APPGPHYSICS INVESTAGATORY PROJECT

2019
SESSION: 2019-20

TOPIC-
Transformer
SUBMITTED TO: SUBMITTED BY:
JIGYASA GUPTA
MR. NITESH SAXENA
(PGT Physics) CLASS-XII A

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 I would like to express my greatest gratitude to the people who have helped & supported
me throughout my project. I respect and thanks to Mrs. Neerja Atri, principal of The Aryans
School and I am grateful to my physics teacher, Mr. Nitesh Saxena for his continuous support
for the project, from initial advice & contacts in the early stages of conceptual inception &
through ongoing advice & encouragement to this day.

I wish to thank my parents for their undivided support and interest who inspired me
and encouraged me to go my own way, without whom I would be unable to complete my
project.

A special thank of mine goes to my best friend who helped me in completing the project &
he exchanged his interesting ideas, thoughts & made this project easy and accurate.

At last but not the least I want to thank my friends who appreciated me for my work and
motivated me and finally to God who made all the things possible.

-JIGYASA GUPTA
 This is to certify that the project on “TRANSFORMER” submitted
th
by “JIGYASA GUPTA” of class 12 Science is a pursue and sincere work
of her intelligence and deep study of the topic. She has been working
under my supervision during the session 2019-20. The material
involved in her report is entirely her contribution. The results are
satisfactory and has been checked by me.

Date:_________________________________

Pricipal: Mrs Neerja Atri

__________________________________ _________________________________

External Internal
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S. No. Description Page No.

1 Introduction 06
2 History of transformers 07
3 Principle 11
4 Construction 12
5 Theory and working of transformer 13
6 Efficiency of transformer 16
7 Energy Losses 17
8 Applications 18
9 Bibliography 19

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 Introduction
A transformer is an electrical device which is used for changing the
A.C. voltages. A transformer is most widely used device in both low and high
current circuit. As such transformers are built in an amazing strength of sizes. In
electronic, measurement and control circuits, transformer size may be so small
that it weight only a few tens of grams where as in high voltage power circuits, it
may weight hundred of tones. In a transformer, the electrical energy transfer
from one circuit to another circuit takes place without the use of moving parts. A
transformer which increases the voltages is called a step-up transformer. A
transformer which decreases the A.C. voltages is called a step-down transformer.
Transformer is, therefore, an essential piece of apparatus both for high and low
current circuits.

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 History of transformer
DISCOVERY OF INDUCTION:

Electromagnetic induction, the principle of the operation of the transformer, was

discovered independently by Michael Faraday in 1831, Joseph Henry in 1832, and others. The
relationship between EMF and magnetic flux is an equation now known as Faraday's law of
induction:

|ᵋ| = |d ΦB /dt|

where |ᵋ| is the magnitude of the EMF in Volts and ΦB is the magnetic flux through the
circuit in webers.

Faraday performed early experiments on induction between coils of wire, including

winding a pair of coils around an iron ring, thus creating the first toroidal closed-core
transformer. However he only applied individual pulses of current to his transformer, and never
discovered the relation between the turns ratio and EMF in the windings.

INDUCTION COIL:

The first type of transformer to see wide use was the induction coil, invented by Rev.
Nicholas Callanof Maynooth College, Ireland in 1836. He was one of the first researchers to
realize the more turns the secondary winding has in relation to the primary winding, the larger
the induced secondary EMF will be. Induction coils evolved from scientists' and inventors'
efforts to get higher voltages from batteries. Since batteries produce direct current (DC) rather
than AC, induction coils relied upon vibrating electrical contacts that regularly interrupted the
current in the primary to create the flux changes necessary for induction. Between the 1830s and
the 1870s, efforts to build better induction coils, mostly by trial and error, slowly revealed the
basic principles of transformers.

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FIRST ALTERNATING CURRENT TRANSFORMERS:

By the 1870s, efficient generators producing alternating current (AC) were available,
and it was found AC could power an induction coil directly, without an interrupter.

In 1876, Russian engineer Pavel Yablochkov invented a lighting system based on a set of
induction coils where the primary windings were connected to a source of AC. The secondary
windings could be connected to several 'electric candles' (arc lamps) of his own design. The coils
Yablochkov employed functioned essentially as transformers.

In 1878, the Ganz factory, Budapest, Hungary, began producing equipment for electric
lighting and, by 1883, had installed over fifty systems in Austria-Hungary. Their AC systems
used arc and incandescent lamps, generators, and other equipment.

Lucien Gaulard and John Dixon Gibbs first exhibited a device with an open iron core
called a 'secondary generator' in London in 1882, then sold the idea to the
Westinghousecompany in the United States. They also exhibited the invention in Turin, Italy in
1884, where it was adopted for an electric lighting system.

