PV - TD PDF

PV – PHOTOVOLTAICS
Part 3 : Power Electronics
Prof. L. Bossoney, HEIG-VD
27/08/2013 PV – Power Electronics

Table of contents
3.1 Introduction page 3.4

3.1.1 Application domain page 3.4
3.1.2 Grid connected systems page 3.6
3.1.3 Off-grid applications page 3.8
3.1.4 Electric model of the PV solar cells & panels page 3.10
3.1.5 Solar cells assembly page 3.16
3.1.6 Solar cell or module parameter determination page 3.20
3.1.7 MPP tracking concepts page 3.23
3.2 Converters for PV battery charging page 3.30
3.2.1 Shunt & Serial chargers page 3.31
3.2.2 DC/DC based design page 3.34
3.2.3 Efficiency aspects page 3.38
3.2.4 Control & Safety page 3.40
3.3 Converters for Grid-connected Systems page 3.42
3.3.1 DC/AC conversion, galvanic separation & grounding page 3.42
3.3.2 DC/AC without transformers page 3.44
3.3.3 DC/AC with 50Hz-transformers page 3.47
3.3.4 DC/AC with HF-transformers page 3.48
3.3.5 Efficiency aspects page 3.50
3.3.6 Control, safety & power quality aspects page 3.51
27/08/2013 PV – Power Electronics 3.2

Table of contents (continued)
3.4 Converters for PV AC & battery backup systems page 3.53

3.4.1 Multi-phased systems & power peak shifting page 3.54
3.4.2 Power & battery sizing aspects page 3.55
3.4.3 Control & Safety page 3.57
3.5 PV Grid Integration page 3.59
3.5.1 Effect of PV-Power on grid parameters page 3.59
3.5.2 Methods for “smart” PV grid integration page 3.61
3.6 Decisional criteria & market survey page 3.63
3.6.1 Efficiency, cost & lifetime page 3.63
3.6.2 Reliability aspects page 3.65
3.6.3 Power electronics evolution page 3.66
3.6.4 Market & trends page 3.67
3.7 Exercises page 3.68
3.8 Literature page 3.72
3.9 Annexes page 3.73

3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 Application domain
The fast growing market (see Fig. 3.1) and manifold applications involving photovoltaic (PV) power, has
lead to a large development of different power converters needed to adapt the output voltage (current)
of the PV cell to the voltage (current) levels and waveforms needed by the consumer (or user).
PV systems can be subdivided in two different main categories:
 Grid-connected applications : where the PV power is converted in order to be adapted to

the voltage (and frequency ) of the electricity network. The consumers powered are all
connected to the same grid (network). The grid acts as well as absorber and provider of
electric energy, depending on the balance between the energy produced and consumed.
 Off-grid applications : where the PV power is directly used by the consumer, which is
consequently unplugged from the grid. Often, the PV power is stored in a electrochemical
accumulator (battery), in order to allow an independent (off-grid) functionality of the
application, even in case of absence of irradiated (sun-) power.
Each of above two categories can be further subdivided into domestic (or distributed) and non-
domestic (or centralized) applications, depending on the amount of power and use of PV energy.

3.1 Introduction
Fig. 3.1: Evolution of WW installed PV power in GWp [1] Fig. 3.2: Grid-connected vs. off-grid PV power [1]
The Fig. 3.1 shows the strong increase of installed PV power (worldwide statistics), whereas the fig. 3.2
shows the evolution of the grid-connected PV power versus the off-grid PV power. Even if the off-grid
applications represent a large range of applications, the total installed power of the off-grid applications
is small compared to the off-grid PV power. As power is linked to the surface size (and therefore costs)
of the solar panels, the grid-connected applications show a bigger economic potential compared to the
off-grid applications.

3.1 Introduction
3.1.2 Grid connected systems

As mentioned in §3.1.1, the grid connected systems can be further sub-divided in two different
categories, which are:
 Grid-connected distributed systems: where the PV system provides power to a grid

connected consumer directly and feeds the grid network with the PV peak power produced
during high irradiation conditions. The grid connected distributed systems are typically de-
centralized power production systems well adapted to household power equipment needs.
Fig. 3.3 (above): PV system of a sport

centre (Challes les Eaux, France) [1].
Fig. 3.4 (right side): typical grid-

connected system with components [2].
A : Solar array; B : Connecting box &
inverter; C : Output counter;
D : Household AC main panel; E : Grid connection; E : Input counter; G : household AC load

3.1 Introduction
 Grid-connected centralized systems: where

the PV power works as a power plant,
supplying the grid with PV power. As for the
decentralized systems, inverters are needed
to adapt the DC output power of the PV solar
panel to the AC voltage of the power grid.
Fig. 3.5 (above): 10 MW PV power plant in

Ferreira (Portugal) [1].
Fig. 3.6 (above): Extract of power schematics of a
PV power inverter (Danfoss) [3].

3.1 Introduction
3.1.3 Off-grid systems

As mentioned in §3.1.1, the off-grid systems can be further sub-divided in two different categories,
which are:
 Domestic off-grid systems: where the PV system provides power to a off-grid consumers.
The PV energy is often stored during daylight in a accumulator, which in turn delivers the
electric power to the consumer. Off-grid domestic systems are typically sized for power
below 1 kW and are typically used to generate electricity for household loads (lighting,
refrigeration, TV). Usually a charge controller regulates the power flow between the battery
and the DC load(s).
Fig. 3.7 (above): Typical domestic Fig. 3.8 (above): Typical domestic charge controller
off-grid system[1]. (B) with battery (C) and inverter (D) for AC-loads (F).

