Journal

ARTICLE
10.1177/0149206305280749
Carr et al.
of /Management
Workplace Socialization
/ June 2006

Prior Occupational Experience, Anticipatory

Socialization, and Employee Retention†
Jon C. Carr*
Department of Management and Marketing, College of Business,
University of Southern Mississippi, P.O. Box 5270, Hattiesburg, MS 39406

Allison W. Pearson
Department of Management & Information Systems, College of Business and Industry,
Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS 39762-9581

Michael J. Vest
Department of Management and Marketing, College of Business Administration,
University of Southern Mississippi, P.O. Box 5077, Hattiesburg, MS 39406

Scott L. Boyar
Department of Management, Mitchell College of Business, University of South Alabama,
307 N. University Blvd., Mobile, AL 36688

Research on organizational socialization processes has not firmly established the relationships
among prior work experience, preentry variables, and postentry attitudes and behavior. Using a
longitudinal sample of 218 newcomers, a survival model was developed to test whether the rela-
tionship between prior occupational experience and retention is mediated by such preentry vari-
ables as person-job (P-J) fit, value congruence, and organizational expectations. Results indicate
that prior occupational work experience significantly affects retention in the short run, and this
relationship is mediated by preentry P-J fit and value congruence.

Keywords: work experience; socialization; voluntary turnover; expectations; retention

*Corresponding author. Tel: 601-266-6545; fax: 601-266-4630.

E-mail address: jon.carr@usm.edu
Journal of Management, Vol. 32 No. 3, June 2006 343-359
DOI: 10.1177/0149206305280749
© 2006 Southern Management Association. All rights reserved.
343
344 Journal of Management / June 2006

Organizational socialization research has long focused on understanding the processes that
unfold as new employees enter an organizational environment. Models of socialization from
Feldman (1981), Saks and Ashforth (1997), and recently Kammeyer-Mueller and Wanberg
(2003) examine these processes from a variety of viewpoints, with the idea that new employ-
ees experience the socialization process through somewhat distinct stages as they become full-
fledged members of the organization. Most empirical research, however, has examined or-
ganizational entry and socialization with a focus on neophyte workers (e.g., new college
graduates) who represent new employees to both the occupation they have chosen and the
organization within which they practice that occupation (Morrison, 1993). As a result, little is
known about how experienced (veteran) workers undergo the organizational socialization
process (Saks & Ashforth, 1997).
Two key studies provide contradictory insights into the relationship of past work experience
and workplace outcomes. Adkins (1995) found that previous work experience had little impact
on socialization variables and subsequent attitudes and behavior. However, recent research by
Beyer and Hannah (2002) found that the previous work experience of organizational newcom-
ers may serve as an important influence on the socialization of new workers. Our primary con-
tribution is to address this inconsistency and provide empirical evidence of the role of prior
experience, its effects on variables related to socialization, and workplace behavior.

Theory

Prior research on organizational newcomers has often focused on neophyte workers, yet it
is far more likely that organizational newcomers come to an organization with prior occupa-
tional experience. In fact, organizations often seek new employees with prior job-related
experiences with the belief that these newcomers will quickly contribute to a company’s pro-
ductivity because of their previous knowledge and skill sets (Kirschenbaum, 1992). As a con-
sequence, the psychological processes used by experienced workers to engage new work
settings deserve further review.
Several researchers argue that focusing the study of newcomer organizational socialization
using neophyte workers may be too restrictive and may fail to account for the influence prior
occupational experience has in framing postentry attitudes and behaviors (Beyer & Hannah,
2002; Birnbaum & Somers, 1989). Beyer and Hannah pointed out that “our understanding of
organizational socialization is incomplete until we better understand how experienced new-
comers adapt to new work situations by building on their past” (2002: 650). Their conclusions
are consistent with others who feel that the examination of occupational factors “can generate
novel and provocative insights for socialization theory” (Saks & Ashforth, 1997: 270).
Therefore, our study examines Beyer and Hannah’s (2002) model of the socialization of
experienced workers within the context of Saks and Ashforth’s (1997) multilevel model of