EARLY SERIES CIRCUIT TRANSFORMER DISTRIBUTION:

Induction coils with open magnetic circuits are inefficient at transferring power to
loads. Until about 1880, the paradigm for AC power transmission from a high voltage supply to a
low voltage load was a series circuit. Open-core transformers with a ratio near 1:1 were
connected with their primaries in series to allow use of a high voltage for transmission while
presenting a low voltage to the lamps. The inherent flaw in this method was that turning off a
single lamp (or other electric device) affected the voltage supplied to all others on the same
circuit. Many adjustable transformer designs were introduced to compensate for this problematic
characteristic of the series circuit, including those employing methods of adjusting the core or
bypassing the magnetic flux around part of a coil. Efficient, practical transformer designs did not
appear until the 1880s, but within a decade, the transformer would be instrumental in the War of

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Currents, and in seeing AC distribution systems triumph over their DC counterparts, a position
in which they have remained dominant ever since.

CLOSED-CORE TRANSFORMERS AND PARALLEL POWER

DISTRIBUTION:

In the autumn of 1884, Károly Zipernowsky, Ottó Bláthy and Miksa Déri (ZBD), three
engineers associated with the Ganz factory, had determined that open-core devices were
impracticable, as they were incapable of reliably regulating voltage.[113] In their joint 1885
patent applications for novel transformers (later called ZBD transformers), they described two
designs with closed magnetic circuits where copper windings were either a) wound around iron
wire ring core or b) surrounded by iron wire core. The two designs were the first application of
the two basic transformer constructions in common use to this day, which can as a class all be
termed as either core form or shell form (or alternatively, core type or shell type), as in a) or b),
respectively (see images). The Ganz factory had also in the autumn of 1884 made delivery of the
world's first five high-efficiency AC transformers, the first of these units having been shipped on
September 16, 1884. This first unit had been manufactured to the following specifications: 1,400
W, 40 Hz, 120:72 V, 11.6:19.4 A, ratio 1.67:1, one-phase, shell form.

In both designs, the magnetic flux linking the primary and secondary windings
traveled almost entirely within the confines of the iron core, with no intentional path through air
(see Toroidal coresbelow). The new transformers were 3.4 times more efficient than the open-
core bipolar devices of Gaulard and Gibbs. The ZBD patents included two other major
interrelated innovations: one concerning the use of parallel connected, instead of series
connected, utilization loads, the other concerning the ability to have high turns ratio transformers
such that the supply network voltage could be much higher (initially 1,400 to 2,000 V) than the
voltage of utilization loads (100 V initially preferred). When employed in parallel connected
electric distribution systems, closed-core transformers finally made it technically and
economically feasible to provide electric power for lighting in homes, businesses and public
spaces. Bláthy had suggested the use of closed cores, Zipernowsky had suggested the use of
parallel shunt connections, and Déri had performed the experiments;

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 Transformers today are designed on the principles discovered by the three engineers.
They also popularized the word 'transformer' to describe a device for altering the EMF of an
electric current, although the term had already been in use by 1882. In 1886, the ZBD engineers
designed, and the Ganz factory supplied electrical equipment for, the world's first power station
that used AC generators to power a parallel connected common electrical network, the steam-
powered Rome-Cerchi power plant.

Although George Westinghouse had bought Gaulard and Gibbs' patents in 1885, the
Edison Electric Light Company held an option on the US rights for the ZBD transformers,
requiring Westinghouse to pursue alternative designs on the same principles. He assigned to
William Stanley the task of developing a device for commercial use in United States. Stanley's
first patented design was for induction coils with single cores of soft iron and adjustable gaps to
regulate the EMF present in the secondary winding (see image). This design was first used
commercially in the US in 1886 but Westinghouse was intent on improving the Stanley design to
make it (unlike the ZBD type) easy and cheap to produce.

Westinghouse, Stanley and associates soon developed an easier to manufacture core,

consisting of a stack of thin 'E-shaped' iron plates, insulated by thin sheets of paper or other
insulating material. Prewound copper coils could then be slid into place, and straight iron plates
laid in to create a closed magnetic circuit. Westinghouse applied for a patent for the new low-
cost design in December 1886; it was granted in July 1887.

OTHER EARLY TRANSFORMER DESIGNS:

In 1889, Russian-born engineer Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky developed the first three-

phase transformer at the Allgemeine Elektricitäts-Gesellschaft ('General Electricity Company') in
Germany.

In 1891, Nikola Tesla invented the Tesla coil, an air-cored, dual-tuned resonant
transformer for producing very high voltages at high frequency.

Audio frequency transformers ('repeating coils') were used by early experimenters in

the development of the telephone.

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 Principle
It is based on the principle of mutual induction that is if a varying current is
set-up in a circuit then induced e.m.f. is produced in the neighboring circuit. The
varying current in a circuit produce varying magnetic flux which induces e.m.f. in
the neighboring circuit.