3.1 Introduction
 Non-domestic off-grid systems: where the PV power is supplying the load and or used to
charge a backup battery. The battery supplies the load in “off-light” conditions (i.e. during
night or when sun irradiation is insufficient to supply the load.
Fig. 3.9 (left):

Public lighting
off-grid system
composed by
charge controller
and battery
The charge controller regulates the power flow between the

battery and the DC load.
As for the off-grid lighting system above, the battery size needs
Fig. 3.10 (above): Public
to be adapted to the power consumption profile of the load. lighting off-grid system[1].

3.1 Introduction
3.1.4 Electric model of PV solar panel
A solar array is constituted by different solar panels, which are in turn subdivided into different
modules (also called strings). Each module is an assembly of different solar cells, connected in
series. Depending on the application (and on the irradiation conditions), the modules may be
connected in series or parallel to constitute the solar panel. The same comment applies between the
solar panels and the solar array.
Each module is covered by a glass protection and
bordered by a metallic frame (usually aluminium). In
order to alloy high lifetimes, the module frame is
usually leak tight and offers an adequate protection
against dust and corrosion effects.
The different panels are usually mounted on
adjustable (aluminium) supports, allowing an optimal
inclination and orientation to the sun irradiation.
CELL MODULE PANEL ARRAY
Special care needs to be applied in the selection of
the different interconnection cables and connectors. Fig. 3.11 (above): Illustration of a solar array
Thus to ensure a safe and failure free operation. subdivision.

3.1 Introduction
A solar cell is basically a pn-junction, which is submitted to solar irradiation. If the energy absorbed
by the irradiation is sufficient to “kick-out” electrons from the valence-band to the conduction-band
(and therefore to generate “holes” or “lack” of electrons), the electrons will move from anode to
cathode, under the effect of the junction field. As the “holes” move in the opposite direction, a
photovoltaic current will be generated from cathode to anode.
Anode Cathode
C (log)
p zone n zone
Incident Irradiation
p n
- +
Cathode Idiffusion
Photovoltaic current
E - +
n p
Junction Load x
voltage Q(x)
+
x
-
Hole n zone E(x)
x
depletion zone
p zone V(x)
Electron x
Anode
Fig. 3.12 (above): Illustration of a solar cell and photovoltaic current. depletion zone

3.1 Introduction
Consequently, the static I-U-curve of a solar cell is basically the same than the I-U-curve of a diode,
which is shifted by the photocurrent intensity on the I-axis (see figure below). Mathematically this
can be expressed by:  U 
I = I P − I S ⋅ e U th − 1
Where Ip is the photocurrent  
Is is the junction saturation current
Uth = kT/q is the thermal potential
Obscurity
Following above equation, the short- and open-
circuit conditions become:
ISC = I p
and  Ip 
VOC = U th ⋅ Ln 
 IS 
Note that on temperature dependence:
• Is depends exponentially on the temperature
and doubles every increase of 10°K.
• The temperature dependence on Is
compensates the kT – factor in above
expression for Voc , which has finally a Irradiated
negative temperature coefficient.

3.1 Introduction
Finally to obtain an accurate static model, following parasitic elements need to be taken into
account:
• The serial resistance Rs, due to the connection wires and interfaces.
• The parallel resistance Rp, due to the leakage effects in the junction due to impurities and the
housing of the cell.
The static model is represented in the figure below. The voltage-current ratio corresponding to
following equation:

U + RS ⋅ I
 U + R ⋅I
I = I P − I S ⋅ e U th
− 1 − S
  RP
I
A solar array composed by strings of n cells in
series and m strings of cells in parallel, can be
represented by an similar equivalent model
having:
U
• a total short-circuit current m•Isc
• a total serial resistance of n•Rs/m
• a total parallel resistance Rp of n•Rp/m
The dynamic model can be obtained by adding a junction capacitance in parallel to Rp and a stray
inductance in series with Rs. The junction capacitance depends highly on the cell size (surface),
whereas the stray inductance depends on the wire length and diameter. Note that both reactance
have a non-linear behaviour and strongly depend on frequency, voltage and current values.

3.1 Introduction
Observing the static I-U curve of a solar cell (or solar cell assembly), the temperature (θ) and
relative irradiation (ε), have different effects (see figures below):
• The irradiation intensity (ε) influences (linearly) the photocurrent (Isc).
• The temperature (θ) mainly influences the open-circuit voltage (Voc).
Id Id
ε= 1
ε= 1
Isc
ε = 0.6
θ = 0° θ = 0°
θ = 70°
Ud Voc Ud
Concerning the test conditions for the acquirement of the I-U curve, we distinguish between SRC
and STC (see also §3.1.5.1).

