SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging Symposium, May 14-18, 2011
THE PETROPHYSICS OF DRILLING
FLUIDS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON LOG DATA
Geoffrey Page, Stephen Vickers
Baker Hughes Incorporated
Copyright 2011, held jointly by the Society of Petrophysicists and Well Log
Analysts (SPWLA) and the submitting authors
This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging
Symposium held in Colorado Springs, Co, USA, May 14-18, 2011.
ABSTRACT
Drilling fluids are carefully formulated to enable safe
and efficient drilling of subsurface formations and to
minimize formation damage within reservoir sections.
Although the effects of these fluids on log data might
have been identified, they are generally accepted as an
unavoidable consequence of achieving cost-effective
and productive wellbores.
The effects of drilling fluid chemicals on log data are
generally considered to be minimal, as tool-specific
corrections are applied to account for the fluid effects
within the borehole. These borehole corrections,
however, only adjust tool responses to true
measurements of the bulk formation properties, and do
not account for the effects of invading fluids on the
final petrophysical interpretation. With the introduction
of more complex drilling fluid chemistry, accounting
for the invading fluid properties becomes more
complex and even more significant than when the
drilling fluids are simple water-based or invert-oil
emulsions. To retain interpretation accuracy, the log
analyst might require performing complex modeling of
the effects of formate and bromide base brines which
induce different log responses than other aqueous
fluids.
The formulation of drilling fluids for drilling purposes
has been widely documented; however the effects that
many common, and not so common, drilling fluid
components have on petrophysical measurements are
not well documented. Even the physical properties of
common make-up brine and standard base oils that may
affect basic log data responses have not been
completely catalogued. Other components such as
precipitating salts and paramagnetic particles may also
influence the measurements of some logging tools.
This paper is intended as an overview of the primary
effects of drilling fluid chemicals on petrophysical log
data. References are provided to assist in additional
research on individual mud systems.
INTRODUCTION
One of the components of petrophysical analysis least
understood by petrophysicists is the drilling fluid or
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mud, and its effects on logs and formations. A correctly
formulated drilling fluid consists of a base brine or oil
with added chemicals, and should
Promote mechanical and chemical stability of the
open wellbore
Remove cuttings from the hole
Cool and lubricate the bit
Control subsurface pressures
Suspend solids when circulation stops
Isolate the formation from the fluids
Support part of the weight of the drillstring and
casing
Release cuttings at surface
Maximise penetration rates
Transmit hydraulic horsepower to bit
Minimise corrosion rates
Have minimal adverse interaction with the
reservoir
Allow recovery of information from the hole
(Mud pulse telemetry)
Comply with environmental regulations
Although not always considered, one other
requirement/consideration should also be To allow the
acquisition of accurate petrophysical information . As
part of pre-well planning, the optimal drilling mud
formulation should also be reviewed for its suitability
towards the required data acquisition strategy,
especially for exploration wells where the primary
reason for drilling the well is to gather high quality
data.
The physical properties of the drilling fluids are
reported on a daily basis and should be reviewed by the
petrophysicist, who should be aware of any major
changes, particularly while penetrating the reservoir.
The reported properties, however, tend to be limited
only to those that are important to drilling: density,
viscosity, and chemicals used. Additional properties
also important to the acquisition of high-quality log
data are often difficult to ascertain, particularly at a
later date.
The mud properties affecting the data acquisition
include:
Density of the whole mud and of the filtrate
Viscosity, which affects wireline tool logging
speed and LWD pulsing capability
Filtration control and expected depth of invasion
Chemical composition of the make-up brine, for
salinity, conductivity, and reactivity
SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging Symposium, May 14-18, 2011
Chemical composition of the base oil, and
comparison to predicted native hydrocarbons
Chemical composition of solids components,
especially if any form of mineral logging is being
undertaken
Measurements of additional properties can be
performed at the rigsite with suitable equipment, but in
general are not required. Instead, regular mud samples
can be retrieved (once a day or when a major change
occurs) for future laboratory analysis, when mud
formulation has the potential to affect the formation
evaluation data.
Corrections for mud properties have a similar purpose
to detailed core analysis; they generally do not change
the overall picture of a quicklook analysis, but can help
refine the data at a later date.
INVASION
An important consideration is how deeply liquids or
solids invade the rock, relative to the depth of
investigation of the petrophysical measurements. There
are two parts to this:
How deep do the drilling fluids and solids invade?
How deep do the instruments measure?
Additionally, there may be a directional consideration
for deviated or horizontal wells where the invasion
varies azimuthally around the wellbore, due to
permeability anisotropy and gravity.
