Module 6

Advance Organizer
Learning Mental Retardation
Disabilities
A

Exceptionalities Sensory Impairments

Emotional and Physical Disabilities

Behavioral and Health
Disorders Impairments
Autism

Learners with Exceptionalities

The person's adjustment entails the support of the people around him. As a future
teacher, you would probably encounter learners with special needs, more so if special
education is your major. It is therefore necessary that you have both the right
information and proper attitude in dealing with special learners. Let us begin by
differentiating the words disability and handicap.

Disability
- is a measurable Impairment or limitation that "interferes with a person's
ability, for example, to walk, lift, hear, or learn. It may refer to a physical, sensory, or
mental condition" (Schiefelbusch Institute, 1996). The word disability has become the
more accepted term, having replaced the word handicap in federal laws in the US, one
if which is the Individuas with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). IDEA is well law
that provides comprehensive service and support for exceptional learners. Our gory
own 1987 Philippine Constitution, Article XlV, Sec. 2, uses the word "disabled" in
paragraph (5) "Provide adult citizens, he disabled, and out-of-school youth with
training....

Handicap
 - is a disadvantage that occurs as a result of a disability or impairment. The
degree of disadvantage (or the extent of the handicap) is often dependent on the
adjustment made by both the person and his environment. Therefore, the extent to
which a disability handicaps an individual can vary greatly. Two persons may have the
same disability but not the same degree of being handicapped.

Categories of Exceptionalities

- For this short introduction of categories, we are basing it on the categories

found in Omrod's Educational Psychology (2000).

Specific Cognitive or Academic Difficulties

Learning Disabilities

Learning disabilities involve difficulties in specific cognitive process like

perception, language, memory or metacognition that are not due to other disabilities like
mental retardation, emotional or behavioral disorders, or sensory impairments.
Examples of learning disabilities include dyslexia (reading), dyscalculia (number
operations) and dysgraphia (writing).

Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

ADHD is manifested in either or both of these: (1) difficulty in focussing and

maintaining attention and (2) recurrent hyperactive and impulsive behavior.

Speech and Communication Disorders

There is difficulty in spoken language including voice disorders, inability to

produce the sounds... correctly, stuttering, difficulty in spoken language comprehension
that significantly hamper classroom performance.

Social/Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties

Autism

Autism is a condition manifested by different levels of impaired social interaction

and communication, repetitive behaviors and limited interests. Individuals with autism
usually have an intense need for routine and a predictable environment.

Mental Retardation
 Mental retardation refers to significant sub-average intelligence and deficits in
adaptive behavior. There is difficulty in managing activities in daily living and in
conducting themselves appropriately in social situations.

Emotional/Conduct Disorders

This involves the presence of emotional states like depression and aggression
over a considerable amount of time that they notably disturb learning and performance
in school.

Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments

Physical and health impairments

This involves physical or medical conditions (usually long-term) including one or

more of these: (1) limited energy and strength, (2) reduced mental alertness, and/or (3)
little muscle control

Severe and Multiple Disabilities

This refers to the presence of two or more different types of disability, at times at
a profound level. The combinations of disabilities makes it necessary to make specific
adaptations and have more specialized educational programs.

Sensory Impairments

Visual Impairments

These are conditions when there is malfunction of the eyes or optic nerves that
prevent normal vision even with corrective lenses.

Hearing Impairments

These involve malfunction of the ear or auditory nerves that hinders perception
of sounds within the frequency range of normal speech.

Giftedness
 This involves a significantly high level of cognitive development. There is
unusually high ability or aptitude in one or more of this aspect: intellectual ability,
aptitude in academic subjects, creativity, visual or performing arts or leadership.

People-First Language

This language trend involves putting the person first, not the disability (e.g., a
person with a disability, not a disabled person). Thus, person-first language tells us
what conditions people have, not what they are ( Schiefelbusch Institute, 1996). This is
similar to saying "person with AIDS, rather than "AIDS victim".

