Factors Influencing the Insulation

Coordination of Transformers
BY F. J. VOGEL*
Associate, A.I.E.E.

and the greatest economy in materials. The convenINTRODUCTION

IN the early days of the electrical industry, surgestional means of obtaining such a result is in the use of
were relatively mysterious as to their origin, magni- tubes and angle rings in the core type transformer, and
tude and behavior. The ordinary factory tests now in the use of sheets and angles interleaved in the shell
required by the A.I.E.E. rules were the reflection of type transformer. Such constructions are shown in
experience and judgment rather than the analysis Figs. 1 and 2. Accordingly, models using these conwhich has been made possible in the last few years. structions were made and given both 60-cycle and surge
From experience, it was found on the one hand that it
was necessary to increase the insulation of some parts
of the transformers far above the requirements of the
A.I.E.E. rules (i. e., turn and coil insulation, bushings)
and, on the other hand, to limit the voltages transmitted

11
to the transformer from the line, by the specification of
line insulation and protective gaps.' In the meanwhile,
progress has been made in the laboratory study of the
surge characteristics of the insulators, gaps, and insulation structures commonly used in transformers.2 This
paper presents data from these insulation studies and
shows the relationships between the present coordination standards and the strength of transformer insulation. The results of tests of insulation under oil are
reported, the strength of the various voltage ratings of FIG. 2-VIEW OF CORE TYPE TRANSFORMER INSULATION MODEL
The low-voltage coil and iron are represented as one piece
transformers estimated and these in turn compared to
the flashover values of line insulation and gaps.
tests, for the purpose of obtaining data on the strength
SURGE STRENGTH OF INSULATIONS UNDER OIL
of major insulation.
It should clearly be understood that the results obThe heart of the insulation of a transformer, as determined by the present A.I.E.E. rules, is in the insu- tained apply only to the major insulation and do not
represent the insulation strengths of complete transformers unless the insulation between turns and coils
has been so made that even under the conditions of
surge tests the major insulation is the weakest part of
the entire structure.
The shell type models were first given 60-cycle tests
_
to breakdown voltage. The results of these tests are as
given in Table I. The procedure of testing was to hold
tbl L mkI-T
2 r 1X1

I IIWA] 1E11 E1 1[S11 I E I

a___:______,__X__________

the voltage 60 seconds, to allow 5 minutes rest and then

to increase the voltage to the next step.

FIG. 1-VIEW OF SHELL TYPE TRANSFORMER INSULATION IN

IRON OPENING

TABLE I-TESTS ON SHELL TYPE INSULATION MODELS

60 CYCLE-70 DEG 0 OIL

High-voltage and low-voltage coils are shown shaded

Model

lation between the high-voltage and low-voltage windings, commonly known to the designer as majorinsulation. It is desired to keep these insulation clearances
as small as possible to obtain low reactance, low losses,

*Transformer Engineering Department, Sharon Works, West-

inghouse Electric & Mfg. Co.

1. For references see bibliography.

15 ..

Voltage at failure-kv rms

280
.290

.310
16.300
270.280
18
.
260.270
20.
Average

.........280

...

290

Similar models were tested to breakdown with posi-

Presented at the Winter Convention of the A.I.E.E., New York,

N. Y., January 23-27, 1933.

tive surges at both Trafford and Sharon. The waves

411

33-38

Voltage held 1 min-kv rms

412

Transactions A.I.E.E.

VOGEL: FACTORS INFLUENCING THE INSULATION

used were approximately 1Y2 ysec front and 40 usec in Fig. 7. The extension of the barrier beyond the
from the crest to half value. The results of these tests electrode was such as to produce puncture. The results
are plotted in Fig. 3. The comparison between these of this test are given below:
results and the 60-cycle tests (approx. impulse ratio) is
shown in Fig. 4.

Max. 60-cycle hold strength

The core type models were likewise tested at 60 cycles

to breakdown, with results as given in Table II.

