Forest Resources in India: Use, Over Exploitation, Causes and Effects!

In India, forests form 23 percent of the total land area. The word ‘forest’ is derived from the Latin word ‘foris’ means
‘outside’ (may be the reference was to a village boundary or fence separating the village and the forest land).

ADVERTISEMENTS:

A forest is a natural, self-sustaining community characterized by vertical structure created by presence of trees. Trees
are large, generally single-stemmed, woody plants. Forest can exist in many different regions under a wide range of
conditions, but all true forests share these physical characteristics.

Because a forest is a natural community, no forest is static in time. That is, because forest communities respond to
outside influences, most forests are in a state of constant flux. Depending upon the systems within which forest commu-
nities exist, such factors might include rainfall, fire, wind, glaciation, seismic activity, flooding, animal activity,
insulation, and so on.

At any time, a forest is a collection of past responses to outside influences and internal competitive interactions.
Therefore, the present status of any forest, indeed of any natural community, reflects what has gone on before.

Use and Over Exploitation:

A forest is a biotic community predominantly of trees, shrubs and other woody vegetation, usually with a closed canopy.
This invaluable renewable natural resource is beneficial to man in many ways.

The direct benefits from forests are:

(a) Fuel Wood:
Wood is used as a source of energy for cooking purpose and for keeping warm.

(b) Timber:
Wood is used for making furniture, tool-handles, railway sleepers, matches, ploughs, bridges, boats etc.

(c) Bamboos:
These are used for matting, flooring, baskets, ropes, rafts, cots etc.

(d) Food:
Fruits, leaves, roots and tubers of plants and meat of forest animals form the food of forest tribes.

(e) Shelter:
Mosses, ferns, insects, birds, reptiles, mammals and micro-organisms are provided shelter by forests.

(f) Paper:
Wood and Bamboo pulp are used for manufacturing paper (Newsprint, stationery, packing paper, sanitary paper)

(g) Rayon:
Bamboo and wood are used in the manufacture of rayon (yarns, artificial silk-fibres)

(h) Forest Products:

Tannins, gums, drugs, spices, insecticides, waxes, honey, horns, musk, ivory, hides etc. are all provided by the flora and
fauna of forests.

The indirect benefits from forests are:

(a) Conservation of Soil:
Forests prevent soil erosion by binding the soil with the network of roots of the different plants and reduce the velocity
of wind and rain — which are the chief agents causing erosion.

(b) Soil-improvement:
The fertility of the soil increases due to the humus which is formed by the decay of forest litter.

(c) Reduction of Atmospheric Pollution:

By using up carbon dioxide and giving off oxygen during the process of photosynthesis, forests reduce pollution and
purify the environment.
(d) Control of Climate:
Transpiration of plants increases the atmospheric humidity which affects rainfall and cools the atmosphere.

(e) Control of Water flow:

In the forests, the thick layer of humus acts like a big sponge and soaks rain water preventing run-off, thereby
preventing flash-floods. Humus prevents quick evaporation of water, thereby ensuring a perennial supply of water to
streams, springs and wells.

Human Interactions with Forests:

Human are indisputably a part of most forests. With the exception of extremely inaccessible forestlands, all forests
present on Earth today have been influenced by human being for tens of thousands of years. In many cases, forest
communities have never been without the influence of human activities.

Because of the widespread nature of human, activity in forests, it is tempting to think of human endeavor as one more
outside factor influencing forest development. This approach is misleading, however, since it denies the role of self-
awareness in human activity. Because human beings can understand cause and effect, and because we have amassed an
increasingly deep body of knowledge about forest processes over the past ten millennia, human influences simply
cannot be likened to the blind forces of nature.

Since pre-history, human beings have realized benefits from forested lands in the form of spiritual values, medicines,
shelter, food, materials, fuel and more. Often, humans have sought to manipulate natural processes so as to compel
forest systems to produce more of the goods and services desired by people.

Examples range from culturally modified trees and edge habitat maintained by the Haida and others in west-coastal
North America to Pre-Colombian enrichment planting of Brazil nut trees in the Amazon to traditional coppice manage-
ment in the English lowlands.

At times, human management has become as intensive as to become the primary set of factors under which the forest
system operates. Such systems move towards the near total human control found in agricultural systems and cannot be
thought of as forests in any natural sense, although they may continue to resemble forests superficially.

Deforestation:
Deforestation is the permanent destruction of indigenous forests and woodlands. The term does not include the removal
of industrial forests such as plantations of gums or pines. Deforestation has resulted in the reduction of indigenous for-
ests to four-fifths of their pre-agricultural area.

Indigenous forests now cover 21% of the earth’s land surface. The World Resources Institute regards deforestation as
one of the world’s most pressing land-use problems. The difference between forests and woodlands is that whereas in a
forest the crowns of individual trees touch to form a single canopy, in woodland, trees STOW far apart, so that the
canopy is open.