†A previous version of this article was presented at the 2003 Academy of Management annual conference in Seattle,
Washington. We gratefully acknowledge Bruce Meglino, Ben Tepper, Daniel Cable, and Mark Somers for their com-
ments and suggestions on previous versions. Finally, we appreciate the scholarly guidance and advice provided by the
editor, Daniel Feldman, and three anonymous reviewers. This article is greatly improved thanks to their combined
insights and wisdom.
 Carr et al. / Workplace Socialization 345

organizational socialization. Specifically, we examine the effect of prior occupational experi-

ence on three proximal adjustment variables that have served as “markers” of the anticipatory
socialization process and then the subsequent effect of those proximal variables on the distal
outcome of employee retention. The terms proximal and distal are used to refer to the temporal
nature (i.e., point in time) that these variables are experienced or occur as an individual enters
the organizational work setting. Consistent with Kammeyer-Mueller and Wanberg (2003) and
others, proximal variables are those variables that occur early in the socialization process,
which can thereby lead to other variables (distal outcomes) as the individual becomes assimi-
lated into the work setting. Outcomes such as organizational commitment and retention are
referred to as distal outcomes, in that they represent the global end product of the organiza-
tional entry process (Kammeyer-Mueller & Wanberg, 2003).
The proximal variables used in this study are preentry person-job fit (P-J fit), preentry value
congruence, and preentry organizational expectations. These variables are examined with
respect to a distal outcome of socialization, namely, voluntary turnover behavior. Because one
important aspect of socialization is the adjustment that occurs to new organizational norms
and values (Feldman, 1981), we contend that these adjustment variables will have a mediating
effect on the relationship between prior occupational experience and organizational retention,
as theorized by Saks and Ashforth (1997) and others.

Defining Neophyte Versus Veteran Newcomers

For the purposes of our study, we define organizational newcomers who have little or no
prior occupational experience as neophyte newcomers (Beyer & Hannah, 2002). Neophyte
newcomers are workers who have recently entered an occupation, either through training or
retraining, and have little or no occupational experience to draw on. For neophyte newcomers,
the socialization process is likely to expose them to their first experiences relative to the work
skills and abilities, role behavior requirements, and normative adjustment needs of their new
organization (Brett, Feldman, & Weingart, 1990; Feldman, 1981; Feldman & Brett, 1983).
Conversely, we define organizational newcomers with prior experience as veteran new-
comers. Veteran newcomers represent new organizational employees who have experiences in
the same occupation but have gained this experience from other organizations. As a result,
they are likely to draw on those previous experiences as they progress through the organiza-
tional socialization process. For veteran newcomers, the organizational socialization process
is more aptly referred to as “resocialization” (Brett et al., 1990; Feldman, 1989; Van Maanen
& Schein, 1979), as these veteran newcomers cross from one organizational work environment
into another. For the purposes of this study, the degree to which an individual is a neophyte or
veteran newcomer is handled as a continuous variable, which ranges from 0 months of previ-
ous job-related experience to employees with substantial job-related prior work experience.

The Socialization of Experienced Workers

Beyer and Hannah’s (2002) theory on the socialization of experienced workers provides
insight into the psychological mechanisms that influence newcomers with prior experience.
346 Journal of Management / June 2006

Figure 1
Mediators of the Relationship of
Prior Occupational Experience and Employee Retention

Pre-Entry
Expectations

Prior Occupational Pre-Entry P-J Fit Employee Retention

Experience

Pre-Entry Value
Congruence

First, results obtained from their study indicate that veteran newcomers attempt to attribute
meaning to their new work setting by engaging in sense making built on past perceptions and
experiences (Louis, 1980; Weick, 1995). As an individual progresses through a career, these
past experiences create mental representations (termed personal identities) that reflect the
person’s understanding of who he or she is, what he or she knows, and how likely he or she is to
adjust to new work settings (Ashforth & Mael, 1989; Beyer & Hannah, 2002). As a result, vet-
eran newcomers “are likely to draw heavily on those cognitions and behaviors they have
acquired in similar settings in the past. Thus, past work experience is likely to have especially
strong effects on socialization to new work roles and settings” (Beyer & Hannah, 2002: 641).
Second, experienced workers actively participate and engage in sense making as they prog-
ress through socialization (Beyer & Hannah, 2002; Feldman & Brett, 1983). This active par-
ticipation seeks to maintain and enact those prior personal identities in an attempt to direct
sense making. In addition, active participation requires veteran newcomers to use different
means to gain information about the new work setting (Brett et al., 1990). In effect, veteran
newcomers try to understand and integrate their prior knowledge with organization and job-
related content as they are exposed to information regarding the organization during their
socialization (Beyer & Hannah, 2002).
The fact that veteran newcomers may follow different strategies to incorporate and assimi-
late their past experience with new organizational settings has clear organizational implica-
tions with respect to successful employee retention. Research by Kammeyer-Mueller and
Wanberg (2003) provides recent evidence on the importance of newcomer adjustment to orga-
nizational retention. We would expect those employees with prior experience to more success-
fully use self-insight to assimilate into the new work setting and thus have reduced levels of
voluntary turnover. Therefore, we use voluntary turnover as a distal outcome to the socializa-
tion process of veteran and neophyte newcomers. We contend that the means by which
employee retention is affected by prior occupational experience is mediated by variables
related to the socialization process, specifically preentry expectations, P-J fit, and value con-
gruence, for these newcomers. The model of these relationships is presented in Figure 1.
 Carr et al. / Workplace Socialization 347