Correctly sized solids should never invade more than a
few pores depth from the wellbore. This requires the
correct mix of small and larger particles in the mud,
sized relative to the expected pore diameters (Figure
1). Mud filtrate invasion is dependent on time, borehole
(over)pressure, permeability, and mud cake
development. For LWD data recorded shortly after
drilling this may only be a few inches, or may be
considerably deeper for wireline if not recorded until
several days or weeks later.
Figure 1. Correctly sized solids should not enter the
formation, where they could cause damage and affect
log responses.
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A large fraction of the volume of investigation of most
petrophysical measurements is within a few inches of
the wellbore, and they are therefore affected by filtrate
properties. Perhaps confusingly, the depth of
investigation of resistivity logs is defined as 50% of
their response radial function, whereas it is 90% for
nuclear measurements. A density measurement is
usually quoted as having a depth of investigation of
around eight inches (however 50% of the signal comes
from within three inches) and neutron measurement
investigation is deeper at approximately 12 inches.
This difference should be considered when combining
density and neutron as they may be investigating
different fluids. Acoustic measurements follow the
shortest travel path, and invading fluids may force the
measurement deeper or shallower depending on
slowness contrasts between filtrate and formation
fluids, but they generally stay within a foot of the
borehole. Magnetic resonance has a precisely defined
depth of investigation between one and four inches.
The resistivity logs are designed to either see a lot
deeper, up to 10 feet or more, or to measure very
shallow to define the flushed zone resistivity Rxo.
Frequently, a range of depths of investigation is
recorded to define the invading fluid depth profile.
Resistivity image logs are considered to be very
shallow reading, which the individual buttons are;
however, combined on a pad, the system as a whole
responds to a deeper background resistivity between 15
and 20 inch, providing a mix of Rxo and Rt responses.
Understanding and quantifying the invasion depth is
very important when invading fluids have a significant
effect on formation properties. Resistivity is one of the
key measurements for estimating invasion depth. Many
programs and methods exist to derive an apparent depth
of invasion from at least three resistivity radial depths;
ideally, one of these should be a shallow Rxo pad type
device reading within the first few inches. Although
Rxo and depth of invasion can be derived from
mandrel-type tools, their shallowest raw data are
approximately 10-inch deep, which is beyond the
important first few inches of the porosity logs depth of
investigation.
Alternative methods for defining apparent invasion
depths include using the photoelectric effect (PE) for
fluids with a high PE such as caesium formate brines,
magnetic resonance fluid analysis in the 2 to 4 inch
depth range, and acoustic velocities variations in the
first few feet away from the wellbore. It should be
noted, however, that acoustic velocities may also be
affected by stress variations around the wellbore caused
by mud over-pressure, wellbore deviation, or natural
stresses. This could mask invasion affects unless there
is a large contrast between invading and native fluid
velocities.
 SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging Symposium, May 14-18, 2011
DATA CORRECTION
Correcting petrophysical measurements for mud
chemistry consists of two consecutive parts:
1. Borehole corrections for hole size and mud
properties are applied to correct measurements
back to calibration conditions, usually a 7-7/8 inch
borehole filled with fresh water. This provides a
property being
measured, free from wellbore artifacts.
2. Borehole-corrected logs are corrected for invading
fluids (or solids) effects. This includes fluid
properties for porosity and saturation, wettability,
permeability, and any mineralogical changes.
Temperature and pressure may be different in the
wellbore and in the formation. Borehole parameters
should be used when applying borehole corrections and
formation parameters for correcting filtrate effects. The
virgin formation properties will be determined only
after correcting for borehole and invasion effects. Many
of the advanced formate and silicate mud systems
permit to drill high-quality bit-size wellbores, and thus
to acquire high-quality data. The challenge remains
however, to understand and interpret that data.
AFFECTED MEASUREMENTS
Drilling fluid bulk density and gamma rays absorption
have a small effect on formation density measurements
due to GR backscatter within the borehole, which also
reduces the total natural gamma ray (GR) count.
Additionally, high PE components such as barite and
caesium preferentially absorb the lower GR energies,
distort the energy spectrums, and considerably increase
the PE reading. Mud cake density, controlled by the
drilling fluids solids, is compensated by multi-detector
tool design, but may also introduce high PE effects. The
liquid components that penetrate the formation as
filtrate also enter in the density porosity calculation.
The gamma density response of fluids is slightly
different from the true density, but a correction can be
estimated as per Appendix 1.
Acoustic measurements are compensated for borehole
fluid slowness; however acoustic porosity calculations
require correction for invading filtrate slowness.
Some mud system components may considerably
reduce the hydrogen index (HI) of the mud. This will
affect the neutron borehole corrections and porosity
measurements. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
