INVESTIGATION OF PCTIG AND CCTIG WELDING ON POWDER

METALLURGY ALUMINIUM SPECIMENS PROCESSED

THROUGH EQUI CHANNEL ANGULAR PRESSING (ECAP)

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

M. KRISHNA (118009108)

M.ARAVIND (118009030)

towards partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree
of
Bachelor of Technology in Mechanical Engineering

School of Mechanical Engineering

SASTRA (Deemed to be University)

Tirumalaisamudram, Thanjavur — 613 401

Tamilnadu, INDIA

MAY 2018
 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project work entitled “INVESTIGATION OF PCTIG AND
CCTIG WELDING ON POWDER METALLURGY ALUMINIUM SPECIMENS
PROCESSED THROUGH EQUI CHANNEL ANGULAR PRESSING (ECAP)”
is a bonafide record of the work carried out by

M. KRISHNA (118009108)

M.ARAVIND (118009030)

students of final year B.Tech., Mechanical Engineering, in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the award of the degree of B.Tech in Mechanical Engineering of the
SASTRA DEEMED TO BE UNIVERSITY, Tirumalaisamudram, Thanjavur -
613401, during the year 2017-2018.

Dr. S. RAGHURAMAN
Professor/SOME

Project Viva-voce held on _____________________________

Examiner - I \ Examiner – II
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is our pleasant duty to express a deep sense of gratitude to our honorable

Vice Chancellor Prof.R.Sethuraman, SASTRA Deemed to be University, the
paramount of the institution, for his patronage and Dr.G.Bhalachandran, Registrar,
SASTRA University for providing us the necessary facilities to carry out this research
work in our university campus.

We are extremely thankful to Dr.S.Pugazhenthi, DEAN, School of

Mechanical Engineering, SASTRA Deemed to be University for his inspiring
guidance, positive criticism and valuable suggestion throughout the project work.

We whole heartedly, sincerely acknowledge our deep sense of gratitude

and indebtedness to our beloved Dr.S.Raghuraman, Professor, School of Mechanical
Engineering, SASTRA Deemed to be University for his expert guidance and
encouragement throughout the duration of the project.

We express my heartfelt thanks to research scholar Sivachidambram P

and all the Faculty Members, Technical Assistants and Non Teaching staff of the
School of Mechanical Engineering, SASTRA Deemed to be University for their timely
assistance.

Our humble gratitude and thanks to our PARENTS, for their Love,
Encouragement and support to do this project work. We wish to record our sincere thanks
to one and all who directly or indirectly helped us to do this project work. At last we owe
our sincere gratitude to our guiding force the “Almighty” for he has been with us then
now and always.

i
 ABSTRACT

KEYWORDS: Brittle fracture; Constant current TIG; Ductile fracture; ECAP; Pulsed

Current TIG

Present manufacturing processes requires welding with adequate strength in the welded

joints and excellent weld quality with reduced defects in the samples. To make effective

use of this Autogenous TIG welding, arc oscillation technique such as pulsed current TIG

welding with optimal current parameters is required to achieve desired weld properties.

The experiment involves the study of mechanical properties and factrography of pulsed

current TIG (PCTIG) and constant current TIG (CCTIG) welded 99.5% pure P/M

Aluminium specimens processed through Equi channel angular pressing (ECAP). The

specimens were initially processed through powder metallurgy route followed by

intermediary hot extrusion process to achieve reduction in diameter as well as

densification of compact. The ECAP process was then carried out at optimum die

parameters of channel angle 1100 and corner angle 350 through route C for 1 pass. The

micro hardness and mechanical properties like tensile strength, yield strength and %

elongation of pulsed current and constant current welded samples were compared.

Factrography study was made on pulsed and constant welded specimens using Scanning

Electron Microscope (SEM). Also X-ray diffraction study for pulsed and constant

specimens was taken to study the different phases present after the welding process. The

study confirms that properties of pulsed current TIG welding is superior to constant

current TIG welding. Also ductile fracture (dimples, cup and cone type) is obtained in

pulsed welded specimen (PCTIG) whereas combination of brittle fracture (cleavage type)

and ductile fracture is observed in constant welded specimen (CCTIG).

ii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS i
ABSTRACT ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS iii
LIST OF TABLES v
LIST OF FIGURES vi
ABBREVATIONS vii
NOMENCLATURE viii
CHAPTERS
1 INTRODUCTION 1
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 5
2.1 POWDER METALLURGY 5
2.2 EQUI CHANNEL ANGULAR PRESSING (ECAP) 5

2.2.1 Selection of channel angle and corner angle 5

2.2.2 Processing route 7

2.3 TIG WELDING 7

2.3.1 Pulsed current TIG welding 7

2.3.2 Constant current TIG welding 9

3 SELECTION OF PROCESS PARAMETERS 10

3.1 SELECTION OF SINTERING TEMPERATURE 10

3.2 SELECTION OF COMPACTION PRESSURE 10
3.3 SELECTION OF TEMPERATURE FOR HOT EXTRUSION 11
3.4 SELECTION OF ECAP PARAMETERS 11
3.5 SELECTION OF WELDING PARAMETERS 12
4 SCOPE OF THE PRESENT WORK 13
5 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES 14