Other suggestions for referring to those disabilities include:

 avoiding generic labels (people with mental retardation is preferable to the

mentally retarded);
 emphasizing abilities, not limitations (for instance, uses a wheelchair is
preferable to confined to a wheelchair);
 avoiding euphemisms (such as physically-challenged) which are regarded as
condescending and avoid the real issues that result from a disability; and
 avoiding implying illness or suffering (had polio is preferable to is a polio
victim, and has multiple sclerosis is preferable to suffers from multiple sclerosis)
( Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 2000; Schiefelbusch
Institute , 1996)
 Module7
Behaviourist Perspective
Behaviourism: Pavlov, Thorndike, Watson, Skinner

Behaviorism

A school of psychology that takes the objectives evidence of behavior (such as

measured responses to stimuli) as the only concern of its research and the only
research and the only basis of its theory without reference to conscious experience.

The theory of behaviorism focuses on the study of observable and measurable

behavior. It emphasizes that behavior is mostly learned through conditioning and
reinforcement (reward and punishment). It does not give much attention to the and the
possibility of thought processes occurring in the mind. Contribution in the development
of the behaviorist theory largely came from Pavlov, Thorndike, Watson and Skinner.

Advance Organizer

Behaviorism

Classical Conditioning Connectionism Operant Conditioning

(Thorndike) (Skinner)
(Pavlov/Watson)

Primary Laws Reinforcement

Shaping of Behavior
Law of
Effect

Law of
Exercise

Law of
Readiness
Ivan Pavlov

A Russian physiologist is well known for his work in classical conditioning or stimulus
substitution. Pavlov's most renowned experiment involved meat, a dog and a bell.
Initially, Pavlov was measuring the dog’s salivation in order to study digestion. This is
when he stumbled upon classical conditioning.

His experiment. Before conditioning, ringing the bell (neutral stimulus) caused no
response from the dog. Placing food (unconditioned stimulus) in front of the dog-
initiated salivation (unconditioned response). During conditioning, the bell was rung a
few seconds before the dog was presented with food. After conditioning, the ringing of
the bell (conditioned stimulus) alone produced salivation (conditioned response). This is
classical conditioning.

Bell (neutral stimulus) No Response

(neutral stimulus)

Bell (neutral stimulus)

Paired with

Salivation (unconditioned
Meat (unconditioned stimulus)
response)

Salivation (conditioned
Bell (conditioned stimulus)
response)
Pavlov also had the following findings:

Stimulus Generalization: Once the dog has learned to salivate at the sound of the bill,
it well salivate at other similar sound.

Classical Conditioning
Extinction: if you pairing the bell with the food, salivation will eventually cease in
responce to the bell.

Discrimination: the dog could learn to discriminate between similar bells (stimuli) and
discern which bell would result in the presentation of food and which would not.

Higher-Order Conditioning: Once the dog has been conditioned to associate the bell
with food, another unconditioned stimulus, such as a light may be flashed at the same
time the bell is rung.
Eventually the dog will salivate at the flash of the light without the sound of the bell.

Edward L. Thorndike

His connectionism’s theory gives us the original S-R framework of behavioural

psychology. More than a hundred years ago he wrote a text book entitled, Educational
Psychology. He was the first one to use this term. He explained that learning is the
result of a associations forming between stimuli (S) and responses (R). Such
associations or ‘’habits “become strengthened or weakened by the nature and
frequency or the S-R pairings. The model for
S-R theory was trial and error learning in which certain responses came to be repeated
more than others because of rewards. The main principles of connectionism (like all
behavioural theory) was that learning could be adequately explained without
considering any unobservable internal states.