Mediating Effects of Socialization Variables

and Organizational Retention

Building on the process approach outlined by Saks and Ashforth (1997) and others, we
would expect that proximal variables will mediate the relationship between prior occupational
experience and organizational retention. Several studies have theorized and tested sociali-
zation and adjustment of newcomers as a mediated process, whereby newcomers use infor-
mation-seeking strategies and cognitive sense making to capture and incorporate organiza-
tional environments and work roles (Feldman, 1981; Kammeyer-Mueller & Wanberg, 2003;
Riordan, Weatherly, Vandenberg, & Self, 2001; Saks & Ashforth, 1997, 2002).

Proximal Variables and the Retention of

Veteran and Neophyte Newcomers

Preentry organizational expectations. Preentry organizational expectations serve as one

proximal variable of the socialization process as theorized by Saks and Ashforth (1997) and
others. Preentry organizational expectations are defined as employee perceptions of the orga-
nizational workplace created through organizational socialization prior to workplace entry.
Much of the interest in organizational expectations and work outcomes is derived from the
met-expectations hypothesis, which states that “the concept of met expectations may be
viewed as the discrepancy between what a person encounters on the job in the way of positive
and negative experiences and what he expected to encounter” (Porter & Steers, 1973: 152).
Past research has supported the role that expectations play in numerous organizational out-
comes, including job satisfaction, commitment, and intention to leave (Holtom & Russell,
1999; Wanous, Poland, Premack, & Davis, 1992). The failure to meet organizational expec-
tations has been discussed as a significant influence variable in the adjustment of organiza-
tional newcomers to actual job experiences (Buckley, Fedor, Veres, Wiese, & Carraher, 1998;
Wanous et al., 1992).
Veteran newcomers actively engage in sense making as they adjust to the work environment
during socialization and are likely to have a level of familiarity with general work settings and
job content that results in improved information-processing capability (Kirschenbaum, 1992;
Meglino, DeNisi, & Ravlin, 1993). Beyer and Hannah noted that organizational cultures are a
powerful source for information and materials newcomers need for “sense-making about the
particular uncertainties” (2002: 649) in their new jobs and organizations. Specifically, they
argued that veteran newcomers will have internalized the beliefs, values, and job expectations
unique to their industries. As a result, veteran newcomers will base their organizational ex-
pectations on a more grounded view of organizational reality through their prior cognitive
schemas. Thus,

Hypothesis 1: Preentry organizational expectations of veteran newcomers will mediate the relation-
ship between prior occupational experience and organizational retention rates.
348 Journal of Management / June 2006

Preentry person-job fit. Past research in the person–organization fit literature highlights the
importance of fit perceptions as they relate to many organizational outcomes, including job
satisfaction, commitment, and intentions to quit (see Kristof, 1996). Preentry P-J fit represents
the degree to which organizational newcomers perceive that their own job-related skills and
abilities fit or “match” with the skill and ability requirements that are conveyed to them during
organizational socialization. For this study, preentry P-J fit represents their understanding of
the organizational work needs, as it compares to their cognitive understanding of what that
occupational work should be (Kirschenbaum, 1992). Recent research has shown that preentry
P-J fit is an important predictor of many distal outcomes to include job satisfaction, organiza-
tional commitment, and turnover (Riordan et al., 2001; Saks & Ashforth, 2002).
Similar to organizational expectations, veteran newcomers have improved understanding
of what general job content and tasks are required for a position and will view job fit as a criti-
cal component to staying with a company (Beyer & Hannah, 2002; Kirschenbaum, 1992). Vet-
eran newcomers are therefore more likely to recognize when those perceptions of fit are
aligned because they can draw on their prior knowledge to modify or confirm their existing
cognitive schemas (Beyer & Hannah, 2002). As a result, veteran newcomers are more likely to
recognize job fit alignment between perceptions and the actual job content or work environ-
ment and will be retained at rates higher than neophyte newcomers. Thus,

Hypothesis 2: Preentry P-J fit of veteran newcomers will mediate the relationship between prior occu-
pational experience and organizational retention rates.