3.1 Introduction
Regarding the static I-U curve of a solar cell (or solar Id

Current
cell assembly), we can distinguish two different
source
operating zones: Isc
• The operating zone, close to Isc, where the current Impp
is nearly constant: current-source zone (with

internal resistance Rp).
• The operating zone, close to Voc, where the voltage Voltage
source
is nearly constant: voltage-source zone (with
internal resistance Rs).
The static I-U curve with the 2 operating zones are
represented in the figure on the right side. Ud
Pout Voc
If we trace the output power (I•U product) as a MPP
function of the output voltage, we note that we reach
the maximum output power point (MPP) at a certain
voltage (Vmpp) and current (Impp). The MPP is usually
reached on nominal irradiation conditions (ε=1) and
for the nominal operating temperature of the solar cell
(or solar cell assembly). Furthermore, the power
indicated by the solar cell supplier is implicitly the
power at MPP. Vmpp Voc Ud

3.1 Introduction
3.1.5 Solar cells assembly

As already mentioned a solar module is composed by n solar cells in series. Consequently the total
output voltage of the module is equal to the sum of the cell voltages.
The current is logically the same in each solar cell of the serial string and is imposed by the
“weakest” cell (lowest irradiation).
The module is normally mounted in a metallic frame (usually aluminium alloy) and protected by a
cover glass (alternatively a Tedlar plastic cover), having usually a thickness comprised between
8mm and 10mm.
Electrically the module is characterized by the equivalent maximum voltage and current values as for
the solar cell (i.E. the open- and short-circuit voltage and current values, as the mpp-values for
power current and voltage, see also §3.1.4). The reported values are measured according the SRC
(Standart Reporting Condition) or STC (Standart Test Condition) standarts.

3.1 Introduction
3.1.5.1 Test conditions
STC (Standard Test Conditions)

• Irradiation of 1 kW/m2 according to spectrum density defined in AM1.5
(ASTM E892 irradiation global spectrum);
• Ambient cell temperature of 25°C.
.
In practical environmental conditions, the ambient temperature is usually above the defined 25°C.
Therefore the STC are completed by the NOCT (Nominal Operatin cell Temperature)
NOCT (Nominal Operating Cell Temperature),

Is the cell temperature achieved during STC, Standard Operating
Conditions:
Ambient air temperature of 20°C,
Solar irradiation of 0.8 kW/m2,
Mean wind speed of 1m/s.

3.1 Introduction
3.1.5.2 Hot spot

nc = 72 0.5V
A “hot spot” is a potential dangerous situation, which 0.5V
can appear in a serial solar cell configuration:
• The photo-current of one of the cells falls to zero 0.5V
Vbatt = 24V
(shadow effect).
• As the current of the serial arrangement is imposed
by the weakest cell, the other cells end up with their 0.5V
respective open-circuit voltages (VOC). 0.5V

0.5V
• The resulting inverse voltage on the shadowed cell 1
can therefore rise to destructing levels and create Vinv = (nc-1)*VOC- Vdiode-Vbatt = 71*0.5 - 0.8 - 24 = 10.7V
an overheating (and destruction) of the respective
cell. Solar cell connecting points
• This “hot spot” can in turn generate a general over-
heat situation in the entire module.
- NC
+
To avoid such situation, bypass diodes are mounted in anti-
parallel (ex. by groups of 18 cells), allowing by-pass of the
photo-current of the other cells and limiting also the inverse by-pass diodes
voltage appearing on the bypassed cell(s).
Leak-tight connectors

3.1 Introduction
3.1.5.3 Parallel module connection
To reach the requested output voltage and

current of a solar array, several modules may Solar module Pmax = 53W
need to be connected in series and/or parallel.
Apart from the bypass-diodes already
mentioned, serial diodes needs to be
connected on top of each serial path, to avoid
reverse current flow from one serial pass to
the other.
In the configuration showed on the right
figure, the total number of cells connected in
series is given by the requested voltage,
whereas the number of parallel cells gives the
maximum output current of a given
arrangement.

3.1 Introduction
3.1.6 Solar cell and module parameter determination

For most mono-crystalline solar cells (or modules) the static equivalent electrical model can be
reduced to the one showed in the Fig 3.15.
The model is resulting from following assumptions:
• Rp is neglectable.
• e (V+Rs.I)/Vth >> 1
• Photo-current Ip = Isc ~ Geff [W/m2]
Using the known short-circuit current Isc, the open-circuit
voltage Voc and the thermal potential Vth values, the current can Fig. 3.15 : Mono-crystal cell model
be expressed by:
 U −V + R ⋅ I
OC S
 I
I = I SC ⋅ 1 − e U th

  Isc
MPPT
Another important parameter is the so-called Form Factor FF,
defined by: I ⋅V
FF =
mpp mpp
I SC ⋅ VOC
U
The form factor FF can be used to determine the serial Uoc
resistance parameter RS of the cell.
Fig. 3.16 : Form factor illustration

3.1 Introduction
Rs can be computes using the relative open –circuit voltage voc and the reference form factor FF0,
υOC − ln(υOC + 0.72 )

using :
VOC
υOC = and FF0 =
Vth υOC + 1
 FF  VOC
R S = 1 − 
 FF 0  I SC
Finally, using the relative serial resistance rs, the MPP voltage and current can be estimated using:
rS = RS ⋅ I SC VOC
a
a = υOC + 1 − 2υOC ⋅ rS and b=
1+ a
 
[
I mpp = I SC ⋅ 1 − a − b ] and U mpp = VOC ⋅ 1 −
b
( )
⋅ ln a − rS 1 − a −b 
 υOC 
The above determination of the MPPT voltage and current is rather empiric than scientific, but the
resulting MPP Power is usually within the 1% error range, compared to the manufacturer’s data.