Thordike’s theory on connectionism, states that learning has taken place when a
strong connection or bond between stimulus and response is formed. He came up
with three primary laws:

1. LAW OF EFFECT. It states that a connection between a stimulus and response

is strengthened when the consequence is positive (reward) and the connection
between the stimulus and the response is weakened when the consequence is
negative. Thorndike later on, revised this “law” when he found that negative
rewards (punishment) do not necessarily weaken bonds, and that some
seemingly pleasurable consequences do not necessarily motivate performance.
2. LAW OF EXERCISE. This tells us that the more an S-R bond is practiced the
stronger it will become. “Practise makes perfect” seem to be associated with this.
However, like the law of effect, the law of exercise also had to be revised when
Thorndike found that practice without feedback does not necessarily enhance
performance.
3. LAW OF READINESS. This states that the more readiness the learner has to
respond to the stimulus, the stronger will be bond between them. When a person
is ready to respond to a stimulus and is not made to respond, it becomes
annoying to the person. For example, if the teacher says, “ok we will now watch
the movie “stimulus” you’ve been waiting for and suddenly the power goes off.
The students will feel frustrated because they were ready to respond to the
 stimulus but was prevented from doing so. Likewise, if the person is not at all
ready to respond to a stimuli and is asked to respond, that also becomes
annoying. For instance, the teacher calls a student to stand up and recite, and
then the teacher asks the question and expects the student to respond right
away when he is still not ready. This will be annoying to the student. That is why
teachers should remember to say the question first, and wait for a few seconds
before calling on anyone to answer.

Principles Derived from Thordike’s Connectionism:

1. Learning requires both practice and rewards ( law of effect/exercise).

2. A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they belong to the same
action sequence (law of readiness).
3. Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations.
4. Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.

John Watson

Was the first American psychologist to work with Pavlov’s ideas. He too was
initially involved in animal studies, then later became involve in human behaviour
research. He considered that humans are born with a few reflexes and the emotional
reactions of love and rage. All other behaviour is learned through stimulus response

associations through conditioning. He believed in the power of conditioning so much

that he said that if he is given a dozen healthy infants he can make them into anything
you want them to be, basically through making stimulus response connection through
conditioning.

Experiment on ALBERT. Watson applied classical conditioning in his experiment

concerning Albert, a young child and a white rat. In the beginning, Albert was not afraid
on the rat; but Watson made a sudden loud noise each time Albert touched the rat.
Because Albert was frightened by loud noise, he soon became conditioned to fear and
avoid the rat. Later, the child’s response was generalized to other small animals. Now,
he was also afraid of small animals. Watson then “extinguished” or made the child
“unlearn” fear the showing the rat without the loud noise.
Surely, Watson’s research methods would be questioned today;
nevertheless, his work did clearly show the role of conditioning in the development of
emotional responses to certain stimuli. This may help us understand the fears, phobias
and prejudices that people develop.
Burrhus Frederick Skinner

Study the operant behavior that seen on his book” Walden Two”, is about a utopian
society based on operant conditioning. He also wrote, Science and human behavior, in
which he pointed out how the principles of operant conditioning functions in social
institutions such as government, law, religion, economics and education. His theory
came to be known Operant Conditioning.

Operant Conditioning- is based upon the notion that learning is a result of change in
overt behavior. Changes in behavior are the results of an individual’s response to
events (stimuli) that occur in the environment. A response produces a consequence
such as defining a word, hitting a ball, or solving a math problem. When a particular S-R
pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the individual is conditioned to respond.

Reinforcement – is the key element in Skinner’s S-R theory. A reinforcer is anything

that strengthens the desired response.
 Positive reinforcer- is any stimulus that is given or added to increase the
response.
 Negative reinforcer - is any stimulus that results in the increase frequency of a
response when it is withdrawn or removed.

A negative reinforce is different from a punishment because a punishment is a

consequence intended to result in reduce responses.

Extinction/Non- reinforcement- responses that are not reinforced are not likely to be
repeated.

