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Monitoring Leopard (Panthera pardus) and its prey in different Human-

Leopard conflict zones (high, medium and low), Pauri Garhwal, Uttaranchal

Thesis · June 2006

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 Monitoring Leopard (Panthera pardus) and its prey in
different Human-Leopard conflict zones (high, medium and
low), Pauri Garhwal, Uttaranchal

Dissertation Submitted
to
Forest Research Institute (Deemed University), Dehradun
in
Partial Fulfillment of the Master of Science Degree
in Environment Management
June, 2006

by
Subhadeep Bhattacharjee

Under the Supervision of

Dr. S. P. Goyal, D.S. Chauhan, Dr. M. Agarwal

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, India

Forest Research Institute (Deemed University)

Indian Council of Forestry Research & Education
(ICFRE) Dehradun (India)
 Contents

List of Tables i

List of Figures ii

Acknowledgements iv

Abstract vi

1. Introduction 01

2. Literature review 04

3. Objectives 12

4. Study area 13

4.1. Soil 13

4.2. Climate and rainfall 13

4.3. Forest types 15

4.4. Animals 23

4.1. Selection of Intensive Study Area (ISA) 28

5. Methods 30

5.1. Estimation of density and relative abundance of leopard 30

5.1.1. Camera trapping 30

5.1.2. Trail monitoring 33

5.2. Estimation of relative abundance of prey species 33

5.2.1. Trail monitoring 33

5.2.2. Status survey of domestic dogs 35

 5.3. Analytical methods 35

5.3.1. Statistical analysis of camera trapping 35

5.3.2. Estimation of encounter rates 35

5.3.3. Non-parametric analysis 36

5.4. Vegetation characterization in relation to leopard and

prey species based on remote sensing & GIS 36

6. Results and Discussion 38

6.1. Estimation of relative abundance of leopard 38

6.1.1. Camera trapping 38

6.1.2. Encounter rates of leopard indirect signs 39

6.2. Estimation of relative abundance of prey species 42

6.2.1. Camera trapping 43

6.2.2. Encounter rates through direct sightings 43

6.2.3. Encounter rates through indirect signs 45

6.2.4. Encounter rates of the pheasants 46

6.2.5. Encounter rates of the domestic species 47

6.2.6. Status survey of domestic dogs 49

6.3. Landuse-landcover analysis based on GIS & remote sensing 51

7. Findings 56

8. Literature cited 57

9. Annexure - I 73

10. Annexure – II 74
 List of Tables

Table 1. Details of use of camera trapping across different conflict zones. 39

Table 2. Distribution and encounter rate (E.R.) of leopard scat and scrape across

the various conflict zones. 40

Table 3. Fecal Rate Abundance Index (fRAI) reported for leopard by various

studies across its range in Africa and Asia. 41

Table 4. The brief summary of wild prey camera trapping across the

different conflict categories. 43

Table 5. Encounter rates of different wild species through direct sighting. 44

Table 6. Encounter rates (no. of signs per km. walk) of indirect signs

of the wild species. 45

Table 7. Status survey of the domestic dog across the different conflict zones. 49

Table 8. Comparative habitat utilization by leopard and its wild prey in

different conflict zones. 55

i
 List of Figures

Figure 1. Pauri-Garhwal district with the administrative blocks. 14

Figure 2. Some of the vegetation types and habitat patterns observed in

Pauri-Garhwal district. 16

Figure 3. Wild animals caught through camera traps during study period. 25

Figure 4. Intensive study areas with the conflict categories. 29

Figure 5. Camera trap equipments (camera poles, sensors and cameras). 32

Figure 6. Trails monitored across the different conflict zones. 34

Figure 7. Effective sampled area across the different conflict zones. 34

Figure 8. Effective sampled area used by leopard, wild and domestic prey

species across different conflict zones. 37

Figure 9. The minimum convex polygon of sampled area used for camera

trapping across the three conflict zones. 38

Figure 10. The GPS locations of the scats collected in all the conflict

categories. 42

Figure 11. Mean encounter rate (M.E.R.) of red jungle fowl (R.J.F.) and

kaleej pheasant (K.P.) along with the leopard’s sign (scat and

scrape together) across the different conflict zones. 47

Figure 12. Mean encounter rate (M.E.R.) with standard error of the

domestic animals seen in different conflict zones. 48

Figure 13. Mortality of domestic dogs and housing pattern across the

different human-leopard conflict Zones. 50

ii
Figure 14. Proportion of landuse-landcover pattern across the different

human-leopard conflict zones. 52

Figure 15. Proportion of landuse-landcover pattern used by leopard

across the different conflict zones. 53

Figure 16. Proportion of landuse-landcover pattern used by wild prey

across the different conflict zones. 54

Figure 17. Proportion of landuse-landcover pattern used by domestic prey

across the different conflict zones. 54

iii
 Acknowledgements

I convey my earnest gratitude to Mr. P. R. Sinha, Director, WII and Dr. V. B. Mathur,

Dean, WII for allowing me to work under Dr. S. P. Goyal and utilize the facilities of WII,

without which, it would be an impossible task for me to successfully complete my

dissertation. I offer my most humble gratitude to Mr. A. K. Lal, Dean (Academic), F.R.I.

(Deemed University); Mr. T. C. Nautiyal, Registrar, F.R.I. (Deemed University) and Dr.

Sumer Chandra, Course Coordinator, F.R.I. (D.U.) for their immense cooperation and

support in handling the official hassles of the whole process without troubling me.

I express my feelings of admiration towards my guide Dr. Goyal. I am really thankful to

him for providing me the opportunity to work in his project. I have learnt the way to

pursue scientific research from him. Thank you very much sir for teaching me.

Dr. Manoj Agarwal, the GIS personnel, WII and Mr. Devendra Singh Chauhan, SRF,

have given primary guidance and basic trainings to successfully complete my dissertation

curriculum. I sincerely pay my respect to them. I cordially pay my gratitude to Dr. S.

Sathyakumar and Dr. K. Ramesh, Bibek Yumnam, Abishek Harihar, Mr. R. Thapa along

with all the officials of WII for their help and kind support. My field assistants rather my

soldiers Mathwar Singh Rawat, Hukum Singh Rana and Parbal Singh Rawat have given

their excellent efforts to make my project a success. I am really proud of my three

companions.

I express my great obligations to Mr. Narendra Singh Sajwan (Sajwan ji), Mr. Pradeep

Sharma Dewliyal, Dadaji and dadi (Paukhal), Mr. Shashi kant Gaur (Narei), Yadav ji

(vice principal, Pokhri Ajmer Inter College), Mr. R.S. Rawat (Principal, Balli GIC),

iv
Dr. S.K. Nondi, Mr. Jaimal Singh, Lakhsman, Bunty bhai (Balli) along with all the

residents of the three study areas for cooperating with us during our field studies.

I would like to wish my earnest gratitude to Sujishnu, my co-researcher in this

dissertation curriculum. Thank you Suji for everything you have done for me.

Dwaipayan, one of my very good friends has allowed me to use his laptop in his absence

which has really reduced my work pressure a lot than I was expecting earlier. My friends

Rajarshi, Sutirtha, Anirban, Navonil, Krishnendu, Harikrishnan, Archi and juniors

Shuvankar, Shreejata, Mousumi have always helped me out when ever I got stuck into

any problem and endowed me with constant mental support. My seniors Santanu Basu,

Kausik Banerjee, Tapajit Bhattacharya, Abhirup Sen, Agni Mitra, and Kuladeep Roy

have always encouraged me to accept this new challenge which was completely unknown

to me. I have no words to thank them all. Here I am also sending a note of thanks to

Suman, Jayeeta, and all the friends of my college and neighborhood for being with me

ever after. Last but not the least I express my utmost love to the most valuable treasures

of my life, my parents and my elder brother & sister in law and of course my little sweet

niece Buguli. My parents are the two people who have sacrificed their all happiness for

my own achievements and successes. If they did not allow me to do what ever I wish to, I

might miss this lifetime experience. Ma and Baba I really feel proud to be yours’ child.

Other than these few people I could acknowledge there will be many others, needless to

say, omissions and errors. I am solely responsible for those. But those faults are due to

lack of time with the submission deadline rather than lack of gratitude. I, therefore, in

advance, apologize to them for my fault.

SUBHADEEP BHATTACHARJEE.

v
 Abstract

The leopard (Panthera pardus L.) is the most elusive and adaptable large cat in the

world, capable of living in a wide variety of habitats ranging from rainforests to scrub

forests near human habitation. Earlier it had a wide distribution ranging from Africa to

East Asia. Progressive habitat destruction and depletion of wild prey have compelled this

felid to come in the vicinity of human settlements to feed on livestock. This has led to

conflict between human and leopard. This study has estimated the relative abundance of

the leopard and prey species (wild & domestic) in different human-leopard conflict zones

determined in earlier studies from February to May, 2006. Widely used camera trapping

and trail monitoring were carried out for estimating leopard and its prey species. Status

surveys of domestic dogs across the three conflict zones were also conducted. The

intensive study sites selected for the present study were 4.21 km2, 11.73 km2 and 11.91

km2 in low, medium and high conflict zones respectively. Three captures of three

individual leopards were obtained during 270 trap nights across three conflict zones with

6 camera units. The estimation of leopard density across the three conflict zones based on

a very limited data within this short duration was not possible. 116 leopard scats were

collected during the study period from the three conflict zones (high: 35; medium: 62 and

low: 19). Encounter rates of wild prey species were estimated both by direct sighting as

well as indirect evidences but those of the domestic species were estimated through direct

sightings only. The mean encounter rate of all the wild prey species across the three

conflict categories was 0.24 where that of the domestic animals was 2.67. Thus the wild

animals were outnumbered by the livestock present in the study area. Kruskal-Wallis test

has selectively shown significant difference for some wild and domestic prey species

vi
abundance across the different conflict zones. Remote sensing and GIS techniques were

also incorporated to analyze the proportion of landuse-landcover pattern in ISA for

categorization of conflict. Higher proportion of scrub (65.22%) and human habitation

(20.71%) in the high conflict zone has indicated the reason for reported increase in

human-leopard conflicts. The status surveys of domestic dog covering 477 households in

27 villages across the three conflict zones have also supported this trend of conflict. It is

suggested to have more such samplings to conclude variations in leopard and its prey

species (wild and domestic) due to varied level of conflicts in Pauri Garhwal.

vii
1. Introduction

There are 36 species of family felidae found world wide. Fifteen among these

including five species of large felids are present in Indian subcontinent. Leopard (Panthera

pardus L.) is one among them belonging to the order carnivore, family felidae and subfamily

pantherinae (Anderson, 1982). The distribution of leopard in Southern Asia ranged all

through from the forested regions of India, the Indo-China peninsula, Southern China and the

island of Sri Lanka (Turnbull & Kemp, 1967; Guggisberg, 1975; Sankhala, 1977; Schaller,

1977; Bailey, 1993). “In spite of being one of the largest and most widely distributed

members of the cat family, the leopard remains essentially unstudied in the wild” (Simon,

1969).