measurements will also be affected by the low HI in a
similar way to the neutron porosity, with additional
changes to the T1, T2, and diffusivity spectra. The HI
of fluids can be estimated as per Appendix 2.
The mud sigma, or macroscopic thermal neutron
capture cross-section, affects both the neutron borehole
corrections and porosity. Modern tools are designed to
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minimize borehole chloride / salinity corrections
(essentially a sigma correction). Formation salinity
corrections are small but also available. Some mud
filtrate components that have a very high sigma, such as
caesium, require additional special corrections.
Mud radioactivity, for example from potassium content,
can significantly increase the natural gamma ray
reading, and distort spectral measurements. The
radioactivity, however, is rarely high enough to have
any noticeable effect on density measurements. If the
filtrate is radioactive, formation permeability may
influence the apparent formation gamma ray signal.
Spectral gamma ray measurements are useful to
identify and correct these responses.
Whole mud resistivity dictates the choice of optimal
resistivity logging tools; it may also restrict NMR
acquisition capabilities in highly conductive muds. Mud
filtrate samples should be pressed and their resistivity
measured; filtrate resistivity is used to calculate flushed
zone saturation and correct many other measurements
for invasion.
Magnetic or paramagnetic minerals used as weighting
material may affect orientation measurement devices.
There have been cases of mud cake magnetized by
NMR tools resulting in bad orientation data recorded on
subsequent runs such as borehole imaging. If the mud
contains any paramagnetic materials, or milling has left
swarf in the wellbore, one should consider running
NMR after any services measuring tool orientation.
Surfactants used to mix and hold in suspension the
water phase in an oil-base mud (OBM) may affect the
wettability of the flushed zone, and the irreducible
flushed zone fluid saturation. This may also affect the
data recorded by NMR tools, which generally read
within the flushed zone. NMR core measurements,
currently rarely done, can identify the magnitude of any
such effects.
Loss control materials (LCM) contain polymers,
asphalt, or other materials designed to block pores and
fractures. These may not be removable under flowing
conditions, and can affect pressure pretests
communication, permeability estimates and sampling
from formation testing tools. These materials may also
reduce acoustic Stoneley permeability estimates.
Some mud systems have a high pH, which can be
corrosive to logging tools elastomers and seals. Special
compounds resistant to these conditions are available.
These are particularly important for LWD equipment
that is exposed for a long time to the downhole fluids,
and formation testing tools that contain a large quantity
of pressure seals.
When taking formation tester fluid samples , contrast
between filtrate properties and native fluids will ensure
that filtrate contamination levels can be identified and
reduced. This may be a consideration when designing
SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging Symposium, May 14-18, 2011
mud systems for exploration wells, where successful
well testing is essential.
Many of these effects can be identified and corrected if
log data are calibrated to core. However, coring is
expensive, not available in many wells and rarely over
entire reservoir intervals. If the log data under analysis
are calibrated to core from other wells or intervals, the
analyst should ensure that the mud and logging
conditions were comparable to the current well.
MUD SYSTEM COMPONENTS
The following discussions on mud system components
provide a general overview of the type and magnitude
of their potential effects on petrophysical properties.
Mud formulations are constantly being updated and this
information should be used as a general guide only. For
important reservoir sections, the individual mud
properties should be researched.
BASE COMPONENTS
Water-Base Mud - Fresh water at surface temperature
and pressure has a density of 1.00 g/cc and a hydrogen
index (HI) of 1.00. Increasing temperature causes water
to expand. At 200°C and 225 psi (the lowest pressure at
which it remains liquid at this temperature), fresh water
has a density and HI of 0.87. At 10,000 psi (and surface
temperature) water density and HI increase to 1.02, a
smaller increase than the temperature reduction. In
combination, downhole pressure and temperature
reduce fresh water density and HI to less than 1.0; at
200°C and 10,000 psi, the density and HI of fresh water
mud filtrate are 0.92.
The addition of salts to water increases its density and
reduces its HI. Water saturated with 250 ppk of sodium
chloride (NaCl) has a density of 1.19 g/cc and a HI of
0.90 at surface conditions. Increasing pressure and
temperature changes these values in a similar way to
fresh water. For a typical reservoir at 120°C
temperature and 6,000 psi pressure, a 100 ppk NaCl
filtrate would have a density of 1.04 g/cc and an HI of
0.94. If a value of 1.00 were mistakenly used for
density and HI, the porosity would be reduced from
20% to 19.5%. At 200°C and 10,000 psi, the same
saline filtrate has a density of 1.12g/cc and a HI of 0.91,
resulting in a reduced apparent porosity of 18.5% if
filtrate density and HI of 1.00 were used.
Oil-base Mud Oil-base mud (OBM) primarily
consists of base oil and brine, with the addition of
surfactants and emulsifiers, which allow it to form an
inverted emulsion of water. The oil is the continuous
phase and the brine is present as isolated droplets
4
(Figure 2). For this reason, these muds do not conduct