Shaping of Behavior. An animal on a cage may take a very long time to figure out that
pressing a lever will produce food. To accomplished such behavior, successive
approximations of the behavior are rewarded until the animal learns the associations
between the lever and the food reward. To begin shaping, the animal may be rewarded
by simply turning in the directions of the lever, then for moving toward the lever, for
brushing against the lever, and finally for pressing the lever.

Behavioral chaining comes about when a series of steps are needed to be learned.
This can be applied to a child being taught to tie a shoelace. The child can be given
reinforcement (reward) until the entire process of tying the shoelace is learned.

Reinforcement Schedules. Once the desired behavioral response is accomplished,

reinforcement does not have to be 100 percent; in fact, it can be maintained more
successfully through what Skinner referred to as partial reinforcement schedules. Partial
reinforcement schedules include interval schedules and ratio schedules.

Fixed Interval Schedules. The target response is reinforced after a fixed amount of
time has passed since the last reinforcement.
 Module 8
Variable Interval Schedules. This is similar to fixed interval schedules but the amount
of time that must pass between reinforcement varies.

Fixed Ratio Schedules. A fixed number of correct responses must occur before
reinforcement may recur.

Variable Ratio Schedules. The number of correct repetitions of the correct response
for reinforcement varies.

Implications of Operant Conditioning. These implications are given for programmed

instructions.
1. Practice should take the form of question (stimulus) – answer (response) frames
which expose the student to the subject in gradual steps.
2. Require that the learner makes a response for every frame and receives
immediate feedback.
3. Try to arrange the difficulty to the questions so the response is always correct
and hence, a positive reinforcement.
4. Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired with secondary
reinforcement such as verbal praise, prizes and good grades.

Principles Derived from Skinner’s Operant Conditioning:

1. Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur; intermittent reinforcement is
particularly effective.
2. Information should be presented in a small amount so that responses can be
reinforced (“shaping”).
3. Reinforcements will be generalizing across similar stimuli (“stimulus
generalization”) producing secondary conditioning.

Module 8 Neo Behaviorism: Tolman and Bandura

Learning Theory – Both theories are influenced by behaviorism (which is focused on
external elements in learning), but their principles seem to also be reflective of the
cognitive perspective (focused more on internal elements).

Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism

Purposive behaviorism – has also been referred to as Sign Learning Theory and is
often seen as the link between behaviorism and cognitive theory.
Tolman’s Theory was founded on two psychological views:
 Gestalt psychologists
 John Watson, the behaviorist
Tolman believed that learning is a cognitive process. Learning involves forming beliefs
and obtaining knowledge about the environment and then revealing that knowledge
through purposeful and goal-directed behavior.
Tolman stated in his sign theory that an organism learns by pursuing signs to a goal,
i.e., learning is acquired through meaningful behavior.
Tolman’s form of behaviorism stressed the relationships between stimuli rather than
stimulus-response.
Tolman said that a new stimulus (the sign) becomes associated with already meaningful
stimulus (the significance) through a series of pairings; there is no need for
reinforcement in order to establish learning.

Tolman’s Key Concept

Learning is always purposive and goal-directed.
Tolman asserted that learning is always purposive and goal-directed. He
believed individuals do more than merely respond stimuli; they act on beliefs, attitudes,
changing conditions and they strive toward goals. Tolman saw behavior as holistic,
purposive and cognitive.
Cognitive maps in rats.
In his most famous experiment, one group of rats was placed at random starting
locations in the maze but he food was always in the same location. The group that had
the food in the same location performed much better than other group, supposedly
demonstrating that they had learned the location rather than a specific sequence of
turns. This is tendency to “learn location” signified that rats somehow form cognitive
maps that help them perform well on the maze. He also found out that organisms will
select the shortest or easiest path to achieve a goal.
Latent Learning
A kind of learning that remains or stays with the individual until needed. It is
learning that is not outwardly manifested at once. According to Tolman it can exist
without reinforcement.
The concept of intervening variable.
Intervening variables are variables that are not readily seen but serve as
determinants of behavior. Tolman believed that learning is mediated or is influenced by
expectations, perceptions, representations, needs and other internal and environmental
variables.
Reinforcement not essential for learning.
Tolman concluded that reinforcement is not essential for learning, although it
provides an incentive for performance.

Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

Social Learning theory – focuses on the learning that occurs within a social context. It
considers that people learn from one another, including such concepts as observational
learning, imitation and modeling.
General principles of social learning theory
1. People can learn by observing the behavior of others and the outcomes of those
behaviors.
2. Learning can occur without a change in behavior. Behaviorists say that learning has
to be presented by a permanent change in behavior, in contrast social learning theorists
say that because people can learn through observation alone, their learning may not
necessarily be shown in their performance. Learning may or may not result in a
behavior change.
3. Cognition plays a role in learning. Over the 30 years, social learning theory has
become increasingly cognitive in its interpretation of human learning. Awareness and
expectations of future reinforcements or punishments can have a major effect on the
behaviors that people exhibit.
4. Social learning theory can be considered as a bridge or a transition between
behaviorist learning theories and cognitive learning theories.

How the environment reinforces and punishes modeling

 People are often reinforced for modeling the behavior of others. Bandura suggested
that the environment also reinforces modeling. This is in several possible ways:
1. The observer is reinforced by the model.
For example, a student who changes dress to fit in with a certain group of
students has a strong likelihood of being accepted and thus reinforced by that group.
2. The observer is reinforced by a third person.
The observer might be modeling the actions of someone else, for example, an
outstanding class leader or student.
3. The imitated before itself leads to reinforcing consequences.
Many behaviors that we learn from others produce satisfying or reinforcing
results.
4. Consequences of the model’s behavior affect the observer’s behavior vicariously.
This is known as vicarious reinforcement. This is where the model is reinforced
for a response and then the observer shows an increase in that same response.

Contemporary social learning perspective of reinforcement and punishment

1. Contemporary theories proposes that both reinforcement and punishment have
indirect effects on learning. They are not sole or main cause.
2. Reinforcement and punishment influence the extent to which an individual exhibits a
behavior that has been learned.
3. The expectation of reinforcement influences cognitive processes that promote
learning. Therefore, attention pays a critical role in learning, and attention is influenced
by the expectation of reinforcement. An example would be, when the teacher tells the
group of students that they will study next is not on the test. Students will not pay
attention because they do not expect to know the information for a test.

Cognitive factors in social learning

Social learning theory has cognitive factors as well as behaviorists factors (actually
operant factors).
1. Learning without performance.
Bandura makes a distinction between learning through observation and the
actual imitation of what has been learned.
2. Cognitive processing during learning
 Social learning theorist contend that attention is a critical factor in learning.
3. Expectations
As a result of being reinforced, people form expectations about the
consequences that future behaviors are likely to bring. They expect certain behaviors to
bring reinforcements and others to bring punishment.
4. Reciprocal causation
Bandura proposed that behavior can influence both the environment and the
person. In fact, each of these three variables, the person, the behavior, and the
environment can have an influence on each other.
5. Modeling
There are different types of models
 Live model – an actual person demonstrating the behavior.
 Symbolic model – which can be a person or action portrayed in some
other medium, such as television, videotape, computer programs.

Behaviors that can be learned through modeling

Many behaviors can be learned, at least partly, through modeling. Examples
that can be cited are, students can watch parents read, student can watch
demonstrations of mathematics problems, or see someone act bravely in a fearful
situation.
Aggression can be learned through models. Research indicates that children
become more aggressive when they observe aggressive or violent models.
Moral thinking and moral behavior are influenced by observation and modeling.
This includes moral judgements regarding right and wrong which can, in part, develop
through modeling.