5.1 EXPERIMENTAL MATERIALS 14

5.2 POWDER METALLURGY OF THE SPECIMEN 14

5.2.1 Selection of Composition 14

iii
 5.2.2 Compaction 14

5.2.3 Sintering 15

5.2.4 Hot Extrusion 15

5.3 ECAP PROCESS 16

5.4 AUTOGENOUS TIG WELDING PROCESS 17

5.5 MEASUREMENT OF OUTPUT PARAMETERS 17

5.5.1 Measurement of Micro Vickers Hardness 17

5.5.2 Measurement Of Tensile Strength 18

5.5.3 Scanning Electron Microscope Image 18

5.5.4 X-Ray Diffraction studies 19

6 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 20

6.1 MICRO HARDNESS 20

6.2 TENSILE PROPERTIES 21

6.3 SEM IMAGE 23

6.4 XRD ANALYSIS 27

7 CONCLUSION 31

REFERENCES 32

iv
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE PAGE
TABLE NAME
NO NO
5.1 Chemical composition of the powder metallurgy samples 14

6.1 Micro hardness results for the TIG welded specimens 20

Tensile results for pulsed and non-pulsed current TIG
6.2 21
welded specimens
6.3 XRD results for pulsed AC TIG welded specimen 27

6.4 XRD results for Constant AC TIG welded specimen 28

v
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE PAGE
FIGURE NAME
NO NO
1.1 Pulsed current TIG welding cycle 4
3.1 Processing route ‘C’ for the ECAP process 11
5.1 Aluminium Specimens after Hot Extrusion 16
5.2 ECAP Die 16
5.3 Autogenous TIG welding machine 17
5.4 Vickers Micro hardness Machine 18
5.5 Vega3 Tescan SEM machine 19
6.1 Hardness comparison of welded specimens 21
6.2 Tensile properties comparison of welded specimens 22
6.3 (a) Pulsed AC fracture specimen 23
6.3 (b) Pulsed DC fracture specimen 23
6.4 (a) Constant AC fracture specimen 23
6.4 (b) Constant DC fracture specimen 23
6.5 (a) Pulsed TIG AC weld specimen 24
6.5 (b) Constant TIG AC weld specimen 24
6.6 (a) SEM Image - Pulsed AC weld specimen - 1K Magnification 24
6.6 (b) SEM Image - Constant AC weld specimen - 1K Magnification 24
6.7 (a) SEM Image - Pulsed AC weld specimen - 5K Magnification 25
6.7 (b) SEM Image - Constant AC weld specimen - 5K Magnification 25
6.8 (a) SEM Image - Pulsed AC weld specimen - 1000X Magnification 25
6.8 (b) SEM Image - Constant AC weld specimen - 1000X Magnification 25
6.9 (a) SEM Image - Pulsed AC weld specimen - 5000X Magnification 26
6.9 (b) SEM Image - Constant AC weld specimen - 5000X Magnification 26
6.10 (a) XRD peaks for Pulsed AC TIG welded specimen 27
6.11 (b) XRD peaks for Constant AC TIG welded specimen 28

vi
 ABBREVIATIONS

ECAP - Equi Channel Angular Pressing

SPD - Severe plastic deformation

P/M - Powder Metallurgy

TIG - Tungsten Inert Gas

PCTIG - Pulsed Current Tungsten Inert Gas

CCTIG - Constant Current Tungsten Inert Gas

HAZ - Heat Affected Zone

ASM - American Standard of Materials

UTM - Universal Testing Machine

SEM - Scanning Electron Microscope

XRD - X-ray Diffraction

vii
 NOMENCLATURES

Ф - Channel Angle

 - Corner Angle

MPa - Mega Pascal

% - Percentage

A - Ampere

V - Voltage

mm - Mille Meter

Ton - Tonnage

L/D - Length per Diameter

min - Minutes

HV - Hardness Vickers
0
C - Degree Celsius

viii
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Powder metallurgy is the process of blending fine powdered materials, compacting the

same into a desired shape or form inside a mould followed by heating of the compacted

powder in a controlled atmosphere, referred to as sintering to facilitate the formation of

bonding of the powder particles to form the final part. The powder metallurgy process

generally consists of four basic steps.

(1) Production of metal powders

(2) Blending of powders

(3) Compacting of powders in a mould or die

(4) Sintering.

Compacting is generally performed at room temperature and at high pressure. Sintering is

carried out at elevated temperature and at atmospheric pressure. Often, compacting and

sintering are combined. Optional secondary processing often follows to obtain special

properties or enhanced dimensional precision for specific application.

Powder metallurgy route is very suitable for parts that are required to be manufactured

from a single or multiple materials (in powder form) with very high strength and melting

temperature that pose challenge for the application of casting or deformation processes.

P/M process is a rapid, economical and high volume production method for making

precision components from powders. Materials with mechanical properties far exceeding

those of more conventional materials have been developed by using new alloying

1
elements, by improved heat treatments and by achieving higher densities. P/ M is the

choice when requirements for strength, wear resistance or high operating temperatures

exceed the capabilities of die casting alloys. P/M process is economical only when

production rates are higher, since the tooling cost is appreciable.