Leopard has adapted well for its survival in different climatic regimes, prey bases and

diverse landforms from savannah, rain forests, mountain elevation, and dense vegetation to

low scrub and thickets and even quite close to human habitat (Schaller, 1967; Green, 1987;

Bailey, 1993; Nowell & Jackson, 1996; Daniel, 1996; Sunquist et al., 1999; Edgaonkar &

Chellam, 2002). Leopard has a much generalized diet where it stays with other sympatric

carnivores like tiger and wild canids (Johnsingh, 1983; Karanth & Sunquist, 1995; Sinha,

2003). Despite that wide-spread distribution and robust potentiality of adaptation, leopards

have been greatly reduced in numbers over their vast former range due to progressive habitat

destruction and fragmentation (Seidensticker, 1986; Johnsingh et al., 1991; Bailey, 1993;

Daniel, 1996), over hunting and depletion of the wild prey (Karanth, 1991; Rabinowitz,

1991), poaching for commercial reasons (Jackson, 1993; Rabinowitz, 1993) combined with

slackening protection for socio-political reasons (Ghosh, 1993).

1
 The conflict between human and leopard has been increased in many folds with in the

last decade due to its shift of prey preference towards the soft preys like livestock (Chauhan

& Goyal, 2001). Leopard – human conflicts have been reported from different regions of

India like Maharashtra (Edgaonkar & Chellam, 1998; Athreya et al., 2004), Gujrat

(Chaudhury, 2003), West Bengal- northern part (Raha, 1996), hill regions of Uttaranchal.

Pauri-Garhwal is the worst affected (Chauhan & Goyal, 2001) district in Uttaranchal. This

district has already been divided into ‘high’, ‘medium’ and ‘low’ conflict zones based on the

severity and frequency of human and livestock kill by leopard under the ongoing research

project on leopard of WII (Chauhan & Goyal, 2001).

The obvious importance of monitoring large felids with in any particular area lies

with the approach to estimate the population of the concerned species (Karanth, 1995).

However methods used for population estimation of large carnivores have always been

marred with one or more problems on account of low numbers and poor detection probability

that makes it very difficult to arrive at reliable estimate. Economic constraints are also one of

the main problems in performing the sampling activities over larger geographical areas

(Smallwood & Fitzhugh, 1993). Therefore, methods for estimating the endangered carnivores

need to be more practical and cost-effective in accordance with the socio-economic status of

the region concerned.

Previously ‘Pugmark Census’ method (Choudhary, 1970; 1971; 1972; Panwar, 1979;

Sawarkar,1987) was practiced to estimate the felid population but it was demonstrably failure

prone and consequently led to unjustified results (Karanth, 1995). Traditionally, capture-

recapture technique have been employed to estimate the population parameters for fish, birds

and small mammals which can not be easily counted utilizing the distance sampling methods

such as point and line transects (Buckland et al., 1993), instead they have been caught in live

traps, marked and released for further recaptures. Since it is practically difficult for large

2
felids (Karanth, 1995), from early eighties onwards the camera trap method has become an

important tool for monitoring rare, cryptic species in a wide range of environments (Goetz,

1981; Picman, 1987; Savidge & Seibert, 1988; Schaeff & Picman 1988; Major, 1991;

Picman, 1992; Griffith & Van Schaik, 1993; Laurance & Grant, 1994; Karanth & Nichols,

1998; Cutler & Swann, 1999). Photographic capture – recapture estimates of the abundance

of a large cat were first obtained for tigers in India (Karanth, 1995). This technique is usually

performed for species that can be individually identified by natural marking (Schaller, 1967;

McDougall, 1977; Miththalapala et al., 1989; Karanth, 1995; Franklin et al., 1999;

Khorozyan, 2003) to assess the population parameters and other aspects of ecology (Karanth,

1995; Karanth & Nichols, 1998; 2000; 2002; Kawanishi, 2002; O’Brien et al., 2003; Trolle &

Kery, 2003; Khorozyan, 2003; Karanth et al., 2004). But this technique has many technical

(Rice, 1995) and circumstantial problems (problems in climatic variations, anthropogenic

disturbances, etc.) inherent with it which sometimes becomes failure in achieving enough

captures required to estimate the density (Khorozyan, 2003). Similarly the abundance of the

prey species, staying below in food pyramid, is equally important to estimate within a

particular area since the predators gather vital energy from them.

In the present study, the variations in estimated relative abundance of leopard and its

prey species (wild and domestic) were monitored in different human-leopard conflict

categories (high, medium and low).

3
2. Literature review

Leopards are exceptionally secretive and elusive and their behavior studies or capture

probabilities by direct sightings are very rare, random and unpredictable even in undisturbed

environment where this felid is relatively common than other large cats (Karanth & Sunquist,

2000; Khorozyan, 2003). For understanding ecology, behavior and social aspects various

studies have been conducted for estimating relative abundance, distribution and densities of

wild and domestic prey species, responses of leopards to changing landuse and landcover,

ranging pattern and reproductive biology. These informations are very useful for better

conservation planning.

It is not always possible to carry out the study with the whole population concerned

(Sutherland, 1996). There would be problems regarding monetary constraints, man power as

well as temporal and spatial discontinuity. So, it is better if the area or population can be

assumed as a cluster of samples and to study on each sample separately. This type of study

design always yields statistically more correct result to indicate the population parameters

(Sutherland, 1996). Therefore, it is easier to survey an area to determine whether the

predators or prey animals are present or not (Henschel & Ray, 2003). For certain large scale

surveys the easiest and least expensive way to walk along the forest trails or roads through

out the area, and search for the predators' signs such as tracks or feces. Normally scats and

scrapes can be encountered on a regular basis if predators occur (Henschel & Ray, 2003).

Estimation of proportion of area occupied by predators can be calculated by dividing the area

of interest into grid cells (eg. 10km2) or any other form of sampling unit. Relative abundance

estimates can be derived from quantitative indices of abundance that have a direct

relationship to the densities (Seber, 1982; Karanth & Nichols, 2002). Examples of such

indices may include number of leopard sign encountered per unit distance or number of

4
leopard photos per unit effort. If it is not possible to obtain the density estimates, monitoring

programmes based on relative abundance data can indicate whether a leopard population is

increasing, decreasing or relatively stable (Hart et al., 1996; Henschel, 2001; Ray &

Sunquist, 2001; Henschel & Ray, 2003). Relative abundance index can be expressed as

encounter rate (eg. no. of tracks or scats per km walked) (Karanth & Nichols, 2002; Henschel

& Ray, 2003). The most efficient way to estimate relative abundance for leopards is to

quantify all tracks or scats encountered along forest trails or artificial roads. Study in

Namibia on large carnivore revealed a strong correlation between track counts along trails

and roads and population density (Stander, 1998).

It is possible to identify individual large cats in a population through careful

measurements of their tracks (Smallwood & Fitzhugh, 1993; Grigione et al., 1999; Lewison

set al., 2001; Miller, 2001). With a series of measurements especially for hind foot tracks,

individuals can be identified using Discriminant Function Analysis (Smallwood & Fitzhugh,

1993; Sharma, 2005). The main draw back of this system is, it needs a high number of track

sets (ideally 20 prints of a same paw) to determine discriminating variables for any given

populations (Henschel & Ray, 2003). The accurate measurement and quality of the track

print depends on the soil condition of different regions (Henschel, 2001; Karanth et al.,

2003). Karanth (1995) and Karanth et al., (2003) recently raised the doubt on the validity of

"Pugmark Census" method used in India to derive density estimation for tigers, stating the

point that even though individual tracks can be discriminated statistically, the essential next

step to derive population estimates in a general sampling framework has not been done. But

this method requires less economic and logistical support to carry out the study.

Camera trapping has a long history in ecological research (Kucera & Barrett, 1993)

and its use has become popular since the development of infrared triggered camera systems

(Cutler & Swann, 1999). Worldwide many studies on carnivores have used camera trapping

5
methods (Jaeger et al., 1991; Mace et al., 1994; Karanth, 1995; Jacobson et al., 1997; Koerth

et al., 1997; Karanth and Nichols, 1998, 2000, 2002; O’Brien et al., 2003; Trolle and Kery,

2003; Karanth et al., 2004). For leopard, before the present study, this approach has been

used in Morocco (Jensen and Romanski, 1990), Ivory Coast (Jenny, 1996), Oman (Spalton,

2000), Russian Far East (Miquelle et al., 2003), Armenia (Khorozyan, 2003), African rain

forests (Henschel & Ray, 2003). In India this method is on progress in Maharashtra

(Edgaonkar, pers.comm.), Garhwal Himalayas (Chauhan & Goyal, pers.comm.), Himachal

Pradesh (Chauhan, pers.comm.) for studying ecological and population parameters. Though

this technique seems to be very effective in capturing and recapturing of the large cats,

Khorozyan (2003) has found that the camera trap technique is more successful in the tropical

forests than the arctic or arid ones.

