Module No.

and Title 1 FACILITATING LEARNER CENTERED TEACHING

Lesson No. and Title 1.3 Learning Theories

Learning Outcomes: a. Explain the basic principle of the different theories of learning. b.
Make a simple plan applying the primary laws of learning
c. Determine how to use rewards in the learning process more effectively
d. Explain Tolman’s purposive behaviorism
e. Explain Banduras’s social learning theory.
f. Give specific applications of each theory in teaching.

INTRODUCTION

With new researches, explanations provided but the basic principles of behaviorism
appeared not satisfy all learning scenarios. New theories came into view which maintained some of
the behaviorist concepts but excluded others, and added new ideas which later came to be
associated with the cognitive views of learning. The neo-behaviorist, then, were transitional group,
bridging the gap behaviorism and cognitive theories learning.

ACTIVITY

A. Working on Maze
 B. WORD PUZZLE/GARDEN OF HERBS
What are the herbs approved by the Department of Health?
A C A P U L K O C V B N L L K

B M O T S A A N G G U B A T W

C M P N B H L P I F D S G F O

D Q B A W A N G S D X C U H K

F A A N L S A M B O N G N Q W

Z Z Y X C A C V B N M T D T K

D Z A C G V Y N H G S R I A L

G Q B P U A S A Q F B N U Y E

O X A O N Y E R B A B U E N A

L C S W D A S D F G R E S T J

P A N S I T P A N S I T A N O

N I Y O G N I Y O G A N A S F

1. For ringworm and other skin (fungal) infections. -Acapulko

2. For non-insulin dependent diabetic patients -Ampalaya
3. For blood pressure control. –Garlic/bawang
4. For use antiseptic disinfect wounds for mouthwash or tooth decay and gum infection.–
Bayabas
5. For cough and asthma -Lagundi
6. For intestinal worms, particularly ascaris and trichina. Niyog-niyogan
7. For urinary stones -Sambong
8. For mouthwash –Tsaang Gubat
9. For arthritis and gout –Pansit-pansitan
10. For relief from body aches and pains. –Yerba Buena

ANALYSIS

A. WORKING ON A MAZE

1. How did you solve maze A.? What strategy did you use? I analyze first the maze before I
Answer it. Analyzing first the problem is the strategy I used to solve the maze
 (trial and error, examined the maze before proceeding with your pen etc.)
2. Was it easier to solve maze B? Why? Both Easy

B. WORD PUZZLE/GARDEN OF HERBS

Reflection Questions;
1. As a student, what factor influence learning? Skill competency and
perceived competency are both critical for student engagement and
learning. When students believe that they have the skills to participate
successfully in an activity, they approach it with more interest and confidence, and they are
more willing to put effort into the task.
2. What are the negative implications of technology to intellectual and
social development of young children? Too much usage of technology may weaken the
intellectual and social – development of young children.

ABSTRACTION

People learn through repetition. Learner is a passive blank slate shaped by environmental
stimuli, both positive and negative reinforcement. This topic helps you understand behaviorism and
its connection to learning reinforcement.

BEHAVIORISM

This particular learning theory assumes that the learner is essentially passive, simply
responding to their environmental stimuli. Behavioral theorists therefore believe that a
learner basically begins as a clean slate, and their behavior is shaped by positive/negative
reinforcement.

The theory of behaviorism focuses on the study of observable and measurable behavior. It
emphasizes that behavior is mostly learned through conditioning and reinforcement (rewards and
punishment). It does not give much attention to the mind, and the possibility of thought processes
occurring in the mind. Contributions in the development of the behaviorist theory largely came from
Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike and Skinner.

Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiological is well known for his work in classical conditioning or
stimulus substitution. Pavlov’s most renowned experiment involved meat, a dog and a bell. Initially,
Pavlov was measuring the dog’s salivation in order to study digestion. This is when he stumbled upon
classical conditioning.
Pavlov’s Experiment.