Of great concern is the rate at which deforestation is occurring. Currently, 12 million hectares of forests are cleared
annually. Almost all of this deforestation occurs in the moist forests and open woodlands of the tropics.

At this rate all moist tropical forest could be lost by the year 2050, except for isolated areas in -Amazonia, the Zaire
basin, as well as a few protected areas within reserves and parks. Some countries such as Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Costa
Rica, and Sri Lanka are likely to lose all their tropical forests by the year 2010 if no conservation steps are taken.

The destruction of forests due to unscrupulous and indiscriminate felling of trees has lead to an overall deterioration of
our environment and is posing a serious threat to the quality of “life in future. Forest area in world has dwindled from
7,000 million hectares (year 1900) to 2S90 million hectares (year 1975). It is expected to further reduce to 2300 million
hectares by year 2010 AD if the present trend of deforestation is not reversed.

Causes of Deforestation:
(1) Population Explosion:
Population explosion poses a grave threat to the environment. Vast areas of forest land are cleared of trees to reclaim
land for human settlements (factories, agriculture, housing, roads, railway tracks etc.) growth of population increases the
demand for forest products like timber, firewood, paper and other valuable products of industrial importance, all
necessitating felling of trees.
(2) Forest Fires:
Fires in the forests may be due to natural calamities or human activities:
(a) Smoldering of the humus and organic matter forming a thick cover over the forest floor (i.e. ground fires).

(b) Dried twigs and leaves may catch fire (i.e. surface fires).

(c) In densely populated forests, tree tops may catch fire by heat produced by constant rubbing against each other (i.e.
crown fires).

(d) Human activities like clearing forest for habitation, agriculture, firewood, construction of roads, railway tracks and
carelessness (throwing burning cigarette stubbs on dried foliage).

Fire destroys fully grown trees, results in killing and scorching of the seeds, humus, ground flora and animal life.

(3) Grazing Animals:

Trampling of the forest soil in the course of overgrazing by livestock has four reaching effects such as loss of porosity
of soil, soil erosion and desertification of the previously fertile forest area.

(4) Pest Attack:

Forest pests like insects etc. destroy trees by eating up the leaves, boring into shoots and by spreading diseases.

(5) Natural Forces:

Floods, storms, snow, lightening etc. are the natural forces which damage forests.

Effects of Deforestation:
Forests are closely related with climatic change, biological diversity, wild animals, crops, medicinal plants etc.

Large scale deforestation has many far-reaching consequences:

(a) Habitat destruction of wild animals (tree-using animals are deprived of food and shelter.)

(b) Increased soil erosion due to reduction of vegetation cover.

(c) Reduction in the oxygen liberated by plants through photosynthesis.

(d) Increase in pollution due to burning of wood and due to reduction in Car- bon-dioxide fixation by plants.

(e) Decrease in availability of forest products.

(f) Loss of cultural diversity

(g) Loss of Biodiversity

(h) Scarcity of fuel wood and deterioration in economy and quality of life of people residing near forests.

(i) Lowering of the water table due to more run-off and thereby increased use of the underground water increases the
frequency of droughts.

(j) Rise in Carbon dioxide level has resulted in increased thermal level of earth which in turn results in melting of ice
caps and glaciers and consequent flooding of coastal areas.

Introduction to Indian Scenario of Water Resources:

India has 2.45 per cent of the world’s landmass supporting 16 per cent of the world’s population whereas the freshwater
resources are only 4 per cent of that of the world.

The average annual precipitation, including snowfall, received in the country is 4000 bcm.

Of this, the average annual water availability in the river-systems of the country is assessed at 1,869 bcm.
The usable surface water is 690 bcm and replenish-able groundwater is 432 bcm. Thus total usable water is around
1,122 bcm.

There has been a considerable development of water resources since independence. With less than 293 large dams at the
time of independence, the number of dams has grown to more than 4000 at present. This will provide a storage capacity
of about 252 bcm against that of less than 16 bcm at the time of independence.

At present countries irrigation potential is about 94 million hectares (m.ha) against 22.6 m.ha before the first five year
plan. At the time of commencement of the first five year plan in 1951, the annual food grain production was only 51
million tonnes which at present is more than 210 million tonnes. Out of 40 m.ha of flood prone area in the country,
about 15 m.ha has since then been well protected.

At present, average annual per capita availability of water for the country as a whole is about 1,820 cubic meter as
against 5177 cubic meter in 1951 (Table 6.6). Due to large variation of rainfall in space and rime, some areas have
relatively less per capita water availability. Arid and semi and regions of the country are prone to repeated drought
conditions.

We must aim for an equitable economic growth for all round development and poverty alleviation, through efficient use
and continued sustainable development of water resources with emphasis on peoples participation. This will help India
emerge stronger in the 21st century.