The problem is that the processed specimen will often result in decreased strength and

ductility. So it is required to increase the properties of the material such as density, tensile

strength, ductility and also possibility to get super plasticity at low temperatures.

Severe plastic deformation (SPD) is a process which results in reduction in grain size of

the specimen thereby increasing its strength. The processed material tends to show ultra-

fine grained materials. Grain refinement/inoculation provides refined grains which can be

used for cryogenic applications. ECAP is one of the SPD practice to impart severe strain

by simple shear achieved by passing the material through an ECAP die with

diminishment in the cross-sectional territory of the sample and inducing homogeneity.

Large amount of shear strain is obtained without any change in the dimension of the

specimen. The properties that are obtained through ECAP route are: 1) Improved density

2) high tensile strength and ductility 3) possibility of superplasticity at low temperatures.

ECAP process generally involves the processing of work piece through die containing

two channels of equal cross-section intersection at an angle 2 known as the channel

angle. The strain imparted depends on 1) channel angle 2) angle of curvature 3) process

route followed. The selection of the channel angle (Ф) and the corner angle () is very

important while designing the equal channel angular extrusion/pressing die. Die angles Ф

and  can define as the angle between the two intersecting channels and the curvature of

the outer arc of the two channels. Strain has little dependency on corner angle () and

2
more on channel angle (Ф). It takes more passes for obtaining the same strain value in

case of specimen with more channel angle value than when compared to the specimen

with less channel angle. It is evident from the experiments the specimen is capable of

producing ultra fined refined grains when the channel angle is less than 900. But

specimens with lower channel angles are generally not preferred since they are difficult in

processing through ECAP route using definite pressure. Strain in 900 is more but more

inhomogeneity and the strain obtained is less in 1200 channel angle with less grain

refinement. Experiments have shown that optimum channel angle is 1100 because of the

factors like strain hardening, homogeneity and grain refinement.

In recent years, the use of aluminium in manufacturing has become more prevalent

because of its light weight and other attributes that make it an attractive alternative to

steel. Welding of aluminium is important in today’s world for various applications

ranging from automobile to aerospace engineering. And because of their high demand

and high precision, faster production is necessary to meet them. Autogenous TIG welding

process has taken a prominent place in the welding field to achieve those ever increasing

demands. Many research works are being carried out to develop new welding methods

and gain greater understanding of weld quality and properties. Welding of aluminium and

its alloys using arc welding such as Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding is the conventional

method adopted. This is because welding is comparitively cheaper with conventional TIG

welding process. But the major challenge of this method is the reduced weld strength.

Non pulsed current (constant current) TIG welding on Aluminium causes the weld zones

to exhibit coarse-columnar grains due the thermal stresses in the heat affected zones at the

time of welding. This results in reduced weld strength due to higher weld input and lesser

solidification rate of weld pool. So it is necessary to control this solidification rate. The

3
problem of the formation of coarse grain microstructure can be rectified by method like

surface nucleation with scandium as nucleation agent, micro cooler additions such silicon

and titanium powders or arc oscillation methods like pulsed current welding. Among

these methods, pulsed current method is widely adopted because of their relative ease of

handling and also its direct use in real-time applications. Also less research works are

being carried out on mixed mode current TIG welding of Aluminium specimens.

Pulsed current TIG (PCTIG) welding involves cycling of welding current from higher

level (peak current) to lower level (base current) at a particular pulse frequency. This

peak current gives adequate penetration and bead contour while the base current helps in

maintaining a stable arc throughout the welding process. The pulse frequency helps in

giving sufficient time to transfer heat from weld zone and heat affected zone to the base

material region. Also optimized PCTIG welding parameters gives reduced heat input and

fine grain microstructure. This can increase the weld strength of the aluminium specimen

when compared to non-pulsed current (constant current) TIG welding. Mixed current

involves the cycle of AC current for one half and DC current for the other half cycle.

Fig 1.1 Pulsed current TIG welding cycle (courtesy – Indira rani et al)

4
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 POWDER METALLURGY

A lot of smart possessions for the engineering applications of Al and its alloys are studied

by W.H. Hunt [1]. They are mentioned as good mechanical strength and corrosion

resistance, low density and cost advantage depending on the manufacturing method,

higher thermal and electrical conductivities.

The claim and fabrication of light weight and near net shape high quality Al alloys by

powder metallurgy (PM) practice has enlarged, in particular, for the aerospace and

automotive purposes as referred by F.V. Beaumont [2].

G.B. Schaffer [3] has studied the Binder treatment and lubricant system for aluminium

P/M. It has been investigated that segregation and delubrication can be a most important

issue with processing of PM Al alloys if an appropriate lubricant has not been used. This

can lead to potentially unsafe surroundings with in homogeneity and delubrication defects

within the sintered product.

2.2 EQUI CHANNEL ANGULAR PRESSING (ECAP)

2.2.1 Selection of channel angle and corner angle

Raghuraman.S et al [4]. performed an experiment on influence of channel angle on

deformation behaviour for AA6061-T6 through analysis in deform 3D for different

channel angles-900, 1100, 1200. The die models are considered to be rigid and

homogenous. Isotropic, homogenous and plastic frictionless conditions are considered for

the material. It has been observed from the results that as the channel angle decreases, the

5
load required for processing the specimen increases and the effective strain developed to

induce stress increases. The maximum load is observed at 900 channel angle and the least

at 1200 channel angle.