3.1 Introduction
The I-U behaviour of a solar cell is highly dependent on the irradiation and temperature level of the
cell (or module). To compute the values for a given effective irradiation Geff and cell temperature Tc,
we can use:
( )
*
I SC
I SC (G ) = * ⋅ Geff + I coeff ⋅ TC − TC*
G
VOC (TC ) = VOC
*
(
− U coeff ⋅ TC − TC* )
PM = PM* ⋅
Geff
G *
[ (
⋅ 1 − ∆Pcoeff ⋅ TC − TC* )]
where: • I*SC , U*OC , P*M and G* are the STC short-circuit current, open-circuit voltage, MPP
power and irradiation values
• T*C is the STC cell temperature (25°C)
• Icoeff is the current-temperature coefficient (0 if not given by the manufacturer)
• Ucoeff is the voltage-temperature coefficient (2.3 mV/°K per cell if not given by the
manufacturer)
• ∆Pcoeff is the mpp power temperature coefficient (0.4%/°K if not given by the
manufacturer)

3.1 Introduction
3.1.7 Maximum power point tracking (MPPT)
As already mentioned (see § 3.1.4), the I-U-curve of

a solar cell resp. solar array contains an optimal
operating point with corresponds to the maximum
output power.
As shown in the right hand side figures this
maximum power point (or MPP) varies strongly in
dependence of the irradiation (ε) and temperature point with
(ϑ) of the cell. maximum
output power
The aim of the maximum power point tracking (or
MPPT), is to keep the operating point of the solar
cells as close as possible to the MPP.
This is achieved by adapting the output voltage (or
current) of the solar cell, resp. solar array in such a
way, that the output power is continuously kept a its
maximum. Hence the solar array is kept at its
optimum operating point regardless of the variation
of the irradiation and/or temperature of the solar
cells.

3.1 Introduction
The MPPT is achieved through electronic power Ip

devices like charge regulators or DC/DC
converters. These devices act also as impedance ε= 1 (1) Slope : 1/R
adaptor in order to track the MPP.

ε = 0.6 (2)
As shown on the right hand side, a purely θ = 0°
resistive (and constant) output impedance may be
adapted for one particular irradiation (and
temperature) condition (point 1), but not for any
Up
(i.e. working point 2 is not optimal).
As shown on the figure at the right bottom, a
DC/DC
DC/DC converter is able to adapt the output converter
impedance of the solar array by simply adapting Ip with MPPT Io
the conversion ratio n accordingto the MPPT.
=
Solar array output impedance : Up Uo R
U P UO 1 1 U 1
ZP = = ⋅ = 2 ⋅ O = 2 ⋅R
IP n nI o n I o n =
Conversion
ratio
n = U0/Up

3.1 Introduction
They are many variants to achieve the MPPT. The next few paragraphs will present some of them
with their respective advantages and disadvantages.
3.1.7.1 Constant MPP to OC voltage ratio
One of the simplest MPPT algorithm, is to admit a constant MPP to OC (Open Circuit) voltage ratio,
following:
U MPP
= const.
U OC
For some solar cell, this simple assumption is close to the reality. Nevertheless, in most cases this
simple assumption is not accurate enough (especially with high temperature variations) to achieve
high energy or power efficiencies. In most cases, the efficiency obtained with this algorithm is
roughly 90%. This is the lowest achieved efficiency compared to the other MPPT algorithm presented
hereafter.
Another disadvantage is inherent to the measurement (or observation of the open circuit voltage of
the solar array: the photovoltaic panel needs regularly to be disconnected from the load, in order to
evaluate the voltage ratio.

3.1 Introduction
3.1.7.2 Incremental conductance
A more sophisticated MPPT is the observation of the

slope of the output power versus the output voltage
variation dP/dV.
As shown on the right figure, as the slope is zero on
its maximum output power (MPP), following strategy
can be established:
• dP/dV < 0 : MPP is on the right > increase voltage
• dP/dV > 0 : MPP is on the left > decrease voltage
• dP/dV = 0 : MPP is achieved.
The dP/dV slope can be decomposed to show the link to the observation of the incremental
conductance ∆I/∆V:
dP d (V ⋅ I ) dV dI dI ∆I
= =I⋅ +V ⋅ = I +V ⋅ ≅ I +V ⋅
dV dV dV dV dV ∆V
In above expression, the incremental conductance term (∆I/∆V) is simply obtained by the ratio of the
difference of two successive observations of the output voltage and current values of the solar array.

3.1 Introduction
The definitive algorithm is obtained by interpretation of the

incremental conductance to obtain the slope dP/dV,
according to:
dP ∆I
≅ I +V ⋅
dV ∆V
As shown on the right figure, following MPPT algorithm can
be established:
dP ∆I I
• MPP is on the right: <0⇒ <−
dV ∆V V
dP ∆I I
• MPP is on the left: >0⇒ >−
dV ∆V V
• MPP is achieved: dP ∆I I
=0⇒ =−
dV ∆V V
It is evident that this algorithm is independent of the
temperature and irradiation characteristics of the solar
array and presents the advantage of observing only the
voltage and current evolution at the output of the solar
array.

3.1 Introduction
3.1.7.3 Voltage perturbation effect
Another MPPT algorithm can be established by

observing the effect of a voltage perturbation on the
actual operating point. The voltage perturbation is
obtained by superposing an AC voltage ∆Ud of small
amplitude and low frequency (0.2 to 1 Hz) to the
actual operating voltage Ud0. This voltage
perturbation produces in turn a power variation ∆Pd,
which can be interpreted according to following
algorithm:
• MPP is on the right : ∆ud*∆Pd > 0 : increase Ud0 voltage
• MPP is on the left : ∆ud*∆Pd < 0 : decrease Ud0 voltage
• MPP is achieved: ∆ud*∆Pd = 0 : leave Ud0 voltage unchanged
The disadvantage of this method is the superposition of a small perturbation to the operating
voltage, causing also a solar power variation. The main advantage is the continuous tracking of
the MPP.