Preentry value congruence. Values of individuals in workplace settings, and the role of per-
ceived value congruence between individuals and their organization, have been studied from a
variety of perspectives. A recent review of values in workplace settings conducted by Meglino
and Ravlin (1998) provides a thorough overview of this topic area. In particular, Meglino and
Ravlin identified eight studies wherein perceived value congruence in the workplace was ex-
amined with a number of attitudinal outcomes. For example, these studies examined value
congruence and its relationship to positive organizational outcomes, such as job satisfaction,
commitment, and involvement (Cable & Judge, 1996; Chao, O’Leary-Kelly, Wolf, Klein, &
Gardner, 1994; Harris & Mossholder, 1996; Lee & Mowday, 1987). Additional studies have
found statistically significant negative relationships between value congruence with respect to
performance (Lee & Mowday, 1987), intentions to quit (Chatman, 1991), and actual turnover
(O’Reilly, Chatman, & Caldwell, 1991). In summarizing these value congruence studies,
Meglino and Ravlin concluded, “These findings tend to be very consistent with theory that
proposes that operating in an environment consistent with one’s values is a more positive ex-
perience on many levels” (1998: 380).
In addition, perceived value congruence for organizational newcomers has been studied in
various settings as it relates to the attraction-selection-attrition (A-S-A) framework (e.g.,
Schaubroeck, Ganster, & Jones, 1998) and has been used as a measure of person-organization
fit for newcomers entering the workplace (Cable & Judge, 1996). For individuals initially
entering an organization, it appears appropriate that preentry value congruence would be cru-
cially important.
 Carr et al. / Workplace Socialization 349

Kraimer (1997) examined the role of work value congruence specifically in a model of
socialization. Her research theorizes that the amount and quality of knowledge that new-
comers have directly affect their ability to correctly align their congruence perceptions with
organizational goals and values (Kraimer, 1997). Beyer and Hannah (2002) suggested that
experienced newcomers already possess the requisite social identity unique to their occupa-
tion, and these social identities have become a part of the personal identity of the experienced
employee. We would suggest that veteran newcomers are better equipped to align their own
values with the organizational values they perceive in the socialization process, reducing more
effectively the uncertainty they may have about those organizational goals. Thus,

Hypothesis 3: Preentry value congruence of veteran newcomers will mediate the relationship
between prior occupational experience and organizational retention rates.

Method

Organizational Site and Sample Characteristics

The sample was drawn from a single transportation organization located in the southeast-
ern United States over the course of an 8-month period. The sample consisted of 274 transpor-
tation employees in the same occupation and who had been hired for the purposes of over-the-
road (OTR) transport of goods. Assurances of confidentiality were presented to respondents,
and no respondent was required to participate. The response rate to the survey was 94%. Sur-
vey demographics revealed that the sample was 85.6% male, with 54.1% of the sample having
a high school degree or equivalency. White and non-White sample composition was 62.7%
and 37.3%, respectively. Average age of the new hires was 37.8 years, with an average occu-
pational tenure of 79.6 months.
At no point in time prior to the administration of the survey questionnaire had any of the
employees experienced a single day in the actual organizational setting. For the purposes of
this study, “preentry” represents the point in time that the employees successfully completed
the orientation program, but before they actually interacted with their supervisors or their
actual, on-the-job work setting. In fact, these employees were required to attend a 3-day orien-
tation program prior to starting their job responsibilities, with the orientation sessions con-
ducted at an off-site hotel location by human resource staff. Respondents were administered
the survey instrument in the afternoon of the last day of the orientation program. Although the
newcomers had different levels of prior occupational experience, none of the respondents had
any prior organizational experience with the company. A frequency distribution found that the
quartile points for prior occupational experience were 12 months, 48 months, and 108 months,
respectively. More than 20% of the sample had worked in the occupation less than 6 months.
On-site discussions with these neophyte newcomers revealed that the 6-month value for many
of these employees included their vocational training.
350 Journal of Management / June 2006

Table 1
Descriptive Statistics, Scale Reliabilities, and Correlations for Study Variables
Variable M SD 1 2 3 4 5

1. Organizational expectations 4.33 .55 (.74)

2. Person-job fit 4.28 .61 .28** (.75)
3. Value congruence 4.13 .60 .42** .61** (.81)
4. Occupational experiencea 79.6 — .02 .28** .21** —
5. Voluntary turnoverb 57.7 — .13 .14* .19** .18** —

Note: N = 218. Reliability estimates are provided on the diagonal. Correlations are based on standardized scale scores.
a. In months.
b. In days. Number of days for identified individuals who left the organization.
*p < .05
**p < .01