electrical currents at the normal voltages and
frequencies of resistivity logs. It is also assumed
(sometimes wrongly) that only the oil continuous phase
invades the formation through a mudcake. The
properties of this oil filtrate will therefore affect log
measurements most.
Figure 2. Inverted emulsion of water in an oil-base
mud
The base oil may be one of a wide variety of natural,
synthetic, or combination oils. At least 80 varieties of
base oils are known, and have widely varying
properties.
Generally, base oil is not, as widely thought, diesel.
Diesel contains 18 to 24% aromatic compounds that are
toxic, and many other volatile and hazardous
components. This makes it an unsuitable drilling fluid
in most countries for health, safety and environmental
reasons.
Many base oils are refined petroleum mineral oils with
aromatics and other hazardous components removed to
give them a low toxicity rating. Due to their refining
process, these oils are sometimes referred to as
synthetics, confusing them with some of the products
described below.
Synthetic oils have been developed to further reduce the
toxicity rating; they are esters (derived from vegetable
oils), non-petroleum hydrocarbons such as linear alpha
olefins (LAO), iso olefins (IO) and paraffins. These
synthetic oils are different arrangements of simple
hydrocarbon chains, with no additional exotic elements.
These muds were common a few years ago, but are now
rarely seen outside of the USA.
Ester muds are sometimes referred to as ester-based
muds (EBM). EBM tends to be more aggressive
towards elastomers than mineral OBM. Esters are also a
wetting agent and can affect near wellbore wettability.
They also generally have a slightly lower hydrogen
index than mineral OBM, which may be visible as a
porosity reduction on neutron or NMR measurements.
Esters can absorb gas at elevated temperature and
pressure, and have been known to appear as a false gas
effect on density and neutron logs. They are also more
 SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging Symposium, May 14-18, 2011
compressible than mineral oils, which sometimes
appears like a gas effect on formation tester pretests.
For more detailed additional information on ester muds
refer to: Amin et al, 2010; Badruzzaman et al, 2005;
and Lugol et al, 2000.
The physical properties of these base oils vary widely,
with densities typically between 0.75 and 0.85 g/cc and
HI approximately 1.0. The lower the density of the base
oil, the more solid weighting materials need to be used
to achieve the same mud weight. Some examples are
shown in Table 1.
At surface conditions, a typical base oil has a density of
0.8 g/cc and HI of 1.01; it will expand with increasing
temperature and contract under pressure. The
temperature expansion is of similar magnitude to that of
water; however the pressure contraction is, unlike
water, of a similar magnitude to the temperature
expansion, but in opposite direction. This results in
downhole properties similar to those at surface. The
example oil with 0.8 g/cc density and 1.01 HI at surface
would have a density of 0.78 g/cc and a HI of 0.99 at
120°C and 6000 psi. These values assume no
absorption of gas. An oil of this density at these
downhole conditions can absorb up to a GOR of 1700
ft3/bbl, resulting in a density of only 0.6 g/cc and a HI
of 0.89, although only a small amount of formation gas
is generally absorbed by filtrate.
Table 1. Physical properties of some common OBM
base oils
Underbalanced Drilling Mud Low-density
underbalanced drilling mud is created using either a
standard mud aerated with air or nitrogen, or using
specific lightweight chemical foams. Most logging
tools can be run in them, however with some specific
problems and exceptions, identified below:
- LWD data pulsing relies on a low compressibility
fluid column to transmit pressure pulses of data to
the surface, and will not be effective in these mud
systems. Electromagnetic transmission systems are
available as a replacement data route
5
- Acoustic measurements are generally not possible
as they require borehole fluid to couple the signals
in and out of the formations
- Borehole corrections for density and neutron
measurements will be larger than for regular mud
systems. The lack of a radiation absorbing medium
surrounding the instruments will result in higher
count rates and lower densities and neutron
porosities. Wireline instruments are likely to be
affected more than LWD due to the smaller
fraction of the borehole they occupy.
- Formation tester pretests will exhibit draw-ups, as
formation pressure will be higher than hydrostatic.
This may require reprogramming the analysis logic
to interpret when pressures have stabilized, and for
determining permeability. The higher formation
pressure will also push the sealing pad off the wall,
resulting in more lost seals.
- Induction and propagation resistivity logs should
work effectively, however shallow and lateral-type
logs may not work, due to increased mud
resistivities, and it may be necessary to use an oil-
base imager tool even in water-base fluids.
CHEMICALS - LIQUIDS
Brines - Many different salt brines are used in addition
to NaCl solutions, allowing different density base water
to be created, from 1.0g/cc up to more than 2.0g/cc for
the pure liquid phase alone (without solids) (Table 2).
As these brines get denser, their HI also decreases.
Saturated sodium bromide brine, for example, has a
density of 1.52 g/cc and a HI of only 0.8 (at surface
conditions). This is due to the high weight fraction of
salts displacing hydrogen in the dissolving water
fraction.
Table 2. Physical properties of some common water -
based mud brines
SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging Symposium, May 14-18, 2011

