = {x ∈ R : a < x < ∞}

( −∞ , a ] = { x ∈ R : x ≤ a} = {x ∈ R : −∞ < x < a}

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NEIGHBOURHOOD OF A POINT

Definition: Let a ∈ R. If δ > 0 then the open interval (a − δ , a + δ ) is called the neighbourhood
( δ - nbd) of the point a. It is denoted by N δ (a ) . a is called the centre and δ is
called the radius of the neighbourhood .
∴ Nδ (a ) = ( a − δ , a + δ ) = {x ∈ R : a − δ < x < a + δ } = { x ∈ R : x − a < δ }
The set N δ (a ) − {a} is called a deleted
δ - neighbourhood of the point a.
∴ N δ (a ) − {a} = (a − δ, a ) ∪ (a, a + δ) = {x ∈ R : 0 < | x − a | < δ}
Note: ( a − δ, a ) is called left δ -neighbourhood, ( a, a + δ) is called right δ - neighbourhood of a

GRAPH OF A FUNCTION:

Y Y
Y

y = log a x (a > 1) y = log e x (λ ln x)

O (1,0) X
O (1,0) X O X
(1,0)

y = log a x (0 < a < 1)

Y
Y

y = a x (a = 1) y = a x (a > 1)
(0,1)

X X
O

y = a x (0 < a < 1)
Y

(0,1)
O X

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LIMIT OF A FUNCTION

Concept of limit:
Before giving the formal definition of limit consider the following example.
x2 − 4
Let f be a function defined by f ( x ) = . clearly, f is not defined at x= 2.
x−2

When x ≠ 2, x − 2 ≠ 0andf ( x ) =
( x − 2 )( x + 2 ) = x + 2
x−2
Now consider the values of f(x) when x≠2, but very very close to 2 and <2.
x 1.9 1.99 1.999 1.9999 1.99999
F(x) 3.9 3.99 3.999 3.9999 3.99999

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It is clear from the above table that as x approaches 2 i.e.,x→2 through the values less than 2, the
value of f(x) approaches 4 i.e., f(x)→4. We will express this fact by saying that left hand limit
of f(x) as x→2 exists and is equal to 4 and in symbols we shall write lt f (x) = 4
x →2−
Again we consider the values of f(x) when x≠2, but is very-very close to 2 and x>2.
x 2.1 2.01 2.001 2.0001 2.00001
F(x) 4.1 4.01 4.001 4.0001 4.00001

It is clear from the above table that as x approaches 2 i.e.,x→2 through the values greater than 2,
the value of f(x) approaches 4 i.e., f(x)→4. We will express this fact by saying that right hand
limit of f(x) as x→2 exists and is equal to 4 and in symbols we shall write lt f (x) = 4
x → 2+ .
Thus we see that f(x) is not defined at x=2 but its left hand and right hand limits as x→2 exist
and are equal.
When lt f (x), lt − f (x) are equal to the same number l, we say that lt f (x) exist
x →a + x →a x →a
and equal to l.
Thus , in above example, lt f (x) =lt − f (x) = 4 . ∴ltx → 2 f (x) = 4
x →2 + x →2

ONE SIDED LIMITS

DEFINITION OF LEFT HAND LIMIT
Let f be a function defined on (a – h, a),
h > 0. A number
1 is said to be the left hand limit (LHL) or left limit (LL) of f at a if to each
ε > 0, ∃ a δ > 0 such that, a – δ < x < a ⇒ f ( x) −
1 < ε.
In this case we write Lt f ( x) =
1 (or) Lt f (x) =
1
x →a − x→a−0

DEFINITION OF RIGHT LIMIT:

Let f be a function defined on (a, a + h), h > 0. A number
2 is said to the right
hand limit (RHL) or right limit (RL) of f at a if to each ε > 0, ∃ a δ > 0 such
that a < x < a + δ ⇒ f ( x) −
2 < ε
In this case we write Lt f ( x) =
2 (or) Lt f ( x) =
2 .
x→a+ x →a + 0

DEFINITION OF LIMIT.
Let A ⊆ R , a be a limit point of A and
f : A → R. A real number l is said to be the limit of f at a if to each ε > 0, ∃ a δ > 0 such that
x ∈ A, 0 < |x – a| < δ ⇒ | f(x) – l | < ∈ .

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In this case we write f(x) → l as x → a or Lt f ( x) =

x→a

NOTE:
1.If a function f is defined on (a–h, a) for some h > 0 and is not defined on (a, a+h) and if
Lt f ( x) exists then Lt f ( x) = Lt f ( x) .
x→a − x→ a x→ a −

2. If a function f is defined on (a, a + h) for some h > 0 and is not defined on (a – h, a)

and if Lt f ( x) exists then Lt f ( x) = Lt f ( x) .
x→a + x→ a x→ a +

THEOREM
If Lt f ( x) exists then Lt f ( x) = Lt f ( x + a) = Lt f (a − x)
x→ a x→a x→0 x→0