Several studies have been conducted in Indian subcontinent for the estimation of

abundance and biomass of wild and domestic prey (Schaller, 1967; Eisenberg & lockhart,

1972; Seidensticker, 1976; Dinerstein, 1980; Johnsingh, 1983; Karanth & Sunquist, 1992;

1995; Varman & Sukumar, 1995; Khan et al., 1996; Biswas & Sankar, 2002; Karanth et al.,

2004).

Schaller (1967) performed a study on tigers and their prey in Kanha. He estimated the

ungulate densities and biomass using direct count and belt transect methods. The biomass of

wild ungulate was in range between 937 to 1178 kg per km2 but when the contribution of the

domestic ungulates was considered it went up to 3880 to 4103 kg per km2. This signifies the

importance of the livestock to contribute to the prey base of the wild predators.

Eisenberg & Lockhart (1972) estimated the abundance of the ungulates in Wilpattu,

Sri Lanka using direct and pellet count methods. The study reveals that the biomass density

in Wilpattu was one sixth of that of Steppe and Savannah Habitats of east Africa. He

commented that this less density was due to the competition for grazing with the livestock.

6
Khan et al., (1996) estimated ungulate densities in Gir using road side counts through line

transect method. Remarkably, this study has reported that the densities of all species, except

Nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus) and wild pig (Sus scrofa) had increased substantially due

to the removal of livestock from the park area that really reduces the competition of grazing

especially between livestock and chital (Axis axis).

Ungulate densities in Nepal were estimated by Seidensticker (1976) and Dinerstein

(1980). Seidensticker (1976) used successive belt transects to estimate the densities of the

large herbivores in the tall grass and riverine forest habitats of Chitwan. Dinerstein’s study

(1980) in Royal Karnali Bardia Wildlife Reserve was based on pellet count method, vehicular

transects and counts from observation platforms. His study has shown that chital densities

was higher than other reserves in the subcontinent while that of the other cervids (hog deer

Axis porcinus, swamp deer Cervus duvaucelli and barking deer Muntiacus muntjak) and wild

pig were similar or lower than other habitats of India and Nepal. Johnsingh (1983) used direct

counts to estimate the abundance of herbivores in Bandipur. It was seen that chital was the

most abundant wild ungulate in the study area, with relatively high sambar (Cervus unicolor)

density. Low gaur (Bos gaurus) density was attributed to the epidemic outbreak in the gaur

population.

Belt transects, block counts, roadside counts, and counts from observation towers do

not reliably take into account detection probability of the animals. Often, the uncertainty

regarding the estimate is not even considered (Mercey, 1998). As a result, the recent studies

have used sample survey methods such as line transects to estimate mean statistics and their

associated variances in a quantitative, model based framework.

Several studies (Karanth & Sunquist, 1992; Varman & Sukumar, 1995; Biswas &

Sankar, 2002) have used line transect method to estimate densities of ungulates in different

parts of India. Karanth & Sunquist, (1992) have monitored ungulate prey populations in

7
Nagarhole national park since the mid 1980s. They have successfully applied this method to

several tiger habitats all over India: Bandipur, Nagarhole, etc (Karanth, 1988; Karanth &

Sunquist, 1992).

Varman & Sukumar, (1995) evaluated the efficiency of different models, field and

analytical techniques in prey base estimation in Madumalai. Their results suggested that

transect data collected by vehicles have a wide biased estimates in comparison to those

collected on foot.

Some studies (Edgaonkar & Chellam, 2000; Kawanishi, 2002) have also incorporated

trail monitoring method where line transect is not possible for topographic conditions,

especially in hills. They have included trail monitoring method to estimate the encounter

rates of the prey species through direct sighting as well as the indirect signs available there.

Food habit is one of the major aspects of leopard ecology that has been studied world wide

(Emmons, 1987; Wemmer & Sunquist, 1988; Rabinowitz, 1989; Stander et al.,

1997;Mizutani, 1999; Ray & Sunquist, 2001). A leopard weighing 45 kg requires 1.5-2.5 kg

of food daily (Emmons, 1987; Wemmer & Sunquist, 1988; Mizutani, 1999). Average prey

weight ranges between 5-70 kg (Rabinowitz, 1989; Stander et al., 1997; Ray & Sunquist,

2001) and usually less than 50 kg (Seidensticker et al., 1990; Johnsingh, 1992). Prey items of

leopards are variable, with a range from small reptiles, crustaceans to large ungulates

(Bertram, 1982; Daniel, 1996; Stander et al., 1997). Studies in Nagarhole, India, found the

average weight of prey being 38 kg (Karanth & Sunquist, 1995; 2000). Prey species killed by

leopard in Chitwan NP, Nepal were in the 25-50 kg range with the average of 28 kg

(Seidensticker, 1976; Seidensticker & Lumpkin, 1991). Mean prey weight of leopard in a

forest in Zaire was seen to be 25 kg with ungulates and primates being the most common

prey items (Hart et al., 1996). This variation in the ranges of the biomass of the prey species

of leopard is due to its co-existence with other sympatric carnivores like tiger or dholes

8
(Cuon alpinus), etc. (Johnsingh, 1983, Karanth & Sunquist, 1995; 2000). But where it is the

only large predator there the prey biomass would be much higher (Seidensticker & Lumpkin,

1991). In this context the study performed in Dachigam National Park, J&K (Iqbal, 2005) can

be referred. In Dachigam, leopard was found to kill large mammals (Inayatullah, 1985; Iqbal,

2005) like Hangul (Cervus elaphus hanglu), Asiatic black beer (Ursus thibetanus),

Himalayan brown beer (Ursus Arctos isabellinus). The world’s largest antelope eland

(Taurotragus oryx) was also reported killed by a leopard (Bertram, 1982;

http://lynx.uio.no./catfolk/sp-accts.htm). In some sites in Thailand, primates form an

important component (Rabinowitz, 1989), where in other places rodents and medium sized

ungulates are mostly taken by leopard (Rabinowitz, 1989; Khorozyan & Malkhasyan, 2002).

Incidences of leopards’ attack on livestock and dog are quite common where they live near

by the villages (Gee, 1964; Prater & Barruel, 1971; Santiapillai et al., 1982; Tikader, 1983;

Johnsingh, 1992; Daniel, 1996; WWF-India, 1997; Maskey & Bauer, date n.a.). During two

years’ study in Bandipur TR, India, 26% of the leopard kill has been found consisting of

domestic cattle and dog, the remaining consisting of wild prey species (Johnsingh, 1983). In

Himachal Pradesh, Majhatal WLS, a high rate of predation of leopard was found on domestic

species despite abundant presence of wild prey species. However there are about 17 villages

in the sanctuary, having 750 houses with huge livestock population (Mukherjee & Mishra,

2001). Leopards are also known to feed from dead and rotting carcasses and in disturbed

areas as they are seen to return to the kill therefore making them more susceptible to being

poisoned (Seidensticker & Lumpkin, 1991).

Carnivore-human conflict is a worldwide problem for the wildlife management

(Linnell et al., 1996; Mizutani, 1999; Butler, 2000; Stahl et al., 2001; Karanth &

Madhusudan, 2002; Hoogesteijn, date n.a.). When large cats live in proximity to humans,

some amount of conflict between them is inevitable (Sawarkar, 1986). In India, recent studies

9
(Edgaonkar & Chellam, 2000; Chauhan & Goyal, 2001; Athreya et al., 2004) reported

leopard as the most common carnivore in human-carnivore conflict. The other carnivores-

tigers, lions & wolves (Sabarwal et al, 1994; Jhala & Sharma 1997, Rangarajan, 2001,

Linnell et al. 2002) were involved in large numbers of human deaths in the past. But they are

now mostly restricted in range & their impact is not as widespread as the leopard.

Various reasons have been put forward to explain the increase in man-leopard

conflict levels. The main reasons proposed are depletion of the natural prey base, degradation

or fragmentation of leopard habitat. Again man-made modification of the landscape results in

suitable habitat formation for the leopard (e.g. sugarcane, tea plantations tall crops) and

increase in local leopard populations (Seidensticker, 1986; Johnsingh et al., 1991; Karanth,

1991; Rabinowitz, 1991; Bailey, 1993; Daniel, 1996). A study by Mitzuani (1999) carried out

in the ranches of Kenya found that leopard attacks on livestock was substantially higher in

ranges devoid of wild prey, compared to ranges which supported populations of wild prey.

He recommended that presence of wild prey was a good strategy for reducing livestock

predation. Areas with good numbers of wild prey could face some degree of livestock

depredation but where natural prey has been depleted, livestock depredation is likely to be

inevitable (IUCN-CSG, 1992).

The leopard-human conflict not only affects the human or livestock but there is

similar effect towards the leopard also exists. The leopard is a Schedule I animal in Wildlife

(Protection) Act, 1972 that gives it highest protection in India. Still the killing and illegal

trades of body parts of leopard have been performed at a high rate compared to tiger or other

large felid (Athreya et al., 2003).

Leopard-human conflict has been reported from all over the Garhwal hills. In Pauri

district, leopards have killed 141 people since 1988 to August 2000 (Chauhan & Goyal,

2001). Over the areas, number of leopard victims ranged 2 to 22 persons per year. During last

10
couple of years number of such incidences have increased & ranged from 12 to 22 human per

year. An earlier survey in 554 villages in Pauri tehsil indicated that 17% of the villages were

affected by leopard predation on human, where Pabau administrative block was reported to

be severely affected by such problems (Chauhan & Goyal, 2001).

A large population of leopards in Pauri Garhwal have also been either killed as man-

eater declared officially or found dead or killed by villagers around man-eating areas. Since

1987, more than 90 leopards have been killed or found dead in Pauri Garhwal (Chauhan &

Goyal, 2001). Among 126 human victims (Anonymous, 1999) of leopard, 66% were females

where the probability of encounter with the males is approximately half of that. Forest

Department data has also revealed that 68 % of the total victims are children below 15 years

of age and among them the mortality of the female children is very high. Leopard attacks also

vary across the seasons. Rainy and winter seasons are the more vulnerable periods. During

rainy season weeds grow well and remained till winter, which gives leopard a good stalking

cover (Chauhan and Goyal, 2000). It has been investigated that 78% of the cases occurred in

the areas having degraded forest or scrub thickets that give leopard good cover. Weeds like

Lantana, Xanthium or Eupatorium are found more around the villages, which act as

prominent stalking cover for leopard (Chauhan & Goyal, 2001).