Rms

Model

Voltage held 1 min-kv rms

Voltage at failure-ky rms

3.
300 ..
310
4................. 27....................... 280
7.
300 ..
310
S.
320 ..
330
9.
280
.290
10..........310.............320
.
11 .---..-...300 .................
310
12................. 320 ....................... 330

Average ....

300

2.8

221 kv ....

485 kv ....
450 kv ..

Impiulse

4.5 ,usec .....

5.5 gsec

2.2
2.04

_ _

R2.6-v_

Ve

2.4

2.2

XI~-

-l.
...-.

310

3.0 _0

2.0-

Crest

156 kv ....

TABLE II-TESTS ON CORE TYPE INSULATION MODELS

60 CYCLE-70 DEG 0 OIL

Surge strength
Voltage
Time lag

60 sec test

5
6
7
8 9
TIME IN MICROSECONDS

l0

11

12

13

FIG. 4-IMPULSE RATIO CURVE OF SHELL TYPE TRANSFORMER

INSULATION FOR 11240 POSITIVE WAVE

Surge tests on the core type models were made similarly to those on the shell type transformer models. The
Indications in these tests were that the time lag curve
results of these tests are shown in Fig. 5, and the ap- was quite flat as even with increased voltage settings of
proximate impulse ratio in Fig. 6.
the surge generator, no appreciable increase in breakdown voltage was obtained.
400
Similar tests with negative surges have been made.
13CC
Cv I
+
-__ -. - T
1300
To
accelerate the work, barriers similar to Fig. 8 were
_
1200 t
_
made,
which simulate the conditions of interleaved inIC
sulation in the models. The average 60-cycle break_
_
I Idown was found to be 345-ky rms or 490-kv crest.
1000ClII \_
l4CC.

900

800

1300

-J

200.-

>2700

l-00

IC l

0600

TIME

INMICROSECOCREST-AVERAGE

900-

MIN 6C-CYCLE HOLD STRENGTH

~~~~~~0

-J

INSLAIO MODE USN

C

ma>eojce7ha

200

0POIIEWV00

6
5
6
7
9
TIME IN MICROSECONDS

hs

IC

500.
1213 11

<

o rpeettv001
400

-CREST-AVERAGE

FIG. 3-TIME LAG CURVE OF SHELL TYPE TRANSFORMER

iNs

INSULATION

WAVE
1 USING
MODEL
l240 POSITIVE

3CC

200
It may be objected that these are not representative
of all types of major insulation. These tests represent
lat
conditions where the dielectric field is formed between whethe

.s

MIN 60-CYCLE HOLD STRENGTH

i.T

-jo

June 1933

VOGEL: FACTORS INFLUENCING THE INSULATION

nearly the same and to be ifat down to at least two or

three microseconds.
To sum up these tests, it appears that the impulse
ratio of transformer major insulation for time lags
of the order of 2 microseconds or longer is approxi_

3.4
3.2
-

3.0

2.8

2<<-<

<2
D

2.

a_.4 4
_ _
_
t
L
2.2 EE WESH
2.0 0

-.
3
2

TIME IN MICROSECONDS

413

cu ft of air are assumed. Further, in estimating the

surge strength of the transformer insulation, the factor
of 2.2 times the standard test voltage has been used
which assumes the same factor of safety in the surge
test for the major insulation as for the 60-cycle test.
Since the factor of safety on test is unknown for different
manufacturers, this makes the assumption that test or
guarantee is not within closer limits for surge strength
than for the 60-cycle breakdown strength.
xFor purposes of analysis, it is suggested that the
.230-kv insulation class be chosen. From the curves,
Fig. 10, the possible relationship between the service coordination gap, test gap or bushing, the previous standard of line insulation and the transformer insulation can
be seen.
First, curve C shows the position of the line insulation

FIG. 6-IMPIJLSE RATIO CURVE OF CORE TYPE TRANSFORMER

INSULATION FOR 12M-40 POSITIVE WAVE

mately 2.2. These conclusions have been checked by

tests of complete transformers and windings, where
adequate winding strength, as in surge proof trans-

formers,3 was obtained.

COMPARISON OF SURGE STRENGTHS OF INSULATORS,

GAPS, BUSHINGS AND TRANSFORMER MAJOR
INSULATION

In recent articles,2 the strength of insulators and gaps

has been published, and it is now possible to compare
these against transformer insulation strength. This is

<4
WI

rELECTRODE