Iwahashi et al [5]. studied the influence of the value of channel angle on ECAP of pure

Aluminium. The experiments have been carried out at channel angles Ф = 90°, 112.5°,

135° and 157.5° and corner angles Y = 20°, 30°, 13°, 10° respectively. It was observed

that by increasing the values of channel angle, it takes more number of passes to achieve

the same strain in samples and hence for grain refinement leading to formation of

ultrafine grain structure with the same grain sizes. It has been concluded that the decrease

in the channel angle less than 90o is not preferred since the pressure for processing the

specimen increases with the decrease in channel angle. It was observed that the strain

imparted to the material is higher for Ф =90° causing it to have more in homogeneity and

very low for Ф =120° which also results in lesser grain refinement. Thus an optimum

value of channel angle like Ф =105° will have optimum levels of strain hardening,

homogeneity and grain refinement.

I.Balasundar et al [6]. studied the influence of corner angle on the plastic strain of the

material after the ECAP process. It has been investigated that when the corner angle

decreases, then the shear deformation takes place in the bottom side too. For the increase

in corner angle, the gap reduces thus reducing the load required for deformation of the

specimen. But the average imparted equivalent plastic strain decreases in spite of

increased strain above 400 corner angle. Thus they have concluded that it is better to have

a corner angle less than 40° to impart higher strain to the material.

6
2.2.2 Processing route

R. Venkatraman et al [7]. have inferred that there are generally four routes through

which the ECAP processes are being carried out using route A, route C, route BA and

route BC. In route A, there is no change in the angular orientation of the specimen. The

material is passed similar to the previous pass. In route BA, the billet is rotated 900

clockwise and anticlockwise alternatively.In route BC, the billet is rotated 900 clockwise

after each successive passes. In route c, the billet is rotated 1800 in consecutive passes.

Fujinamani et al [8]. carried out an investigation on the effect of processing route on

microstructure after ECAP for aluminium alloys. It has been observed from the

investigation that when the specimen is processed through C route, more homogenous

and equiaxed grain structures are observed than when compared to route A or B.

Evolution of the desired microstructure can be achieved more rapidly using processing

route BC. Hardness for samples processed out of route C is higher than that obtained

through route A.

2.3 TIG WELDING

2.3.1 Pulsed current TIG welding

Kumar et al [9]. performed an experiment on the optimization of Pulsed TIG Welding

Process Parameters on Mechanical Properties AA 5456 Al Alloy Weldments. According

to them, Pulsed current tungsten inert gas (PC TIG) welding, developed in 1950s is a TIG

welding which involves cycling of the welding current from a high level to a low one at a

selected regular frequency. The high level of the peak current is generally selected to give

adequate penetration and bead contour, while the low one of the background current is set

at a level sufficient to maintain stable arc. This permits arc energy to be used efficiently

7
to fuse a spot of controlled dimensions in a short time producing the weld as a series of

overlapping nuggets and limits the wastage of heat by conducting into the adjacent parent

material. The technique has secured a niche for itself in specific applications such as in

welding of root passes of tubes, and in welding thin sheets, where precise control over

penetration and heart input are required to avoid bum through.

A.Kumar A et al [10]. reported that the advantages of pulsed current TIG welding

include improved bead contour, greater tolerance to heat sink variations, lower heat input

requirements, reduced residual stresses and distortion. Metallurgical advantages of pulsed

current welding frequently reported in literature include refinement of fusion zone grain

size and substructure, reduced width of HAZ, control of segregation etc.

S.C. Juang el al [11]. have inferred from their research work that in the pulsed-current

mode, the welding current rapidly alternates between two levels. The higher current state

is known as the pulse current, while the lower current level is called as back ground

current. During the period of pulse current, the weld area is heated and fusion occurs.

Upon dropping to the background current, the weld area is allowed to cool and solidifies.

Pulsed - current TIG welding has a number of advantages, including lower heat input and

consequently reduces distortion and warp age in thin work pieces. In addition, it allows

for greater control of the weld pool, and can increase weld penetration, welding speed,

and quality.

According to M.Balasubramanian et al [12]. during the impulses where high current is

present in the pulse arc process, a large amount of heat is generated in the welding area.

Only a little heat is transmitted into the work piece, thus the weld pool stays

comparatively cool. The low currents during the background current time only serve to

maintain the arc in order to avoid interruptions and ignition difficulties. When welding

8
with filler, the filler will be fused with the base material during the impulse phase. The

impulse frequency is usually between 0.5 Hz and 6 HZ. The weld heat input can be

considerably changed by the choice of times and current values.

2.3.2 Constant current TIG welding

M. Ahmed El-Sabbagh et al [13]. have reported that welding of aluminium alloys and

aluminium metal matrix composite materials using arc welding such as constant Tungsten

Inert Gas (TIG) welding is comparatively cheaper. Major challenge of this is the reduce

weld strength.

According to LEI Yu-cheng et al [14]. constant current TIG welding on aluminium

alloys causes reduced weld strength due to higher heat input and lesser cooling rate of

weld pool. This results in coarse grain structure in weld zone and induces thermal stresses

in heat affected zone.