Leopard-human conflicts also have a good correlation with the livestock densities of

the villages. It has been found that the number of livestock per family varies from three to

seven and the areas holding higher densities are worse affected. So, livestock also play a

major role in the conflict between human and leopard (Chauhan & Goyal, 2001). The Pauri-

Garhwal district have been categorized into high, medium and low conflict zones as 4km2

grids based on the severity and frequency of cases reported to forest department (Chauhan &

Goyal, 2001). In this study, several factors like presence of domestic dogs, electricity,

11
distance of jungle from the village, etc. have been identified as the indicators of the conflict.

Dogs are also very preferable prey for leopard.

3. Objectives

For managing leopard in conflict areas, it is important to monitor and estimate the relative

occurrence of leopard and its prey species (wild and domestic). Therefore, the present study

is planned in previously identified conflict categories (high, medium and low) in Pauri-

Garhwal district and is aimed:

1. To estimate the relative abundance of leopard (Panthera pardus L.) across the

different human-leopard conflict zones,

2. To estimate the relative abundance of the prey (wild and domestic) species for those

conflict categories,

3. To assess significance of domestic dog in leopard’s ecology, and

4. Characterization of landuse-landcover pattern utilized by leopard and its prey species

(wild and domestic) using remote sensing and GIS.

Research questions to be answered through the study objectives

1. Is there any significant difference in the encounter rates of leopard’s signs

across the different human-leopard conflict categories?

2. Is there any significant difference in the encounter rates of direct sightings

and indirect signs of the prey species (wild and domestic) across these categories?

3. Is there any difference in the extent of depredation of domestic animals by the leopard

population?

12
4. Study area

Uttaranchal is situated (latitude 28o 53’ 24”N and 31o27’ 50” N and longitude

77o34’27”E to 81o02’22” E, provisional) in the north-west portion of Uttar Pradesh. It has

total land area 53, 483.km2. State comprises of 13 districts: Pithoragarh, Almora, Bageshwar,

Chamoli, Champawat, Dehradun (urban), Nainital, Uttarkashi, Udham Singh Nagar, Pauri-

Garhwal, Tehri-Garhwal, Rudraprayag and Haridwar (urban).

Pauri-Garhwal of Uttaranchal is selected for present study, as frequent leopard-

human conflicts have been reported from this area. Pauri-Garhwal district (29o20’ N-30o15’N

and 78o10’E- 79o20’E) of 5444 km2 ranges between lower to middle Himalayan ranges and

elevation reaches up to 3200 m., consists of two divisions viz. Pauri and Lansdowne.

Politically it has been divided into six tehsils, which is comprised of 15 administrative blocks

(Fig. 1). The present study area is under the Lansdowne division that has great variation in

soil, precipitation, rocks, topography, climate and corresponding vegetation features.

4.1. Soil

An important factor is the amount of the denudation, for very often the soil has no

chance of collecting at all, resulting in open stunted forests of poor quality. The soil of the

regions higher than Doon valley is usually deep, fresh and good though, stony, especially on

Siwalik conglomerate. The soil resulting from the sandstone and sand rock series is usually

light open sandy soil, deep where not denuded, and generally well adapted to the growth of

sal (Shorea robusta).

4.2. Climate and rainfall

The climate varies from subtropical in the plains to temperate in the Lansdowne

Cantonment, 1,675meters average elevation. There are three distinct seasons. From

November to February the nights are very cold with much frost and dew, and usually a week

13
Figure 1. Pauri-Garhwal district with the administrative block.

14
or ten days rain occurs during December and January. Frost is severe from mid- December to

mid- February. The hot weather acts in by the end of March and continues till the break of

the monsoon. Sometimes, temperature as high as 46o C in the shade is recorded in the month

of April and May but the temperature in March does not generally rise above 32oC. Monsoon

generally breaks in the second half of June and lasts till the end of September; the atmosphere

is permanently laden with moisture during that period. The average rainfall of this area is

225-235 mm per year.

4.3. Forest types

Gaur & Bartwal (1993) classified the forests of this area as Sub-Montane (Tropical &

Sub-tropical), Montane (Temperate), broad leaves and Gymnospermous. But according

Champion and Seth’s classification 1962 there are twelve forest types present in the whole

division(as described in the Revised Survey of Forest Types of India). They are Dry Siwalik

sal forest, b. Moist Siwalik sal forest, c. Moist bhabar sal forest, Northern mixed deciduous

forest, West Gangetic moist deciduous forest, Submontane hill valley swamp forest, Low

alluvial savannah wood land (Salmalia - Albizia), Khair sissoo forest, Dry bamboo brakes,

Himalayan chir pine forest, Siwalik chir pine forest and Banj (Oak) forest. Figure 2. indicates

some of the forest types observed in the study area.

a. Dry Siwalik sal forest

This type occurring maximum in the division. The southern slopes carry an open

forest consisting of bakli, khair, tendu (Diospyros tomentosa), jhingan (Lannea

coromandelica), sal, sain, kusum (Scheleichera oleosa) etc., with an understorey of kathber

(Zizyphus xylopyra), amaltas, kuri (Nyctanthes arbortristis), etc. with plenty of grasses,

chiefly bhabar, goria (Chrysopogon fulvas), bichroo (Semecarpus anacardium) and kumeria

(Heteropogon contortus). Bamboo is quite plentiful in places.

15
Figure 2. Some of the vegetation types and habitat patterns observed in Pauri Garhwal

district.

16
 a. Sal forest

b. Scrub lands

17
c. Forest fire in sal forest.

d. Effect of the forest fire.

18
 e. Villages around the forest

f. Degraded forest type due to human settlements

19
b. Moist Siwalik sal forest

Here the ground consists of steep slopes alternating with rounded ridges and small

plateau, with small flats occurring in valleys, while in places the terrain is merely undulating.

The top canopy consists of sal, sain, bakli, occasionally jhingan, kharpat (Garuga pinnata),

jamun (Syzygium cumini), bahera, tendu, haldu, etc. and rarely chir. The middle and lower

storeys consist of sandan, rohini, kura (Holarrhena antidysenterica), chilla (Casearia

tomentosa), chamror (Ehretia laevis), amaltas, aonia, etc. Weeds and undergrowth are

moderate and chiefly consist of bhant (Clerodendrum viscosum), bindu (Callicarpa spp.),

gauj (Milletia auriculata), gandhela (Murraya koenigii), etc., and rarely kilmora (Berberis

asiatica), tushara (Debregeasia velutina), til phara (Cocculus laurifolius), bhilmora (Rumex

hastatus), etc. on steep ground with a southerly aspect sal is scarce and often non-existent,

the crop usually consisting of bakli, khair, amaltas, tendu and kathbhilawa with some kura

and kathber. The whole forest is often open and poor, sal being usually stunted, short boled,

and physically mature at a very low diameter.

c. Moist bhabar sal forests

Here the soil is usually deep clayey loam very well suited to the growth of sal. The

top canopy consists of almost pure sal with occasional sain, haldu, bahera, jhingan, jamun,

kharpat, etc. The middle and lower storey consists of rohini and occasionally amaltus, dhauri,

dudhi (Wrightia tomentosa), chilla, chamror, aonla, bel (Aegle mermelos) and kathber.

Bamboos are practically absent. Weeds and undergrowth are generally dense, the commonest

being bhant, raudera, gauj, bansa (Adhatoda vasica), potla (Clyclocosmis pentaphylla),

marorpahali (Helicters isora), dahia (Callicarpa macrophylla), gandhela etc. In grassy blanks

that are few, moderate to heavy grass. There sirhi (Imperata cylindrical) and paneri (Chloris

dolichostachya) are generally found.

20
d. Northern mixed deciduous forests

This type occurs throughout the outer hill ranges, where the soil is very poor and

moisture conditions are not favourable for sal. The commonest species found frequently over

the large areas, particularly on southern aspects, is bakil with its usual associates such as sain,

dhauri, and sandan. In other places kathbhilawa, tendu, bahera, haldu, bahunia spp., kusum,

bhilawa, rohini, sonla, jhingan and amaltas also occur.

Bamboos form a valuable understorey throughout this type of forests, the stocking

being dependent on the density of the overwood. The undergrowth mainly consists of

marorphali, gauj, bhant, bindu, kura, ber (Zizyphus Mauratiana) and rohini similar to that in

the bhabar. On the highest slopes dhaula (Woodfordia fruticosa) and sakina (Indigofera

pulchella) are also found. Grasses are extremely plentiful and considerable quantities of baib

or bhabar, other fodder grasses such as kumeria, goria, and mirhiagandha (Cymbopogon

martini) are quite common.

e. West gangetic moist deciduous forests

This type is restricted to a few favourable localities. The crop is characterized by sain,

bahera, tun, kharpat, etc., with an understorey of rohini, sandan, aonia and an undergrowth of

bansa, bindu, bhant and occasionally maljhan.

f. Submontane hill valley swamp forest

Only a small area of about 100 acres of land contains this type of forest in Lansdowne

division. The crop has the appearance of a grove of mature tun, kanju (Holoptelea

integrifolia), ficus spp., gutel (Trewia nudiflora), jamun and jiaputa (Putranjiva roxburghii).

The undergrowth is mainly bindu, kein (Bischoffia javanica), Patera (Typha elephantine), and

places bent (Calamus tenuis).