Before conditioning, ringing the bell (neutral stimulus) caused

no
response from the dog. Placing dog food (unconditioned stimulus) in
front of the dog initiated salivation (unconditioned response). During
conditioning, the bell was rung a few seconds before the dog was
presented with food. After conditioning, the ringing of the bell
(conditioned stimulus) alone produce salivation (conditioned response).
This is classical conditioning.
 Figure 1
Pavlov’s Experiment Schematic

PAVLOV ALSO HAD THE FOLLOWING FINDINGS:

Stimulus Generalization. Once the dog has learned to salivate at the sound of the bell, it well
salivate at the other similar sounds

Extinction. If you stop pairing the bell with the food, salivation will eventually cease in response to
the bell.
Spontaneous Recovery. Extinguished responses can be “recovered” after an elapsed time, but will
soon extinguish again if the dog is not presented with food.

Discrimination. The dog could learn to discriminate between similar bells (stimuli) and discern which
bell would result in the presentation of food and which would not.

Higher-Order Conditioning. Once the dog has been conditioned to associate the bell with food,
another unconditioned stimulus, such as a light may be flashed at the same time that the
bell is rung. Eventually the dog will salivate at the flash of the light without the sound of the
bell.
CONNECTIONISM

Connectionism is a learning theory developed by George Siemens and Steven Downs.

It stresses the connections and combinatorial creativity. All the knowledge is out there – it’s a
matter of making the connections. Siemens (2004) states, “A community is the clustering of
similar areas of interest that allows for interaction, sharing, dialoguing, and thinking
together.”
For example, if a learner is trying to learn how Donald Trump has risen to power,
they may start on a Facebook post that a friend made, which could then take them to an
article, but the text is dense and confusing, so instead the student the student scroll down to
 the comments sections and finds another link to blog, and from the blog there is an
embedded YouTube video that they watch to more fully understand the issue. The student
has used various forms of gathering information using the internet, and has gleaned the
most salient information by using many different modes to more fully understand the issue.

Edward Lee Thorndike

1904-1990

Edward Thorndike’s Connectionism theory gave us the original S-R framework of behavioral
psychology. More than a hundred years ago he wrote a text book entitled, Educational Psychology.
He was the first one to use this term. He explained that learning is the result of associations forming
between stimuli and responses. Such associations or “habits” become strengthened or weakened by
the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings. The model for S-R theory was trial and error learning in
which certain responses came to be repeated than others because of rewards. The main principle of
connectionism (like all behavioral theory) was that learning could be adequately explained without
considering any unobservable internal states. Thorndike’s theory on connectionism stated that
learning has taken place when a strong connection or bond between stimulus and response is
formed. He came up with three primary laws.

Edward Thorndike (1898) is famous in psychology for his work on learning theory that lead to
the development of operant conditioning within Behaviorism. Whereas classical conditioning
depends on developing associations between events, operant conditioning involves learning from
the consequences of our behavior.

Skinner wasn’t the first psychologist to study learning by consequences. Indeed, Skinner's
theory of operant conditioning is built on the ideas of Edward Thorndike.

Figure 1
Simplified graph of the result of the puzzle box experiment.
He placed a cat in the puzzle box, which was encouraged to escape to reach a scrap of fish
placed outside. Thorndike would put a cat into the box and time how long it took to escape. The cats
experimented with different ways to escape the puzzle box and reach the fish.
Eventually they would stumble upon the lever which opened the cage. When it had escaped
it was put in again, and once more the time it took to escape was noted. In successive trials the cats
would learn that pressing the lever would have favorable consequences and they would adopt this
behavior, becoming increasingly quick at pressing the lever.

Edward Thorndike put forward a “Law of effect” which stated that any behavior that is
followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and any behavior followed by unpleasant
consequences is likely to be stopped.
THORDIKE’S THEORY ON CONNECTIONISM stated that learning has taken place when a
strong connection or bond between stimulus and response is formed. He came up with three
primary laws:

Law of Effect.
The Law of Effect stated that a connection between a stimulus
and response is strengthened when the consequence is positive (reward)
and the connection between the stimulus and the response is weakened
when the consequence is negative.
Thorndike later on, revised this “law” when he found that negative
reward, seemingly pleasurable consequences do not necessarily
motivate
performance.

