 Akeem Dennis

GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Module : One 1
 Contents

1. Accuracy
2. Authority
3. Bias
4. Currency
5. Data
6. Data Collection
7. Discourse Types
8. Extract
9. Interviews
10. Language Techniques
11. Levels of Comprehension
12. Listening Comprehension
13. Literary Devices
14. Main Idea/ Point
15. Observation
16. Organizational / Language Strategies
17. Population
18. Primary Source
19. Qualitative Research
20. Quantitative Research
21. Questionnaire
22. Random Sample
23. Reliability
24. Research
25. Sample
26. Secondary Source
27. Source
28. Survey
29. Tone
30. Validity
31. Writer's Purpose
1. Accuracy

The quality or state of being correct or precise.

Example: "we have confidence in the accuracy of the statistics"

2. Authority

The power or right to control, judge, or prohibit the actions of others.

Example: “the violinist lacked authority in his cadenza”

3. Bias

An attitude that you have that makes you treat someone in a way that is unfair or different
from the way you treat other people.
Example:” They were accused of bias against people over 50.”

4. Currency

The system of money used in a particular country.

Example:” the buying and selling of foreign currencies”
5. Data

Data are individual units of information. A datum describes a single quality or quantity of
some object or phenomenon. In analytical processes, data are represented by variables.
Although the terms "data", "information" and "knowledge" are often used
interchangeably, each of these terms has a distinct meaning.

Facts and statistics collected together for reference or analysis.

Example: "there is very little data available"

6. Data Collection

Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of

interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated research
questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes.

Regardless of the field of study or preference for defining data (quantitative or

qualitative), accurate data collection is essential to maintaining the integrity of research.
The selection of appropriate data collection instruments (existing, modified, or newly
developed) and clearly delineated instructions for their correct use reduce the likelihood
of errors.

7. Discourse Types

a. Definition of Discourse

Discourse is any written or spoken communication. Discourse can also be described as

the expression of thought through language. While discourse can refer to the smallest act
of communication, the analysis can be quite complex. Several scholars in many different
disciplines have theorized about the different types and functions of discourse.

b. Types of Discourse

While every act of communication can count as an example of discourse, some scholars
have broken discourse down into four primary types: argument, narration, description,
and exposition. Many acts of communicate include more than one of these types in quick
succession.

Argument: A form of communication meant to convince an audience that the writer or

speaker is correct, using evidence and reason.
 Narration: This form of communication tells a story, often with emotion and empathy
involved.

Description: A form of communication that relies on the five senses to help the audience
visualize something.

Exposition: Exposition is used to inform the audience of something with relatively neutral
language, i.e., it’s not meant to persuade or evoke emotion.

8. Extract

To extract a substance means to obtain it from something else.

Example:” Citric acid can be extracted from the juice of oranges, lemons, limes or
grapefruit.

9. Interviews

An interview is a formal meeting at which someone is asked questions in order to find out
if they are suitable for a job or a course of study.

Example:” When I went for my first interview for this job, I arrived extremely early.

10. Language Techniques

These include literary techniques and figures of speech that we use in the English
language to convey messages, meaning, or depth in our writing, poetry, or story lines.

a. Alliteration: An alliteration is a repetition of sounds that are similar. These similar

sounds are generally consonants and will appear at the beginning of words. For
example, the phrase “sweet-scented stuff” from Robert Frost’s poem, “Out, out” is an
example of alliteration.

b. Allusion: An allusion occurs in a literary work and will a reference a literary,

historical, or biblical person, place, or event from another piece of literary work or a
separate occurrence in itself.

c. Assonance: Assonance is like alliteration, although this time the repetition occurs in
the vowel sound of the word. For example, the sentence, “The mother spoke in a low
mellow tone” contains the repetition of the “o” sound.

d. Caricature: This technique involves a description or characterization that is a little

far-fetched. It is usually used when mocking a character or attempting to amplify
some of its features to make it appear more cartoon-ish.
e. Cliché: You have probably heard someone say a cliché before. Clichés are a
technique of expression. However, usually clichés have been used over and over so
many times that it has lost its effect. Still, people are able to get the gist of its
meaning.

f. Epiphany: Have you ever had a sudden, powerful realization or life-changing

thought? This is what happens in an epiphany, and in a story, authors often have
characters can experience these extraordinary moments.