21
g. Low alluvial savannah woodland (Saimalia - Albizia)

These forests occurring as grasslands with varying degrees of tree growths are found

nearly all over this area. The most common grasses are mirchiaganda, suhi (Aristidia

cyanantha), bichhra (Arundinella nepalensis), bichroo, munj (Erianthus munja), kans

(Saccharum spontaneum), sirhi, ganeria (Narenga porophyrocoma), kunja (Desmostachya

bipinnata), khas (Vetiveria zizanioides), ulla (Themeda arundinacea), charol (Apluda

mutica), etc. At places there are practically no trees but over most of the compartments there

are pockets and belts of trees of varying extent. The commonest among them are spedhak,

semal, ber, kathber, lisora (Chordia dichotoma), khair, sissoo, kura, kharpat, kusum, haldu,

dudhi and scattered kanju and tun. In a few areas an understorey and undergrowth is seen

consisting of rohini, marorphali, gauj, bansa, bindu, etc. the tobacco khattas are located in

this type of forest.

h. Khair – Sissoo forests

These are found over the riverine areas of Ganga or more recent sand deposits of

other water courses. In riverine islands of the Ganga these forests are chiefly composed of

sissoo usually in dense patches of poles and saplings with scattered large trees.

i. Dry bamboo brakes

Here the bamboo crop is pure and forms a dense impenetrable growth to the

exclusion of other species. There are very few trees sparsely scattered. Elsewhere bamboos

form a valuable undercrop in all hill forests of this division and very rarely form brakes or the

main crop over appreciable areas.

22
j. Himalayan chir pine forests

This type, occurring from 1,000 meters to 2,000 meters elevation, is confined to the

Lansdowne range. On the higher slopes, the understorey is generally composed of kirmoli,

burans (Rhododendron arboreum), ayar (Lyonia ovalifolia), tunga (Rhus cotinus), kapahal

(Myrica sapida) and gadhmawa. Undergrowth is practically absent owing to excessive

grazing but in other places tunga, hinsalu and kunwai (Leea aspera) are fairly common.

k. Siwalik chir pine forest

This type occurs sporadically in a few areas where chir is invading the sal forests

down to an elevation of about 800 meters. This increase in lower regions is most probably

due to frequent accidental fires in these areas.

l. Banj-oak forests

This type occurring sporadically is confined to small patches above the chir zone and

stretching down into the cooler valleys. The oak is generally of an inferior quality and kaphal

and utis (Alnus nepalensis) are mixed with it.

Figure2. shows photographs of some of the habitats observed in study area.

4.4. Animals

Wild animals

Many wild animals are found in this region. They can be categorized into herbivores,

carnivores, birds etc. Elephants, sambar, cheetal, barking deer, wild pig, goral, and nilgai are

the medium to large sized herbivores, where leopard, jackal, jungle cat etc. are the carnivore

species present in this region (Fig.3.). Several species of birds and pheasants are also found in

this area.

23
Domestic animals

Grazing and browsing are a constant and inevitable source of damage to habitat in

these areas by domestic animals. The accessible areas are overgrazed by the village cattle,

goats, sheep, horses, etc. especially in the hot season. The practice of admitting excess cattle

on payment of fees intensifies the damage considerably. This excessive grazing keeps back

the regeneration and causes deterioration of the forests. The principal sal bearing areas are,

24
Figure 3. Wild animals caught through camera traps during study period.

25
Barking Deer

Sambar

Wild Pig

26
Jungle Cat Red Fox

Porcupine Hare

27
however, closed to grazing and except in Lansdowne range, grazing is mostly confined to the

areas set aside for rights and concessions. Buffaloes also damage bamboo clumps by

browsing and thus retarding their development, and causing congestion in the clumps.

Domestic dogs are also abundantly present though their mortality by leopard is also very

high.

4.5. Selection of Intensive Study Area (ISA)

Based on the logistic and other concerns, the Lansdowne division of Pauri Garhwal

was chosen for the present study. Intensive study area had been decided on the basis of the

intensity of leopard-human conflict of each category. Three study sites were selected in low,

medium and high leopard-human conflict categories (Fig. 4.). The low conflict category

(Balli and adjacent areas) and medium conflict category (Simalna Malla and adjacent areas)

lie in Dugadda block cover areas of about 4.21 sq. km and 11.71 sq. km. respectively. The

high conflict category (Paukhal and adjacent areas) lies in Dwarikhal block, covers an area of

about 11.91 sq. km. 7, 10 and 8 trails were selected and monitored in the low, medium and

high conflict categories respectively for estimating relative abundance of leopard and prey

species (wild & domestic). The study was undertaken during the period of February-May,

2006.

28
Figure 4. Intensive study areas with the conflict categories.

29
5. Methods
5.1. Estimation of relative abundance of leopard (Panthera pardus L.) in different

human-leopard conflict categories.

5.1.1. Camera trapping and preparation of track plots

Reconnaissance surveys were carried out in the month of February to locate and

select suitable sites (Karanth, 1995) for making track plots and deploying camera traps in

each category. The trap sites were selected based on cues of the use of the sites by the

leopard such as scats, scrapes, scent marking, pugmarks etc. The local residents of the study

area were also asked to gather factual information about the trails visited frequently by

leopards. Six trap sites were selected across every conflict zone and marked with GPS

locator.

In order to collect pugmark sets of the leopards and other animals, track plots (TP)

were made at all the 6 locations as selected for camera trapping in the reconnaissance survey.

To make a TP, a suitable flat and long trails were selected which were then thoroughly

cleared of all weeds, pebbles, leaf litter etc. The minimum length of the TP was maintained at

4 meters and the width varied depending upon the trail size. The main consideration while

deciding the width was not to leave a space for the leopard to walk without recording its

pugmarks. The selection of trails to deploy the camera traps in the area of interest was

performed in a manner to maximize the chances of photographing the resident leopards. A

total of six heat based (passive) Radio shack sensors (Radio Shack Corporation, Texas,

USA) were used connected to one Canon Sure-shot camera (Canon USA Inc., New York,

USA) using a trigger device which triggered the camera to take the picture of the animals

(Fig. 5.). The cameras were placed at a distance of 3-4 meters from the centre of the trail so

as to get the full frame pictures of the leopards. All the six cameras were deployed at a site

30
for 15 days, thus the sampling occasion was 15 and the number of trap nights for a particular

conflict zone was 90 days thus totaling to 270 across the whole study.

Each camera unit was given a unique identification number (I, II, III…..VI) and each

roll was also uniquely marked (e.g. I/A1, II/B1, III/C1) enabling us to correctly match the

time, location and picture resulting from each capture. The cameras were deployed after the

sunset (mostly after 1900 hrs to 2100 hrs) and removed before 0600 hrs since the whole area

has human habitation and random human interferences. So, the actual stationing time for

each camera trap was 9 hours to maximum 11 hours. Each leopard photograph was identified

based on their natural coat patterns on the flanks, limbs, forequarters and even tail pattern

(Schaller, 1967; McDougall, 1977; Miththalapala et al., 1989; Karanth, 1995; Franklin et al.,

1999; Khorozyan, 2003) and given a unique identification number (e.g. leopard A)

31
Figure 5. Camera trap equipments (camera poles, sensors and cameras).

32
5.1.2. Trail monitoring

Altogether 25 trails in all the three conflict zones were monitored (8 trails in high

conflict zone; 10 & 7 trails in medium and low conflict zone respectively) to estimate the

encounter rates of indirect signs of leopard (Fig. 6.). The trails were monitored during

different times of the day from early morning to late afternoon to reduce the errors of

estimation caused by temporal variation of the presence or absence of the animals

(Edgaonakar & Chellam, 2000). All the trails were monitored at least three to seven times.

Once the scrapes had been encountered, GPS locations were taken and were abolished so that

there would be no further ambiguity for next encounter. All the scats were collected with

GPS locations, time and quality mentioned and preserved within paper bags.

5.2. Estimation of relative abundance of the prey species (wild and domestic) in

different human-leopard conflict zones.

5.2.1. Trail monitoring

25 trails selected in all the three conflict zones were also monitored to estimate the

relative abundance of prey species (wild and domestic). During each visit all the direct

sightings of the prey species were noted along with GPS location and time. The indirect signs

like pellets and soil digging marks were also encountered in the same way. After noting

down, these signs were cleared off from their places (Johnsingh, 1983; Biswas & Sankar,

2002). The relative abundance of the domestic species was done only through direct sightings

and their GPS location and time was also noted.

33
 Figure 6. Trails monitored across the different conflict zones.

Figure 7. Effective sampled area across the different conflict zones.

34
5.2.2. Status survey of domestic dogs in the villages of the study area

A total of 477 households of 27 villages in all the three human-leopard conflict zones

were surveyed during the field study to monitor the population status and housing patterns of

the domestic dogs in those villages. The residents have been interviewed and the conflict

history of that particular village was also noted down. In this survey the population

estimation of the domestic dogs was carried out along with their mortality rate. Questions

were also asked about the litter size and about the history of kill of the dogs by leopard, if

found. The housing patterns of the dogs have also been included to know their daily

behavioral pattern and availability as a prey for leopard.

5.3. Analytical methods

5.3.1. Statistical analysis of camera trapping

Capture rates (number of events occurred / 100 trap nights) were calculated for every

individual species captured through camera trapping.

5.3.2. Estimation of encounter rates

For every observation counted and noted down during trail monitoring for predator’s

sign and for the wild and domestic prey species, encounter rate (no. of observation per km.

walk) has been estimated (Edgaonkar & Chellam, 2000). At first encounter rates (separately

for the direct sightings and indirect signs) were estimated species wise under all the trails

visited within each conflict zones. Thereafter those values have been summarized to evaluate

the species wise mean encounter rates (M.E.R.) separately for direct sightings as well as

indirect signs with in a particular conflict zone.

ER (1, 2…X) = n / d (number/km)

where, ER = Encounter rate, n = Total observation; d = Distance walked.

MER = ? ER (1, 2…. X) / X

35
where, X = no. of trails, for a conflict category, for eg., in high conflict zone, X=8.

5.3.3. Non-parametric analysis

In order to test the research questions, the non-parametric test has been preferred due

to data limitations to check whether there were significant differences in prey and predator

abundances across the conflict zones. The Mean Encounter Rates have therefore been

analysed with non-parametric statistical test assuming that the distribution of the data does

not follow a normal. Kruskal-Wallis (Kruskal & Wallis, 1952), one of the non-parametric

tests equivalent to the one-way ANOVA, was performed to test whether there was significant

difference present among the mean encounter rates of the direct sightings of the prey species

and the indirect signs of the predator and prey across the different human-leopard conflict

zones (High, Medium and Low).

