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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Classical condition, a type of associative learning, is where two stimuli occur together
enough times so that they eventually become associated with each other. The result of this
association is that each stimulus eventually produces a similar response. To illustrate, let us say
that the smell of spoiled milk caused you to shudder. By presenting spoiled milk together with a
specific buzzer sound many times you would eventually create the condition where just the
buzzer sound would cause you to shudder even when the spoiled milk was not present. Learning
then is a matter of strengthening the bond between two stimuli (spoiled milk and buzzer) so that
both stimuli elicit the same response (shudder). Originally, classical conditioning only focused
on reflexive behavior such as the salivation reflex of Pavlov’s dog (described below). More
recently, voluntary responses to conditioned stimuli have also been included in classical
conditioning, as well as looking at emotions and internal states.
Ivan Pavlov
Two names often associated with classical conditioning are Ivan Pavlov and John
Watson. Each is examined here. Russian Physiologist, Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) was a biologist
who was trying to understand the digestive system in dogs. One day he noticed (quite by
accident) that not only did the placing meat power in a dog’s mouth cause his dog to salivate; but
the dog also began to salivate when things (or stimuli) associated with the meat powder were
present such as the sound of the door, the food dish, or the sight of the food person. He then
conducted experiments where the stimuli was limited to just the sound of a bell paired with meat
powder. Through this pairing, the dog eventually came to salivate when just the sound of the
bell was present (no meat powder). This is called classical conditioning (or respondent
conditioning). Here a neutral stimulus (bell) is repeatedly paired with a stimulus (meat powder)
that causes a particular reaction (response) so that the neutral stimulus eventually creates the
same response as the original stimulus (see Figure 10.1). This represents the principle of
continuity which states that when two things are paired together enough times, the one thing will
be associated with the other.
John Watson
While the roots of behaviorism are to be found in Pavlov’s work, John Watson (1878-
1958) is known as the founder of behaviorism (Hergenhahn & Olson 2005). Before him
psychology was studied mainly through introspection (people studying their own thought
processes and internal states). Watson, who was highly influenced by Pavlov, brought a degree
of scientific rigor to the field by moving away from the study of consciousness, which he
believed to be a very subjective entity that could not be reliably measured. According to
Watson, mental events (anything happening in the conscious or unconscious mind), could not be
dealt with directly and thus should be avoided in the study of psychology. Instead, psychology
should only study behavior and the conditions or experiences that affect or cause behavior.
These were things that could be objectively observed and measured.
During Conditioning
2. During conditioning the unconditioned stimuli is pair with a neutral stimuli (NS), in the form of a
bell. This also leads to a unconditioned response in the form of salivation.
3. The neutral stimuli (bell) becomes associated with the unconditioned stimuli (meat powder) so
that it becomes a conditioned stimuli. That is, through conditioning it has become a stimuli.
After Conditioning
4. Now the CS (bell) elicits a conditions response (salivation). This response has been learned
through conditioning.
CS [bell] = CR [salivation].
In this experiment Watson showed that emotional reactions could be altered through
classical conditioning. Here the loud banging noise was the UCS. Albert’s physical reaction to
the noise was the UCR. When the UCS was paired with the rat, the rat became the CS.
Watson’s explanation was slightly different from Pavlov’s. While Pavlov would say that the
UCS (banging sound) reinforces the CS (rat); Watson would say that these two followed each
other in closely in time so that the one became associated with the other. Learning, according to
Watson, occurs because of the close succession of events (things happen together). The more
often they occur together, the stronger the bond or association between events. This is known as
the law of contiguity.
References
Cox, K. (2001). Motivational and cognitive contributions to students’ amount of reading.
Contemporary Educational Psychology, 26, 116-131
Cunningham, P.M. (2006). Struggling readers: High-poverty schools that beat the odds. The
Reading Teacher, 60, 382-385.
Hergenhahn, B. R., & Olson, M. H. (2005). An introduction to theories of learning (7th ed.).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall.
Watson, J.B. & Rayner, R. (1920). Conditioned emotional reactions. Journal of Experimental
Psychology, 3, 1-14.