Although irrigation will continue to be the major consumer of water in coming times, its share in the total water use may
reduce while the share of water use for domestic, industrial and energy purposes will rise due to urbanisation and
industrialisation.

The requirement of water for other uses such as navigation, ecological and recreation, although not so significant in
terms of consumptive use, will continue to be important and will have specific quantity and temporal needs.

Therefore, long term perspective planning for sustainable development of water resources in a holistic and integrated
manner, with emphasis on more efficient use is necessary to achieve the goal of economic prosperity.

Water Resource Exploitation—Use and over use:

India is rich in surface water resources. Average annual rainwater discharge into river is about 1880 bcm, which is about
1/3rd of the total rainfall. Because of temporal and spatial variation of rainfall pattern in the country, some part
experience drought and while in other parts, there may be severe flood at a time. Thus water resource management will
be a great challenges for India in future (Table 6.7).
In India over 75% available fresh water is used in agricultural practices. Such a demand for agricultural irrigation needs
to be reviewed and efficient irrigation planning, crop scheduling and use of wastewater irrigation in agriculture should
be examined seriously.

Flood:
This is a recurring phenomenon in several states of India. Out of the country’s total geographical area of 329 m.ha, 40
m.ha is prone to floods. In-spite of considerable measures, flood devastation in Assam, north Bihar, in parts of UP, WB,
Orissa and Punjab, are major problem still exit.

The National Programme for Hood management now targeted to help the state government to take up long term
effective management of flood control in problem areas. The Central water commission is engaged in flood forecasting
on inter-state river basins through 161 stations out of which 134 are- river level forecasting stations and 27 inflow fore-
casting stations on major dams/barrage throughout the country.

Drought:
It is well known that rainfall pattern is highly variable in different states as well as year to year variation is also quite
significant. An overview of rainfall pattern of India is shown in Table 6.8.

So, by and large in states or regions having low rainfall particularly during monsoon spell, drought situation often
prevailed. Surface water diversion through canals and ground water development in some places help in mitigation of
problems partially.

The ‘National Commission for Integrated Water Resources Development Plan’, which was constituted in September
1996, submitted its re-port to the Union Government in December 1999 and made several recommendations for
development of water resources for drinking, irrigation, industrial, flood control, transfer of surplus water to deficit
areas and so on.

Dam—Benefits and Conflicts:

Construction of “Dam” is one of the major activities for water resource management in different parts of the world. For
multipurpose water resource development such as flood intigation, water resource storage and diversion for irrigation
and community water supply and also for hydel power generation, the creation of water reservoir and dam in river basin
area is a major activity. For a long time, creation of “Dam” symbolized as integrated water resource development
planning components.
With the passage of time, it was realised that mega dam all over the world have several negative impact on Environment
and human community in and around. As a consequence, anti-dam movement started against the creation of any mega
dam project. Several thousand of “Environmental Refugee” was created due to a number of large- dam projects.

Water Sharing Conflict:

Sustained water supply in major rivers and its distributaries in dry months is a major concern which induces conflicts
between two neighbouring states or countries. Thus there were a number of international treaties made over the years on
water sharing viz., India—Bhutan Cooperation, India-Bangladesh cooperation, India-Nepal cooperation and Waters
treaty between India-Pakistan.

All these treaties involve the setting up of joint teams for hydro meteorological and flood forecasting network on rivers
and also their water sharing issues. Periodically all the treaties were re-evaluated. Identically inter-state water sharing
issues now come up very much in news headlines, due to disagreement on water discharge from various dams during
dry months.

This problem is very serious in southern and north-western states. Central water commission (CWC), New Delhi is
responsible for initiating coordination with the state governments concerned, schemes for the control, conservation and
utilisation of water resources for the purpose of flood management, irrigation, navigation and water power generation
throughout the country.

There are also a number of tribunals for resolving inter-state water disputes:
(i) The Godavari water Disputes Tribunal,

(ii) The Krishna-water Disputes Tribunal,

(iii) The Narmada water Disputes Tribunal,

(iv) The Ravi and Beas water Disputes Tribunal, and

(v) The Cauvery water Disputes Tribunal.

National Water Policy (2002):

This policy was adopted by the National Water Resources Council. The policy envisages the formulation of a State
water policy and preparation of an operational action plan in a time bound manner to achieve the desired objectives. The
developmental strategy includes many effective water conservation and management plans as a component of the long
term perspective planning of water resources.

The following activities were suggested in perspective planning:

1. Stakeholder’s participation in optimum utilisation of water resources, and its development as state govt. have
inadequate fund to maintain such facilities. This includes participatory irrigation management.

2. Renovation and modernisation of irrigation projects is essential as the average water use efficiency of irrigation
projects (2003) is about 20 to 40 for canal water and about 60% for ground water irrigation schemes. This situation can
be improved by better management and upgradation of the system to realise optimum benefits; and through mitigation
of the consequential side effects like water logging and inequity in supply of water to tail end reaches.

