Lecture 22 23 - Control System Design

Lecture 22 & 23
Control System Design
Dr. D. Saravanakumar,
Assistant Professor, SMBS,
VIT - Chennai Campus.
Email: saravanakumar.d@vit.ac.in
11 & 13-Sep-19 MEE1027 – Instrumentation and Control Engineering Fall 2019-20 Dr. D. Saravanakumar 1
Basic Elements of a Feedback
Control System
Error signal
Control variable Manipulated
e=Ysp-Ym
variable
Comparator
Set Point/ + Final Control Process/
Desired Controller
- Element System
value Ysp Actual/
Measured value
Ym
Measurement
system
Time domain Specifications
Time domain Specifications
1. Delay time, td: The delay time is the time required for
the response to half the final value for the first time.
2. Rise time, tr: The rise time is the time requires for the
response to rise from 10% to 90% or 5% to 95% or
0% to 100% of the final value.
3. Peak time, tp: The peak time is the time required for
the response to reach the first peak overshoot.
4. Maximum (percent) overshoot, Mp: The maximum
overshoot is the maximum peak value of the response
curve measured from unity. It is defined by
𝑐 𝑡𝑝 − 𝑐(∞)
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑡 = X 100%
𝑐(∞)
5. Settling time, ts: the settling time is the time required

for the response curve to reach and stay within a range
about the final value of size specified by the absolute
percentage of the final value (usually 2% or 5%).
On-off Controllers
• Simple
• Cheap
• Used In residential heating and domestic refrigerators
• Limited use in process control due to continuous cycling
of controlled variable  excessive wear on control
valve.
Examples
• Batch process control (PLC = programmable logic
controller)
• Solenoid in home heating unit
On-off Controllers
Synonyms:
“two-position” or “bang-bang” controllers.
𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 if 𝑒 > 0 Ideal Case
𝑢 𝑡 =ቊ
𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛 if 𝑒 < 0
u
umax
umin
0 e
Controller output has two possible values.
On-off Controllers
Practical case (dead band)
u
umax
umin
-δ 0 δ e
𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 if 𝑒 > 𝛿 δ = tolerance

𝑢 𝑡 =ቊ
𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛 if 𝑒 < −𝛿
System never reaches steady-state
Proportional (P) Controller
• The proportional controller provides the output proportional
to the error signal.
• The output equation for a proportional controller is given by
𝑢 𝑡 = 𝑢0 + 𝐾𝑐 𝑒(𝑡)
• where, u(t) = controller output, u0 = bias value (adjustable),
Kc = Proportional gain (dimensionless, adjustable).
u u
umax
u0
Slope = Kc
umin
0 e e
0
Ideal Practical
Proportional (P) Controller
• Offset Error
Once a disturbance (deviation from existing state) occurs
in the Steady State Condition, any corrective control
action, based purely on Proportional Control, will always
leave out an error between the next steady state and the
desired set point. This error is called an Offset Error.
100%
• Proportional Band, PB PB 
Kc
• Reverse or Direct Acting Controller

• Kc can be made positive or negative
• Direct-Acting (Kc < 0) “output increases as input increases“
• Reverse-Acting (Kc > 0) “output increases as input decreases“
U (s)
• Transfer Function of P Controller = Kc
E (s)
Integral and Derivative actions
Integral Control Action
• Synonyms: "reset", "floating control“
• In Integral Controller, the controller output is proportional to
the integral of the error
t
1 U(s) 1
u (t ) = u0 +
I  e(t )dt
0
=
E(s)  I s
• τI is reset time (or integral time) – adjustable
Derivative Control Action

• In derivative controller, the controller output is
proportional to the derivative of the error signal.
u (t ) = u0 +  D
d
(e(t)) U(s)
=  Ds
dt E(s)
• τD is derivative time – adjustable
Normally not used alone
Proportional-Integral (PI) Control
• PI controller has combination of proportional and Integral actions.
• The controller output of a PI controller is defined by
 1
t

u (t ) = u0 + K c e(t ) +  e(t )dt 
 I 0 
• The first two terms to the right of the equal sign are identical to the
P-Only controller referenced at the top of this article.
• The integral mode of the controller is the last term of the equation.
Its function is to integrate or continually sum the controller error,
e(t), over time.
• Some things we should know about the reset time tuning
parameter, τI:
• It provides a separate weight to the integral term so the influence of integral action
can be independently adjusted.
• It is in the denominator so smaller values provide a larger weight to (i.e. increase
the influence of) the integral term.
• It has units of time so it is always positive.
Function of the Proportional Term
• As with the P-Only controller, the proportional term of the PI
controller, Kc·e(t), adds or subtracts from u0 based on the
size of controller error e(t) at each time t.
• As e(t) grows or shrinks, the amount added to u0 grows or
shrinks immediately and proportionately. The past history
and current trajectory of the controller error have no
influence on the proportional term computation.
Function of the Integral Term
• While the proportional term considers the current size of e(t)
only at the time of the controller calculation, the integral term
considers the history of the error, or how long and how far
the measured process variable has been from the set point
over time.
• Integration is a continual summing. Integration of error over
time means that we sum up the complete controller error
history up to the present time, starting from when the
controller was first switched to automatic.
Proportional-Integral (PI) Control
• Integral action eliminates the overshoot of the system.

