PHYSICS

INVESTIGATORY
PROJECT

MADE BY: DEVANSH AGARWAL

CLASS: XII-A
ROLL NO:
SCHOOL: DPS, INDIRAPURAM

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 A PROJECT REPORT

TO INVESTIGATE

“VARIATION OF RESISTANCE
WITH RESPECT TO
THE CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA”

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to our respected physics

teacher Mr. MC Tiwari for his valuable guidance and constant
encouragement for the fulfilment of my project “To investigate
variation of resistance with respect to cross-sectional
area”, for the academic session of 2019-2020.

I am also highly obliged to our lab assistant for his guidance and
support in carrying out the project.

I would also like to thank the school management and physics

department faculty and staff for providing access to its excellent lab
facilities and other infrastructure.

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 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that, Devansh Agarwal of class XII-A, has

satisfactorily completed the course of his project “To
investigate the variation of resistance with respect to cross-
sectional area” for the academic session of 2019-2020.

Physics Teacher’s Signature

(Mr MC Tiwari)

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Objective………………………………………………………………….6
Introduction……………………………………………………………..7
Mathematical nature of resistance ………………………….9
Examples…….……………………………………………………………9
Hypothesis……..……………….……………………………………….8
Diagram……………………………………………………………………9
Materials required……………………………………………………9
Investigatory experiment…………………………………………
Procedure………………………………………………………………….9
Main precaution………………………………………………………10
Observation and calculation
Conclusion……………………………………….12
Discussion………………….13
Summary………………………………….14
Bibliography……………………………………………………………19

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 OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this project is to investigate and determine the

effects of change in cross section area on the resistance of a
conductor (wire).

Conductors have resistance. Electricity flows in conductors.

Conductor such as metal wires are made of millions of tiny
metal crystals, and each crystal’s atoms are arranged in a
regular pattern. The metal is full of "free" electrons that do not
stick to any atom; rather, they fill the space between the
atoms. When these electrons move, they create an electric
current. The flow of electric current depends on the resistance
of the wire. There are several factors on which the resistance of
the wire depends like resistivity, length of wire, cross-sectional
area and the temperature of the wire.

This investigation will help determine, how the cross-section of

the wire affects its resistance to the flow of current.

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INTRODUCTION
The flow of charge through wires is often compared to the flow of water through
pipes. The resistance to the flow of charge in an electric circuit is analogous to
the frictional effects between water and the pipe surfaces as well as the
resistance offered by obstacles that are present in its path. It is this resistance
that hinders the water flow and reduces both its flow rate and its drift speed. Like
the resistance to water flow, the total amount of resistance to charge flow within
a wire of an electric circuit is affected by some clearly identifiable variables.

Electricity flows in metals. Metal wires are made of millions of tiny metal crystals,
and each crystal’s atoms are arranged in a regular pattern. The metal is full of
"free" electrons that do not stick to any atom; rather, they fill the space between
the atoms. When these electrons move, they create an electric current.

Conductors have resistance, but some are worse than others. The free electrons
keep bumping into atoms. A wire's resistance depends on four main factors:

 Length of the wire

 Cross-sectional area
 Resistivity
 Temperature of the wire

First, the total length of the wires will affect the amount of resistance. The
longer the wire, the more resistance that there will be. There is a direct
relationship between the amount of resistance encountered by charge and the
length of wire it must traverse. After all, if resistance occurs as the result of
collisions between charge carriers and the atoms of the wire, then there is likely
to be more collisions in a longer wire. More collisions mean more resistance.

