09/04/2019 Transmitting Data - An Introduction to Computer Networking for Teachers - Raspberry Pi Foundation

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Transmitting Data
In this step you’ll learn about serial data transmission, the data rate, and some measures to make sure that data can reliably be sent across a local wired
connection.

Serial transmission

Within a computer, data is represented as a series of electrical voltages: a positive voltage (5 V or 3.3 V) represents a logic 1, and 0 V represents a logic 0. These
logic 1s and 0s are the binary digits, bits for short, that represent numbers, text, pictures, videos, sounds — all the information a computer can store and
transmit.

Sending data from one computer to another involves putting these series of voltages on a wire on the first computer, connecting the wire to the second computer,
and getting that computer to ‘read’ the voltage on the wire to check whether 0V or 5 V/3.3 V is being transmitted. These voltages are called ‘signals’, because
they are signalling a binary 1 or 0.

The transmitting and receiving computers need to agree how fast the transmitter will transmit the signals, so that the receiver works at the same rate and can
keep up when reading the signals that come in.

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This is called serial transmission: the data bits are sent in series, one after the other, on a single wire. It’s distinct from parallel transmission, which is used
inside a computer and on some early peripherals. Using parallel transmission, several bits are sent at the same time on their own dedicated wires. These
connections are know as ‘busses’ and typically are 8, 16, or 32 bits wide. Because of the interference between the wires, parallel transmission only works over
short distances.

Data rate and speed

The number of bits a computer sends each second (bits per second, or bps) is called the data rate; the higher the data rate is, the faster data arrives. In the early
days of the internet, data rates were in the thousands (kilo) of bits per second (kbps). Now common data rates are in the millions (Mega) or billions (Giga) of
bits per second (Mbps or Gbps).

The speed of the signals themselves as they move along the wire is close to the speed of light. The time it takes for a signal to travel through the transmission
system is called the latency, or delay, and this is usually a few milliseconds.

Common misconception:

Often the speed of a link, which is measured in bps, is confused with the speed of the signal.

Transmissions and parity

In the early days of data transmission, transmissions were prone to electrical interference (called noise), and the longer the cable, the more noisy the signal.
Typically, one in a thousand bits would be corrupted, i.e. a logic 1 would be read as a logic 0, or vice versa.

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To allow the receiving end to detect this error, a parity bit was introduced: the final bit in a byte rather than representing data, was set depending on the
previous set of bits in the byte. It was set to make the total number of 1s in the byte odd for odd parity, or even for even parity. As long as the receiver knew
whether the transmitter was using odd or even parity, it could detect whether a single bit error had occurred. Of course, using a parity bit meant that only seven
bits could be used to send actual data.

Let’s look at some examples to see how this works. In the following table, a parity bit has been added to keep the number of 1s even.

Example Original data Even parity added Data received Conclusion

1 0110101 01101010 01101010 No Error
2 0110101 01101010 01100010 Error
3 0100101 01001011 01001011 No Error
4 0100101 01001011 11001011 Error

In example 2, there is an error in the fifth bit

In example 4, there is an error in the first bit

The receiver notes that in these two examples, there is an odd number of 1s. Therefore, it knows that an error has occurred.

Note: including a parity bit means the receiver detects the presence of an error, but it does not know the position of the erroneous bit.

Connecting computers locally

The type of cable first used to connect computer was the coaxial cable, which is similar to cables used for television. A coaxial cable’s inner core carries the
signal; the outer braiding shields the inner conductor, and because the braiding is earthed, it protects the signal from electrical interference (noise). However,
coaxial cables had numerous issues with poor connections, and these issues, combined with the development of cheaper alternatives and improved electronics,
led to this cable type falling out of use.

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Advances in electrical circuitry resulted in the development of a new type of cable: the Unshielded Twisted Pair, or UTP. In such a cable, a pair of wires carry
the electrical signal using a balanced voltage, and the pair of wires is individually twisted. The balanced voltage and twisting mean that any interference would
affect both wires of the pair in the same way, thus cancelling out the interference. Therefore, there is no need for any outer braiding to shield the inner
conductors, and a simple outer plastic cover holds the pairs or wires together. Hence this cable type’s name: Unshielded Twisted Pair.

UTP cabling can typically transmit data at a rate of 100 Mbps or 1 Gbps. However, due to the Ethernet protocol (which we will discuss later), UTP cabling can
only transmit data over a distance of up to 100 metres. Whilst this allows for connecting computers in the same room, it prohibits direct connection to another
network miles away.

As demand for internet access grew, different solutions were needed to connect the ever increasing numbers of users in homes and businesses to their internet
service providers (ISP). These solutions are what we’ll look at in the next step.

Questions for discussion

With parity bits, what happens if two errors occur in a byte?
What might limit the amount of data we can send down a wire?

Join in the discussion below

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