3.1 Introduction
3.1.7.4 Incremental Voltage method
Digitalising the previous method leads to

the incremental perturbation MPPT:
Starting from an initial working point
(Ud0):
• The voltage is incremented by ∆Ud
• The resulting power increment ∆Pd is
computed (establishment time 2 to 5
seconds).
• As long as the power increases, the
voltage is incremented.
• As soon as the power decreases, the
voltage is decremented with half the
increment ∆ud/2
• At each sign change of the power
increment, the voltage increment is
divided by half.
The MPP is achieved, once the voltage increment is sufficiently small. To keep the MPP , the
algorithm is restarted every 5 to 10 min.

3.2 PV converters for battery charging
As already mentioned in §3.1.3, the off-grid systems usually

use a battery to accumulate the photovoltaic energy during
day-time and restore the same to the electric consumers
during night-time or in absence or lack of sun radiation.
The charge of the battery is performed by an electronic
device, called charge controller. The main tasks of this Fig. 3.20: Typical charge controller
charge controller are: configuration
• Allow the charging of the battery with photo-current from the solar array (SA)
• Control the end-of-charge situation of the battery (i.e. limit the charging current at the end-of-
charge state) and control the battery SOC (state of charge) and safe operating of the battery.
• Ensure the MPPT during the charge of the battery (usually this functionality is optional)
• Allow the user to connect electric (DC-)loads to the system, as long as the battery is not depleted.
Ubatt Ibatt
A typical charge curve is shown in Fig. 3.21. The charge is
divided into a constant current phase (CC-phase), where the
voltage increases steadily, and a constant voltage phase
(CV-phase), where the current decreases strongly until the CC-phase CV-phase
end of charge. Usually 90% to 95% of the charge is
achieved during the CC-phase. Some battery types need time
also a temperature survey during the CV-phase.
Fig. 3.21: Typical battery charge curves

3.2 PV Converter for battery charging
3.2.1 Shunt and Serial Charge Regulator
One of the easiest ways to built a charge controller

is to use a shunt regulator (Fig. 3.21) or serial
regulator (Fig. 3.22).
In the shunt regulator, the current produced by the
solar array (Ip) is either directed towards the battery
(Ibatt flowing through D1) or absorbed by the
transistor T1. Once the battery is fully charged, the
entire current is absorbed by T1, which needs to
conduct in worst the short-circuit current of the SA. Fig. 3.21: Shunt Regulator
In case of the serial regulator, the transistor is
connected in series between solar array (SA) and
battery to control directly the charging current of
the battery. Once the battery is fully charged, the
Transistor T1, has to withstand the difference
between battery voltage and open circuit voltage
(VOC) of the SA.
In short: the shunt regulator acts as a current
divider, while the series regulator acts as voltage
divider. Fig. 3.22: Serial Regulator

3.2.1.1 Continuous versus pulsed operation

Both of the previously presented charge regulators can
either operate in continuous or pulsed mode.
In continuous mode, the transistor T1 is controlled linearly
to control the current through the transistor and therefore
the battery charge current. This operating method
produces high power dissipation in the transistor T1.
In pulsed mode, the transistor T1 is switched ON or OFF Fig. 3.23: Pulsed transistor current
to control the mean current (IT) through the transistor
and therefore the battery charge current. This reduces
significantly the power dissipation in the transistor T1.
The mean current is controlled by the duty cycle D of the
transistor (command):
tON
D= I T = D ⋅ I T ,max
TP
A pulsed battery charge example is showed on Fig 3.24:
during the CC-phase, the Transistor T1 is kept ON,
whereas in the CV-phase it pulses with a variable duty
cycle to maintain the battery voltage “constant”. Fig. 3.24: Pulsed battery charging [4]

Fig. 2.25 shows how the load control can be

integrated into a shunt type regulator by
adding a second transistor T2, which
controls (linearly or pulsed) the load current.
Due to the fact that the shunt or serial
regulators either have high power
dissipation (linear mode) or do not allow a
precise MPPT (pulsed mode), they are
usually limited to small power applications.
Fig. 3.25: shunt Regulator with load control
In some exceptional cases (typical space
craft applications) they are still preferred to
DC/DC based designs (see §3.3), due to their
high reliability. Fig. 3.26 shows a typical
multiple shunt regulator application,
allowing to control precisely the battery
charge current for high power applications.
In this configuration, only one transistor
operates in pulsed mode, while the others
remain ON or OFF. This allows a wide range
of current regulation with low power
dissipation in the regulator.
Fig. 3.26: multiple shunt Regulator for high-power systems

3.2.2 DC/DC based Design
In a DC/DC based design, the battery is controlled by the

DC/DC converter, which is in turn powered by the solar
array (SA). In opposition to the charge regulators presented
in §3.2.1, the DC/DC converters have the advantage to
achieve the MPPT with high efficiencies, during the charge
Fig. 3.30: DC/DC based battery charger cycle of the battery.
3.2.2.1 Basic DC/DC converters

IIN L1
The step-down (or “buck”), the step-up (or “boost”)
and the step-up/down (or “inverter”) are the three
VIN C1 Rch Vout
basic DC/DC converters, composed by one
transistor (acting as ON/OFF switch), a diode and an
inductance. These converters have a relation
between the input and output voltages (or current), GND(PWR)
which depend on the duty cycle D of the transistor. Fig. 3.31: step-down DC/DC converter
In other words, the duty cycle D (as defined in §3.2.1.1), is used to control the conversion ratio
Vout/Vin and therefore to adapt the load impedance and therefore ensure the MPPT functionality
(see also §3.1.6).