• The transfer function of PI Controller is given by
U (s)  1 
= K c 1 + 
E (s)  Is 
• There are challenges in employing the PI algorithm:
• The two tuning parameters interact with each other and their influence
must be balanced by the designer.
• The integral term tends to increase the oscillatory or rolling behaviour
of the process response.
• Under some operating conditions non-linearities in the
plant or controller can stop an Integral controller from
removing the steady state error. This is called Integral
Windup.
Proportional-Derivative (PD) Control
• PD controller has combination of proportional and Integral actions.
• The controller output of a PD controller is defined by
 
u (t ) = u0 + K c e(t ) +  D (e(t ) )
d
 dt 
• The first two terms to the right of the equal sign are identical to the
P-Only controller referenced at the top of this article.
• The derivative mode of the controller is the last term of the
equation. Its function is to acquire the change in the error values.
• Derivative term is normally used to predict the future error in the
system.
• A derivative describes how steep a curve is. More properly, a
derivative describes the slope or the rate of change of a signal trace
at a particular point in time. Accordingly, the derivative term in the
PD equation above considers how fast, or the rate at which, error
(or PV as we discuss next) is changing at the current moment.
Function of Derivative term
• A rapidly changing PV has a steep slope and this yields a
large derivative. This is true regardless of whether a dynamic
event has just begun or if it has been underway for some
time.
• Early in the response, the slope is large and positive when the
PV trace is increasing rapidly. When PV is decreasing, the
derivative (slope) is negative. And when the PV goes through
a peak or a trough, there is a moment in time when the
derivative is zero.
PID Controllers
• The PID controller is the most common form of feedback
control.
• It was an essential element of early governors and it became
the standard tool when process control emerged in the 1940s.
• In process control today, more than 95% of the control loops
are of PID type, most loops are actually PI control.
• PID controllers are today found in all areas where control is
used. The controllers come in many different forms. There
are stand-alone systems in boxes for one or a few loops,
which are manufactured by the hundred thousands yearly.
• PID control is an important ingredient of a distributed control
system.
• The controllers are also embedded in many special-purpose
control systems.
PID Controllers
• PID control is often combined with logic, sequential
functions, selectors, and simple function blocks to build
the complicated automation systems used for energy
production, transportation, and manufacturing.
• Many sophisticated control strategies, such as model
predictive control, are also organized hierarchically.
• PID control is used at the lowest level; the multivariable
controller gives the setpoints to the controllers at the
lower level.
• PID controllers have survived many changes in
technology, from mechanics and pneumatics to
microprocessors via electronic tubes, transistors,
integrated circuits.
• The microprocessor has had a dramatic influence on the
PID controller. Practically all PID controllers made
today are based on microprocessors.
Proportional-Integral-Derivative
(PID) Control
• Now we consider the combination of the proportional,
integral, and derivative control modes as a PID controller.
• Many variations of PID control are used in practice.
Parallel Form of PID Control
• The parallel form of the PID control algorithm (without a
derivative filter) is given by
 
u (t ) = u0 + K c  e(t ) +  e(t ) dt +  D (e(t ) )
1 d
 I dt 
• The corresponding transfer function is:
U (s) 
= K c 1 +
1
+  D s  =
(
 K c  I D s 2 +  I s + 1 )
E (s)  Is  Is
(PID) Control
Series Form of PID Control
• Historically it was convenient to use early analog
controllers (both electronic and Pneumatic) so that a
PI element and PD element operated in series.
• The transfer function of the series form is given by
 1 
(1 +  D s )
U (s)
= K c 1 +
E (s)  Is 
(PID) Control
Expanded Form of PID Control
• In addition to the well-known series and parallel
forms, the expanded form of PID control is
sometimes used:
u (t ) = u0 + K P e(t ) + K I  e(t ) dt + K D (e(t ) )

d
dt
• where KP is the Proportional gain, KP=Kc,

• KI is the Integral gain, KI=KC(1/τI).
• KD is the derivative gain, KD=KCτD
Digital/Discrete Format
• The PID controller in discrete format can be given