g. Foreshadowing: This technique involves the author, writer, or narrator’s use of hints
or suggestions that will give a sort of “preview” of events that may occur later on in
the story. It is up to the audience to decipher the use of foreshadowing for
themselves.

h. Hyperbole: Here is another use of exaggeration or overstating in order to get a point

across. For instance, the phrase, “I have told you a million times!” may not be exactly
true. However, the person may have felt they repeated themselves over, and over!

i. Idiom: Like clichés, these are expressions that you have probably heard before.
Idioms, however, do not have a literal meaning. For instance, the phrase, “It is
raining cats and dogs!”

j. Imagery: This is a popular English language that will set up an image or scene in the
audience’s mind to make a sensory impression. The use of imagery is very useful
when there are no pictures or visual references to adhere to.

k. Irony: Irony is used to differentiate or contrast two things: the first being the way
things are expected to be, and the second being the way things actually are. It is
common to hear people say, “That was ironic”, which will mean that they were
surprised because it was completely opposite as to what was expected, yet, not totally
overdone.

l. Metaphor: Metaphors are English literary techniques used to compare two like things
without using “like” or “as”. An example of this could be the line from Macbeth
which states, “Like is but a walking shadow.”

m. Motif: A motif will work to develop a story’s major theme. You will have to think of
the overall themes, scene, and feel of a story to get an idea of its motif. For instance,
a novel may have a gloomy, rainy, and depressing scene or setting that will contribute
to an overall dark motif.

n. Onomatopoeia: An onomatopoeia are words that sound exactly like they are. For
instance: hiss, boing, or pop.

o. Oxymoron: These are two words that are close together that contradict each other.
For instance, “same difference” or “smart fool”.
 p. Paradox: With a paradox, there is a deeper and more meaningful truth than what the
audience or reader perceives on the surface. For instance, the line “All men destroy
the things they love.” This does not literal mean men destroy the things they love.
Instead, it has a deeper truth and meaning.

q. Personification: This English language technique uses human characteristics to

describe things that are not human, such as: animals, ideas, or objects.

r. Pun: Puns are two words that sound the same but have completely different
meanings, such as, “Was it hard to bite into that hard apple?”

s. Rhetorical question: You might even ask these sometimes yourself. They are
questions that do not require or ensure an actual response. Instead, they are intended
to call attention to something.

t. Sarcasm: We see this all the time! Sarcasm is a form of verbal irony where the
character or speaker will say something that means the exact opposite of what they
actually mean (which sounds confusing). For instance, saying “That was graceful”
when someone falls or trips.

u. Simile: Like metaphors, similes compare two different things. However, this time,
“like” or “as” are used.

v. Symbol: A symbol can be anything from an object to an actual person that will
represent an idea or a concept in a story.

w. Thesis: Most all essays or literary pieces need a thesis, and this is the central
argument that the author will make in their piece. Usually, a thesis can easily be
spotted at the beginning of an essay or a story.

11. Levels of Comprehension

The levels of comprehension are a devise that aids in literature analysis. One way to
conduct this literature analysis is using a system called the Levels of Comprehension.
There are six levels: literal, inferential, appreciative, critique, evaluative, and essential.

12. Listening Comprehension

Listening comprehension encompasses the multiple processes involved in understanding

and making sense of spoken language. These include recognizing speech sounds,
understanding the meaning of individual words, and/or understanding the syntax of
sentences in which they are presented.
13. Literary Devices

The definition of literary device is a technique a writer uses to produce a special effect in
their writing. An example of a literary device is a flashback. An example of a literary
device is an analogy.

*Devices were listed under Language Techniques*

14. Main Idea/Point

The main idea is the point of the paragraph. It is the most important thought about the
topic. ... The author can locate the main idea in different places within a paragraph. The
main idea is usually a sentence, and it is usually the first sentence.

15. Observation

The action or process of closely observing or monitoring something or someone.

Example: "she was brought into hospital for observation"

16. Organizational / Language Strategies

Language techniques or strategies are also sometimes confused with organisational

strategies. They should not be. For instance, you should organise your expository essay to
compare or contrast, or to identify cause and effect and so on. These are organisational
strategies.

Exposition
The use of: illustration, examples or evidence, anecdote, description, analogy,
technical/scientific discourse (jargon), facts, objective discourse, analysis, definition,
point of view, transition words, comparison/contrast.