Survey Item Measures

Prior occupational experience was measured using a single-item self-reported measure that
asked the respondents the number of years and months they had worked as an OTR transporta-
tion worker. This single-item measure was converted to total months. For preentry organiza-
tional expectations, three items were adapted and measured using items developed by Irving
and Meyer (1994). Using a 5-point rating scale (1 = not at all, 5 = completely), these items
were considered as appropriate for determining expectations related to their new work envi-
ronment. Example items include the following: “My expectations for this job at [company
name] are very high,” and “I expect this job at [company name] to be outstanding” (α = .74).
Preentry P-J fit was measured by adapting two items respectively from Cable and Judge
(1996) and similarly adapted by Saks and Ashforth (2002). For preentry P-J fit, the items were
as follows: “To what degree do you expect that your skills and abilities ‘match’ those required
on this job?” and “To what degree do you expect that your skills and beliefs ‘match’ those
required on this job?” Similar to organizational expectations, preentry P-J fit used a 5-point
rating scale, with response anchors not at all to completely (α = .75).
Preentry value congruence was measured by adapting three items from Cable and Judge
(1996). The Value Congruence Scale included items such as “It is my belief that my values
match those of the current employees at [company name],” and “To what degree do you expect
that the values and ‘personality’of [company name] reflect your own values and personality?”
Responses to these items were measured using a 5-point rating scale, with response anchors
not at all to completely (α = .81). An average score for each variable was calculated and stan-
dardized to support interpretation of analysis findings. Descriptive statistics, scale reliabil-
ities, and correlations are presented in Table 1.

Capturing Organizational Retention as Voluntary Turnover Behavior

Employee start dates were determined by the date of organizational entry, subsequent to the
orientation session. Orientation sessions were conducted weekly, with an average of 14 new
 Carr et al. / Workplace Socialization 351

employees per session, which represented a cohort for each session. Independently, turnover
dates were collected from previous cohorts of employees, as they turned over, from personnel
records on a weekly basis. The unit of time required for analysis was the difference between
the number of days between the last day of orientation and the day the employee turned over
(or was coded as right censored if not). The entire study window was 8 months subsequent to
the organizational entry date of the first cohort of new hires. The period of time from the last
cohort survey data collection until the end of the study time window was 120 days. Because
the earlier cohorts going through the orientation program had a longer time to “turn over”
compared to more recently captured cohorts, the possibility of study effects could bias results
(Hosmer & Lemeshow, 1999). To control for cohort effects in the analysis, employees from
survey collection times prior to the last cohort of the study window who were still employed
after 120 days were considered right censored.
Using listwise deletion, a total of 235 usable employee surveys were obtained, which in-
cluded both voluntary and involuntary (firing) events. Study directors reviewed reasons for
turnover for each event, with only those events classified as voluntary included in the analysis.
Thus, the survival analysis only included 218 employees, of which 97 (37.5%) where volun-
tary quits (121 are therefore right censored). Industry data indicated that this organization was
similar to other organizations in this industry in terms of turnover rates.
The use of a 120-day window to examine turnover likelihood was deemed sufficient to test
the hypotheses. Griffeth, Hom, and Gaertner (2000) criticized researchers for collecting turn-
over data too many months after the antecedent measures simply to allow time for more leav-
ers, thereby increasing the sample size. They conclude that “the routine practice of prolonging
the measurement lag to boost quit rates may prove counterproductive” (Griffeth et al., 2000:
484), in so much that waiting too long can “attenuate the predictive accuracy of measured
determinants” (Griffeth et al., 2000: 484). They further suggest specifying a temporal duration
reasonable for the antecedents’ effects and collecting data when the impact of the antecedents
is maximized. Therefore, rather than using the common 12-month or greater lag, we shortened
our time lag to 120 days to best capture the effects of the proximal variables when they were
likely the most salient to the newcomer.
Recent integration of event history and survival model approaches to study voluntary turn-
over within organizational settings have yielded new and fruitful research results related to
organizationally related attitudes and subsequent voluntary withdrawal behavior (Somers &
Birnbaum, 1999). The use of these techniques has been called for with respect to new theoreti-
cal arguments in turnover research (Steel, 2002) as well as empirical research that has ex-
panded or challenged existing turnover research conclusions, which in the past have been
based on more traditional statistical techniques (Iverson, 2000; Morita, Lee, & Mowday,
1993; Somers, 1996; Somers & Birnbaum, 1999; Trevor, 2001).
For the purposes of testing our hypotheses, survival analysis captures the “speed” at which
individuals voluntarily leave the organization (for our study, captured by the number of days
until the employee voluntarily left the company). The dependent variable of interest is there-
fore the time it takes until a specified “event” occurs (in our case, voluntary turnover subse-
quent to organizational entry). For our study, preentry measures of organizational expecta-
tions, P-J fit, value congruence, and length of prior occupational work experience are modeled
to determine their effect on the survival of new employees within this company. As such, our
352 Journal of Management / June 2006

selection of survival analysis to empirically test these variables is appropriate to capturing not
only the voluntary turnover behavior itself but also the timing of this behavior.