Law of Exercise.
Tell us that the more an S-R (stimulus response) bond in practice the stronger it will become.
“Practice makes perfect” seem to be associated with this. However, like the law of effect, the law of
exercise also had to revise when Thorndike found that practice without feedback does not
necessarily enhance performance.

Law of Readiness.
This states that, the more readiness the learner has to respond to the stimulus, the stronger
will be the bond between them. When a person is ready to a stimulus and is not made to respond, it
becomes annoying to the person. Example, if the teacher says, “Okay we will now watch the movie
(stimulus) you’ve been waiting for.” And suddenly the power goes off, the students will feel
frustrated because they were ready to respond to the stimulus but were prevented from doing so.
Likewise, if the person is not at all ready to respond to stimuli and is asked to respond, that becomes
annoying. For instance, the teacher asks the question and expects the students to respond right
away when he is still not ready. This will be annoying to the student. This is why teacher should
remember to say the question first, and wait for a few seconds before calling on anyone to answer.

Principles Derived from Thorndike’s Connectionism:

1. Learning requires both practice and reward (laws of effect/exercise)

2. A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they belong to the same action
(law of readiness)
3. Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations.
4. Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.
Behaviorism: Tolman & Bandura

Generalization: Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism

Usually, people who worked on a maze activity, which you just did, would say they found the
second maze easier. This is because they say that the two mazes were identical, except that the
entrance and exit points had been reversed. Their experience in Maze A was much easier for them to
answer Maze B. People are building mind maps of events that they perceived. These mental maps
help them to respond to other things or tasks later, particularly if they see the similarity. You may
start responding with trial and error (behavioral), but later on your response becomes more
internally driven (cognitive perspective). This is what neo-behaviorism is all about. It has behavioral
aspects, but it also has a cognitive perspective.
 There are two neo-behaviorism-reflecting theories that stand out. Edward Tolman's
purposive behaviorism and Albert Bandura's theory of social learning. Both theories are influenced
by behaviorism (focused on internal elements and learning).

Tolman's Purposive Behaviorism

Purpose behaviorism has also been referred to as sign learning theory and is often seen as a
link between behaviorism and cognitive theory. Tolman 's theory was based on the psychological
views of the Gestalt Psychologist and the behaviorist John Watson.

Tolman believes that learning is a cognitive process. Learning involves building belief in the
acquisition of knowledge about the environment and then the discovery of knowledge through
purposeful and objective behavior.

Tolman stated in his sign theory that an organism

learns by
pursuing signs for a goal, i.e. learning is acquired through
meaningful
behavior. He stressed that the organized aspect of learning is
acquired
through meaningful behavior. He emphasized that the
organized aspect
of learning is that the stimuli allowed in are not connected by
simple
one-to-one switches to the outgoing reactions. Rather, the incoming
impulses are usually worked out and elaborated in the central control
room into a tentative cognitive environment map. And it is this tentative
map, indicating routes and pathways, and environmental relations that
finally determines what kind of response the animal will finally make.

Tolman's form of behaviorism underscored the relationship between stimuli rather than
stimulus-response. Tolman said that a new stimulus (sign) would be associated with already
meaningful stimuli (significant ones) through a series of pairings; there was no need for
reinforcement to establish learning. In your labyrinth activity, the new stimulus or "sign" (maze B)
has become associated with the already meaningful stimulus, the signicate (maze A). So you may
have connected the two stimuli, Labyrinth A and Labyrinth B, and used your knowledge and
experience in Labyrinth A to learn how to respond to Labyrinth A.