5.4. Characterization of habitats and vegetation categories based on remote sensing

and GIS analysis

Leopards can move very fast and cover 15-20 km. during one night (Bailey, 1993).

So, to understand their landuse-landcover pattern through remote sensing imagery one km

buffer vegetation zone was added around each GPS point noted separately for the scat and

scrape points or predator encounter points. Similar technique was also used for the prey

species (wild and domestic) and their buffer zone was prepared (Fig. 7.; Fig. 8.)

For domestic prey species the encounter points around the village locations were also

incorporated. Finally those buffer vegetation zones were monitored under supervised

classification to estimate the percentage of landuse-landcover into different categories of

vegetation as well as the scrub cover and human habitation. These variables then utilized to

estimate non-parametric tests using statistical tool Pack, preferably SPSS 8.0.

36
 a. Effective sampled area used by leopard

b. Effective sampled area used by wild prey

c. Effective sampled area used by domestic prey

Figure 8. Effective sampled area used by leopard and prey (wild and domestic)

species across different conflict zones.

37
6. Results and Discussion

6.1. Estimation of relative abundance of leopard (Panthera Pardus L.) in different

human-leopard conflict zones.

6.1.1. Camera trapping

Six camera traps were deployed for 15 days’ session in each human-leopard conflict

zone totaling into 90 trap-nights and totaling into 270 tarp nights in three zones (high,

medium and low). Remote sensing data showed that the areas covered by the six camera units

were 1.31 km2, 2.151 km2 and 1.836 km2 in high, medium and low conflict zone respectively

(Fig. 9.). It has been seen that the capture rate (no. of events occurred / 100 trap nights) of

leopard is higher in medium conflict zone (2.22) than high (1.11) or low (0.00) conflict zone

(Table 1).

Figure 9. The minimum convex polygon of sampled area used for camera trapping across the
three conflict zones.

38
Table 1. Details of camera trapping across different conflict zones.

Conflict No. of No. of trap No. of No. of Capture

zone camera units nights events photographs rate
High 06 90 01 01 1.11
Medium 06 90 02 02 2.22
Low 06 90 00 00 0.00
Total 270 03 03 1.11
[Capture rate = No. of event(s) occurred / 100 trap nights.].

Three individual leopards (eg. A, B and C) were identified from the camera trap

photographs (Annexure-I). In low human-leopard conflict zone there was no capture of

leopard which may be for low sampling days, as it is well known that intensive sampling is

needed in low density areas or there may not be intense use by leopard in the selected area..

The first individual (A) was captured on the 2nd day in the high conflict zone where as the

second (B)and third (C) one were captured on 7th and 14th day of camera trap sessions

respectively in the medium conflict zone but there was no recapture of the individuals. Since

the capture rate is very low the capture-recapture estimation could not be utilized

successfully.

6.1.2. Encounter rates of leopard indirect signs

Altogether 25 trails were monitored (high: 8; medium: 10 and low: 7) at least

from three to seven times each. The indirect signs of leopard (scrapes & scats) were

encountered and recorded during the entire study (Fig. 10.) to calculate the relative

abundance indices of leopard. All the encounters of the leopard scat and scrape across the

three human-leopard conflict zones were summarized in Table 2.

39
 Table 2. Distribution and encounter rate (E.R.) of leopard scat and scrape across the various
conflict zones. [S.E. = Standard error; M.E.R. = Mean Encounter Rate].

Conflict Scat Scrape

zone Total Range of Total Total no. Total no. M.E.R.±
number trail length Total distance no. of of scat M.E.R. ± of S.E. of
of trails (km) covered (km) visit collected S.E. of scat scrape Scrape
HIGH 8 2-4.8 120.88 36 36 0.28±0.08 48 0.41±0.08
MEDIUM 10 0.56-3.8 106.16 42 62 0.51±0.09 67 0.51±0.18
LOW 7 2.14-3.35 99.99 36 18 0.16±0.05 20 0.18±0.12

Encounter rate (E.R. = no. of sign observed / km. walk) of leopard through indirect

signs such as scats and scrapes have been given in Table 2. where there were less no. of

tracks found, tracks were not included. From the table it can be noted that:

X
Mean Encounter Rate (M.E.R.) = ∑ ER (1, 2….X) / X. (X = Number of trails in each
1

conflict zone).

The mean encounter rates of leopard scats and scrapes are much higher in medium

conflict zone than those in high or low conflict zones. These values were analysed by

Kruskal-Wallis test which has shown that there is no significant difference in the encounter

rates of the leopard scats (?2 = 4.175; P > 0.05) across the different human-leopard conflict

zones. But those for scrapes (?2 = 16.121; P < 0.05) have significant difference. In this

context fecal rate abundance index (fRAI) was formulated based on the earlier studies

(Spalton, 2000; Khorozyan, 2003; Lukarevsky, 2001; Bothama & leRiche, 1994; Pikunov &

Korkishko, 1992; Ramakrishnan et al., 1999; Jenny, 1996; Ray & Sunquist, 2001) can be

compared with the present study to estimate the relative abundance of leopard in these study

areas.

The Fecal Rate Abundance Index (fRAI) has been estimated from the different

habitats (Table 3.) (Bothma & LeRiche, 1994; Lukarevsky, 2001; Ray & Sunquist, 2001;

40
 Jenny, 1996; Spalton, 2000; Pikunov & Korkishko, 1992; Ramakrishnan et al., 1999;

Khorozyan, 2003) .

Table 3. Fecal Rate Abundance Index (fRAI) reported for leopard by various studies across
its range in Africa and Asia (Khorozyan, 2003).

Habitat and area fRAI/10km References

Hyper arid rocky, Oman 2.35 Spalton, 2000
Juniper sparse forest, Armenia 0.65 Khorozyan, 2003
Mountainous juniper, Turkmenistan 1.05 Lukarevsky, 2001
Vegetation-free precipitous cliffy lands, Turkmenistan 5.53 Lukarevsky, 2001
Dunes and Sandveld savannah, South Africa 0.70 Bothma & leRiche, 1994
Mixed coniferous broadleaf forest, Russian far east 2.54 Pikunov & Korkishko, 1992
Mixed tropical deciduous forest, KM-TR, India 8.70 Ramakrishnan et al., 1999
Tropical moist evergreen forest, Ivory coast 4.76 Jenny, 1996
Tropical moist evergreen forest, Central African Republic 33.33 Ray & Sunquist, 2001
High (human-leopard) conflict zone, PauriGarhwal 2.83 Present Study
Medium (human-leopard) conflict zone, PauriGarhwal 5.10 Present Study
Low (human-leopard) conflict zone, PauriGarhwal 1.63 Present Study

Table 3 indicates individual fRAI is quite variable across studies and has ranged from 0.65 to

33.3. These variations are probably reflection of density of leopards. Khorozyan (2003) has

made an attempt to develop relationship between fRAI and leopard density and before it is

being deployed across its range, there is a need for validation of this relationship.

41
 Figure 10. The GPS locations of the scats collected in all the conflict categories

6.2. Estimation of the relative abundance of the prey species (wild and domestic) in

different conflict zones

Trails were monitored in stratified (high, medium and low) conflict areas. The

relative abundance of the wild prey species was calculated in the form of encounter rates

through direct sightings as well as indirect signs as fecal matter and soil digging marks etc

(Chauhan & Goyal, 2001). The wild species of the study area were like barking deer, wild

pig, goral, sambar; primates such as rhes us macaque and common langur and pheasants like

red jungle fowl, kaleej pheasants, peafowl etc. Other than these there was heavy population

of the livestock forming a good prey base for leopard. Encounter rates of the domestic

animals was estimated based only on the direct sightings.

42
6.2.1. Camera trapping

6 Camera trap units were used separately in each conflict category for 15 trapping

sessions. For a particular zone the whole trap night is 90 days and totaling to 270 days for the

three conflict zones. The detail study of the wild prey species caught through camera trapping

is given in (Table 4.) for high, medium and low conflict zone.

The capture rates were measured in terms of no. of events occurred / 100 trap nights.

Among different species captured through camera trapping barking deer is seen to be less

camera shy since in 13 occasions we got 31 photographs of it. Sambar is only captured in the

medium conflict zone confirming its presence in that area.

Table 4. Summary of wild prey species caught through camera trapping across the different
conflict categories.

Camera trap Wild prey species (high conflict zone)

variables Barking deer Wild pig sambar Porcupine Jungle cat Fox Hare
No. of events 0 9 0 1 2 1 0
No. of photographs 0 10 0 3 2 3 0
Capture rate 0 10.00 0 1.11 2.22 1.11 0
( medium conflict zone)
No. of events 11 2 3 1 1 0 0
No. of photographs 29 2 5 2 1 0 0
Capture rate 12.22 2.22 3.33 1.11 1.11 0 0
(low conflict zone)
No. of events 2 3 0 2 0 0 1
No. of photographs 2 6 0 2 0 0 1
Capture rate 2.22 3.33 0 2.22 0 0 1.11

[Capture rate = No. of events(s) occurred / 100 trap nights.].

6.2.2. Encounter rates through direct sightings

Trail monitoring was carried out in morning and late afternoon in different conflict

zones to get more direct sightings of the wild prey species (Table 5.). Among the wild

ungulates barking deer and wild pig were seen in three conflict zones where as goral was

seen only in the medium conflict zone. Common langur was found in all the study areas but

43
 rhesus macaque was seen only in the high conflict zones. Pheasants were found in all conflict

zones. A summary of the encounter rates of different species is given in (Table 5.).

Table 5. Encounter rates of different wild species through direct sighting.

Encounter rates, no. seen / km walk

Conflict
zone

No. of Total distance

trails covered (km.) BD WP RJF CL RM J JC S G
High 8 120.88 0.23 0.1 0.44 0.23 0.58 0 0 0 0
Medium 10 106.16 0.1 0.04 0.55 0.42 0.00 0 0 0 0.15
Low 7 99.99 0.01 0.01 0.26 0.38 0.00 0 0 0 0

[BD = Barking deer; WP = Wild pig; RJF = Red jungle fowl; CL = Common langur; RM =
Rhesus macaque; J = Jackal; JC = Jungle cat; S = Sambar; G = Goral].