~~~~~~

~~~~~~~GROUND//

FIG. 8-ARRANGEMENT OF ELECTRODES AND INTERLEAVED

INSULATION FOR CHECKING RESULTS OF MODEL TESTS AND FOR
THE INVESTIGATION OF NEGATIVE SURGES

with regard to the transformer insulation. This is of

interest for two reasons. One is that it shows that coordination at short time lags might not be obtained with
the recommended line insulation if the transformer were
I I TI 1
I
1 1
11lbuilt just to meet the prescribed A.I.E.E. high-voltage
winding tests. Another fact disclosed is that if the bushing is in excess of the line insulation, the margin between
the
FIG. 7-ARRANGEMENT OF ELECTRODE AND INSULATION TO
bushing and transformer insulation may be greatly
DETERMINE MAXIMUM PUNCTUJRE STRENGTH OF FULLERBOARD reduced.
AND OIL DUJCTS
Next curve A shows the position of the coordinating
Total thickness of fullerboard and ducts is 1
inch gap relative to the transformer insulation. It is readily
seen that ample margin will be obtained except at exbest done by the use of time-lag curves. Accordingly tremely short time lags, and since the time lag curve for
typical time-lag curves of the 66-, 132- and 220-ky transformer insulation also turns up, a margin is obclasses are shown in Fig. 10. In these curves, the stand- tamned.
ard conditions of air density and humidity of 25 deg C,
The position of a proposed minimum bushing level is
760 mm barometer and 6.5 grains of water vapor per next shown as curve B. Several advantages of this level
I 'FULLERBOARD
ELECTsRODE

VOGEL: FACTORS INFLUENCING THE INSULATION

414

can be cited. First, it is desirable to keep this level as

low as possible to provide a maximum margin between
the insulation strength and the bushing flashover.
Second, a sufficient margin above the coordinating gap
is necessary to prevent bushing flashover in service. A
minimum margin of 10 per cent probably satisfies both
1400
1300 -

-_
- -__
- -

12CC - -

available for the effects of humidity and air density on

the line insulators, nor was there any appreciable

_- - - -

700 - -- 600

- -

500 400

-X
-

- -CREST-AVERAGE

MIN 60-CYCLE HOLD STRENGTH

An estimated curve of the relationships existing between the standard point gap and insulation for negative waves is shown on curve 11, for the 230-kv class.
This is of interest in indicating still further the desirability of keeping the bushing characteristics at the
lowest level.
THE COORDINATION PROBLEM
Originally it was the opinion of engineers generally
that since transformers gave satisfactory service, coordination of the transformer insulation with the line
insulation was obtained. Surge voltage data were not

..

lc00
90C - - - -

Transactions A.I.E.E.

amount of data available for insulations under oil.

Service experience is not a thorough indicator of surge
voltage strength, because first the number of strokes
close enough to the station to result in the highest
stresses possible is small, and second, even if close, the
electrical constants of the transformer and substation
1900.
4>

300

18401;I
100.10~
2

FIG.

9-SURGE

FOR

VOLTAGE

STRENGTH

OF

160CIC

II

INTERLEAVED

12

AND NEGATIVE WAVES

BOTH POSITIVE
TIME IN MICROSECONDS

13

BARRIER

x Results for positive waves

0 Results for negative waves

requirements to the best advantage. It should be par-

1300

230-KV
II
C CD 4-j0-IN.INSULATORS
CLASS

MAJOR

1200
0

o 1100__AIIIIIIII

< 10CC

INSULATION_

70-IN. GAP

STNDR

--

T4-IN -AP

ticularly observed that protection to the extent of the

II
900
- - _--D ---I --IT---I
coordinating gap cannot be obtained with the bushing,
800B -3
|
ClP-AI
but the greatest degree possible will be obtained by
i
42-IN. GAP _
700 keeping the bushing to the lowest level.
A STANDARD 38AIN.GAP
It is to be noted that the above relationships are for
41
A. SPACING
standard air density, humidity and positive waves.
MAJOR INULATION
From inspection of the time lag curves, it will be seen