Tolman’s Key Concepts

This is a learning theory that was in response to behaviorism. Psychologist who promoted
this idea claimed that behaviorism failed to explain cognition. In this theory, mind is an information
processor. It emphasizes understanding the concept as a whole instead of just the piece.
This is the learning theory that was taught in developing
online
education using Blooms Taxonomy. Examples of cognitivist
strategies for learning higher-level thinking are starting a lesson
with a hook to create interest, a review quiz to promote prior
learning, using learning outcomes, chunking content into organized
bite-sized pieces, using graphic organizers, and the student takes
on an active role on learning. The teacher gives lots of
encouragement and positive feedback.

Social Learning Theory:

Albert Bandura
The social learning theory of Bandura emphasizes the importance of observing and
modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Bandura (1977) states:
“Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely
on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behavior
is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how
new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for
action. Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal
interaction between cognitive, behavioral, an environmental influences.

The component processes underlying observational learning are:

1. Attention - includes modeled events (distinctiveness, affective valence, complexity,
prevalence, functional value) and observer characteristics
(sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement).
2. Retention - includes symbolic coding, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor
rehearsal)
3. Motor Reproduction - includes physical capabilities, self-observation of reproduction,
accuracy of feedback.
4. Motivation, including external, vicarious and self-reinforcement.

1. People can learn by observing the behavior of the others and the outcomes of those
behaviors.
2. Learning can occur without a change in behavior.
3. Cognition plays a role in learning.
4. Social learning can be considered a bridge or a transition between behaviorist learning
theories and cognitive learning theories.

People are often to reinforced for modeling the behavior of others. Bandura suggested that
the environment also reinforces modeling. This is several possible ways; 1. The observer
is reinforced by the model
2. The observer reinforce by a third person
3. The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing consequences
4. Consequences of the model’s behavior affect the observer’s behavior vicariously.

1. Contemporary theory
proposes that both reinforcement and punishment have indirect effects on learning.
2. Reinforcement ad punishment influence the extent to which an individual exhibits a behavior
that has been learned

3. The expectation of reinforcement process that promote learning.

 1. Learning without performance. (through observation and actual imitation)
2. Cognitive processing during learning (attention)
3. Expectations (consequences)
4. Reciprocal causation (person, behavior and environment)
5. Modeling (live models, and symbolic models)

1. Attention – mental focus or concentration, willingness of the child to observe and mimic the
behavior of a model.
2. Retention – To encode the behavior in the memory, ability to store information.
3. Motor Production – To actually perform the behavior observe
4. Motivation/Reinforcement – Force that drives one to act.

COGNITIVISM

Cognitivism revived the psychological study of thinking, developing scientifically rigorous

ways of studying unobservable mental activity. In this module you will encounter different
questions on how cognitivism brings on the development of learning, and you will find answers
or solution to these questions.

What is Cognitivism?
Cognitivism is "the psychology of learning which emphasizes human cognition or intelligence
as a special endowment enabling man to form hypotheses and develop intellectually" (Cognitivism)
and is also known as cognitive development. The underlying concepts of cognitivism involve how we
think and gain knowledge. Cognitivism involves examining learning, memory, problem solving skills,
and intelligence. Cognitive theorists may want to understand how problem-solving changes
throughout childhood, how cultural differences affect the way we view our own academic
achievements, language development, and much more. (Feldman, Cognitivism)

How Does Learning Occur?

Cognitive theories stress the acquisition of knowledge and internal mental structures and,
as such, are closer to the rationalist end of the epistemology continuum (Bower & Hilgard, 1981).
Learning is equated with discrete changes between states of knowledge rather than with changes in
the probability of response. Cognitive theories focus on the conceptualization of students’ learning
processes and address the issues of how information is received, organized, stored, and retrieved by
the mind. Learning is concerned not so much with what learners do but with what they know and
how they come to acquire it (Jonassen, 1991b). Knowledge acquisition is described as a mental
activity that entails internal coding and structuring by the learner. The learner is viewed as a very
active participant in the learning process.
Which factors Influence Learning?
Cognitivism, like behaviorism, emphasizes the role that
environmental conditions play in facilitating learning. Instructional
explanations, demonstrations, illustrative examples and matched
non-examples are all considered to be instrumental in guiding
student learning. Similarly, emphasis is placed on the role of practice
with corrective feedback. Up to this point, little difference can be
detected between these two theories. However, the “active” nature
of the learner is perceived quite differently.