Second, the cross-sectional area of the wires will affect the amount of resistance.
Wider wires have a greater cross-sectional area. Water will flow through a wider

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pipe at a higher rate than it will flow through a narrow pipe. This can be
attributed to the lower amount of resistance that is present in the wider pipe. In
the same manner, the wider the wire, the less resistance that there will be to the
flow of electric charge. When all other variables are the same, charge will flow at
higher rates through wider wires with greater cross-sectional areas than through
thinner wires.
A third variable that is known to affect the resistance to charge flow is the
material that a wire is made of. Not all materials are created equal in terms of
their conductive ability. Some materials are better conductors than others and
offer less resistance to the flow of charge. Silver is one of the best conductors but
is never used in wires of household circuits due to its cost. Copper and aluminium
are among the least expensive materials with suitable conducting ability to permit
their use in wires of household circuits. The conducting ability of a material is
often indicated by its resistivity. The resistivity of a material is dependent upon
the material's electronic structure and its temperature. For most (but not all)
materials, resistivity increases with increasing temperature. The table below lists
resistivity values for various materials at temperatures of 20 degrees Celsius.

Resistivity
Material
(ohm•meter)
Silver 1.59 x 10-8
Copper 1.7 x 10-8
Gold 2.2 x 10-8
Aluminium 2.8 x 10-8
Tungsten 5.6 x 10-8
Iron 10 x 10-8
Platinum 11 x 10-8
Lead 22 x 10-8
Nichrome 150 x 10-8
Carbon 3.5 x 10-5
Polystyrene 107 - 1011
Polyethylene 108 - 109
Glass 1010 - 1014

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Hard Rubber 1013

As seen in the table, there is a broad range of resistivity values for various
materials. Those materials with lower resistivities offer less resistance to the flow
of charge; they are better conductors. The materials shown in the last four rows
of the above table have such high resistivity that they would not even be
conductors.
I will investigate how the Cross-sectional area of the wire affects the resistance. I
have done a preliminary experiment to help me decide the best way to do my
investigation. The results will help me make predictions, as well.

Mathematical Nature of Resistance

Resistance is a numerical quantity that can be measured and expressed

mathematically. The standard metric unit for resistance is the ohm, represented
by the Greek letter omega - . An electrical device having a resistance of 5 ohms
would be represented as R = 5 . The equation representing the dependency of
the resistance (R) of a cylindrically shaped conductor (e.g., a wire) upon the
variables that affect it is

where L represents the length of the wire (in meters), A represents the cross-
sectional area of the wire (in meters2), and represents the resistivity of the
material (in ohm•meter). Consistent with the discussion above, this equation
shows that the resistance of a wire is directly proportional to the length of the
wire and inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of the wire. As shown
by the equation, knowing the length, cross-sectional area and the material that a
wire is made of (and thus, its resistivity) allows one to determine the resistance
of the wire.

EXAMPLES

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1. A 12-gauge wire is wider than 14-gauge wire and thus has less resistance. The
lesser resistance of 12-gauge wire means that it can allow charge to flow
through it at a greater rate - that is, allow a larger current. Thus, 12-gauge
wire is used in circuits which are protected by 20-Amp fuses and circuit
breakers. On the other hand, the thinner 14-gauge wire can support less
current owing to its larger resistance; it is used in circuits which are protected
by 15-Amp fuses and circuit breakers.

2. Two wires - A and B - with circular cross-sections have identical lengths and
are made of the same material. Yet, wire A can have four times the resistance
of wire B. If wire A has four times the resistance, then it must have the smaller
cross-sectional area since resistance and cross-sectional area are inversely
proportional. In fact, A must have one-fourth the cross-sectional area of B.
Since the cross-sectional area of a circular cross-section is given by the
expression PI•R2, wire A must have one-half the radius of wire B and
therefore one-half the diameter. Put another way, the diameter of wire B is
two times greater than the diameter of wire A.

HYPOTHESIS
I predict that the THICKER the wire, the LOWER the resistance. Furthermore, the
resistance of a wire is directly proportional to the length and inversely
proportional to the area, so doubling the cross section of a wire should decrease
the resistance by a factor of two. This is because if the cross section of the wire is
doubled, there will be half as much resistance. If this is correct, the graph should
show a negative correlation.

DIAGRAM

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Investigatory experiment

MATERIALS REQUIRED

METHODS

MAIN PRECAUTIONS
OBSERVATIONS

CALCULATIONS

CONCLUSION

DISCUSSION

SUMMARY

INVESTIGATORY EXPERIMENT

OBJECTIVE:

To analyse the given samples of commercial antacids by determining the amount

of hydrochloric acid they can neutralize.