Data Analysis

Data analysis was conducted using SPSS and Stata software packages and followed rec-
ommended guidelines for conducting survival analysis using a Cox proportional-hazards
approach (Hosmer & Lemeshow, 1999; Kleinbaum, 1996). Cox proportional-hazards models
(simply termed proportional hazards [PH] models) are semiparametric in nature and allow
for the easy interpretation of study variables (Cox, 1972; Hosmer & Lemeshow, 1999).
The development and use of a PH model requires a comprehensive assessment to ensure
that the proportional-hazards assumption is met (Hosmer & Lemeshow, 1999). The PH
assumption reflects the idea that “the effect of a covariate may change over the period of fol-
low-up” (Hosmer & Lemeshow, 1999: 206). Preentry organizational expectations, P-J fit,
value congruence, and prior occupational experience were evaluated for violations of the pro-
portional-hazards assumption by including an interaction term in the preliminary model
between the construct to be tested for the proportional-hazards assumption and the natural log-
arithm of time (ln(t)) in a time-dependent Cox regression model. In addition, Schoenfeld
residuals for each variable were plotted against the natural logarithm of time, for visual in-
spection. Using the Wald test to evaluate the significance of the interaction term, all time-
dependent interaction variables for the model were found to be nonsignificant, thus ensuring
the proportional-hazards assumption was met for the variables used in the analysis (Hosmer &
Lemeshow, 1999).
Models were tested using survival analysis to examine the main and mediating effects theo-
rized, following procedures similar to Hom and Kinicki (2001). Results of this analysis are
presented in Table 2, which include exponentiated coefficients and levels of significance for
each variable. Interpretation of these values is as follows: For a one standard deviation in-
crease in the independent variable, the exponentiated coefficient represents the corresponding
effect on retention, holding other independent variables constant. For example, for a one stan-
dard deviation increase in a newcomer’s prior occupational experience, the model would pre-
dict a 20% ((1-.80) × 100) decrease in voluntary turnover behavior. Stated another way, as
newcomers enter the organization with increasing occupational experience, they are 20% less
likely to quit voluntarily.

Results

Prior to testing mediating effects, the relationship of prior occupational experience to vol-
untary turnover found significant support (χ2 = 3.99, p < .05). For each standard deviation
increase in prior occupational experience, a 20% decrease resulted in voluntary turnover (p <
.10), thus providing significant support for occupational experience as a predictor of voluntary
turnover.
Prior to running the mediating effects, we examined the main effects of preentry expecta-
tions, preentry P-J fit, and preentry value congruence on retention rates. Our results indicate
 Table 2
Results of Cox Regression on Main and Mediating Variables on Voluntary Turnovera
Prior Preentry Preentry Preentry
Occupational Organizational Person-Job Value Mediation Mediation Mediation
Independent Variable Experience Expectations Fit Congruence Model 1 Model 2 Model 3
†
Prior occupational experienceb .80 .78* .85 .83
Preentry organizational expectations .79* .78**
Preentry person-job fit .73** .75**
Preentry value congruence .73** .76**
Model χ2 3.99* 5.76* 9.46** 8.56** 9.40** 10.95** 10.56**
∆χ2 6.03* 7.11** 6.98**

Note: N = 218.
a. Coefficients are exponentiated (ex). All variables are standardized prior to model input. Exponentiated values above one indicate that turnover risk is increased.
Exponentiated values below one indicate that turnover risk is decreased.
b. Significance values for prior work experience in main-effects test (p < .06).
†
p < .10
*p < .05
**p < .01

353
354 Journal of Management / June 2006

that each of these mediators has significant effects on retention. For example, as preentry orga-
nizational expectations increase, there is a subsequent 21% reduction in turnover rates for
respondents in this study (.79, p < .01). For preentry P-J fit perceptions, there is a 27%
decrease in voluntary turnover (.73, p < .01). Finally, as preentry value congruence increases,
there is a 27% decrease in voluntary turnover (.73, p < .01).