9
 CHAPTER 3

SELECTION OF PROCESS PARAMETERS

3.1 SELECTION OF SINTERING TEMPERATURE

The temperature helps the atoms in the materials diffuse across the boundaries of the

particles, fusing the particles together and creating one solid piece. As a thumb, the

sintering temperature is taken as 0.6 to 0.7 times the inciting point of the alloy as it

corresponds to the temperature range in which the recrystallization takes place and the

atoms diffuse across the boundary. When the sintering temperature is below 0.6 times the

melting point, densification occurs at a very low rate as there is no diffusion of atoms.

When the sintering temperature is raised beyond 0.7 times the melting point of the

material, phase change tends to take place leading to decrease in density of material.

Sintering temperature is taken as 0.6 to 0.7 times the melting point of the alloy

Melting point of the alloy = 6600C

Sintering Temperature range = 0.6 x 660 to 0.7 x 660

= 3960C to 4620C

Therefore the temperature range for the sintering of the alloy was taken in the range

3960C to 4620C.

3.2 SELECTION OF COMPACTION PRESSURE

The compaction pressure was selected from the ASM manual for powder metallurgy. It is

seen from the graph that pure Aluminium can be compacted in the range from 330Mpa to

490Mpa.

10
3.3 SELECTION OF TEMPERATURE FOR HOT EXTRUSION

The extrusion temperature was estimated by trial and error method. When the temperature

was first fixed at 350 oC, the extrusion was incomplete with formation of chevron cracks

in the walls of the extruded portion of the metal. When the pre-heating temperature was

increased to 550 oC, the desired length of the end product was obtained, but about 30% of

the length was hollow due to increased metal flow. When the specimens were pre-heated

to a temperature of 400 oC it was found that the metal flow was optimum. Therefore for

further extrusion operations, the specimens were pre-heated to 400oC.

3.4 SELECTION OF ECAP PARAMETERS

The ECAP parameters were taken based on the analysis of previous experiments carried

out in the ECAP of pure Aluminium by powder metallurgy route. Channel angle of Ф

=110° is taken because of optimum levels of strain hardening, homogeneity and grain

refinement which will make it widely preferred resulting in material improvement with

low internal stresses. Corner angle () less than 400 (350) is taken to impart high strain to

the material. Route C is considered for the process so as to increase the hardness of the

material. The number of passes is restricted to 1.

Fig 3.1 Processing route C for the ECAP process (courtesy – Raghuraman S et al)

11
3.5 SELECTION OF WELDING PARAMETERS

The optimised TIG welding parameters were in accordance with Sivachidambaram et al.

who performed an experiment on optimization of Pulsed current TIG welding parameters.

This optimization was carried out using Taguchi array analysis.

1. Welding current - 110A - AC, DC and Mixed current (AC-DC)

2. Electrode diameter – 3.2mm
3. Electrode material - 2% ThO2 Tungsten
4. Argon flow rate – 181/min
5. Argon flow pressure - 1kg/cm2
6. Welding speed -2mm/s
7. Arc length - 2mm
8. Arc voltage -18V
9. Peak current -160A
10. Base current - 60A
11. Pulse on time - 50%
12. Pulse frequency - 5Hz

12
 CHAPTER 4

SCOPE OF THE PRESENT WORK

In has been observed in the survey of literatures that most of the pure aluminium and its

alloys are being produced through conventional casting process. Focus must be given to

carrying out the research in the processing of this material through powder metallurgy

route, since the output characteristics such as hardness and tensile properties improved.

Also less research works are carried out on Equi channel angular pressing of the materials

which is useful for improving the strength based on severe plastic deformation and

subsequent ultra-fine grain refinement of the materials. Also conventional TIG welding

process is being adopted for research works which has few disadvantages like decreased

strength and depth of penetration. Based on the literature surveys, this strength and depth

of penetration as well as bead contour of the materials can be improved by pulsed current

TIG welding, thereby improving the mechanical properties like tensile strength, yield

strength and also the hardness of the material. Also no research work is carried out in

comparison of fracture of the specimen between pulsed and constant current TIG welding

process.

In this regard this project aims at preparation of pure aluminium specimens through

powder metallurgy route followed by subsequent ECAP process of the specimens with

optimal parameters based on the literature surveys. Further pulsed current and constant

current TIG welding of the specimens is being carried out using Autogenous TIG welding

machine. Then tensile test and micro hardness test is performed followed by SEM and

XRD analysis of the specimens to identify and discuss the fracture type obtained.

13
 CHAPTER 5

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

5.1 EXPERIMENTAL MATERIALS

The pure Aluminium powder was procured from Ponmani & co, Trichy. The powder has

been produced by atomization process, in which molten metal flowing down a chamber

due to gravity is disintegrated into fine particles as it is struck by a high velocity medium.

Centrifugal force is used to separate the medium and the powder particles. The advantage

of atomized powders has same uniform composition, higher purity and control the

particle shape.

5.2 POWDER METALLURGY OF THE SPECIMEN

5.2.1 Selection of Composition

Table 5.1 Chemical composition of the powder metallurgy samples:

ELEMENTS PRESENT Al Fe Si

% by wt composition 99.74 0.24 0.02

The composition of the specimens was found out using a portable alloy analyser at SPF.