3. Preservation and maintenance of quality of water resources are very important for various kinds of water uses.
Contaminated ground water quality can be improved by rainwater harvesting and groundwater recharge.

4. Watershed management is one of the major useful methods of providing sustainable irrigation. It also helps in soil
erosion control and water conservation.

5. Rainwater harvesting and groundwater recharging are two very important interlinked processes of water conservation,
when there is a danger signal of groundwater depletion.

6. Interlinking of rivers is another significant proposal of water distribution in a countrywide network. However
environmentalists opposed this idea due to several reasons specially due to the misleading concept of surplus water.

7. Flood management includes water storage, dispersion and early evaluation of water logging areas. Long term
planning for such a situation is highly essential in flood prone areas.

8. Mass awareness campaign for water conservation is extremely essential otherwise any amount of water development
will not be sufficient for requirement of the society. How to save water in the household level? This should be explained
to every citizen. The details are given in Table 6.9.
Integrated Water Management:
Fresh water crisis is now a global phenomena. Thus there is a great need for integrated water resource management in
terms of water collection, storage, efficient use and recycle of wastewater.

To meet future needs, urban, agricultural and national interests will need to deal with a number or issues such as
the following:
1. Increased demand for water will generate pressure to divert water to highly populated areas or areas capable of
irrigated agriculture.

2. Increased demand for water will force increased treatment and reuse of existing water supplies.

3. In many areas where water is used for irrigation, evaporation of water from the soil over many years results in a
buildup of salt in the soil. When the water used to flush the salt from the soil is returned to a stream, the quality of the
water is lowered.

4. In some areas, wells provide water for all categories of use. If the groundwater is pumped out faster than it is
replaced, the water table is lowered.
5. In coastal areas, sea-water may intrude into the aquifers and ruin the water supply.

6. The demand for water-based recreation is increasing dramatically and requires high quality water, especially for
activities involving total body contact, such as bathing and swimming.

By and large water management is one of the major concern of any country which needs much more comprehensive
planning on a long term basis.

A mineral is pure inorganic substance that occurs naturally in the earth’s crust. More than two-
thousand minerals have been identified and most of these are inorganic, which are formed by
various combination of elements. Mineral are naturally occurring elements or compounds that have
been formed through slow inorganic processes. These are more than 3000 minerals species, most of
them having chemical composition, crystal, hardness, colour and opacity

Our civilization is based on mineral resources. All materials (fuels, metals, water, etc.) needed for
modern society are derived from the earth’s crust, whether directly or indirectly. The naturally
occurring materials (in form of ore) obtained below the earth’s crust having a definite structure and
chemical composition are called minerals.

The minerals from which metals and non metals is extracted are known as ores. Rock is formed
naturally by mineral deposition. According to their origin, rocks are divided into three types:

(i) Igneous rock

(ii) Sedimentary rock

(iii) Metamorphic rock.

The ores yield metal like iron, copper, aluminium, gold, silver, platinum, while non- metallic
materials like cement, sulphur, phosphorus, diamonds and chemical by products of petroleum
refining are vital to industry.

Classification of minerals:
On the basis of predominant anions or anionic group minerals can be classify as : (i) Silicates
minerals (ii) Native elements (iii) Sulphide minerals (iv) Oxide minerals (v) Halide minerals (vi)
Hydroxide minerals (vii) Carbonate and nitrate minerals (viii) Sulphate minerals (ix) Borate
minerals (x) Tung state, chromate and molybdate minerals (xi) Phosphate, Arsenate and Vanedate
minerals.

All the minerals are non renewable and valuable because they are stronger than any other materials,
and they can be melted and cast into shape with a good conductor of electricity.

Marine mineral resources

The deep sea basins are found to contain enormous quantities of minerals such a manganese,
cobalt-nickels and copper. The salt, magnesium and bromine are also discovered from marine
Marine mineral resources in India are of three types:

1. Terrigenous minerals: In Maharashtra, Kerala and Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa
with Ilmnite, monazite.
2. Biogenous deposits: In Kerala, Gulf Kutch, A & Nicobar with calcium, carbonate.
3. Chemogenous deposits: Manganese nickel, cobalt and copper.
Categories of Mineral Resources
Mineral resources can be divided into two major categories:
• Metallic Mineral Resources

• Non-metallic Mineral Resources

Characteristics of Metallic Minerals

Metallic Minerals are metals that are hard substance and conduct heat and electricity with a
characteristics of luster or shine. For example: Gold, Silver, Tin, Copper, Lead, Zinc, Iron, Nickel,
Chromium, and Aluminum.

Metallic minerals contain metal in raw form .Metallic Minerals present a metallic shine in their
appearance. They contains metals in their chemical composition and are potential source of the
metal that can be got through mining.

Metallic minerals are further classified into Ferrous metallic minerals and Non-ferrous metallic
minerals.