The cognitive approach focuses on the mental activities of the learner that lead up to a
response and acknowledges the processes of mental planning, goal-setting, and organizational
strategies (Shuell, 1986). Cognitive theories contend that environmental “cues” and instructional
components alone cannot account for all the learning that results from an instructional situation.
Additional key elements include the way that learners attend to, code, transform, rehearse, store
and retrieve information. Learners’ thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, and values are also considered to be
influential in the learning process (Winne, 1985). The real focus of the cognitive approach is on
changing the learner by encouraging him/her to use appropriate learning strategies.

How Does Transfer Occur?

According to cognitive theories, transfer is a function of how information is stored in memory
(Schunk, 1991). When a learner understands how to apply knowledge in different contexts, then
transfer has occurred. Understanding is seen as being composed of a knowledge base in the form of
rules, concepts, and discriminations (Duffy & Jonassen, 1991). Prior knowledge is used to establish
boundary constraints for identifying the similarities and differences of novel information. Not only
must the knowledge itself be stored in memory but the uses of that knowledge as well. Specific
instructional or real-world events will trigger particular responses, but the learner must believe that
the knowledge is useful in a given situation before he will activate it.

Classroom Implications
In a classroom environment, there are many variables that influence and contribute to
learning. When creating and implementing a learning environment, it is imperative that the teachers
not only create a setting that promotes learning, but also take the time to understand each child.
Classrooms are widely diverse and complex. Students learn differently and are at various
developmental levels. Teachers who properly manage their classrooms and establish expectations
will be able to incorporate diverse teaching philosophies and create an excellent learning
environment for each student. It is important that teachers create a learning environment that
encourages students to do their best and makes learning interesting. This creates a motivational
climate within the classroom.

There are two factors that are critical to motivate students, value and effort. (Classroom
Management) Students must understand that the work they are performing is worthwhile. Value
measures the importance of a student's work to himself and others. Effort is the amount of time and
energy students put into their work. Understanding the value of academic tasks and the effort
needed to complete those tasks can motivate students to perform better in the classroom
environment (Classroom Management)

Cognitive Development Implied in the Classroom (“Piaget’s Theory”)

• Teachers should carefully assess the current stage of a child's cognitive development and only
assign tasks for which the child is prepared. The child can then be given tasks that are
tailored to their developmental level and are motivating.
• Teachers must provide children with learning opportunities that enable them to advance
through each developmental stage. This is achieved by creating disequilibrium. Teachers
should maintain a proper balance between actively guiding the child and allowing
opportunities for them to explore things on their own to learn through discovery.
• Teachers should be concerned with the process of learning rather than the end product. For
example, the teacher should observe the way a child manipulates play dough instead of
concentrating on a finished shape.
 • Children should be encouraged to learn from each other. Hearing others' views can help
breakdown egocentrism. It is important for teachers to provide multiple opportunities for
small group activities.
• Piaget believed that teachers should act as guides to children's learning processes and that the
curriculum should be adapted to individual needs and developmental levels.

Examples of Cognitive Games in the Classroom

Cognitive games are designed to help stimulate various regions of the brain. These games are used to
improve reflexes, help people learn, promote critical thinking, and help people learn different
patterns of association. Cognitive games are helpful when used to learn a foreign language and
memorize new material. Various learning techniques are used in the classroom because there are
various learning styles. There are many games that promote and influence cognitive learning.

Examples of cognitive games include:

Educational Websites and Computer Games

Most educational websites computer games focus on stimulating a young child's senses
while engaging them in various cognitive tasks. Below are three of the many learning websites that
are available to enhance cognitive development in young children. Example, PBS kids Educational
Games, Spelling City, Cognitive Fun Games etc.