c
400 t
that the shorter time lags are the critical ones. From inSTANDARD 183/4-IN.GAP
ll
spection of the data furnished by Mr. F. D. Fielder, on
300
14
2
0
4
6
8
10
12
16
18
20
22
on
density and humidity effects gaps,2itisnotbelieved
it is notbelieved
~TIME IN MICROSECOND~
that density or humidity conditions above the standard
FIG. 10-COMPARISON OF POSITIVE WAVE TIME LAG CURVES
will appreciably affect the voltages at these short time FOR TRANSFORMER INSULATION WITH LINE INSULATION AND
lags. They will, however, be of importance for the longer STANDARD GAPS

Group I is for 230-kv class, Group II is for 138-kv class and Group III is
time lags but here the margin of strength for the insulafor
69-kv class. A for all classes is the present standard coordinating gap
tion is much greater.
time-lag curve for the voltage class. B is the curve for the proposed gap for
Tests have been made with negative waves and they testing purposes and is a proposed bushing level. C is the curve for the line
formerly proposed for coordinating purposes. D is the minimum
indicate little increase in voltage for short time lags insulation
possible curve for the major insulation level based on the standard ATI.E.E.
compared to positive waves. There iS however some -tests from the high-voltage winding to the low-voltage winding and ground
increase in the voltage for long time lags due to change
in polarity. Complete data of the effect of humidity on may greatly modify and reduce them. It is of interest,
negative waves is not yet available. Nevertheless it is therefore, (see Fig. 10) to note that with major insulaimportant that the effect of negative waves be consid- tion designed just to meet the requirements of the
ered. One reason for this is the fact that the highest standard A.I.E.E. tests, coordination with the line
lightning surges on lines have generally been found insulators would have been obtained in the higher voltage classes except at very short time lags. The margin
to be negative.4

June 1933

VOGEL: FACTORS INFLUENCING THE INSULATION

415

of coordination diminishes in the lower voltage classes,

disappearing entirely at the 69-kv class.
The point gaps more recently proposed show a logical
agreement between the major insulation strength of
transformers and the requirements dictated by experience. For example, the gap spacings used are in agreement with experience in furnishing comparatively longer
spacings for the lower voltages, and are also logical in
furnishing a simple relationship between the full wave

gation of this sort in the several voltage classes to determine if major insulation designed to meet the requirements of the standard A.I.E.E. tests would be coordinated with the standard gaps at the 2-microsecond
point. The results of such an investigation are presented
in Table III.
In this table an effort has been made to arrive at
logical values for the surge voltage requirements of the
major insulation for the different voltage classes. It
shows that in voltage classes
kv and above, the
700OC 9 _I || | ] ] || 0 requirement that coordination34.5
be obtained at the 2160j
7
microsecond point will determine the necessary surge
MAJOR
$.
_
_voltage
strength of the major insulation, and that these
\D
MAJOR INSULATI ON
230-KV INSULATION _
surge voltage strengths so obtained, when translated
(1400
\\
corresponding 60-cycle tests, give values almost
oI30C
- NEGATIVEinto
0
exactly in agreement with the present standard A.I.E.E.
NEGATIVE'WAVE-70O'ZIN.GAP
Y-200- -tests. In the lower voltage classes, however, this re10 -- NEGATIVEWAVE64
quirement would dictate surge voltage strengths less
A _ POSITIVE WAVE-64-lN. GAP
than would be required to meet the surge tests proposed
_000 - TIME _NROSECONDS
by the Transformer Subcommittee, so that in these
4
6
0 2 14 6 18 20
9000
lower voltage classes the proposed
tests would
TIME IN MICROSECONDS