Conditions necessary for effective modeling to occur

Bandura mentions four conditions that are necessary before an individual ca
successfully model the behavior of someone else:
1. Attention – The person must first pay attention to the model.
2. Retention – The observer must be able to remember the behavior that has been
observed. One way of increasing this is using the technique of rehearsal.
 Module 9
3. Motor reproduction – The third condition is the ability to replicate the behavior that
the model has just demonstrated.
4. Motivation – The final necessary ingredient for modeling to occur is motivation.
Learners must want to demonstrate what they have learned.

Effects of modeling on behavior:

1. Modeling teaches new behaviors.
2. Modeling influences the frequency of previously learned behaviors.
3. Modeling may encourage previously forbidden behaviors.
4. Modeling increases the frequency of similar behaviors. For example, a student
might see a friend excel in basketball and he try to excel in football because he is not
tall enough for basketball.

Educational implications of social learning theory

Social learning theory has numerous implications for classroom use.
1. Students often learn a great deal simply by observing other people.
2. Describing the consequences of behavior can effectively increase the appropriate
behaviors and decrease inappropriate ones. This can involve discussing with learners
about the rewards and consequences of various behaviors.
3. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teacher new behaviors. Instead of
using shaping, which is operant conditioning, modeling can provide a faster, more
efficient means for teaching new behavior. To promote effective modeling, a teacher
must make sure that the four essential conditions exist; attention, retention, motor
reproduction, and motivation.
4. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors and take care that they
do not model inappropriate behaviors.
5. Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models. This technique is
especially important to breakdown traditional stereotypes.
 GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY

GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY
-was at the forefront of the cognitive psychology. It serves as the foundations of
the cognitive perspective learning. It opposed the external and mechanistic focus of
behaviorism. It considered the mental processes and products of perceptions.
GESTALT THEORY
- was the initial cognitive response to behaviorism. It emphasized the importance
of sensory wholes and dynamic nature of visual perception. The term Gestalt means
"Form or Configuration".
GESTALT PRINCIPLES
1.LAW OF PROXIMITY
- Elements that are closer together will be perceived as a coherent object.
When objects we are perceiving are near each other we perceive them as belonging
together.
2.LAW OF SIMILARITY
- Elements that look like similar will be perceive as part to the same form.
3. LAW OF CLOSURE
- We tend to fill the gaps or "close" the figures we perceive. We enclose the
space by completing a contour and ignoring gaps in the figure.
4.Law of good continuation
-Individuals have the tendency to continue contours whenever the elements of
rage pattern establish an implied direction. People tend to draw a good continues line.
5. Law of good pragnanz
- The stimulus will be organized into as good a figure as possible. In this
example, good to symmetry, simplicity, and regularity. The figure is perceived as a
square overlapping a triangle not a combination of several complicated shapes. Based
on our experience with perception, we "expect" certain partners and therefore perceive
that expected patterns.
6. Law of figure/ground
- We tend to pay attention and perceive things in the foreground first. A stimulus
will be perceiving as separate from its ground.
 Module 10
INSIGHT LEARNING
Gestalt psychology adheres to the idea of learning taking place by discovery or insight.

GESTALT PRINCIPLES AND THE TEACHING-LEARNING PROCESS

The six gestalt principles not only influence perception but they also impact in learning.
Kurt Lewin expounded on gestalt psychology. His theory is focusing on "life space"
adhered to gestalt psychology.
He said that individual has inner and outer forces that affect his perceptions and also his
learning.
INNER FORCES
- Include his own motivation, attitudes, and feelings.
OUTER SPACE
- Include the attitude and behavior of the teacher and the classmate.

All those forces interact and impact on the person's learning.

 INFORMATION PROCESSING

Information Processing
-is a cognitive theoretical framework that focuses on how knowledge enters and
is stored in and is retrieve from our memory.
INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY(IPT)
-describes how the learner receives information (stimuli) from the environment through
the senses and what takes place in between determines whether the information will
continue to pass through the sensory register, then the short term memory and the long
term memory.
"TYPES" of knowledge

 Genera vs. Specific

This involves whether the knowledge is useful in many tasks or only in one.
 Declarative
This refers to factual knowledge. They relate to the nature of how things are.
They may be in the form of a word or an image.
 Procedural
This includes knowledge on how to do things.
 Episodic
This includes memories of life events, like your high school graduation.
 Conditional
This is about "knowing when and why" to apply declarative or procedural
strategies.