5.1.2 Compaction

The compaction process was carried out using UTM machine. A single acting hydraulic

press (22 Ton) was employed for compaction. The shape of the specimen to be obtained

is cylindrical. Die diameter of 25mm was used for the production of the compacts. The

punch speed during the compaction process was carefully controlled since high punch

speed will result in very less densification of the compact thereby reducing the life of the

14
compact during the process. The friction action along the die walls and punch is also an

influencing parameter while achieving good density. The lubrication used for the purpose

was graphite-oil mixture. The pure aluminium powders were taken after calculating the

amount to be compacted for the preparation of each sample using density and volume

relations. After compaction, the dimension of the specimens were calculated and was

found to be 24.9-25.1 in diameter and 25mm in length (L/D=1).

5.1.3 Sintering

Sintering is the process in which the powder particles get loaded into each other to

provide the strength to the compacted specimens even though they are closely packed

during the compaction process. The sintering of compacted specimens was carried out in

a muffle furnace. The temperature of the furnace was set according to the melting point of

Aluminium. This sintering process was carried out in Nitrogen environment to prevent

any oxide or scale formation over the specimens. Duration of sintering was 60min. After

the dwell time the compacts are allowed to cool in the furnace itself.

5.1.4 Hot Extrusion

The extrusion process was carried out in extrusion die and an impact load was applied

using a 200T friction screw press. The specimens before extrusion were preheated to a

temperature of 4000C. This process is done to improve the recrystallisation of the grains

and hence to promote its strength. The Specimens after the Hot Extrusion process is

shown in Fig 5.1

15
 Fig 5.1 Aluminium Specimens after Hot Extrusion

5.3 ECAP PROCESS

This process was carried die out in a with channel angle of 1100. Corner angle was set for

350. Route C (1800 rotation) was adopted for this experiment.. A uniform strain rate of

0.1s-1s
1s was applied for the process. Surface irregularities were removed due to the

availability of uniform strain rate. This ECAP process was carried out at SASTRA

Precision Forging (SPF). These optimised ECAP parameters were taken from the

literature survey. The die used for the ECAP process is shown in the Fig 55.2

Fig 5.2 ECAP die (courtesy – SPF)

16
5.4 AUTOGENOUS TIG WELDING PROCESS

Autogenous TIG welding was performed on all the Aluminium specimens. ADOR

CHAMPTIG 300AD welding machine was used for this purpose. 1st specimen is

subjected to Pulsed current AC TIG welding, 2nd to pulsed current DC TIG welding, 3rd

to constant AC TIG welding and 4th specimen to constant DC TIG welding. The

optimised TIG welding parameters were in accordance with the literature review. Before

welding all the specimens were polished with abrasive paper and pneumatic rotary brush

to remove the surface impurities.

Fig 5.3 Autogenous TIG welding machine (courtesy – SASTRA university)

5.5 MEASUREMENT OF OUTPUT PARAMETERS

5.5.1 Measurement of Micro Vickers Hardness

The micro Vickers hardness was measured using Shimadzu micro Vickers hardness tester

as shown in figure 5 according to the standard of ASTM E 384. The readings were taken

at 6 different locations each 1mm in gap from the weld centre and the average value of

the hardness was taken. The specimens were polished using four grades (grade 1, grade 2,

grade 3 and grade 4) of the emery sheet starting from coarse grain to fine grain before the

hardness testing process. The micro Vickers hardness testing apparatus was operated at an

angle of 136 degrees between opposite faces subjected to a test force between 1kgf and

17
100kgf. A diamond indenter in the form of a pyramid with a square base was used for

measuring the hardness of the specimens.

Fig 5.4 Vickers Micro hardness Machine (courtesy – SASTRA university)

5.5.2 Measurement of Tensile Strength

Tensile test of both the specimens were taken according to ASTM E8 standard at room

temperature to get properties such as yield strength, ultimate tensile strength and %

elongation of the specimens.

5.5.3 Scanning Electron Microscope Image

Fractured surfaces were observed using Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). SEM

analysis was taken for 2 samples: pulsed AC welded specimen and constant AC welded

specimen. SEM factrography is observed using scanning electron microscope of JEOL

JSM670, makes for tensile tested samples with different magnification. A SEM is a type

of electron microscope that produces a sample images by scanning it with a focussed

beam of electrons. The electrons interact with the atoms in the sample, producing various

signals that contain information about the sample surface topography of the sample and

composition.

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 Fig 5.5 JEOL JSM670 SEM machine (courtesy – SASTRA university)

5.5.4 X-Ray Diffraction studies

XRD analysis is carried out using D8 FOCUS BRUKER X-ray diffactrometer employing

Cu-Kα source and NI filter to restrict Cu-Kβ rays. Diffraction patterns are recorded

between 2θ values 10° to 120° at a scan speed of 10° per min with 0.010 step sizes.

19
 CHAPTER 6

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

6.1 MICRO HARDNESS

The micro Vickers hardness of the specimens was measured using a micro Vickers

hardness machine and the values are presented in table 6.1.