Description
The use of: spatial words (above, below, around and so on), sense words (sight, hearing
smell, taste, touch), adjectives, literary devices (metaphor, simile, personification),
illustration, facts (in exposition), comparison.

Narrative
The use of: sequence words, description, imagery, mood tone, irony, flashback, satire,
humour, point of view, third person narrative, repetition, suspense, foreshadowing, plot
twist, stream-of-consciousness, contrast, comparison
 Argument
The use of: logic, supporting facts, anecdote, evidence, illustration, repetition, appeal to
emotion, rhetorical questions, transition words, conceding then refuting the point,
definitions

Persuasion
The use of: logical fallacies, repetition, rhetorical questions, emotive language,
comparison/contrast.

17. Population

A population is the number of living people that live together in the same place.[1] A
city's population is the number of people living in that city. These people are called
inhabitants or residents. The population includes all individuals that live in that certain
area.

18.Primary Source

Primary Sources are immediate, first-hand accounts of a topic, from people who had a
direct connection with it. Primary sources can include: Texts of laws and other original
documents. Newspaper reports, by reporters who witnessed an event or who quote people
who did.

19.Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is a scientific method of observation to gather non-numerical data.

This type of research "refers to the meanings, concepts, definitions, characteristics,
metaphors, symbols, and description of things" and not to their "counts or measures".

20.Quantitative Research

Quantitative research, is defined as the systematic investigation of phenomena by

gathering quantifiable data and performing statistical, mathematical or computational
techniques.

.
21.Questionnaire

A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions for the purpose

of gathering information from respondents. The questionnaire was invented by the
Statistical Society of London in 1838.

22.Random Sample

Random sampling is a part of the sampling technique in which each sample has an equal
probability of being chosen.

23.Reliability

Reliability – Can the source provide the data?

For a source to be reliable we must evaluate the ability of the source to provide the
information. We are looking at the question “Is it likely that this source can provide this
data?”

24.Research

Research is "creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge,
including knowledge of humans, culture and society, and the use of this stock of
knowledge to devise new applications."

25.Sample

In statistics and quantitative research methodology, a data sample is a set of data collected
and the world selected from a statistical population by a defined procedure. The elements
of a sample are known as sample points, sampling units or observations.
26. Secondary Source

In contrast, a secondary source of information is one that was created later by someone
who did not experience first-hand or participate in the events or conditions you’re
researching. For the purposes of a historical research project, secondary sources are
generally scholarly books and articles. Also included would be reference sources like
encyclopaedias.

27. Source

The place something comes from or starts at, or the cause of something.

Example: “Experts are trying to track down the source of the contamination in the water
supply.”

28. Survey

A Survey is defined as a research method used for collecting data from a pre-defined
group of respondents to gain information and insights on various topics of interest.
Surveys have a variety of purposes and can be carried out in many ways depending on the
methodology chosen and the objectives to be achieved.

29.Tone

Tone, in written composition, is an attitude of a writer toward a subject or an audience.

Tone is generally conveyed through the choice of words, or the viewpoint of a writer on a
particular subject.
30. Validity

Validity – Is the data true?

A source could have high levels of reliability, for example, academic research published
in an academic journal by the leading expert in the field however the data may have a low
level of validity in that it might be very out of date. Equally it may be possible that a
source might not be considered highly reliable for example an internet site which does not
have the name of the author, organisation who maintains the site etc however the data is
still true or valid. In evaluating validity, we need to look at accuracy and bias.

31.Writer’s Purpose

When an author writes a text, he or she has a purpose for writing. Sometimes, the purpose
is to merely entertain or tell an engaging story. Sometimes, the purpose is to inform the
reader of something. At other times, the author is attempting to make an argument or
share an opinion, on hopes of persuading the reader to his or her point of view regarding a
topic.

Example:

While authors may have many varied purposes for writing, when we talk about author's
purpose, we can divide the many purposes into four main categories:

Describe- an author is attempting to describe something, someone, or an event. The main

purpose is to offer rich details for the reader.

Narrate- an author is attempting to tell a story. The main purpose is to tell the story by
developing a plot and characters.

Persuade- an author is attempting to persuade the reader by presenting an opinion and

making an argument. The main purpose is to persuade by presenting details and examples
that support the argument.

Exposition- an author is attempting to explain or inform the reader of something. The

main purpose is to provide details and information that help the reader to understand the
topic.