STAGES IN THE INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY

3 primary stages in IPT
1. Encoding - Information is sensed, perceived and attended t.
2. Storage - the information is stored for either a brief or extended period of time,
depending upon the process following encoding.
3. Retrieval - the information is brought back at the appropriate time and reactivate for
use on a current task, the true measure of effective memory.
3 main stages in memory process
1. Sensory register - the first step in the IP model holds all sensory information for a
very brief time.
 Capacity
 Our mind receives a great amount of information but it is more than our minds
can hold or perceive.
 Duration
The sensory register only holds the information for an extremely brief period-in
the order of 1 to 3 seconds.
There is a difference in duration based on modality, auditory memory is more persistent
than visual.
Short-term memory or (working memory)
 Capacity
The ATM can only hold 49 chunks of information.it is called working memory
because it is where new information is temporary placed while it is mentally
processed. STM maintains information for a limited time, until the learner has
adequate resources to process information, or until the information is forgotten.
 Duration
Around 18 seconds or less
To reduce the lose information in 18 seconds, you need to do maintenance rehearsal. It
is using the repetition to keep the information active in STM.
Long-term memory (LTM)
The LTM is the final or permanent storing house for memory information. It holds the
stored information until needed again.
 Capacity
LTM has unlimited capacity.
 Duration
Duration in LTM is indefinite.
2. Executive Control Process
It involves the executive processor or what is referred to as metacognitive skills. The
process guides the flow of information through the system, help the learner make
informed decisions about how to categorize, organize or interpret information.
3. Forgetting
Is the inability to retrieve or access information when needed.
There are two main ways in which forgetting likely occurs:

 Decay
Information is not attended to, and eventually 'fades' away. Very relevant in
working memory.
 Interference
New or old information 'blocks' access to the information question.
Methods for increasing retrieval of information

 Rehearsal
 This is repeating information verbatim, either mentally or loud.
 Meaningful learning
This is making connections between new information and prior knowledge
 Organization
it is making connections among various pieces of information. Info that is
organize efficiently should be recalled
 Elaboration
This is adding additional ideas to new information based on what one already
knows. It is connecting new info with old to gain meaning
 Visual imagery
This means forming a 'picture' of the information
 Generation
Things we 'produce' are easier to remember than things we hear
 Context
Remembering the situation helps recover the information
 Pnersonalization
It is making the information relevant to the individual
Other memory methods

 Serial position effect (recency or primacy)

You will remember the beginning and end of a 'list' more readily
 Part learning
Breakup the 'list' or 'chunk' information to increase memorization
 Distributed practice
Breakup learning sessions, rather than cramming all the info in at once (massed
practice)
 Mnemonic aids
This are memory techniques that learner may employ to help them retain and
retrieve information more effectively. This include the loci technique, acronym,
sentence construction, peg-word and association techniques among others.

Information is received through the senses and goes to the sensory memory for a very
brief amount of time. If not found relevant information may decay. It goes to the STM
and if given attention and is perceived and found to be relevant, it is sent to LTM. If not
properly encoded, forgetting occurs. Different cognitive processes applied to the
information will then determine if information can be retrieved when needed later.
 WRITTEN REPORT
IN
FACILITATING LEARNER-
CENTERED CLASSROOM
(ED 203)
~Chapter 6-10~
Members:
Gracelyn, Hernan
Raffy, Jakosalem
Mharllan, Labrador
Lixsa Gift, Lasuta
Ana Rose, Losanoy
Marvey, Mag-aso
Jonah, Magdasal
Time: MWF (9:00-10:00 am)