Sorting Games
Sorting games require individuals to utilize recognition and reasoning. Teachers can engage
children in games in which the children sort items by various criteria, such as color, size, texture, and
other physical attributes of the items. A more advanced approach to sorting is discussing how the
items are similar. This process promotes critical thinking.

Flash Cards
Flash cards can be used various tasks. This involves notecards or an even scrap of paper in
which two parts of information is written on either side of the notecard. These can be as simple as
having cards with a red dot on one side and the word red on the other. Flash cards are typically used
in a classroom for drills or in private study. These cards are used to aid memorization. Pre-made flash
cards are available for many subjects. Teachers and students may also make homemade flash cards,
depending on how and what they are studying. Flash cards may also be personalized and printed
from certain websites. (Flashcards) Flash cards can be utilized into various games as well.

Board Games
Teachers may include board games in their classrooms to promote cognitive development.
Unlike computer and video games, boardgames are tangible. Children can manipulate different
pieces in the game. Board games can be implemented to enhance mathematical and linguistic skills
and enhance a child's ability to understand and follow directions. Example, monopoly and bingo
Puzzles
Finding a solution to a puzzle develops a child's problem solving ability. Children who
actively solve puzzles that they are able to touch and piece together are more likely to understand
certain concepts and develop their own theories about those concepts.

CONSTRUCTIVISM
 In this unit you will be introduce to many of the
issues
understanding and applying constructivism and
constructivist
principles for instructional design purposes.

Students learn new things through experience.

They build
knowledge through experiences and interactions. In
cognitive
learning, the students are taught to do something in
constructivism. The students are encouraged to discover
something on their own; this is known as self-directed learning. The
major difference is that cognitive learning is about building on prior
knowledge, and constructivism is about building new ideas and
concepts based on your own discoveries.

What are the principles of constructivism?

1. Knowledge is constructed, rather than innate, or passively absorbed

Constructivism's central idea is that human learning is constructed, that learners build new
knowledge upon the foundation of previous learning. This prior knowledge influences what new or
modified knowledge an individual will construct from new learning experiences (Phillips, 1995).

2. Learning is an active process.

The second notion is that learning is an active rather than a passive process. The passive view of
teaching views the learner as ‘an empty vessel’ to be filled with knowledge, where constructivism
states that learners construct meaning only through active engagement with the world (such as
experiments or real-world problem solving). Information may be passively received, but
understanding cannot be, for it must come from making meaningful connections between prior
knowledge, new knowledge, and the processes involved in learning.

3. All Knowledge is socially constructed

Learning is a social activity - it is something we do together, in interaction with each other, rather
than an abstract concept (Dewey, 1938). For example, Vygotsky (1978), believed that community
plays a central role in the process of "making meaning." For Vygotsky, the environment in which
children grow up will influence how they think and what they think about. Thus, all teaching and
learning is a matter of sharing and negotiating socially constituted knowledge. For example, Vygotsky
(1978) states cognitive development stems from social interactions from guided learning within the
zone of proximal development as children and their partner's construct knowledge.

4. All knowledge is Personal

Each individual learner has a distinctive point of view, based on existing knowledge and values.
This means that same lesson, teaching or activity may result in different learning by each pupil, as
their subjective interpretations differ.
This principle appears to contradict the view the knowledge is socially constructed. Fox (2001, p.
30) argues (a) that although individuals have their own personal history of learning, nevertheless
they can share in common knowledge, and (b) that although education is a social process,
powerfully influenced by cultural factors, nevertheless cultures are made up of sub- cultures, even
to the point of being composed of sub-cultures of one. Cultures and their knowledge-base are
constantly in a process of change and the knowledge stored by individuals is not a rigid copy of some
socially constructed template. In learning a culture, each child changes that culture.

5. Learning exists in the mind

The constructivist theory posits that knowledge can only exist within the human mind, and that it
does not have to match any real world reality (Driscoll, 2000). Learners will be constantly trying to
develop their own individual mental model of the real world from their perceptions of that world. As
they perceive each new experience, learners will continually update their own mental models to
reflect the new information, and will, therefore, construct their own interpretation of reality.