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 Construction
A transformer consists of a rectangular shaft iron core made of laminated
sheets, well insulated from one another. Two coils p1 & p2 and s1 & s2 are
wound on the same core, but are well insulated with each other. Note that the
both the coils are insulated from the core, the source of alternating e.m.f is
connected to p1p2, the primary coil and a load resistance R is connected to s 1 s2,
the secondary coil through an open switch S. thus there can be no current through
the sec. coil so long as the switch is open.

For an ideal transformer, we assume that the resistance of the primary &
secondary winding is negligible. Further, the energy loses due to magnetic the
iron core is also negligible.

An ideal voltage step-down transformer. The secondary current arises from the
action of the secondary EMF on the (not shown) load impedance.

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Theory and working of transformer

When an altering e.m.f. is supplied to the primary coil p 1p2, an alternating

current starts falling in it. The altering current in the primary produces a
changing magnetic flux, which induces altering voltage in the primary as well as
in the secondary. In a good-transformer, whole of the magnetic flux linked with
primary is also linked with the secondary, then the induced e.m.f. induced in each
turn of the secondary is equal to that induced in each turn of the primary. Thus if
Ep and Es be the instantaneous values of the e.m.f.’s induced in the primary and
the secondary and Np and Ns are the no. of turns of the primary secondary coils
of the transformer and

Dфь / dt = rate of change of flux in each turnoff the coil at this instant, we have
Ep = -Np dфь/dt ---1
Es = -Ns dфь/dt ---2
Since the above relations are true at every instant, so by dividing 2 by 1, we get
Es / Ep = - Ns / Np ---3
As Ep is the instantaneous value of back e.m.f induced in the primary coil p 1, so
the instantaneous current in primary coil is due to the difference (E – Ep ) in the
instantaneous values of the applied and back e.m.f. further if R p is the resistance
o, p1p2 coil, then the instantaneous current Ip in the primary coil is given by
Ip = E – Ep / Rp
E – Ep = Ip Rp
When the resistance of the primary is small, Rp Ip can be neglected so therefore
E – Ep = 0 or Ep = E
Thus; back e.m.f = input e.m.f

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Hence equation 3 can be written as
Es / Ep = Es / E = output e.m.f / input e.m.f
= Ns / Np = K
where K is constant, called turn or transformation ratio.

IN A STEP UP TRANSFORMER:
Es > E so K > 1
hence Ns > Np

IN A STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER:

Es < E so K < 1
hence Ns < Np

If Ip = value of primary current at the same instant t

And Is = value of sec. current at this instant, then
Input power at the instant t = Ep Ip and
Output power at the same instant =Es Is

If there are no losses of power in the transformer, then

Input power = output power
Ep Ip = E s Is
E s / Ep = Ip / Is = K

IN A STEP UP TRANSFORMER:
As k > 1, so Ip > Is or Is < Ip
i.e. current in sec. is weaker when secondary voltage is higher.

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Hence, whatever we gain in voltage, we lose in current in the same ratio.
Similarly it can be shown, that in a step down transformer, whatever we lose in
voltage, we gain in current in the same ratio.
Thus a step up transformer in reality steps down the current & a step down
transformer steps up the current.

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 Efficiency
Efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of output power to the
input power. i.e.

η = output power / input power

= E s I s / Ep I p

Thus in an ideal transformer, where there is no power losses, η = 1. But in

actual practice, there are many power losses, therefore the efficiency of
transformer is less than one.

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 Energy losses
Following are the major sources of energy loss in a transformer:

1. Copper loss is the energy loss in the form of heat in the copper coils of a
transformer. This is due to joule heating of conducting wires.

2. Iron loss is the energy loss in the form of heat in the iron core of the
transformer. This is due to formation of eddy currents in iron core. It is
minimized by taking laminated cores.

3. Leakage of magnetic flux occurs inspite of best insulations. Therefore,

rate of change of magnetic flux linked with each turn of S1S2 is less than
the rate of change of magnetic flux linked with each turn of P1P2.

4. Hysteretic loss is the loss of energy due to repeated magnetization and

demagnetization of the iron core when A.C. is fed to it.

5. Magneto striation i.e. humming noise of a transformer.

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 Applications of transformer
A transformer is used in almost all a.c. operations;

 In voltage regulator for T.V., refrigerator, computer, air conditioner etc.


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 In the induction furnaces.
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 A step down transformer is used for welding purposes.

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 A step down transformer is used for obtaining large current.

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 A step up transformer is used for the production of X-Rays and NEON
advertisement.


 Transformers are used in voltage regulators and stabilized power supplies.



 Transformers are used in the transmissions of a.c. over long distances.


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 Small transformers are used in Radio sets, telephones, loud speakers and
electric bells etc.

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 Bibliography
www.google.co.in/
www.slideshare.com/
www.en.wikipedia.com/
  NCERT Textbook of Physics
  Physics Laboratory Manual
  Pradeep’s Fundaments of Physics
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