The heavier brines and formates may undergo gravity

segregation, with formation fluids showing unusual
invasion profiles.
One of the most common brines uses potassium
chloride, which helps to stabilize clay structures and
prevent swelling. When clay structures contain an
interlayer of calcium or magnesium ions, they can bind
several layers of water molecules within the structure
(Figure 3). Sodium is particularly harmful and can bind
up to 10 water layers, causing clay swelling and
borehole collapse.

Figure 4. Clay stabilization with the addition of

potassium (K) ions

When calculating resistivities of salt solutions, the

charts used are frequently those for sodium chloride
brine; however, salts other than NaCl can have a
significantly different resistivity response. Charts exist
to convert other salt and ion concentrations to NaCl-
equivalent values (Figure 5). At very high temperatures
(over 200°C), the resistivities may also start to deviate
from the standard (Arps type) formulas, and above
Figure 3. Clay ionic hydration when calcium (Ca),
300°C may actually start to increase with increasing
magnesium (Mg), and sodium (Na) ions are present
temperature (Ucok et al, 1979).
Potassium, in contrast, can form stable interlayers
without water, resulting in a stable clay structure
(Figure 4). As a result, potassium in the mud is used
up, and additional potassium needs to be added
Multiplier, K

constantly to the mud system to maintain salinities.

This means that if mud potassium content is used to
correct log data (for example the GR), mud reports
should be checked throughout the drilled interval, not
just in the final report at the time of logging.

Potassium acetate (CH3CO2K) is the potassium salt of

acetic acid, and has been used as a more
environmentally friendly version of potassium chloride,
(it contains no chlorine). From a logging perspective,
this is just another brine. The HI of the potassium
acetate is 0.14, compared to 0 for chloride, so the
filtrate HI used for analysis needs a slight increase.
Total Solids Concentration (ppm or mg/Kg)
Figure 5. Equivalent NaCl concentrations from total
solids concentrations
Formate brines - Formates are a special case brine. The
-
formate ion (HCOO ) can be combined with sodium
(Figure 6), potassium, or caesium to create very dense
brines. Some of the properties of these brines are shown
in Table 3.

Figure 6. Sodium formate

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 SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging Symposium, May 14-18, 2011
Table 3. Formate petrophysical properties
Due to their very high percentage (by weight) of the
formate and to their low water content, these brines
have significantly different log responses and require
special modeling to determine the required instrument
corrections. In particular, the low HI will significantly
reduce the neutron response and may look similar to a
(false) gas effect on the density-neutron.
The resistivities of formate solutions also do not behave
as other solutions. As formate concentration increases,
the resistivity initially decreases as expected, but then at
very high concentrations the resistivity increases again
as the solution becomes so overloaded with ions that
they start to affect each other, reducing conductivity
(Figure 7). The mixing of different formate brines also
generates a non-linear mixing rule.
Figure 7. Formate brine resistivity variations with
concentration when diluted with distilled water (at
room temperature)
Consider the case of saturated formate brine invading a
fresh water-filled formation. As the saturated formate
dilutes by mixing with the formation water, its
resistivity may decrease, contrary to expectation.
Saturated caesium formate has a very high photoelectric
absorption (PE) of over 200 b/e, and very high log
values of 30 b/e or more may be observed. This high
photoelectric absorption may also affect gamma ray
counts as low energy gamma rays will be absorbed. The
high PE makes normal analysis of the PE curve
impossible for mineral identification; however it can be
very useful for identifying and quantifying invasion,
and used for a net sand count (Kukal et al, 1985).
7
For more detailed additional information on formate
muds refer to: A-Harbi et al, 2005; Berg et al, 2007;
Cabot manual; Galford et al, 2005; Gallino et al, 1997;
Guo et al, 2002; Inanc et al, 2011; Pedersen et al, 2006.
Glycol - Glycol, also known as cloud point glycol, is a
common constituent of water-based muds, which helps
reduce invasion and improve lubricity. At low
temperatures glycol is fully miscible in water. As the
temperature is increased, a point is reached where the
separated from the water. This happens at the cloud
point temperature, which is designed around the
expected wellbore temperature. The glycol droplets
then coat the rock surface, block pores, and inhibit
invasion. Coating cuttings with glycol also prevents
their dispersion. As the cuttings laden mud returns to
surface the glycol cools again, becomes miscible again,
and is released from coating the cutting (Figure 8).
Figure 8. Laboratory demonstration of glycol clouding
as temperature is increased
Glycols are a hydrocarbon chain similar to alcohols but
with two or three OH groups (Figure 9). Typically,
they have a density between 1.0 and 1.1 g/cc, a HI close
to 1.0, are non-toxic, and will have minimal effects on
log data as they should not invade more than a few
pores depth. Resistivities of the whole mud may be
different above and below the cloud point temperature,
but the invading filtrate should be only the water/brine
fraction.
Glycols have the potential for slightly altering
wettability, but the authors currently have no evidence
of this in the wellbore.
SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging Symposium, May 14-18, 2011