dictate the necessary surge voltage strengths of the
FIG. 11-COMPARISON OF POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE WAVE major insulation. These strengths translated into corsurge

TIME LAG CURVES FOR GAPS AND TRANSFORMER INSULATION FOR

230-KV CLASS

responding 60-cycle tests indicate that the present

A is the time-lag curve for a positive wave, the standard 64-in. gap and
corrected to standard atmospheric conditions. B is the time-lag curve for

lower

THE

a negative wave and the standard 64-in. gap, not corrected to standard
atmospheric conditions. C is the curve for a negative wave for a 70 M2-in.
gap proposed as a test standard and bushing level. D is the transformer

insulation level

values and the voltage class of the insulation as shown

in Fig. 12.
The surge strength of the major insulation and the
gaps approach each other closest at a time lag of about
2 microseconds, due to the difference in the shape of
their time lag characteristics. In determining whether
major insulation is properly coordinated, it is necessary
therefore to examine the conditions at the 2-microsecond point and make certain that at this point a margin does exist. Hence it is of interest to make an investi-

A.I.E.E. tests must appreciably be increased in these

voltage classes.
Particular attention should be given to Fig. 10, in

that the characteristics of the various time lag

curves

vary so radically. In the coordination work so far accomplished, characteristics such as obtained with the
point gap or insulator strings only have been considered.
The possibility of coordinating with a gap having impulse characteristics of similar shape to transformer
insulation is an alternative. Such a gap might be a
sphere gap. With the use of such a gap, a uniform factor
of safety would be possible between transformer major
insulation and the gap, instead of the variation now experienced between short and long timre lags. An example
of the results to be expected from such an arrangement
is indicated as follows:

TABLE III

Coordinating

Voltage class

gap

Full wave

(1 )/-40)
standard gap

2 microsecond

strength
standard gap

Major insulation transf. surge strength

requirements (B)

2,300- 4,330 ......... 2 (A) ..5.5.. ...

55 ............ 1.21 <X 55
4,600- 8,670 ......... 3 (A) .. ........
80
............... 1.21 X 75
6,900-13,800.
44 .
..............
05. ............ 17
2 X 95
.
150
23,000 ...........
25 . ............... 21 X 125
.
.
34,500
215
925 ..........
............... 2.sec value
46,000
225............ 85 ..........................
....1234
............

............

............

161,000
230,000

(A) Proposed vralues.

.44)M.~.
.64

......725
. 1,000
.....
1,020 .
.......
1,440
.....

=
=

60-cycle (C)
test req'd by
surge strength

Present
60-cycle
test

21.6 (D)......... 10
29.2 (D).
18.4
37 ....
6
.....
vau
47
.
215....... 23
............ 70
.
93
86. . ............ 91.5.............
67 ....
91.
115
151.48.5 .

..............1,000
..............1,440

....

....
....

322 .........323
....
462 .........461
....

(B) Major insulation requirements up to the 23-ky class are determined to meet surge tests 10 per cent above the flashover of a gap which is 10 per
cent higher than the standard gap. In the higher voltage classes the major insulation strength is determined by the requirement that coordination must
be obinined at a time lag of 2 microseconds.
(C) Surge strengths divided by i2 and by 2.2.
(B) MNanufacturers have long recognized the necessity for higher insulation strengths of these transformers, and it has generally been built in.

VOGEL: FACTORS INFLUENCING THE INSULATION

416

Any gap used should be protected by lightning arresters, to obtain continuity of service. The discharge
voltage of an autovalve arrester for 230-kv service is in
the neighborhood of 850 kv. The coordinating gap used