THEOREMS ON LIMITS WITH OUT PROOFS

1. If f : R → R defined by f(x) = c, a constant then Lt f ( x) = c for any a ∈ R.
x→a

2. If f: R → R defined by f(x) = x, then Lt f ( x) = a i.e., Lt x = a (a ∈ R)

x→a x→a

3. Algebra of limits
Let Lt f ( x) =
, Lt g ( x) = m. then
x→a x→a

i) Lt ( f + g )( x) = Lt ( f ( x) + g ( x)) =
+ m
x →a x →a

ii) Lt ( f − g )( x) = Lt ( f ( x) − g ( x)) =
− m
x →a x →a

iii) Lt (cf )( x) = Lt c. f ( x) = c Lt f ( x) = c

x →a x →a x →a

iv) Lt ( fg )( x) = Lt ( f ( x).g ( x)) =
.m

x →a x →a

f  f (x) 

v) Lt   (x) = Lt  = (m≠0)
x→a  g  x→a  g(x)  m

vi) Lt ( f ( x) −
) = 0 and vii) Lt f ( x) =

x →a x →a

vii) If f(x) ≤ g(x) in some deleted neighbourhood of a, then Lt f ( x) ≤ Lt g ( x)

x→ a x→a

viii) If f(x) ≤ h(x) ≤ g(x) in a deleted nbd of a and Lt f ( x) =
= Lt g ( x) then Lt h( x) =

x→ a x→a x→a

ix) If Lt f ( x) = 0 and g(x) is a bounded function in a deleted nbd of a then Lt f ( x ) g ( x ) = 0 .

x→a x→a

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THEOREM

If n is a positive integer then Lt x n = a n , a ∈ R

x→ a

THEOREM

If f(x) is a polynomial function, then Lt f ( x) = f (a)

x →a

EVALUATION OF LIMITS
A) Evaluation of limits involving algebraic functions.
To evaluate the limits involving algebraic functions we use the following methods:
1) Direct substitution method
2) Factorisation method
3) Rationalisation method
4) Application of the standard limits.

1) Direct substitution method:

This method can be used in the following cases:
(i) If f(x) is a polynomial function, then Lt f ( x) = f (a) .
x→a
P( x) P(a)
(ii) If f ( x) = where P(x) and Q(x) are polynomial functions then Lt f ( x) = ,
Q( x) x →a Q(a)
provided Q(a)≠0.
2) Factiorisation Method:
f ( x) 0
This method is used when Lt is taking the indeterminate form of the type by the
x →a g ( x) 0
substitution of x = a.
In such a case the numerator (Nr.) and the denominator (Dr.) are factorized and the
common factor (x – a) is cancelled. After eliminating the common factor the substitution x
= a gives the limit, if it exists.
f ( x) 0
3) Rationalisation Method : This method is used when Lt is a form and either the
x →a g ( x) 0
Nr. or Dr. consists of expressions involving radical signs.
4) Application of the standard limits.
In order to evaluate the given limits , we reduce the given limits into standard limits form
and then we apply the standard limits.

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EXERCISE

I. Compute the following limits.

Lt x 2 − a 2
1. x→a
x−a

Lt x 2 − a 2 Lt ( x + a )( x − a )
Sol : Given limit = x → a = x→a = Lt ( x + a ) =a+a
x−a x−a x→a
= 2a

2. Lt
x→a
( x 2 + 2 x + 3)

Sol : given function f ( x ) = x 2 + 2 x + 3 is a polynomial.

∴ Lt
x →1
( x 2 + 2 x + 3) = 12 + 2.1 + 3 =1+ 2 + 3 = 6

1
3. Lt
x → 0 x 2 − 3x + 2

1 1 1
Sol : Lt = =
x → 0 x − 3x + 2
2 0−0+2 2

1
4. Lt
x →3 x + 1

1 1 1
Sol : Lt = =
x →3 x + 1 3 + 1 4

2x + 1
5. Lt
x →1 3 x − 4 x + 5
2

2x + 1 2.1 + 1 3
Sol : Lt = =
x →1 3 x − 4 x + 5
2
3.1 − 4.1 + 5
2 4

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x2 + 2
6. Lt
x →1 x 2 − 2

x2 + 2 12 + 2 1+ 2 3
Sol : Lt = = = = −3
x →1 x 2 − 2 12 − 2 1− 2 −1

7. Lt
x →1 ( x 2+ 1 − 3x )
Sol : G.L.= Lt
x →2 ( x 2+ 1 − 3x ) = 2 2+ 1 − 32 = 23 − 32 =
4−9
6
=
−5
6

x −1 
8. Lt  2
x →0  x + 4 


x −1  0 −1
Lt  2
1
Sol : = =−
x →0  x + 4  0 + 4 4

9. Lt x3 2 ( x > 0 )
x →0

Sol : Lt x3 2 ( x > 0 ) = 0 3 2 = 0
x →0

10. Lt
x →0
( x + x5 2 ) ( x > 0 )

Sol : Lt
x →0
( x + x5 2 ) = 0 + 05 2 = 0 + 0 = 0

2
11. Lt x 2 cos
x →0 x

2
Sol : Lt x 2 . Lt cos = 0. k Where k ≤ 1 = 0
x →0 x →0 x

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EXERCISE

I. Find the right and left hand limits of the functions in 1,2,3 of I and 1,2,3 of II at the
point a mentioned against them. Hence, check whether the functions have limits at
those a’ s.