Table 4. Some examples of mud-weighting solids

Of particular note from a logging perspective, are:

- barite, which is very common and has a very high
photoelectric response (267 b/e)
- galena, which has been used despite the toxicity of
lead, has a photoelectric response of 1631 b/e
Figure 9. Alcohol and glycol chemical structures
- minerals containing iron, which will be
paramagnetic.
Oil-base Mud Additives Oil-base mud (OBM) can be
In addition, mud solids will include whatever rock has
prepared with base oil, as described previously, mixed
been drilled through. Surface mud cleaning will remove
with almost any salt solution. Calcium chloride is the
larger particles and cuttings, but any fine rock flour will
most common brine as it has a low activity and is
be dispersed throughout the mud.
relatively cheap.
Surfactants and emulsifiers are used to make the oil and
Typical mud solids particle sizes are in the range of 10
brine mix. A small excess amount is usually used to
to 100 microns (Figure 10); however when high
account for any water ingress from the formation and
quantities of solids are required to generate a heavy
still maintain the emulsion. This means there is spare
mud for high-pressure formations, micro-sized particles
capacity for them to react with formation water if there
of approximately one micron are often used. These
is invasion.
smaller particles are less likely to settle out of
If smaller micro-sized particles are used (see solids
suspension, preventing mud sag and varying mud
section below), more of these chemicals are required to
densities.
wet the relatively larger surface area of small particles
compared to large.

CHEMICALS - SOLIDS

Solids are added primarily to increase the mud density

and provide filtration control by forming a cake. If
sized correctly, these solids should not invade the
formation (Figure 1), but may add to borehole
corrections of logging instruments.
Weighting agents are solids of high density that are
insoluble in water. Some typical examples are shown in
Table 4. Figure 10. Some examples of mud particle sizes

Filtration Control - Filtration control additives can be

either solid or dispersible in the liquid phase of the mud
(such as glycol). The most common solids are barite,
bentonite, or calcium carbonate. If sized correctly, these
solids should not invade the formation, but may add to
borehole corrections of logging instruments. Other
common chemicals include starch, carboxymethyl-
cellulose (CMC), polyanionic cellulose (PAC) and
asphaltene, especially at high temperatures. Most of