Tests for Mediation

A two-stage process was employed to test the mediating effect of prior occupational expe-
rience on preentry organizational expectations, P-J fit, and value congruence. To test each of
the mediating paths between prior experience and the proximal variables, three mediation
models were developed separately, with prior occupational experience being entered first, fol-
lowed by the proximal variable of interest.
Using conventional methods to test for mediation such as Baron and Kenny’s (1986)
stepwise approach is deemed to be inappropriate for survival analysis applications. Two meth-
ods were used to determine if the inclusion of the proximal variable mediated the relationship
between prior occupational experience and voluntary turnover. First, if the inclusion of the
proximal variable resulted in prior occupational experience becoming nonsignificant, full
mediation will be said to have occurred. A second method for testing mediation is the stepwise
inclusion of mediating variables following Hosmer and Lemeshow’s (1999) rule of thumb. If
the stepwise inclusion of the proximal variable subsequent to entering prior occupational
experience resulted in at least a 15% change in the β value of occupational experience, then the
inclusion of the proximal variable is deemed to be necessary for model improvement.
Mediation tests of hypotheses are also presented in Table 2. When taking into account prior
occupational experience, no support is found for Hypothesis 1. Results suggest that increasing
prior occupational experience (.78, p < .05) and preentry organizational expectations (.78, p <
.01) serve as main effects on increasing organizational retention. When comparing the per-
centage change in beta values for prior occupational experience, the percentage differ-
ence was 8%, further suggesting that preentry organizational expectations do not mediate the
experience-turnover relationship. Although it may be suggested that preentry organizational
expectations partially mediate the experience-turnover relationship, that determination is not
fully justifiable using the tests for mediation outlined above.
Our results for the other mediation hypotheses are both strong and significant. Preentry P-J
fit perceptions mediate the relationship between prior occupational experience (.85, ns) and
voluntary turnover, suggesting that prior occupational experience operates through preentry
P-J fit perceptions, supporting Hypothesis 2. Examination of the percentage change in beta
values also supports this mediating effect (45%). Our results also indicate that preentry value
congruence mediates the relationship between prior occupational experience (.83, ns) and vol-
untary turnover. Similar to preentry P-J fit, Hypothesis 3 is supported, with value congruence
operating as a mediating effect between prior occupational experience and voluntary turnover.
In addition, the change in beta values for prior occupational experience exceeded the rule of
thumb (Hosmer & Lemeshow, 1999), with a percentage change value of 21%.
 Carr et al. / Workplace Socialization 355

Overall, these results indicate two significant conclusions. First, prior occupational experi-
ence does have a significantly positive effect on short-term voluntary turnover. However, it is
insufficient to view this effect in isolation. In the presence of positive socialization variables,
prior job-related work experience is non-significant, and the positive effects of improved pre-
entry P-J fit and value congruence become important predictors of organizational retention.

Discussion

The results of this study examine, in a longitudinal fashion, the role that prior work experi-
ence and socialization variables play in explaining organizational retention. These results are
significant and provide an interesting contribution to a much larger question. Namely, what
role do prior job-related experiences play in the socialization of new workers?
Few empirical studies (most notably, the work of Brett et al. [1990] and others) have exam-
ined this important question. Recent research by Beyer and Hannah (2002) and Saks and
Ashforth (1997) argues that there is a critical need to study experienced versus neophyte new-
comers because experienced newcomers represent the largest group of potential employees
that firms are often most interested in hiring. Yet, existing research indicates that veteran new-
comers are the most understudied group of newcomers who experience organizational social-
ization activities. Our study represents a step toward enriching our understanding of the rela-
tionship between prior experience and socialization outcomes and thus contributes to the call
for further research in this area.
This study found support for the mediating effects of preentry P-J fit and value congruence
on the occupational experience–retention relationship. However, our study failed to support
the hypothesis that preentry organizational expectations also significantly mediate that rela-
tionship. There are several possible explanations for our findings. One explanation may be
that value congruence and P-J fit are more closely associated with the occupation-related fac-
tors veteran newcomers use to understand and incorporate their new organizational setting.
P-J fit and value congruence are work-relevant beliefs that can span well beyond a single
job or organization. In effect, they are likely created through the diversity of occupational,
organizational, and job-related experiences that veteran newcomers gain over time. A recent
meta-analysis of fit in organizations suggests that experience and levels of fit are significantly
related, thus providing some support for this contention (Kristof-Brown, Zimmerman, &
Johnson, 2005). That is, with greater experience in an occupation, including a greater wealth
of job-related knowledge and work-related contexts, veteran newcomers may develop a more
well-informed perspective on fit and value congruence than their less experienced counter-
parts (Kristof-Brown, Jansen, & Colber, 2002; Ostroff & Rothausen, 1997). This, in turn, can
lead to improved adjustment for these workers and yield better organizational retention rates.
Conversely, newcomer organizational expectations are developed around the specific job
or organization they face prior to entry. Their knowledge of the specific job and its work set-
ting rests in large part with the amount and accuracy of information received from the employ-
ing organization. Therefore, it may be that prior occupational experience provides little
knowledge that can be directly transferable to expectations about the specific organization.
Beyer and Hannah’s (2002) theory is built in a large part on the diversity of experience that vet-
356 Journal of Management / June 2006