Ferrous Minerals are those mineral that contains iron, for example: Iron ore, maganese and
Chromites.

Non-Ferrous Minerals are those minerals which do not contain iron, for example: gold, silver,
copper and lead.

Non-metallic minerals
Non-metallic minerals are a special group of chemical elements from which no new product can be
generated if they are melted. For example: sand, gravel, gypsum, halite, Uranium, dimension stone.

Non-metallic minerals are minerals which are either present a non-metallic shine or lustre in their
appearance.These minerals do not contain extractable metals in their chemical composition.

Use of Minerals
The earth’s resources have been used by all cultures throughout history. The earliest uses of the
earth’s resources involved water, salt and simple tools made from rocks. The quantities of various
mineral resources used by particular societies vary widely but generally correspond per capita to the
nation’s degree of development and standard of living

The use of minerals depends upon its deposits. Some countries are rich in mineral deposits, while
others have no deposits. The greatest use of minerals depends on its properties. Minerals are used in
almost all industries. Gold, silver and platinum are used in the jewelry industry. Copper is used in
coin industry and for making pipes and wire. Silicon obtained from quartz is used in the computer
industry. Aluminum is light, strong and durable in nature, so it is used for aircraft, shipping and car
industries.

The Indian Scenario

A variety of minerals are found in India .On the basis of properties, minerals are broadly classified
into metallic minerals and non-metallic minerals. Manganese, copper, aluminium, zinc, iron,
bauxite, gold, lead, etc are metallic minerals. Metallic minerals are mainly occur in igneous and
metamorphic rocks. Diamond, gypsum, mica, kainite, stones, potash, etc are non metallic minerals.
Manganese- Manganese is used in steel industries and in making paints, glass, insecticides,
batteries, chemicals, bleaching powder, etc. India stands second in the reserves of manganese in the
world. Manganese ore is exported from India.
Iron ore- Iron ore is used in the manufacture of steel and iron. Haematite, limonite, magnetite and
siderite are the varieties of iron ore. Iron ore is a basic and important raw material of most of the
manufacturing industries.

Mica- Mica is used in electrical and electronics industries. It is also used in production of medicines,
paints, etc. Mica has an insulating property.

Copper- Copper is a good conductor of electricity. Copper is used for making alloys, electric wires
and utensils. It is also used in the manufacture of medicines. The demand of copper is always more
due to its non-rusting property.

Lead- Lead is a heavy and soft metal. It does not conduct heat. It is used in the manufacture of
ammunition, glass, rubber, paints, etc.

Bauxite- Bauxite is used in industries as raw materials. India has large deposits of bauxite ore. It is
used in industries which manufacture ships, aeroplanes, automobiles, electric wires, etc.

Mining of minerals
Mining refers to the process of extracting metals and minerals from the earth. Gold, silver, diamond,
iron, coal, and uranium are just a few of the vast array of metals and minerals that are obtained by
this process. Mining activities require the clearing of large areas of land.
In fact, mining is the source of all the substances that cannot be obtained by industrial processes or
through agriculture. Mining reaps huge profits for the companies that own them and provides
employment to a large number of people. It is also a huge source of revenue for the government.

Mining involves the physical removal of minerals from the crust of Earth. The mineral materials
may be used as such or used for extraction of elements. As minerals are exhaustible resources, it
becomes essential to conserve these resources.

There are three major stages in mineral extraction exploration, mining and mine reclamation.

The Steps of Mining:

Generally these are the stages of mineral exploration

Area Selection:
The most important stage, it is important to choose an area that is possible to find ore deposits
easily, cheaply and quickly

Target Generation:
This stage involves investigation of the geology throughmaps, geophysics, and testing the surface
and subsurface minerals of the area.

Resource Evaluation :
This stage lets you know the quality and quantity of the mineral in the area. This is achieved mainly
by drilling.

Reserve Definition:
Converts an ore resource to a mineral reserve. Similar to resource evaluation, except a lot more
detailed and thorough

Profit Planning :
This step involves planning out a mine to evaluate the economically recoverable portion of the
deposit.
Mine Construction:
This step is physically making the mine. You have to make itso there is access to an ore body.

Mining:
This step is the actual excavation of minerals from the ground. This is achieved in many different
ways, depending on what type of mine it is and whatyou want to take out of the ground

Ecological Rebuilding:
This means returning the land as much as you can to its former self, after all the mining is done.

Mining and quarrying methods-

The method used to extract minerals depends on the deposit size, shape, depth beneath the surface
and grade. A choice is made between surface mining and underground mining.