IIN L1
To analyse the input to output voltage behaviour, a
closer analysis to the ON, resp. OFF state of the
VIN C1 Rch Vout step-down converter is needed.
During ON-state, the transistor conducts the input
GND(PWR) current and applies to the diode the input voltage (in
Fig. 3.32: step-down ON-state reverse polarisation), which consequently blocks.
IIN L1 The inductor voltage is imposed at (Vin-Vout) > 0,
which causes an increase of the inductor current.
During the OFF-state, the transistor blocks. The
VIN C1 Rch Vout
inductor current is forced to pass through the
diode, which enters in conduction and imposes an
GND(PWR) inductor of (-Vout) < 0. This causes the inductor
Fig. 3.33: step-down OFF-state current to decrease. uL
ULON
In steady state conditions, the mean voltage across the
inductance needs to be zero, which means : t
ULOFF
iL tON tOFF
U L = 0 ⇒ U LON ⋅ tON = −U LOFF ⋅ tOFF  IL ∆iL
 U out
(U in − U out ) ⋅ tON = U out ⋅ tOFF ⇒ =D
U in
(U in − U out ) ⋅ D ⋅ TP = U out ⋅ (1 − D ) ⋅ TP 
t
 TP
Fig. 3.34: inductor voltage & current

As suggested by its denomination, the step-down

IIN L1
is decreasing the input voltage by a certain
conversion ration, controlled by its duty cycle.
This means that the voltage of the SA is implicitly
VIN C1 Rch Vout
higher than the battery voltage (Vmpp > Vbatt).
The step-up converter is increasing the input
voltage. By a similar development as done for the
step-down converter, it can be shown that: GND(PWR)
U out 1 Fig. 3.35: step-up DC/DC converter

Step − up : =
U in 1 − D
IIN
The step-up has also the advantage to smooth
down the input current (PV current) by its input
inductance. VIN
L1 C1 Rch Vout
Finally, the step-up/down allows either to increase
or decrease the input voltage, such as:
U out D GND(PWR)
Step − up / down : =
U in 1 − D Fig. 3.36: step-up/down DC/DC converter
Note that on the step-up/down, there is no common ground between input and output voltage.

3.2.2.2 Alternative DC/DC converters

Apart from the basic DC/DC converters presented,
the step-up&down converter with bypass (Fig. 3.37)
presents an interesting alternative: depending on
the configuration of its transistors, it can be used
as step-up, step-down or “pass-through” and this
bidirectionally.
In step-up configuration (Vin -> Vout):
• Transistors Q1 : ON ; Q2 & Q5A/B : OFF
• Transistor Q3: pulsing with duty cycle D
• Transistor Q4: pulsing with (1-D) or OFF Fig. 3.37: step-up&down converter with bypass
(intrinsic diode) L1 C1
IIN
The SEPIC (Single Ended Primary Inductor
Converter) allows also to operate as a step/up VIN L2 C2 Rch Vout
down converter, using a common ground between
input and output voltage. Its output to input
conversion ratio is: GND(PWR)
U out D
= Fig. 3.38: SEPIC DC/DC converter
U in 1 − D
Note that similar to the step-up converter the input inductance smooth-down the PV-current.

3.2.3 Effiency aspects

3.2.3.1 Effiency of DC/DC based design
Fig. 3.40 shows the efficiency in function of
the output power of a typical step-down
converter. It shows efficiencies above 95%
are reached for output power above 50W.
This means that the over-all system
efficiency can be kept at high level for the
entire charge time of the battery and this at
the MPP of the SA.
Numeric example :
• Solar Array : Vmpp = 17V; Impp = 5A
• Battery : Vmin = 10.5V (depleted)
Vmax = 13.5V (charged)
Fig. 3.40: Typical efficiency curve of a DC/DC converter
Icharge ≤ 10A
• Pmpp = Vmpp x Impp = 85 W; Pbatt > Pmpp x 0.96 = 81.6 W; Ibatt ≤ Pbatt / Vmin = 7.77 A
If the battery has a nominal capacity (Cbatt) of 50Ah, the battery charge time will be approx. 7.35h at
Pmpp, and the total solar energy needed approx 3.67 kWh. (Surface of SA : 0.5 m2)

IP
3.2.3.2 Losses in shunt & serial regulators Current
source
Using the same numeric data than for the previous Isc
example, a serial regulator operating in pulsed Impp
operation, will impose a voltage on the SA, which is
lower than the Vmpp: assuming a total voltage drop
(over T1 and D1) of 1V, we obtain: Voltage
• SA voltage: UP = Ubatt + 1V ≤ 14.5 V source
This means that the SA is operating as a “current
source” having an output current of Isc (= 5.5A):
• Regulator losses: Ploss = 1V x Isc = 5.5 W
UP
The mean output power is therefore given by the Vmpp Voc
mean battery voltage:
Serial Regulator
• Mean output power: Pbatt = Ubatt x Isc = 66 W
This time we will reach a charge time of approx.
9.09h, which finally gives us the total solar energy IP ID1 D1
T1
needed to charge the battery:
UP Controller UBatt
• Solar Energy: Wsol = Tch x Psol x SurfSA
= 9.09h x 1000 W/m2 x 0.5 m2
= 4.55 kWh