eran newcomers have available to adjust and assimilate into the new organization. With
respect to preentry organizational expectations, this diversity of experience may not directly
relate to the creation of these expectations.
Several implications are evident from our research findings. To date, most organizational
research on recruitment and socialization treats newcomers as a fairly homogeneous group
(Beyer & Hannah, 2002). However, our research demonstrates that all newcomers are not
alike and that there are important organizational entry process factors that can affect veteran
and neophyte newcomers. Our research clearly suggests that veteran and neophyte newcom-
ers may take different paths as they are exposed to those factors.
Second, organizations face new employees that are not passive absorbers of workplace
socialization practices but are actively engaged in making sense of that knowledge. For exam-
ple, Brett et al. (1990) found that new hires and job changers use distinctly different feedback-
seeking strategies based on their adjustment perceptions during the organizational entry pro-
cess. In addition, veteran newcomers are more likely than neophytes to seek to change their
job environment based on the information they obtain during the socialization process (Beyer
& Hannah, 2002; Feldman & Brett, 1983). Our research would suggest that veteran newcom-
ers can draw on past experience to influence their adjustment and assimilation, thus taking an
active role in shaping their entry process. Clearly, further research on the varied values and
expectations that experienced newcomers bring to an organization and the varied mechanisms
organizations use to socialize these newcomers should be studied.

Limitations and Conclusions

The initial results of this research are encouraging, but as mentioned previously, must be
carefully viewed in light of Beyer and Hannah’s (2002) qualitative theoretical results. Most
important, the quality and diversity of prior occupational experience that newcomers bring
to the organization may have profound effects on organizational retention. For example,
although we were able to demonstrate in this field setting that individuals with similar
amounts of occupational experience were less likely to leave as perceptions of fit increased,
we were unable to capture their other work experiences and could therefore not assume that
work experience diversity was present or absent. Future empirical research should examine
this important theoretical contribution of Beyer and Hannah’s model.
In addition, future empirical research should attempt to understand the assimilation strate-
gies that veteran newcomers use subsequent to entry. Beyer and Hannah’s (2002) model out-
lines several theoretical mechanisms that experienced newcomers use. Although this research
was conducted in a field setting and was longitudinal in nature, the ability to capture additional
attitudinal measures (such as job satisfaction or organizational commitment) as well as assimi-
lation and information-seeking strategies was precluded because of the nature of the job
within this organization. Future research should attempt to replicate this study but capture
experiential variables that may serve as additional mediating or moderating effects on the
socialization process. For example, these experiential variables could potentially include the
nature of prior job-related work experience (multidimensional versus unidimensional) and its
effects on socialization variables.
 Carr et al. / Workplace Socialization 357

Furthermore, the use of prior occupational experience as an important individual differ-

ence variable with respect to socialization may still prevent us from independently identifying
whether individuals left for occupational or organizational reasons. For example, in this par-
ticular study, which socialization variables are “in play” when examining voluntary turnover
for organizational newcomers? Do occupational components lead to organizational attrition
behavior, independent of the possible fit perceived by organizational members? Future re-
search should attempt to further delineate the occupational and organizational influences that
can contribute to turnover in organizations.
Results and conclusions to this research should take into account several limitations associ-
ated with this study. First, our research was limited to one organization and one occupational
group. Second, the socialization variables gathered for this study were obtained following one
formal organizational socialization factor (a detailed orientation program) as discussed by
Saks and Ashforth (1997). We were unable to capture informal socialization behaviors of
these newcomers prior to their entry. Finally, we used two- and three-item scales to measure
the proximal variables (preentry expectations, P-J fit, and value congruence). Although ver-
sions of these small scales have been used successfully in the past (Cable & Judge, 1996; Saks
& Ashforth, 2002), more detailed measures of fit (such as those proposed by Cable & DeRue,
2002) should be used to further explore these relationships.
Socialization research has extended beyond understanding the organizational processes by
which newcomers enter the workplace, mainly by examining those contextual or environmen-
tal factors that may influence the entry process. It is our hope that our study helps continue this
trend. We believe that the study of occupational characteristics of newcomers represents one
avenue that increases our understanding of newcomer socialization.

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Biographical Notes

Jon C. Carr is an assistant professor of management in the College of Business at the University of Southern Missis-
sippi. His research interests include turnover, occupational and organizational employee attitudes, and entrepreneurial
attitudes and behavior.

Allison W. Pearson is a professor of management and is a member of the faculty of the College of Business and Indus-
try at Mississippi State University. Her research is focused on work teams, employee behaviors, and construct mea-
surement issues.

Michael J. Vest is a professor of management and is a faculty member in the College of Business at the University of
Southern Mississippi. His main research interests include performance appraisal, financial incentives, and disabilities
in the workplace.

Scott L. Boyar is an assistant professor of management in the Mitchell College of Business at the University of South
Alabama. He conducts research in the areas of recruiting, selection, absenteeism, turnover, work-family conflict, and
scale development.