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 SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging Symposium, May 14-18, 2011
these products are long chains of carbon, oxygen and
hydrogen atoms, and will have minimal log effects
(Figure 11). They are designed to be removable from
the rock surface under production or chemical treatment
to restore production permeability. Asphalt can be
difficult to remove and could permanently inhibit
production.
Figure 11. Starch and cellulose molecules
If these products are removable, they will not impede
formation testing and sampling, although an increased
drawdown may be seen for a short time before the mud
cake pops off. If the barrier is permanent, permeability
measurements and potentially pressure measurement
will be impeded.
Silicate - Silicate muds are solutions of water-soluble
glasses. The silicate starts out as monosilicate, which
polymerizes rapidly to form negatively charged
oligomers at a high pH, at which the mud is formulated.
After entering a pore network, the pH drops, the
oligomers overcome their mutual repulsion and
coagulate, forming 3D gel networks. Within the pore
fluids and at clay surfaces, there are free polyvalent
ions (calcium and magnesium) which react
instantaneously with the oligomers to form insoluble
precipitates. This reaction is irreversible and occurs
very rapidly before significant fluid loss and pressure
invasion has occurred. These muds are run
overbalanced to encourage invasion, the net result of
which is a permanent glass barrier within the borehole
wall, not on the surface as for most mudcakes. In
hydrocarbon bearing formations, there are typically less
free ions available resulting in deeper invasion prior to
precipitation.
9
These muds may have significant effects on formation
testing and sampling as the permeability of the wellbore
surface is permanently damaged. Crystalline solids may
precipitate on moving surfaces and valves causing
blockages, and seals to fail if cut. The alkaline
environment is also detrimental to many elastomer seal
compounds. Additionally, any instruments run in these
muds should be thoroughly washed inside and out
immediately on return to the surface as the precipitate
may encase them in a thin permanent glass film,
jamming threads and moving parts.
The precipitate may affect the operation of mud
turbines and pulsers for LWD operations, and acoustic
data has been reported to be affected by either the hard
fast layer within the rock wall and/or plugging of the
instruments, shorting out the acoustic energy directly.
Shallow measurements such as resistivity and density
will also be affected, and the density correction curve
may show a dense (negative correction) mudcake.
Unusual invasion profiles may develop, which require
multiple depths of investigation resistivities to solve for
a true Rt.
For more detailed additional information on silicate
muds refer to: El Essawy et al, 2004; Van Oort et al,
1996; Ward et al, 1999.
Aluminium salts - Aluminium salts have now largely
replaced silicates. They perform a similar function in
precipitating and blocking pores, however the process is
reversible thus there is a lower risk of permanent
formation damage.
Aluminium salts stay in solution at a pH greater than
10. As the mud filtrate penetrates formations, the pH
drops below 10 and the aluminium precipitates. This
blocks the pores and prevents additional filtrate entry.
The process is fully reversible by increasing the pH
again, and also unlike silicates the aluminium salts do
not cause cuttings to accrete.
The precipitate may potentially cause some reduction in
permeabilities at the time of acquiring formation tester
data; however at the time of writing this has not been
reported as the precipitate is not stuck to the rock in the
same way as silicate.
NEW TECHNOLOGY
There is a new range of chemicals designed for
removing mudcake to reduce skin and clean out
wellbores and wellbore equipment. They are not
designed to be included in drilling mud systems at the
current time, and are unlikely to be encountered at the
time of logging; however they are included here for
completeness and potential future applications.
Mesophase engineering fluids create bicontinuous
microemulsions, not oil-in-water or water-in-oil but
both simultaneously. This solubilises oils, breaks down
SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging Symposium, May 14-18, 2011
emulsions, unpacks and dissolves filter cake, and
solubilises carbonate particles. Solids are converted to
100% water wet. The result is significant reductions in
skin and 100% cleaning efficiency. Oil-covered
wellbore equipment that has been in wells containing
these fluids returns to surface as if it has been polished.
These fluids are highly beneficial in completions
applications to improve well productivity; however if
these fluids were included in drilling mud they could
significantly alter the wettability and properties of the
invaded formations.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
In most cases, mud chemicals do not cause significant
problems to petrophysical evaluation; however, their
properties should be evaluated and effects accounted
for in a petrophysical interpretation. Additional care
and information is required in formate and silicate
muds.
Petrophysicists should pay attention to mud chemistry,
and for important wells and reservoir sections, review
the mud components at regular intervals over the drilled
sections, not just at the end of the drilling phase, as the
mud properties are not static. They should also preserve
regular mud samples for later analysis.
The petrophysical properties of the filtrate are as
important as those of the whole mud, as the filtrate
invades the rocks being analysed. The exact chemical
composition of many of the specialist muds is
proprietary and closely guarded by the mud companies;
however, the majority bulk components can usually be
identified.
Understanding the invasion profile is key to applying
corrections for invading filtrate. Ultimately, the best
solution is to calibrate the log interpretation to core,
however the analyst should verify that the mud and
wellbore conditions are exactly the same when
transferring data from one well to another.
This is a working document and the authors will
appreciate any feedback, additional information and
experiences regarding this topic.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Geoffrey Page studied physics at
the Royal College of Science in
London. He began his oilfield
career as a Dresser Atlas field
engineer 31 years ago, moved into
Petrophysics in Aberdeen 23 years
ago, and is now UK Petrophysical
Advisor for Baker Hughes based in
Aberdeen. He is a former President of the Aberdeen
chapter of the SPWLA (AFES) and was honoured with
a life membership. He has written and presented several
10
papers over the years, helped organise several
conferences, including the SPWLA 2008 symposium in
Edinburgh. In his spare time, he teaches the
petrophysics course of the Aberdeen University
Integrated Petroleum Geoscience M.Sc. program.
Stephen Vickers is the Eastern
Hemisphere Technical Manager for
Reservoir Services for Baker
Hughes. He originally qualified as a
mining engineer but changed
disciplines and since has enjoyed 30
years working in the oil industry,
first as a drilling engineer and then
in fluids and chemical engineering. Stephen is based at
the Eastern Hemisphere Technology Centre in
Aberdeen and has specific responsibilities for the
application and design of reservoir fluids, also
specialising in the prevention and remediation of
formation damage.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors want to thank Baker Hughes management
for its support and permission to publish this paper, and
all those who have contributed pieces of information
and experiences.
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ce of Sodium/Potassium Formate-Based
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23rd June.
Amin, R.A.M, Clapper, D.K., Norfleet, J.E., Otto, M.J.,
Xiang, T., Hood, C.A., Goodson, J.E., Gerrard, D.P.,
velopment of an Environmentally
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Port of Spain, Trinidad, 27-30th June.
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Sheffield, J., 2005, The Ubiquitous Neutron/Density
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Hagerup-Jenssen, S., Howard, S., Olsvik, G., Downs,
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Brine: The Kvitebjorn Experience, 2004-2006
SPE/IADC 105733, SPE/IADC Drilling Conference,
Amsterdam, Netherlands, 20-22nd February.
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Cabot Specialty Fluids, Formate Technical Manual,
www.formatebrines.com
El Essawy, M., bin Hamzah, R., Malik, M.M., Knox,
D., Monem, M.R., Oswald, R
Application of Sodium Silicate Fluids Achieves
Significant Improvement of the Drilling Efficiency
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and Formation Invasion Effects of Formate-Based
Mud Systems on Nuclear Logs paper LL, SPWLA
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Gallino, G., Guarneri, A., Maglione, R., Nunzi, P.,
Ucok, H., Ershaghi, I., Olhoeft, G.R., 1979 Electrical
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Greatly Improved Drilling and Waste Disposal
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Logs in Formate-Based Drilling Fluids in a North Sea