What are the three main types of constructivism?

Typically, this continuum is divided into three broad categories:

Cognitive constructivism based on the work of Jean Piaget, social constructivism based on
the work of Lev Vygotsky, and radical
constructivism. According to the GSI Teaching and Resource Center (2015, p.5): Cognitive
constructivism states knowledge is something that is actively constructed by learners based on their
existing cognitive structures. Therefore, learning is relative to their stage of cognitive development.

Cognitivist teaching methods aim to assist students in assimilating new information to

existing knowledge, and enabling them to make the appropriate modifications to their existing
intellectual framework to accommodate that information. According to social constructivism
learning is a collaborative process, and knowledge develops from individuals' interactions with their
culture and society.

Social constructivism was developed by Lev Vygotsky (1978,) who suggested that, every
function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level and, later on, on
the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child
(intrapsychological).

Radical constructivism was developed by Ernst von Glasersfeld (1974) and states that all
knowledge is constructed rather than perceived through senses. Learners construct new knowledge
on the foundations of their existing knowledge. However, radical constructivism states that the
knowledge individuals create tells us nothing about reality, and only helps us to function in your
environment. Thus, knowledge is invented not discovered. The humanly constructed reality is all the
time being modified and interacting to fit ontological reality, although it can never give a ‘true
picture’ of it. (Ernest, 1994,)

What is the role of the teacher in a constructivist classroom?

The primary responsibility of the teacher is to create a collaborative problem-solving

environment where students become active participants in their own learning. From this perspective,
a teacher acts as a facilitator of learning rather than an instructor. The teacher makes sure he/she
understands the students' preexisting conceptions, and guides the activity to address them and then
build on them (Oliver, 2000).
Scaffolding is a key feature of effective teaching, where the adult continually adjusts the
level of his or her help in response to the learner's level of performance. In the classroom,
scaffolding can include modeling a skill, providing hints or cues, and adapting material or activity
(Copple & Bredekamp, 2009).

Features of a Constructivist Classroom

Tam (2000) lists the following four basic characteristics of constructivist learning
environments, which must be considered when implementing constructivist teaching strategies:

1) Knowledge will be shared between teachers and students.

2) Teachers and students will share authority.
3) The teacher's role is one of a facilitator or guide.
4) Learning groups will consist of small numbers of heterogeneous students.

APPLICATION

Now let us turn to applying what we have learned about learning theories that guide the
teaching practice of educators like your. As an example, try thinking of how to apply Thorndike’s
Connectionism by following the instructions below.
a. Choose a topic you want to teach
b. Discuss the ways you can apply the three primary laws while you teach the topic.

Prepare a 2-minute recorded speech on your response. Request a fellow student and/ or
teacher to comment on it.

CLOSURE

Congratulations learner for finishing this lesson! You may have arrived already at a
conclusion at this point that there is no single or perfect learning theory that applies to every
student. What is more important to remember is that, for the novice learner, behaviorism will be
applied to novice learner where they study fact based on information, cognitivism will be applied to
established learner where they make connections using fact based information, while constructivism
will be applied to sophisticated-learners where they use fact based information and knowledge of
connections to create greater understanding of a content area.

The typical classroom has myriads of learners who have different experiences, needs and
learning styles. Teaching and learning methodologies have to be constantly revised, changed and
modified. Therefore, different learning theories should be utilized to accommodate a variety of
learner, in order to create an environment that will be beneficial to both the teacher the learners.

You are about to begin Lesson 4 in the next page. This lesson will help you understand why
becoming knowledgeable about learner- centered pedagogical approaches and knowing the learning
theories on which they are founded will help you successfully develop your skillset or teaching
competencies.

Said teaching competencies of a Filipino teacher like you in the near future are expected to
become proficient in what is referred to as the PHILIPPINE PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS FOR
TEACHERS or PPST.