3.2.4 Control & Safety

Fig. 3.41 presents a bloc scheme of an off-grid
battery charger. In order to ensure the different
functionalities of the system, such as MPPT,
battery charging and safety control and
Display Solar Panel
adequate driving of the DC/DC converter
(charging unit), the systems needs to be
equipped with different sensors to measure:
User Input Microprocessor Charging Unit Battery
• Battery current and voltage
• Battery temperature
• PV current and voltage
• Internal current & voltage of the charging Sensors
unit to ensure its safe operation (ex.

protection on transistor over-current) Fig. 3.41: Bloc schematic of PV battery charger (off-grid)
The user (or system engineer) has to ensure that the different sensors are compatible with the
electric signal specification of the different sensing interfaces as well as with the accuracy and
measurement ranges required. Apart from a decrease of efficiency resulting from inadequate
sensor use or connection, the system could also be subject to safety hazard resulting from.

The use of battery and electronic power devices need a solid understanding of the different devices
and their functionality, in order to avoid safety issues:
• The polarity of different connections needs to be checked, as well as
• The grounding (earth connection) of the different devices. Example:
as seen on Fig. 3.36 the mass connection of input and output
connections of some DC/DC devices are not necessarily at the same
potential. Consequently they cannot be connected to the same earth.
• The use of power electronics and battery need also a special attention
to the power dissipation capabilities of the operating environment, in
order to avoid any overheating of components.
• Battery are also subject to leakage or flooding effects resulting from
damages or ageing. As the involved materials and liquids are
corrosive, retention tanks and/or leak-tight battery housing need to be
foreseen. Some battery even present a risk of flaming when subject to
inadequate charging or discharging conditions.
• Finally, it has to be noted that (long) connection lines between PV
panels and the converter (or charge regulator) present some inherent
leakage inductance. If this lines are interrupted, high (over-)voltage
spikes may appear on the input connections of the converter.

3.3 PV converters for grid-connected systems
3.3.1 DC/AC conversion, AC grid connection
An inverter (or DC/AC converter) converts a DC

input voltage (Uin) into a pulsed output voltage
= uo(t)
(Uo), whose 1st harmonic is represents a sine Uin
wave. As shown in fig. 3.50, the output pulses ≈
vary between:
• +Uin and 0 during the positive “wave”
• -Uin and 0 during the negative “wave” uo(t)
1U 1st harmonic
The duty cycle of the pulses vary sinusoidally
+Uin o
according:
ton 1Uˆ
D= ≅ sin(ωt ) 0
ton t
TP U e
Tp
Consequently, the maximum peak voltage of –Uin
T/2
the 1st harmonic is lower than the DC input
voltage of the inverter (max. duty cycle D = 1). Fig. 3.50: Inverter symbol and signals
The output voltage (Uo) contains also some higher order harmonics, which are multiples of the
pulsing frequency fp = 1 / Tp (see also § 3.3.6 for further information about harmonics). In general
the pulsing frequency is much higher than the frequency of the 1st harmonic (ex. 5-50 kHz vs. 50 Hz).

3.3 PV Converter for grid-connected systems
As the inverter is not able to impose its output

voltage to the AC grid, an output inductance
needs to be connected between the inverter and
the AC-grid. This inductance has on purpose:
• To filter the current harmonics injected
• To allow an injected current (Io), which is on
phase with the AC grid voltage, and therefore Fig. 3.51: AC grid connection
to ensure a good power factor (cosϕ = 1).
The Fig. 3.52 shows the phasor diagram of the current and voltage presented in
the AC grid connection scheme of Fig. 3.51. Due to the fact that the output
inductance causes an additional voltage drop, the inverter output voltage Uo
needs to be above the AC-grid voltage Ugrid:
Uo =
1
( U ) + (ωL⋅ I )
1
grid
2 1
o
2
The phase γ of the output voltage Uo is also influenced by the output inductance
L and its associated impedance jωL.
Usually, if a PV inverter is used, the output inductance is part of the inverter Fig. 3.52: complex
itself and the user has not to care further about, except that the inverter phasor
diagram
respects the applicable standards for the current harmonics (such as EN61000-
3-2) injected into the AC grid.

3.3.2 DC/AC converter without transformer

The easiest and most cost-effective way to inject
power into the AC network is to use directly an
inverter, which is powered by the SA at its input
and injects an AC current into the AC network Uo
through an inductance. The Fig 3.53 and 3.54 show
the typical mono- and 3-phase inverter.
Uo
The mono-phase inverter uses 4 transistors (S1 to
S4 in Fig.3.53) to generate the pulsed output
voltage (Uo on Fig. 3.53). Theses transistors work Fig. 3.53: Mono-phase inverter example
alternatively in pairs:
• during the positive half-sine wave S4 is ON and
S3 pulses with a variable duty cycle (S1 and S2
are switched OFF), whereas
• during the negative half-sine period, S1 is ON
and S2 pulses with a variable duty cycle (S3 and
S4 are switched OFF).
For the 3-phase inverter, all the 6 transistors are
pulsing with a variable duty cycle at the same time
in order to generate 3 sine-wave at its output. Fig. 3.54: Typical 3-phase inverter

An important aspect of these direct inverters is

to understand their earth potential connection
and isolation needs.
As shown on Fig. 3.55 and 3.56, on the AC-side,
one end (the neutral connection N) is always
connected to earth potential. The switching
strategy of the monophase inverter implies, that
the earth potential is alternately connected to Fig. 3.55: Earth connection during positive half wave
• the negative SA polarity (during positive

half-sine generation), and to
• the positive SA polarity (during negative
half-sine generation).
In other terms, both SA polarities (+ and -)
need to be isolated from earth at the input
of the inverter in order to prevent any short-
circuit during positive or negative half-sine Fig. 3.56: Earth connection during negative half wave
generation.
This represents an important limitation of the use of direct inverters (without transformer).
Another drawback (or inconvenient) is the fact that the input DC voltage needs to be higher than the
output peak voltage generated (higher than 310V for 240V AC networks). This means that high
number of PV modules (or cells) would need to be connected in series at the input of the inverter.