114 visits were carried out to monitor 25 trails across the different conflict categories (high,

medium and low). The wild ungulates seen directly during monitoring are barking deer, wild

pig and goral (only in medium conflict zone). The mean encounter rates of the wild ungulates

are 0.1 individual per km. walk in high & medium conflict zones; 0.01 individual per km.

walk in low conflict zone averaging 0.07 individual per km. walk across the three zones.

Similarly the values for the primates were calculated (0.21 individual / km. in high; 0.41/ km.

in medium and 0.19/ km in low conflict zone; averaging 0.27/ km. across the three zones).

So, it can be understood that the encounter rate of the primates is much higher than the wild

ungulates across the three human-leopard conflict zones. However, the differences between

the pheasants and primates across the three zones would be done based on their direct

sightings owing to the higher number of detection. Estimation of the relative abundance of

goral would also be done on their direct sighting. Among all the prey species rhesus monkey

and goral were found only in high and medium conflict zone respectively. Common langur

seems to form a good prey base in all the three conflict zones. These values were analysed by

Kruskal-Wallis test. The results of Kruskal-Wallis test have shown that there are significant

44
differences among the encounter rates of Rhesus macaque (?2 = 11.224; P < 0.05) across the

different conflict zones while the common langur (?2 = 0.478; P > 0.05) showed no

difference in their mean encounter rates. Rhesus macaque was seen only in the high conflict

zone and for this the Kruskal-Wallis test has shown that there were significant differences

present in the encounter rates of the rhesus macaque. Similarly mean encounter rate of goral

is found significantly different (?2 = 8.881; P < 0.05) across the different human-leopard

conflict zones but it was found only in the medium conflict zones.

6.2.3. Encounter rates through indirect signs

Fecal matters like pellets and scats were encountered for the wild prey along with

other indirect signs like soil digging marks in all the three conflict zones (high, medium and

low). Encounter rates (no. of signs per km. walk) of those indirect signs were also calculated

and summarized in the Table 6.

Table 6. Encounter rates (no. of signs per km. walk) of indirect signs of the wild species.

Encounter rates, no. of seen / km. walk

Conflict Total
zone No. distance
of covered
trails (km.) BD WP RJF CL RM J JC S G
High 8 120.88 0.08 0.1 0 0 0 0.17 0 0 0
Medium 10 106.16 0.18 0.03 0 0 0 0.18 0.03 0.1 0
Low 7 99.99 0 0.3 0 0 0 0.12 0.05 0.01 0
[BD = Barking deer; WP = Wild pig; RJF = Red jungle fowl; CL = Common langur; RM =
Rhesus macaque; J = Jackal; JC = Jungle cat; S = Sambar; G = Goral].

Therefore the encounter rates of the animals based on these indirect signs like fecal

matter and other signs like soil digging marks were found better to express the relative

abundance of the wild animals in different human-leopard conflict zones. Similar conclusion

was also reported in earlier study undertaken in Pauri Garhwal (Chauhan & Goyal, 2001).

The relative abundance of the wild prey was also estimated from different indirect

signs during trail monitoring. Pellet groups of barking deer were seen in all the three zones

45
where as those of sambar found in the medium and low conflict zones. Soil digging marks of

the wild pigs were also encountered in all the conflict zones.

Table6 indicates the encounter rates of the indirect signs like fecal matter, soil

digging marks, etc. of the wild preys of leopard have been listed under a particular conflict

zone. These values were tested for Kruskal-Wallis test to test whether there are significant

differences among the encounter rates of indirect signs of the prey species across the different

conflict zones. The results of the Kruskal-Wallis test by SPSS 8.0 statistical Pac for the

encounter rates of the indirect signs of the wild preys across the different conflict zones have

expressed that that the mean encounter rates of the indirect signs of barking deer (?2 = 7.719;

P < 0.05); wild pig (?2 = 7.402; P < 0.05) and sambar (?2 = 8.881; P < 0.05) are significantly

different across the different conflict zones where those of jackal (?2 = 1.168; P > 0.05) and

jungle cat (?2 = 4.491; P > 0.05) show no difference across the different conflict zones.

6.2.4. Encounter rates of the pheasants

Red Jungle Fowl was encountered in all the three zones where as kaleej pheasant was

found only in high and medium conflict zones. With these two types of pheasants four

peafowls were encountered in two sightings during the study period (two in high and two in

medium conflict zones). The mean encounter rates of the red jungle fowl and kaleej

pheasants across the different human-leopard conflict zones (high, medium and low) have

been expressed in bar diagrams along with the standard error bars in (Fig. 11.). The average

encounter rate of the indirect signs of leopard (scat and scrape) has been shown in line

diagram to make a comparative note with the pheasants. Pheasants were found major prey

components of leopard in China (Johnson et al., 1993) but scat analysis in the earlier period

(Chauhan & Goyal, 2001) or in the recent time (Das, S., Pers. Comm.) has not revealed any

of the aforesaid pheasants as leopard’s prey in Pauri-Garhwal. So, accordingly they were not

confirmed as prey species of leopard at least in the Pauri-Garhwal district.

46
 M.E.R. of R.J.F. and K.P across the different conflict zones

1.2

0.8 RJF
M.E.R. ± S.E.

KP
L Sign
0.6

0.4

0.2

0
High Medium Low
Conflict Zone

Figure 11. Mean encounter rate (M.E.R.) of red jungle fowl (R.J.F.) and kaleej pheasant
(K.P.) along with the leopard’s sign (scat and scrape together) across the different conflict
zones.

6.2.5. Encounter rates of domestic species

Domestic species were also encountered in the entire trail monitoring activities.

Domestic species contribute a greater role to form the prey base of leopard in all the conflict

zones. Among the domestic species cattle, goat, dog, horse, sheep and buffalo were seen in

the study area. The mean encounter rate of cattle and goat among all the domestic animals

was found higher. Mean encounter rate of cattle was highest in high and low conflict zone

(Fig. 12.) whereas that of goat was greatest in medium conflict zone (Fig. 12.). The encounter

Rates of the other domestic species other than these two broad groups were found much less

compared to them.

47
 16.00

14.00

12.00

10.00
M.E.R.

8.00

C G

6.00
D H

4.00 Sh B

2.00

0.00
High Medium Low
Conflict Zones

Figure 12. Mean encounter rate (M.E.R.) with standard error of the domestic animals seen in
different conflict zones. [C = Cattle; G = Goat; D = Dog; H = Horse; Sh = Sheep;
B = Buffalo].

These encounter rates of the domestic species were tested with Kruskal-Wallis test to

check whether these values had significant differences across different human-leopard

conflict zones. The results of the Kruskal-Wallis test by SPSS 8.0 statistical Pac has shown

that the encounter rates of cattle (?2 = 5.558; P > 0.05) have no significant difference across

the different human-leopard conflict zones. But the mean encounter rates (M.E.R.) of other

species like dog (?2 = 7.522; P < 0.05); goat (?2 = 32.008; P < 0.05); horse (?2 = 17.328; P <

0.05); sheep (?2 = 17.760; P < 0.05) and buffalo (?2 = 23.187; P < 0.05) differ significantly

across the different conflict categories. Among all these domestic species sheep was seen

very less in number in the high conflict zone.

48
 6.2.6. Status survey of domestic dogs

477 households in 27 villages across the three human-leopard conflict zones were

surveyed to generate the status pattern of the mortality of domestic dogs, found as one of the

most preferable prey species of leopard (Chauhan & Goyal, 2001). Table 7. indicates the

conflict category, number of dogs both killed and alive along with their housing pattern and

exposure to jungle.

Table 7. Status survey of the domestic dog across the different conflict zones.

Total
number No. of Percentage
of house Total no. Total no. dog Dogs kept at home Dogs visited to
Zone villages holds of dogs of killed mortality (%) jungle (%)

INSIDE OUTSIDE YES NO

HIGH 9 175 64 25 49.97 89.55 10.45 26.80 73.20

MEDIUM 10 130 47 14 10.56 79.28 20.72 16.81 83.20

LOW 8 172 52 5 5.63 57.19 42.81 48.44 51.56

The status of domestic dogs (such as their mortality by leopard, percentage housing

pattern and also the percentage population going to the jungle, etc.) has been collected from

27 villages across the different human-leopard conflict zones (Annexure-II). Among these 27

villages, Dabra village in high-conflict zone holds the highest mortality of domestic dogs

(75%) followed by Simalna–malla (72.22%) in medium conflict and Jawahargarh (70%) in

high conflict zone. No such high mortality of dogs have been reported from low conflict

areas.

In high conflict zone it can be seen that the mortality of the dog is much high where

most of them were kept inside the house (in the court yard) and do not used to visit the

jungle. The percentage of dog, used to visit jungle, is higher in the low conflict zone

confirming the fewer disturbances from leopards. Fig. 13. shows the conflict trend of the

49
regions that can be easily understood where dog mortality is highest in the high conflict zone

(49.97%) in spite of the outside housing pattern and exposure to jungle are very less

compared to other conflict zones.

100 killed by leopard inside housing exposure to jungle

90

80

70

60
Value (%)

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 1 2 3
HIGH MEDIUM LOW

Figure 13. Mortality of domestic dogs and housing pattern across the different human-
leopard conflict zones.

Fig. 13. indicates that the mortality of dogs killed by leopard and the inside housing

rate of them was decreasing from high to low conflict zones but their exposure to jungle is

reciprocal to those. It can be stated from the above observation that in spite of being kept

inside the room in higher proportion, the no. of dogs killed in high conflict zone is more

where they are less exposed to jungle.