might then be set to furnish some desired margin, and in
turn a further-margin taken for the transformer insulation above the gap. The total of these margins might
15C- _
-

1300
ooo00

-.s-

-8oo
-4 - -_ _l
>
0700
6700-

14-oo
> >_o9Sgq4v9
tX
g
A
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
(J
< 2oN zoL jThe author desires to acknowledge the assistance of
/ es, /,)5<_
his associates in the laboratories and engineering depart-

5CC - - - 400

--

sooALZL1.S
9
31

+-

- - -

0C C24C60
20 40
SC ICC 120 140 160 180 2CC
VOLTAGE_CLASS IN KILOVOLTS

Hments of the

Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing

0 , 4 SCompany, particularly Messrs. F. D. Fielder, E. J.

Grimmer, C. F. Alsing and W. L. Teague, and the helpLJ
ful criticism of Mr. H. V. Putman in the preparation of

l;

600

300
200C

practically the same for both positive and negative

waves.
2. The impulse ratio of major insulation is practically 2.2.
3. The present standard A.I.E.E. tests for the 34.5-kv
class and above provide coordination with the proposed
coordinating gaps.
4. A.I.E.E. tests below 34.5-kv class are too low and

should be increased.
5. Greatest security is obtained if the surge flashover
1200.-l l lXqa
l l $4Lof the bushing is only slightly greater than that of the
coordinating gap. A margin of 10 per cent is suggested
Ll Ll >; tvqtl,8 72
as the most desirable bushing level.

1400

900

Transactions A.I.E.E.

tw

.this paper.

ICC
220 240

FIG. 12 CURVES SHOWING IMPULSE VOLTAGE REQUIREMENTS

OF TRANSFORMERS
A gives the full wave values for the standard gaps and for the 1 Y2-40

positive wave and is represented by the equation kv = 30 + 4.22 L where

kv is the full wave value and L is the line voltage in kv. B gives the maximum test values according to the proposal of using a gap 10 per cent in
excess of the standard gaps, and testing at 10 per cent in excess of the full
wave value. The equation for B is kv = 36 + 5.1 L. C represents the
voltages to give about 2 microseconds time lag for the standard gaps, and
also represents the critical limit for coordination. Where C is in excess of
B it represents the design limit for transformers. The equation for C is
kv = 6.25 L

Bibliography

1. Recommendations on Balancing Transformer and Line Insula|.tions, V. M. Montsinger and W. M. Dann, A.I.E.E. TRANS.,

Vol. 49, No. 4, 1930, p. 1478.

2. "Influence of Humidity on Surge Flashover," F. D.
Fielder, Electric Journal, July 1932 and "High Voltage Surge
Tests on Standard Air Gaps," F. D. Fielder, Electric Journal,
October, 1932.
3. Surge Proof Transformers, by H. V. Putman, A.I.E.E.
TRANS., Vol. 51, Sept. 1932, p. 579.
4. Surge Voltage Investigations, W. W. Lewis, TRANS. A.I.E.E.,
Oct. 1928, Vol. 47, p. 1111.
the 220-Kv System of the Penna.
Lightning Investigation on
onth

Lightnig.nvstgat

a0K

St

Penna.

ot

Power and Light Co., Edgar Bell and A. L. Price A.I.E.E.

TRANS., Vol. 50, Sept. 1931, p. 1101.

Investigation on the Appalachian Electric Power

then be 20 per cent, or 1,020 kv. This impulse strength Company's Trans. System, I. W. Gross and J. H. Cox, A.I.E.E.
Vol. 50, Sept. 1931, p. 1118.
would correspond to a 60-cycle test voltage of 328 kv. TRANS.,
Lightning Investigation on Transmission Lines-II, W. W.
Since the present required test voltage iS 461 kv, the Lewis and C. M. Foust, A.I.E.E. TRANS., VOl. 50, Sept. 1931,
possibility of reduction in surge strength requirements p. 1139.
by such coordinating means is shown. It should be

Lightning

5. The Coordination of Transformer Insulation with Line

pointed out that in this case coordination with present Insulation, V. M. Montsinger and W. M. Dann, A.I.E.E.
TRANS., Vol. 51, December 1932, p. 923.
designs of bushings would be impossible.
SUMMARY
The following conclusions have been reached:
1. The time lag characteristics of major insulation are

Discussion
For discussion of this paper see page 440.