EXPERIMENT DESIGN:

1. The constants in this study were:

- Type of acid

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- Consistency of procedures

2. The variables in the study were:

-Different types of antacid used

3. The responding variable was:

- The amount of stomach acid each antacid could neutralize measured in
ml.

MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS:
Burettes, pipettes, titration flasks, measuring flasks, beakers, weight box,
fractional weights, sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, hydrochloric acid,
phenolphthalein.

PROCEDURE:
1. Prepare 1 litre of approximately N/10 HCl solution by diluting 10 ml of
the concentrated acid for one litre.

2. Similarly, make 1 litre of approximately N/10 NaOH solution by dissolving

4.0g of NaOH to prepare one litre of solution.
3. Prepare N/10 Na2CO3 solution by weighing exactly 1.325 g of anhydrous
sodium carbonate and then dissolving it in water to prepare exactly 0.25
litres (250 ml) of solution.

4. Standardize the HCl solution by titrating it against the standard Na2CO3

solution using methyl orange as indicator.

5. Similarly, standardize NaOH solution by titrating it against standardized

HCl solution using phenolphthalein as indicator.

6. Powder the various samples of antacid tablets and weigh 1.0 g of each.

7. Add a specific volume of standardized HCl to each of the weighed sample

is taken in conical flasks. The acid should be in slight excess, so that it can
neutralize all the alkaline component of the tablet.

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 8. Add 2 drops of phenolphthalein and warm the flask till most of powder
dissolves. Filter off the insoluble material.

9. Titrate this solution against the standardized NaOH solution, till a

permanent pinkish tinge is obtained. Repeat this experiment with
different antacids.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

1. Standardization of HCl solution:

Volume of N/10 sodium carbonate solution taken=20.0 ml

S. No. Initial burette Final burette Volume of acid used

readings readings (in ml)
1 0.0 ml 15 ml 15.0
2 0.0 ml 14 ml 14.0
3 0.0 ml 15 ml 15.0

Concordant reading=15.0 ml

Applying normality equation

N1V1(acid) = N2V2(base)
N1 *15.0 = (1/10) *20
Normality of HCl solution, N1 = 2/150 = 0.133 N

2. Neutralization of standardized HCl solution used

Volume of HCl taken= 20.0ml

S. No. Initial burette readings Final burette readings Volume of acid used (in ml)
1 0.0 ml 26.6 ml 26.6
2 0.0 ml 26.5 ml 26.6
3 0.0 ml 26.6 ml 26.6

Concordant reading=26.6 ml

3. Analysis of antacid tablets

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Weight of the antacid tablet powder= 10 mg
Volume of HCl solution added= 20.0 ml

S. No. Antacid Initial burette readings Final burette Volume of Na2CO3

readings
1 Gelusil 0.0 ml 15.0 ml 15 ml
2 Aciloc 150 0.0 ml 22.0 ml 22 ml
3 Fantac 20 0.0 ml 25.0 ml 25 ml
4 Pantop 20 0.0 ml 20.0 ml 20 ml
5 Ocid 10 0.0 ml 7.0 ml 7 ml

RESULT

The most effective antacid out of the taken samples is Ocid 10.

PRECAUTIONS

1. All apparatus should be clean and washed properly.

2. Burette and pipette must be rinsed with the respective solution to be put
in them.
3. Air bubbles must be removed from the burette and jet.
4. Last drop from the pipette should not be removed by blowing.
5. The flask should not be rinsed with any of the solution, which are being
titrated.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

This project is made with the help of following links/ websites &
books:

1. Websites:

 www.Wikipedia.org - The free encyclopedia

 http://www.icbse.com
 www.google.com
 www.topperlearning.com
 www.docfoc.com
 www.meritnation.com

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  www.quora.com
 www.academia.edu
 www.ask.learncbse.in

2. Books:

 NCERT Class X11 Part 1 & part 2 (Physics)

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