by,
u (k ) = u0 + K P e(k ) + K I  e(k ) + K D (e(k ) − e(k − 1) )
Effect of Proportional term
• The controller with Ti = ∞ and Td = 0. The figure shows
that there is always a steady state error in proportional
control. The error will decrease with increasing gain, but
the tendency towards oscillation will also increase.
PV
e(t)
Effect of Integral term
• The strength of integral action increases with
decreasing integral time Ti. The figure shows that
the steady state error disappears when integral action
is used. The tendency for oscillation also increases
with decreasing Ti.
PV
e(t)
Effect of derivative term
• The parameters Kc and Ti are chosen so that the closed-loop system
is oscillatory. Damping increases with increasing derivative time,
but decreases again when derivative time becomes too large.
Recall that derivative action can be interpreted as providing
prediction by linear extrapolation over the time Td. Using this
interpretation it is easy to understand that derivative action does
not help if the prediction time Td is too large
PV
e(t)
PID Parameters Summary
Settling
Increase in the Steady state
Rise time Overshoot time Stability
parameter error
Small
Kc Decrease Increase Decrease Degrade
change
τI Increase Decrease Decrease Eliminate Improve
Minor No effect in Improve

τD Decrease Decrease
change theory if small
Limitations of PID Controller
• While PID controllers are applicable to many control problems, and often perform
satisfactorily without any improvements or only coarse tuning, they can perform
poorly in some applications, and do not in general provide optimal control.
• The fundamental difficulty with PID control is that it is a feedback system, with
constant parameters, and no direct knowledge of the process, and thus overall
performance is reactive and a compromise.
• While PID control is the best controller in an observer without a model of the
process, better performance can be obtained by overtly modelling the actor of the
process without resorting to an observer.
• PID controllers, when used alone, can give poor performance when the PID loop
gains must be reduced so that the control system does not overshoot, oscillate or
hunt about the control setpoint value.
• They also have difficulties in the presence of non-linearities, may trade-off
regulation versus response time, do not react to changing process behaviour (say,
the process changes after it has warmed up), and have lag in responding to large
disturbances.
• The most significant improvement is to incorporate feed-forward control with
knowledge about the system, and using the PID only to control error.
• Alternatively, PIDs can be modified in more minor ways, such as by changing the
parameters (either gain scheduling in different use cases or adaptively modifying
them based on performance), improving measurement (higher sampling rate,
precision, and accuracy, and low-pass filtering if necessary), or cascading
multiple PID controllers.
Limitations of PID Controller
Linearity
• Another problem faced with PID controllers is that they are linear, and in
particular symmetric. Thus, performance of PID controllers in non-linear systems
(such as HVAC systems) is variable. For example, in temperature control, a
common use case is active heating (via a heating element) but passive cooling
(heating off, but no cooling), so overshoot can only be corrected slowly – it
cannot be forced downward. In this case the PID should be tuned to be
overdamped, to prevent or reduce overshoot, though this reduces performance (it
increases settling time).
Noise in derivative
• A problem with the derivative term is that it amplifies higher frequency
measurement or process noise that can cause large amounts of change in the
output. It does this so much, that a physical controller cannot have a true
derivative term, but only an approximation with limited bandwidth. It is often
helpful to filter the measurements with a low-pass filter in order to remove
higher-frequency noise components. As low-pass filtering and derivative control
can cancel each other out, the amount of filtering is limited. So low noise
instrumentation can be important. A nonlinear median filter may be used, which
improves the filtering efficiency and practical performance. In some cases, the
differential band can be turned off with little loss of control. This is equivalent to
using the PID controller as a PI controller.
Performance Criteria For Closed-
Loop Systems
• The function of a feedback control system is to
ensure that the closed loop system has desirable
dynamic and steady-state response characteristics.
• The desired performance of closed-loop system:
1. The closed-loop system must be stable.
2. The effects of disturbances are minimized, providing good
disturbance rejection.
3. Rapid, smooth responses to set-point changes are obtained,
that is, good set-point tracking.
4. Steady-state error (offset) is eliminated.
5. Excessive control action is avoided.
6. The control system is robust, that is, insensitive to changes in
process conditions and to inaccuracies in the process model.
Tuning of PID Controller
• PID controller settings can be determined by a

number of alternative techniques:
1. Direct Synthesis (DS) method
2. Internal Model Control (IMC) method
3. Controller tuning relations
4. Frequency response techniques
5. Computer simulation
6. On-line tuning after the control system is
installed.
Automatic Control - Examples
Car Steering Simulation
Adaptive Vehicle Cruise Control
Control Systems in a present car

Lecture 22 23 - Control System Design

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Lecture 22 23 - Control System Design

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Lecture 22 & 23

Control System Design

5. Settling time, ts: the settling time is the time required

Controller output has two possible values.

𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 if 𝑒 > 𝛿 δ = tolerance

• Reverse or Direct Acting Controller

Derivative Control Action

• Integral action eliminates the overshoot of the system.

u (t ) = u0 + K P e(t ) + K I  e(t ) dt + K D (e(t ) )

• where KP is the Proportional gain, KP=Kc,

• The PID controller in discrete format can be given

u (k ) = u0 + K P e(k ) + K I  e(k ) + K D (e(k ) − e(k − 1) )

Minor No effect in Improve

• PID controller settings can be determined by a

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