Surface mining is less expensive, safer and involves fewer complications with air, electricity,
water and rock handling. However, surface mining has a greater environmental impact than
underground mining. Thus, surface mining operations disturb the surface more seriously.
In open pit mines, extraction proceeds by drilling, blasting, loading, transporting and dumping
the ore out of the pit. In strip mining of coal, clay, bauxite, tar sands, phosphates, iron ores, etc.,
overburden is removed and dumped to the rear and the ore is scooped up and loaded into trucks.
Deep mines are extracted using underground minining methods. In most mines, ore extraction
and mine development involve drilling and blasting, and removal with mechanical diggers onto
underground railway cars or dump trucks that reach the surface through a shaft.
Hydraulic mining uses high-pressure water jets to wash soft sediments down an incline toward
some form of concentration plant, where dense mineral grains (such as gold) and soft mineral grains
(such as clay/kaolin) are separated.
Solution mining (leaching) involves dissolving the ore (Au, Ag, U, S, NaCl, etc.) with a liquid
(water, cyanide, etc.). If the ore is extracted on site with solution mining, it is called in-situ leaching.
General Impacts of mining on the environment:
Energy Consumption:
Mining requires vast amounts of energy. The ore and rock has to be transported great distances by
large vehicles, which require a large amount of energy in the form of gasoline. Underground mines
need extensive hoisting systems to transport the minerals, which also require energy. Controlling
the temperature of mines deep underground is very energy consuming as well. Pneumatic
equipment, which is used a lot in the mining industry, also takes energy. Smelting ores and metal
requires lots of energy

Air:
Mining has a great effect on the quality of the air. Since mines need to blast through rock to get to an
ore, dust may be produced in the process. Coal mines release methane, which contributes to
environmental issues because it is a greenhouse gas. Non-vegetated or uncapped tailing dams
release dust, and when radioactive elements are found in the ore, radiation is emitted. Heavy metals,
such as sulphur dioxide, may be polluted into the air by unsafe smelter operations with insufficient
safeguards. The gold mining industry is one of the most destructive industries in the world, because
of all of the toxins that are released into the air. Acid rain and smog are also some side-effects of
mining.

Water:
Mines use a lot of water, though some of the water is reusable. Sulphides-containing minerals
negatively impacts groundwater. This happens from both surface and underground mines. Another
way surface and underground water are affected is through tailing dams and waste rock heaps,
because they are a source of acidic drainage water. Leftover chemical deposits from explosives are
usually toxic, and increase the salinity of mine water, as well as contaminating it. Groundwater can
be directly contaminated through “in situ” mining, in which a solvent seeps into un-mined rock,
leaching minerals. Release of toxic chemicals into the water is obviously harmful for the flora and
fauna of the water bodies. Besides the pollution, mining processes require water from nearby water
sources. For example, water is used to wash impurities from the coal. The result is that the water
content of the river or lake from which water is being used gets reduced. Organisms in these water
bodies do not have enough water for their survival.

Previously buried metal sulfides are exposed during mining activities. When they come in contact
with the atmospheric oxygen, they get converted into strong sulphuric acid and metal oxides. Such
compounds get mixed up in the local waterways and contaminate local rivers with heavy metals.
Chemicals like mercury, cyanide, sulphuric acid, arsenic and methyl mercury are used in various
stages of mining. Most of the chemicals are released into nearby water bodies, and are responsible
for water pollution. In spite of tailings (pipes) being used to dispose these chemicals into the water
bodies, there is always a possibility of a leak. When the chemicals slowly percolate through the
layers of the earth, they reach the groundwater and pollute it.

Land:
There are many environmental concerns about the effects mining has on the land. Trees need to be
cut down in order to have a mine built, and whole forests could be destroyed. Mining involves
moving large quantities of rock, and in surface mining, overburden land impacts are immense.
Mining activities also may lead to erosion, which is dangerous and bad for the land. It destroys river
banks, and changes how the river flows, where it flows, what lives in it, etc. Despite measures being
taken to release the chemical waste into the nearby rivers through pipes, a large amount of
chemicals still leak out onto the land. This changes the chemical composition of the land. Besides
this, since the chemicals are poisonous, they make the soil unsuitable for plants to grow. Also, the
organisms that live in the soil find the polluted environment hostile for their survival.

Large-scale deforestation

Mining requires large areas of forest area to be cleared so that the land could be dug into by the
miners. For this reason, large-scale deforestation is required to be carried out in the areas where
mining has to be done. Besides clearing the mining area, vegetation in the adjoining areas also needs
to be cut in order to construct roads and residential facilities for the mine workers. The human
population brings along with it other activities that harm the environment. For example, various
activities at coal mines release dust and gas into the air. Thus, mining is one of the major causes of
deforestation and pollution.
Ecosystem Damage:
Mines are highly damaging to the ecosystems surrounding them. Many different types of mines
affect many different types of ecosystems. Many of the toxins and tailings that are discharged from
the mines can disrupt and disturb the way animals live, and their health. Mining can completely
destroy ecosystems by adding or taking out something from the animals’ everyday lives, therefore
throwing the whole thing out of balance.