1 − x if x ≤1
1. f ( x) =  ; a = 1.
1 + x if x >1

Sol : Left lim it at x=1 is Lt (1 − x ) = 1 − 1 = 0

x →1−

Right limit at x=1 is Lt (1 + x ) = 1 + 1 = 2

x →1+

Lt f ( x) ≠ Lt f ( x)
x →1− x →1+

∴ Lt f ( x ) does not exist.

x →1

 x + 2 if −1 < x ≤ 3
2. f ( x) =  2 ; a = 3.
 x if 3< x<5

Sol : L.L = Lt ( x + 2 ) = 3 + 2 = 5
x →3−

R.L = Lt x 2 = 32 = 9
x →3+

Lt f ( x) ≠ Lt f ( x)
x →3 − x →3+

Lt f ( x ) does not exists.

x →3

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 x if x<2
 2
3. f ( x) =  2 ; x = 2.
x if x≥2
 3

Sol: At x =21

x 2
LL = Lt f ( x) = Lt = =1
x → 2− x→2− 2 2

x2 4
R.L = Lt f ( x) = Lt =
x → 2+ x→2+ 3 3

Lt f ( x) ≠ Lt f ( x)
x → 2− x →2+

Lt f ( x ) does not exist.

x→2

II.

 1 if x<0

1. f ( x ) = 2 x + 1 if 0 ≤ x < 1 ;a = 1.
 3x x >1
 if

Sol : At x =1

L.L = Lt f ( x ) = Lt 2 x + 1 = 2 (1) + 1 = 3
x →1− x →1−

R.L = Lt f ( x ) = Lt 3x = 3 (1) = 3
x →1+ x →1+

Lt f ( x ) = Lt f ( x ) = 3 ∴ Lt f ( x ) = 3
x →1− x →1+ x →1

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 x2 if x ≤1

2. f ( x) =  x if 1 < x ≤ 2 ; a = 2.
 x − 3 if x>2


At x =2

L.L = Lt f ( x ) = Lt x = 20
x →2− x → 2−

R.L = Lt f ( x ) = Lt ( x − 3) = 2 − 3 = −1
x→2+ x → 2+

Lt f ( x ) ≠ Lt f ( x ) . hence Lt f ( x ) does not exist.

x→2− x → 2+ x→2

x−2
3. Show that Lt = −1
x → 2− x−2

Sol : x → 2− ⇒ x < 2 ⇒ x − 2 < 0

Then, x − 2 = − ( x − 2 )

x−2 − ( x − 2)
Lt = Lt = −1
x →2 − x − 2 x →2 − ( x − 2 )

4. Show that Lt
x →0 +
( 2xx + x + 1) = 3.
Sol : x → 0+ ⇒ x > 0 ⇒ x =x

∴
x→ 0+
Lt ( 2xx + x + 1)
=
x→ 0+
Lt ( 2xx + x + 1) = Lt ( 2 + x + 1) =
x →0+
Lt ( 2 + 0 + 1) = 3
x →0+

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5. Compute L t ([ x ] + x ) and L t ([ x ] + x ) .
x→ 2 + x→ 2−

Sol : L t {[ x ] + x}. = L t {[ 2 + h ] + ( 2 + h )} = [ 2 + 0] + 2 + 0 (∵ 2+  = 2)

x → 2+ h →0 +

=2+2=4

L t {[ x ] + x} =  2−  + 2 =1+ 2 = 3
x→ 2 −

3
6. Show that L t x3 cos =0
x →0 − x

3
Sol : For any x, − 1 ≤ cos ≤1
x

3 3
L t − x3 . cos = − Lt x3 . L t cos = 0. k =0. where −1 ≤ k ≤ 1
x → 0− x x →0 − x → 0− x

III. 1. Compute L t 2 − x ( x < 2 ) . What is L t 2 − x?

x→2− x→2

 
Sol : Lt 2−x = Lt 2 − ( 2 − h ) ∵ Lt f ( x ) = Lt f ( x ) 
x →2− h → 0+  x →a − h →o+ 

= Lt h = 0 The function is not defined when x>2. Therefore we consider only the
h→ 0 +

left limit.. Hence we will not consider the right limit of the function.

So we consider L t 2−x = Lt 2−x ∴ Lt 2−x =0

x→ 2 x→ 2 − x→2

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2. Compute Lt 1 + 2 x . Hence find Lt 1 + 2 x.

x→ ( )
1
− +
2
x →−
1
2

Sol : Lt
1
x →− +
1+ 2x = Lt
h → 0+
{( 12 ) + h} =
1+ 2 − Lt
h → 0+
1 − 1 + 2h = 0
2

−1
The function is not defined When x < is not defined.
2

Hence Lt 1+ 2x = Lt 1+ 2x = 0
1 1
x →− x→ − +
2 2

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