50
6.3. Landuse-landcover analysis based on GIS and remote sensing:
The areas of the intensive study sites determined by the remote sensing data were

4.21, 11.73 and 11.91 km2 respectively in low, medium and high human-leopard conflict

zones respectively. The landuse-landcover pattern of the study area has forest covers such as

mixed forest with mainly oak (in high conflict zone only); mixed sal forest; mixed forest with

mainly pine and scrub cover; human settlements with habitation and agricultural lands, water

bodies and cloud shadow covers (only in medium conflict zone) (Fig. 14.). In all the conflict

zones the scrub cover was highest in proportion among the entire landuse-landcover patterns

in low (58.71%); medium (60.39%) and high (65.22%) conflict zones. Human settlements

also cover a good proportion of area in low (17.59%), medium (20.04%) and high (20.71%)

conflict zones. These factors along with the degradation of natural habitat are the primary

factors for the human-leopard conflict. The scrubs provide the leopard with good stalking

covers. 1 km of vegetation buffer was plotted around each GPS location, noted during the

collection of predator’s sign as well as the direct sighting and indirect signs of the prey. Thus

the buffer area under all the conflict zones were analyzed by supervised classifications and

different proportions of landuse-landcover pattern were also calculated. This buffer area was

again categorized based on predator and prey (wild and domestic) usage pattern.

51
 70.00

60.00

50.00

MIXED_FOREST OAK
Percentage Value

MIXED_FOREST PINE
40.00
MIXED_FOREST SAL
SCRUB
HABITATATION
30.00
RIVER_WATER
CLOUD_SHADOW

20.00

10.00

0.00
HIGH MEDIUM LOW
Conflict zone

Figure 14. Proportion of landuse-landcover patterns across the different human-leopard

conflict zones.

Fig. 14. indicates that the two major landuse-landcover patterns across the different

human-leopard conflict zones are scrub and human habitation. Degradation of natural habitat

like sal dominating mixed forest is also increasingly evident from low; medium to the high

conflict zones. Degradation of these natural habitats due to human pressure is one of the

major causes for such human-leopard conflicts.

The utilization patterns of different landuse-landcover by leopard, prey species and

domestic animals across the three conflict zones have been shown in Fig. 15; 16 and 17

respectively. It indicates that the utilization of scrub cover by all the species is decreasing

from high to low conflict zone whereas the utilization of natural habitat is increasing from

52
high to low conflict zones. Leopard uses the human habitats more or less same proportion in

high and medium zones where in low conflict zone it visited less to those places (Fig. 15).

Wild prey showed more utilization of human habitat from high to low conflict zones which is

opposite to leopard (Fig. 16). But trend of utilization of the natural habitats and scrub cover is

similar to all the animals (prey and predator). Domestic preys were also showing the similar

trend to use scrub cover more in high conflict zone to less in low conflict zone (Fig. 17).

Even they utilized human habitation more in high conflict zone and less in medium to low

conflict zone. It showed the threat of conflict in the high conflict zone.

70.00

60.00

50.00
Percentage utilization

40.00

30.00 HIGH

MEDIUM

LOW
20.00

10.00

0.00

OAK PINE SAL SCRUB HAB/AGRI WATER BODY CLOUD

COVER
Different landuse-landcover pattern used by leopard

Figure 15. Proportion of landuse-landcover pattern used by leopard across the different
conflict zones. [hab/agri = human habitations and agricultural lands].

53
 70.00

60.00

50.00
Percentage utilization

40.00

HIGH

30.00
MEDIUM

20.00 LOW

10.00

0.00
OAK PINE SAL SCRUB HAB/AGRI WATER CLOUD
BODY COVER
Different landuse-landcover pattern used by wild prey

Figure 16. Proportion of landuse-landcover pattern used by wild prey across the different
conflict zones. [hab/agri = human habitations and agricultural lands].

70.00

60.00

50.00
Percentage utilization

HIGH

40.00 MEDIUM

LOW

30.00

20.00

10.00

0.00
OAK PINE SAL SCRUB HAB/AGRI WATER CLOUD
BODY COVER
Different landuse-landcover pattern used by domestic prey

Figure 17. Proportion of landuse-landcover pattern used by domestic prey across the different
conflict zones. [hab/agri = human habitations and agricultural lands].

54
 Figures (15, 16 and 17) indicate that the main landuse-landcover pattern, used by all

the animals is the scrub. The proportion of the scrub usage by leopard decreases from high to

medium to low. The natural habitat is shown to be more in the low conflict zones than high

or medium conflict zones. The comparative study on the habitat utilization by leopard and its

wild prey across the different human-leopard conflict zones showed similar trend.

The ratio between forest cover and scrub changed from high, medium to low conflict

zones. The ratios between forest and scrub cover across the different conflict zones were 1:5

(high); 1:3 (medium) and 1:2 (low) in various conflict zones. It means that forest cover is

increasing with the decrease of scrub cover. This might be a reason of the extent of conflict

among the zones. It was found that the ratio between scrub and human habitation remained

unchanged (1:3) across the three human-leopard conflict zones. Therefore, from this

observation it can be predicted that the habitat utilization pattern by leopard and wild prey

was mostly similar and the encounter of leopard with human and soft prey was very

inadvertent from the leopard’s point of view.

Table 8. Comparative habitat utilization by leopard and its wild prey in different conflict
zones.

Conflict zone Species Landuse-landcover pattern

Forest: Scrub: Human
Scrub (%) Forest (%) Scrub habitation

Leopard 66.06 12.39 1:5 1:3

High Wild prey 65.65 12.77 1:5 1:3

Leopard 60.36 12.77 1:3 1:3

Medium Wild prey 59.98 18.78 1:3 1:3

Leopard 55.95 25.42 1:2 1:3

Low Wild prey 57.99 23.81 1:2 1:3

55
7. Findings
The present study was to answer the research questions regarding the variations of prey and

predator abundance across the different human-leopard conflict zones (high, medium and

low) and in relation to landuse-landcover of Pauri-Garhwal, Uttaranchal. Data were collected

based on direct and indirect signs.

a). Camera trapping has obtained only three captures of three individual leopards.

Regarding the poor capture rates of camera trapping it can be stated that small ISA and

anthropogenic disturbances like forest fire, habitat depletion and interference with the camera

units by the local residents were the major reasons for low captures.

The average encounter rate of leopard scat was relatively high (0.51/ km.) in medium

conflict zone in comparison of high (0.28/km.) and low (0.16/km.) conflict categories.

Statistically the mean encounter rates of leopard scats (?2 = 4.175; P > 0.05) show no

significant variation across all the human-leopard conflict zones. Similarly, the average

encounter rate of scrape was relatively high in medium (0.51/km.) in comparison of other

categories (high and low). Statistically there was significant variation in mean encounter rates

of scrape (?2 = 16.121; P < 0.05) across the three zones.

b). Mean encounter rates of wild ungulates such as barking deer (?2 = 7.719; P <

0.05); wild pig (?2 = 7.402; P < 0.05); sambar (?2 = 8.881; P < 0.05) and goral (?2 = 8.881; P

< 0.05) varied significantly across the three conflict zones. The mean encounter rates of

rhesus macaque (?2 = 11.224; P < 0.05) also varied significantly across the different conflict

zones where those of common langur (?2 = 0.478; P > 0.05) have not shown any variation.

56
 c). The encounter rates of all the domestic species (goat, sheep, dog, horse and

buffalo) other than cattle (?2 = 5.558; P > 0.05) showed significant difference across the

different conflict zones. The mean encounter rates of all the domestic prey species (2.67/km.)

were much higher than the wild species (0.24/km.). This can signify the actual scenario of

prey base of leopard in all the three regions. The status surveys of domestic dogs in 27

villages across the three conflict zone have also signified the greater extent of conflict in high

conflict zone. In high conflict zone mortality of the domestic dog was higher. This follows

the similar pattern of conflict found in earlier studies (Chauhan & Goyal, 2001).

d). Analysis of results obtained by remote sensing and GIS technology have found

that scrub cover and human habitation were higher in proportion in all the three zones than

the natural vegetations. These landuse patterns are comparatively higher in the high conflict

zone than medium or low conflict zone and can be accepted as the indicator of higher

conflicts.

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Annexure-I

Leopard photographs obtained by camera trapping.

73
 ANNEXURE-II Detail data set of the status survey of domestic dogs across the three conflict zones.
No. of
house No. of no. of Housing pattern Visited jungle
Sl. no. Zone Village name holds dogs killed Mortality (%) (%)
inside outside yes no
1 High Dewla 60 28 6 21.43 89.3 10.71 17.9 82.14
2 High Bansuli 10 3 2 66.67 100 0 33.33 66.67
3 High Dabra 11 4 3 75 100 0 50 50
4 High Bhatgaon 9 2 1 50 100 0 0 100
5 High Jaigaon 34 6 2 33.33 83.3333 16.67 33.33 66.67
6 High Gaula 7 2 1 50 100 0 0 100
7 High Dangu 6 3 2 66.67 33.33 66.67 0 100
8 High Bagi 27 6 1 16.67 100 0 66.67 33.33
9 High Jawahargarh 11 10 7 70 100 0 40 60
10 Medium keshta 26 8 0 0 75 25 12.5 87.5
Simalna
11 Medium malla 36 18 13 72.22 61.11 38.89 22.22 77.78
12 Medium Bhainsogi 2 2 0 0 100 0 0 100
13 Medium Bhatkil 1 1 0 0 100 0 100 0
14 Medium Dhomkhet 5 2 0 0 50 50 0 100
15 Medium Uliyal 5 3 1 33.33 66.67 33.33 0 100
16 Medium Timliyal 3 2 0 0 100 0 0 100
17 Medium Shalni 21 5 0 0 40 60 0 100
Simalna
18 Medium bichla 28 3 0 0 100 0 0 100
19 Medium Narai 3 3 0 0 100 0 33.33 66.67
20 Low Balli 66 16 4 25 62.5 37.5 25 75
21 Low Utircha 21 5 1 20 80 20 20 80
22 Low Kandei 25 8 0 0 37.5 62.5 62.5 37.5
23 Low Sari 8 3 0 0 33.33 66.67 100 0
24 Low Amun 14 5 0 0 40 60 80 20
25 Low Devidanda 12 4 0 0 75 25 25 75
26 Low Iramalla 7 3 0 0 66.67 33.33 0 100
27 Low Matial 19 8 0 0 62.5 37.5 75 25

74

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