Loss of Biodiversity
The forests that are cleared for mining purposes are home to a large number of organisms.
Indiscriminate clearing of the forests leads to loss of habitat of a large number of animals. This puts
the survival of a large number of animal species at stake. The cutting down of trees in itself is a big
threat to a number of plants, trees, birds and animals that dwell in the forests.
Health and Safety:
Mining can be very safe, but often it is extremely dangerous.Underground mining is usually more
unsafe than surface because of the poor ventilation and visibility, as well as the rock fall hazards.
The biggest health risks are from dust,which can cause breathing problems. Sometimes the liquid
waste that is generated after the metals or minerals have been extracted is disposed in a mining pit.
As the pit gets filled up by the mine tailing, they become a stagnant pool of water. This becomes the
breeding ground for water-borne diseases causing insects and organisms like mosquitoes to flourish.

Impact on environment of mining

Much of the impact of mining is obvious. The disruption of land otherwise suitable for agricultural,
urban or recreational use; the deterioration of the immediate environment through noise and
airborne dust; and the creation of ore of the most dangerous environments for workers and
potentially hazardous for the public are all environmental problems associated with mining.
However, mining is a relatively short-term activity, and much can be done both to limit
environmental damage during mining and to restore the land when mining operations are complete.
Today, in many countries, legislation has been enacted at nearly all levels to ensure that extreme
restrictions could make mining completely uneconomical. Unfortunately, the absence of adequate
controls over some mining activities in the past has left numerous scars on the surface of the earth
and led to resistance among many members of the public toward new mining activities in their
areas.

Fortunately, many underground mines leave little evidence of their presence, even after mining
operations have ceased. They are usually filled by percolating ground water over time, but the rocks
are usually strong enough to hold in spite of abandoned mine openings and passageways.
Sometimes the old mines can be put to very good use. Old underground mines can be used as
storage areas for grains, seeds, burial of nuclear wastes, and truck parking.

When an open pit mine closes, a large hole remains with no readily available waste rock to fill it. The
pit slopes are often too steep for plantation. If the water table is high enough, the bottom of the pit
may flood, creating an artificial lake. Therefore, very large open pit mines are difficult, if not
impossible, to reclaim. Smaller open pits may be filled with waste rock. In some places, surface
mines can be reclaimed to form small lakes and wetlands mat support fish, birds and other wildlife.
Underground mines do not lead to such drastic disruptions of the surface as open pit and strip
mining, but a new hazard known as subsidence can be encountered. Subsidence under towns and
roads can leave homes uninhabitable and transportation severely disrupted.

In addition to the impact that mining activities may have on the, landscape, the environment may be
disrupted over a wider area by changes İn the distribution and chemistry of surface waters or
ground water. Water passing through the mines or dumps becomes acidified, later finding its way
into rivers, streams or the local groundwater system. Many streams can be affected by abandoned
mine works.

Disposal of mining wastes

Nearly all mining operations generate waste rock, often in very large amounts. Strip mining waste
can be used in reclamation, but an alternative method of disposal must be found for underground
mining operations and most kinds of open pit mining. Usually, this simply involves dumping the
wastes İn piles at the surface next to the mine workings.

Sometimes, die waste rock is put back into me openings created by the mining . Piles of waste rock
may be dangerous because of the possibility of sliding. Alternatives to the dumping of mining
wastes, such as the use of them to fill land, are likely to be expensive and impractical in most cases.
Waste dump slopes can be lowered and re-vegetation can be achieved.

Dredging and ocean mining

Dredging involves removing unconsolidated material from rivers, streams, lakes and shallows seas
with machines such as bucket-ladder dredge, drag-line dredge or suction dredge. There is no
mechanical pollution from dredging, but the process disperses large quantities of fine sands and silt
having severe effects on fish and other wild life that require clean water to survive. Ocean mining for
Mn nodules involves significant disruption to ocean water and biological system. Currents,
sedimentation patterns and erosion patterns are changed by ocean mining operations.

Well drilling and production

Drilling wells are used to explore and produce oil, gas, brine, geothermal fluids. Blow out and fire
hazards can create severe pollution. Oil and brine spillage and seepage must be carefully controlled.
Affects of used resources on the environment
The burning of fossil fuels in power stations, homes and automobile engines results İn gases,
particles and excess heat being emitted into the environment. The use of nuclear fuels generates
toxic radioactive waste products requiring special disposal. Oil refining and metal/mineral
production also generate wastes and pollutants.

Acid pollution
The most important pollutant of the hydrosphere is acid in the form of acid rain and acid mine
drainage. Acid mine drainage formed by dissolution of pyrite dissolves more pynte, thus
accentuating the effects.

Burning fossil fuels

The burning of fossil fuels in automobiles, power plants and heating systems creates air pollution.
The burning of solid waste and smelting also generates air pollution.