Table 6.1 Micro hardness results for the TIG welded specimens

Distance(mm) from weld centre

Samples 1 2 3 4 5 6 Average
Pulsed
68.1 67.3 66.6 61.9 59.6 57.1 63.20
AC
Pulsed
65.1 64.1 62.3 60.2 58.1 56.4 61.03
DC
AC 63.2 61.5 60.4 58.4 56.1 55.2 59.13

DC 58.6 57.8 56.9 55.8 54.2 53.1 56.06

The hardness value of pulsed (AC and DC) is compared with constant (AC and DC) TIG

welded specimens. It can be observed from the table that the average micro hardness

value of PCTIG welded specimens (AC-63.2HV and DC-61.03HV) is greater than

CCTIG welded specimens (AC-59.1HV and DC-56.06HV). Also it is seen that AC

current welded specimen (PCTIG and CCTIG) shows greater value when compared to

DC current welded specimens (PCTIG and CCTIG). The hardness comparison is shown

in fig 6.1.

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 Fig 6.1 Hardness comparison of welded specimens

6.2 TENSILE PROPERTIES

The tensile test of the specimens was taken after the micro hardness.The obtained values

are shown in the table 6.2.

Table 6.2 Tensile results for pulsed and non-pulsed

non sed current TIG welded specimens
Tensile strength
Samples Yield strength (Mpa) % Elongation
(Mpa)
Pulsed AC 147 182 26
AC 100 147 18

Pulsed DC 103 176 24

DC 94 124 16

From the tensile report shown in table 6.2, it can be observed that the mechanical

properties for pulsed welded specimens (AC and DC) are greater than constant current

TIG welded specimens (AC

( and DC). Also similar to micro hardness response, AC

21
welded specimens (pulsed and constant current) shows superior mechanical properties in

comparison with DC welded specimens (pulsed and constant current).

After the tensile test experiment, fracture observations were made for all the specimens.

From naked eye observation, it was observed that pulsed TIG welded specimens showed

cup and cone type of fracture and constant TIG welded specimens showed cleavage type

of fracture. The tensile properties comparison is shown in fig 6.2.

Fig 6.2 Tensile properties comparison of welded specimens

In order to study the factrography of the specimens to get a better understanding of the

type of failure due to welding and its reason for occurrence, scanning electron microscope

(SEM) observation and XRD analysis is taken for pulsed AC and constant AC TIG

welded specimens. For better analysis under SEM and XRD observation, it is required

that the samples must be solid and fit into the microscope chamber. So the tensile

specimens are made to cut for a small portion before taking the analysis. The cut

specimen’s type of fracture observed for pulsed and constant TIG welded specimens are

shown in fig 6.3 and fig 6.4 respectively.

22
Fig 6.3 (a) Pulsed AC fracture specimen Fig 6.3 (b) Pulsed DC fracture specimen

Fig 6.4 (a) Constant AC fracture specimen Fig 6.4 (b) Constant DC fracture specimen

6.3 SEM IMAGE

The SEM images of pulsed AC and constant AC TIG welded specimens were taken using

scanning electron microscope with different magnification (a) 1K (b) 5K (c) 1000X and

(d) 5000X. The specimens were polished using four grades starting from coarse grain to

fine grain of the emery sheet before taking the SEM image. The size of the specimen was

according to the specifications. This SEM image is used for obtaining the type of fracture

and comparison with the two types of welding processes. The SEM images were taken for

high magnifications so as to get a clear understanding of the failure type obtained.

23
Fig 6.5 (a) Pulsed TIG AC weld specimen Fig 6.5 (b) Constant TIG AC weld specimen

Fig 6.6 (a) SEM-Pulsed AC weld specimen Fig 6.6 (b) SEM-Constant AC weld

specimen – 1K Magnification.

24
Fig 6.7 (a) SEM-Pulsed AC weld specimen Fig 6.7 (b) SEM-Constant AC weld

specimen – 5K Magnification

Fig 6.8 (a) SEM-Pulsed AC weld specimen Fig 6.8 (b) SEM-Constant AC weld

specimen – 1000X Magnification

25
Fig 6.9 (a) SEM-Pulsed AC weld specimen Fig 6.8 (b) SEM-Constant AC weld

specimen – 5000X Magnification

Fig 6.5 a) and Fig 6.5 b) shows the pulsed and constant current welded specimens in the

SEM chamber for observation. The size of the specimens was according to the

specifications.

Fig 6.6 a) shows the SEM image of pulsed current AC TIG welded specimen at

magnification 1K. It can be observed that fracture surface of the welded specimen is

ductile which has small and uniform dimples, cup and cone type failure. Fig 6.6 b) shows

the SEM image of Constant current AC TIG welded specimen at magnification 1K. It can

be observed that the welded specimen shows a combined ductile and brittle fracture. The

features are many ductile dimples, voids indicating the ductile failure, and cleavage

planes (flat planes with small atomic steps) indicating brittle failure.

26
6.4 XRD ANALYSIS

The X-Ray Diffraction analysis was taken for Pulsed and Constant TIG welded

specimens in order to find the phases present in them along with the percentages after the

two different TIG welding processes so as to get an understanding of the fracture failure

mode obtained. The obtained XRD graphs and tables are shown below.