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11
SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging Symposium, May 14-18, 2011
APPENDIX 1
GAMMA DENSITY MEASUREMENT OF FLUIDS
Wireline and LWD density tools measure bulk
formation density using a gamma ray source via
compton scattering, which measures an electron density
that is converted to bulk density (g/cc) by the
calibration process.
The conversion process is calibrated for an electron to
nuclear mass ratio Z/A of 0.5, which is correct for most
rocks. The Z/A ratio of hydrogen, however, is 1.0,
resulting in a water Z/A of 0.55 (There are 18 electrons
and 8 protons+neutrons in H2O). If a correction was not
applied, water would read a density of 1.1 g/cc. The
porosity corrections are built into the calibration
systems for all tools to ensure that pure water reads
1.0g/cc, and reduce with decreasing porosity up to
100% solid rock (no correction) defined as limestone of
density 2.71 g/cc (Figure 12). Minerals with a matrix
other than a pure limestone at 2.71g/cc read slightly
incorrectly. Quartz corrections (very small) are
available for some tools but rarely used.
Figure 12. The correction of gamma density
measurements for the Z/A of water being 0.55is applied
linearly from 0 to 100% porosity
For other materials that contain a lot of hydrogen, i.e.,
most fluids, the Z/A ratio is also higher than 0.5, and
they require a similar correction. The Z/A ratio of long
hydrocarbon chains (CNH2N) is 0.57, and as high as
0.625 for methane (CH4). This means that even after the
automatic water correction, most oil and gas densities
still read high by 3 to 13% when measured by a gamma
density tool. Laboratory-measured fluid densities, or
those derived from formation tester gradients, cannot,
therefore, be directly used to calculate accurate
porosities. Instead of true densities, the log analyst must
use corrected densities (electronic and water
corrections), or calibrate to core.
12
APPENDIX 2
HYDROGEN INDEX CALCULATIONS
The hydrogen index (HI) of any liquid can be estimated
if its volumetric components and density are known.
Pure water with a density of 1.0g/cc at surface
conditions is defined as having an HI of 1.00. For any
other material, HI is the relative amount of hydrogen
per unit volume compared to water.
Water has two hydrogen atoms (atomic weight 1.0) and
one oxygen atom (atomic weight 16), and therefore,
consists of 2 / 18 or 0.111 g of hydrogen per cc of
water. A similar calculation can be used for another
pure liquid. For example, octane has eight carbon atoms
(atomic weight 12) and 18 hydrogen atoms (atomic
weight 1), for a total hydrogen by weight of 18 / 114. If
the density of octane is 0.71 (at surface conditions) then
the hydrogen fraction of octane is 18 / 114 x 0.71 =
0.112. The HI of octane is therefore 0.112 / 0.111 =
1.01.
To calculate the HI of a solution, one requires to know
the percentage by weight of the solute (usually a salt)
and of the solvent (usually water), and the density of
the mixture. The hydrogen index of each component is
calculated and then combined. A saturated sodium
chloride solution of 250 ppk (by weight) has a density
of 1.2 g/cc; NaCl HI = 0 (no hydrogen) and water HI =
1.0. The HI of the solution is therefore (0.25 x 0) +
(0.75 x 1.0) x 1.2 = 0.9.