Disposal of nuclear wastes

The mining and processing of uranium ores, the manufacture of nuclear fuels, the use of fuels in
nuclear power stations, and nuclear weapons manufacture all generate waste products requiring
disposal. The long-term disposal of radioactive wastes is still an unresolved problem.- Low-level
wastes generally have radioactivity less than 1000 times the acceptable level in the environment.
Large quantities of this type of waste are produced at uranium mines.. High-level radioactive wastes
from the nuclear power industry account for roughly 95% of the radioactivity.

Possible Solution for decreasing negative impact

To decrease negative impact on the environment without significantly disrupting the supply of
minerals.We believe this objective can be attained through a method of mining known
as“sustainable mining. Sustainable mining is an effective way to reduce the impact of mining on the
environment. It is a huge step towards becoming more environmentally and ecologically-
friendly. They will meet society’s needs for minerals and metals, while demonstrating responsibility
to social, economic and environmental issues. They demonstrate these traits through exploring,
discovering, developing, producing, distributing and recycling the products. The mining companies
should keep contributing to the protection of the employees, communities, customers and the
natural environment by promoting the safe and environmentally-friendly production,use and
recycling of metals and minerals, minimizing effects on the environment through all stages of the
mine’s development, from exploration to closure, working with communities about the issues of
abandoned mines, and using new technology and innovations to practice continuous
improvement.One of the chief problems of sustainable mining is that the mining companies simply
don’t have enough money to implement sustainable mining without outside financial assistance. All
non-essential mining must be reduced in size to the absolute minimum possible.

As for the treatment of abandoned mine sites that contaminate the environment, there are several
different treatments for the different types of pollution .

Acid Mine Drainage: Acid mine drainage is currently treatable with several different chemicals
that neutralize the acid: calcium carbonate, calcium hydroxide, calcium oxide,sodium carbonate,
sodium hydroxide, and anhydrous ammonia.
Tailings: The disposal of tailings has always been difficult. In the past, they have been disposed in
numerous ways, almost none of them environmentally friendly: stored in ponds, dumped into
rivers, dumped into oceans, etc. However, there are two more eco-friendly and less unsightly
methods that can be used. The first is disposal into underground caverns or voids left from mines.
This method is good because it leeches fewer minerals into the water table, because it reduces the
risk of the cavern collapsing ,and because it hides the ugly tailings from view. The other method is
depositing tailings into abandoned open pit mines. The main advantages of this method are that it
gets rid of the sight of the tailings, and fills up the hole left from the open pit mine
Air pollution: Unfortunately, there is little we can do about pollution already in the atmosphere.
All we can do is prevent more from getting into it.
Land Pollution : Land pollution can be rectified through standard reclamation efforts;however it
must be made mandatory to reclaim abandoned mines.
Water Pollution: The majority of water pollution can be treated through neutralization. Other
acidic chemicals in the water can also be treated by being pumped to treatment plants
Conclusion
Mining Supporters includes mine employees, mining companies, investors, mining lobbyists,
civilians in favour of mining, and politicians in favour of using the “current methods of
mining”.Mining Companies: Mining companies support the current methods of mining for obvious
reasons. Mining is how they turn a profit. They believe that the benefits of mining [think money] far
outweigh the disadvantages.
Mining companies believe that what they do is worth it. They do not care about the environment;
their sole value is profit. They believe that environmentalists are wrong, and that what they do is for
the greater good. They think that economy outweighs the environment. They know that the things
they are mining (for the most part) are necessities that are used in everyday life, so they think it is
vital to keep mining and extracting those materials, even if it means risking the health of the planet.

Mining Opposition includes environmentalists, civilians against the current methods of mining, and
politicians against the current methods of mining .Environmentalists: Environmentalists are people
who are “concerned for the preservation, restoration, or improvement of the natural environment,
such as the conservation of natural resources, prevention of pollution, and certain land use
actions.”As such, they are opposed to the current methods of mining when they harm the
environment. By definition, all people who oppose the current methods of mining are
environmentalists. They believe that the environment comes first, that the current methods of
mining are wrong because they harm the environment, that there are more eco-friendly ways of
mining to retrieve minerals, and that the public should be aware of the degradation of the
environment caused by these methods of mining. These people are the backbone of the opposition to
mining.

Minerals are formed by inorganic processes of long duration. Minerals are exhaustible and non-
renewable resources. Extraction of minerals has increased at large scale to meeting the ever
increasing population of country. Due to improper and excessive use, minerals in certain regions are
on the verge of extinction. Hence, there is a need of conservation of minerals. Avoid use and
acceptance of minerals which are not essential. Modern technology plays an important role in the
conservation of minerals. Recycling is the perfect form of mineral reuse.

As a result, miners have to exploit and use minerals in an environmentally friendly way because the
globalization of environmental concerns presents complex ethical problems that we have just begun
to address. Today, miners cannot ignore the concern that the earth is reaching its limit of mineral-
related pollution.