Fig 6.10 XRD peaks for Pulsed AC TIG welded specimen

Table 6.3 XRD results for pulsed AC TIG welded specimen

Angle d value Intensity Intensity %
2-Theta ° Armstrong Count %
25.035 4.87218 31 14.7
27.480 3.24317 165 74.4
40.560 2.22241 221 100.0
46.793 1.93985 119 53.9

27
Fig 6.10 shows the XRD peak graph representing the various phases that are present after

the pulsed current AC TIG welding of the specimen. The obtained angle, the intensity

count and its percentage are represented in Table 6.3. It is observed from the result that

Al203 phase and Al6Fe phases are present at angles 25.0350 and 46.7930 along with α-Al

at angles 20.4800 and 40.5600.

Fig 6.11 XRD peaks for Constant AC TIG welded specimen

Table 6.4 XRD results for Constant AC TIG welded specimen

Angle d value Intensity Intensity %
2-Theta ° Armstrong Count %
25.024 3.55560 27.5 17.5
27.459 3.24561 158 100.0
40.317 2.23522 71.8 45.6
53.781 1.70313 32.6 20.7

28
Fig 6.11 shows the XRD peak graph representing the various phases that are present after

the pulsed current AC TIG welding of the specimen. The obtained angle, the intensity

count and its percentage are represented in Table 6.4. It is observed from the result that

Al203 phase and Al3Fe phases are present at angles 25.0240 and 53.7810 along with α-Al

at angles 27.4590 and 40.3170.

The dependence of stress of plastic flow in a material depends upon the impurities present

in the material. Pure aluminium contains small amount of impurities which affects its

properties. The ductility, micro hardness, tensile strength and other parameters get

affected because of their presence and these are found with the help of XRD (X-Ray

diffraction) analysis.

In the sample where constant current is performed the material showed peaks that ensured

the presence of iron and a peak of aluminium oxide. The iron and oxide exist in the form

of secondary phases with aluminium as monoclinic-Al3Fe and Al203. These occur due to

the formation of excess phases in the solidification region. Even small amounts of iron

contribute to the formation of Al3Fe. The higher heat input in the constant current weld

rises the temperature and when the cooling occurs, the iron and silica being less soluble in

aluminium at lower temperatures result in their appearance as precipitates. They exhibit

in their meta-stable phases. Further this current induces higher thermal stresses as the

thermal heat transfer is restricted due to insufficient time available during the process and

due to this the iron and silica contain certain cracks with them. When the tensile load is

applied gradually, the material fails in a ductile manner as conventional aluminium which

has undergone severe plastic deformation does but afterwards the other oxide, ferrite and

silica phases become more prominent and these brittle phases make the material to fail in

a brittle manner. This can be explained as these impurities already contain cracks with

29
them as mentioned above and when further stress gets formed they tend to carry the

cracks with them as there is no continuous eutectic like formations which hinders plastic

deformation and iron exists in needle shape structure which makes it prone to stress

concentration and transfer the cracks. The size of the grains tends to increase leading to

brittle fracture which is due to reduction in slip, occurrence of minimum distortion and

reduction in strain. The failure occurs in an intra-crystalline way. Thus in non-pulsed

current the material fails first in a ductile manner and then in a brittle way due to high

heat input and lower cooling rate in the weld zone.

In the pulsed current, monoclinic-Al3Fe transforms to orthorhombic-Al6Fe phase which

contain less Fe concentration compared Al3Fe. Al203 phase is also present similar to

constant welded specimen but in lesser concentration. This is due to lower heat input and

the higher cooling rate in the weld zone and therefore the small particle precipitates

formed during the further these do not contain any previously developed cracks in them

as better distribution of heat takes place and thinner heat affected zone is formed due to

larger solidification time available in the process. The thermal stresses are also reduced

because of the reasons mentioned above. The weld strength is improved and grain

boundaries are more prominent and therefore the slip level and dislocations are increased

and the material therefore fails in a ductile manner throughout as more strength is induced

in the material due to the pulsed current, though there are certain brittle phases present as

shown by the peaks but these are lower and their contribution is very less in comparison

to the overall volume and therefore the material fails in a ductile manner through the

pulsed current.

30
 CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION

The pulsed current TIG welded specimen showed better mechanical properties in

comparison with constant TIG welded specimen. Ductile type fracture was observed in

pulsed specimen. This is due to higher cooling rate in the weld zone and less heat input

which in turn leads to the formation of orthorhombic-Al6Fe phase and Al203 phase.

Whereas ductile-brittle fracture was observed in constant welded specimen. This is due to

lower cooling rate in the weld zone and high heat input leading to the formation of

monoclinic-Al3Fe brittle phase having more Fe concentration than Al6Fe phase along

with the formation Al203 phase. Pure Aluminium finds its application for products ranging

from structural materials to thin packaging foils. Pulsed current TIG welded specimen can

show better advantages like increased mechanical properties and longevity under these

conditions when compared to constant current TIG welding of the materials. The overall

performance of PCTIG welding is superior to CCTIG welding. The ECAP and hot

extrusion procedures were carried out for achieving ultra-fine grain refinement and which

in turn increases its strength.

31
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