3.3.3 DC/AC converter with 50Hz transformer
The 2 major drawbacks of direct inverters (earth

connection and high input voltage) can be
bypassed by the use of a 50 Hz transformer.
Fig. 3.57 shows an inverter composed by a “step-
down” DC/DC converter, a “square-wave”
inverter and a 50 Hz transformer. The transformer
ensures essentially 2 functionalities:
• Galvanic separation of AC (output) and DC
(input) side allowing earth connections on
both sides. Fig. 3.57: Inverter composed by a “step-down”,
• Increase of the output voltage by the use of square-wave inverter ,50 Hz transformer
an appropriate transformer ratio allowing the use of SA with lower voltages (DC input).
The “step-down” converter controls the MPPT of the SA and generates a rectified (or unipolar) sine-
wave on its output (voltage over C1). The square wave inverter needs then “only” to invert every
second half wave in order to generate a full sine wave on its output (S1 ON and S2 OFF for positive
half-sine, S1 OFF and S2 ON for the negative half-sine generation).
The same converter topology could be used by using a “step-up/down” converter instead of using
the “step-down” converter at the input of the converter stage. Note also that S0 and the diode D
switch at high frequencies (10…50 kHz), whereas S1 and S2 switch at low frequency (50Hz).

Fig. 3.58 shows a mono-

phase inverter with a 50 Hz
transformer at its output.
In addition to the previous
functionalities mentioned
before, this transformer also
uses its (leakage-)
inductance to filter the
current harmonics injected
into the AC network and to
ensure a good power factor
Fig. 3.58: Mono-phase inverter with 50Hz transformer at its output
(cosϕ).
As shown in fig. 3.58, additional EMC (ElectroMagnetic Compability) filter and protection devices (AC
output relay) may be added in order to further enhance the filtering of the high frequency pulsing
inverter and/or to protect the latter from external perturbations.
The MPPT is ensured by the measurement of the PV voltages and currents at the input of the
inverter, whereas the control of the injected current (amplitude, phase and frequency) is controlled
by the measurement of the AC line voltage, current an frequency at the output of the converter.
Beside the mentioned advantages, a 50Hz transformer has the inconvenient of lowering the over-all
efficiency of the converter and represents additional space and weight for the converter.

3.3.4 DC/AC converter with HF transformer

To reduce space requirements for
the galvanic separation needs,
HF-transformer based design may
be used as shown in fig. 3.60.
In this converter topology a
square wave inverter, followed by
a four-diode rectifier is inserted
between the SA and the mono-
phased AC-inverter. The square-
wave inverter operates at high
Fig. 3.60: DC/AC Conversion with HF transformer
frequency (1..10 kHz) and so does
also the transformer ensuring the galvanic separation. The rectified voltage at the output of the 4-
diode rectifier is filtered by an L-C filter, followed by the standard H-bridge mono-phase inverter
(operating also at HF: 10…50kHz) and the output (filtering inductance L2).
It is easy to follow that the space reduction obtained with the use of a HF-transformer is counter-
balanced by the increase of the number of (active) components, which do not only reduce space, but
also increase the losses and the price of the converter. The losses are especially high for transistors
operating at high switching frequencies (in fig. 3.60, 6 transistors and 4 diodes are switching at HF).
Increase of efficiency may be obtained using a square-wave inverter generating a rectified sine-wave
at its output instead of a DC voltage as shown on fig. 3.61.
The rectified sine-wave output voltage

of the square-wave inverter (fig. 3.61)
needs then to be simply “unfolded” by
the inverter at the output. Using this
strategy, the output inverter operates
“only” at 50 Hz, which increases its
efficiency. Note that the output filter
inductance is replaced by L2 in fig 3.61
and that the filtering capacitor C2 is also Fig. 3.61: DC/AC Conversion with HF transformer and LF inverter
reduced.
Further reduction of the number of
components are obtained by removal of the
four-diode rectifier bridge, using the output
inverter directly to “unfold” the pulses
generated at the output of the square-wave
generated in order to obtain a pulsed output
voltage with a 50Hz fundamental frequency
as shown in fig. 3.62. Note that in latter case
the output inverter operates again at HF.
Fig. 3.62: “optimised” DC/AC converter with HF transformer
To resume, using a HF transformer may
Result to a transformer space reduction, but increases the number of active components as well.

3.3.5 Efficiency aspects

As mentioned above, the number of components needed for the AC/DC-converter influences directly
the efficiency of the converter. Hence, considering the actual standard of development following
efficiency categories can approximately be identified:
• Direct inverter (without transformer) reach an efficiency of 95% and above
• Inverters with transformer (50Hz or HF) reach efficiencies in the range of 90% to 95%.
The above mentioned values are maximum values, valid for the nominal output power PN. In general
the input power of a converter can be computed with [7]:
Pin = P0 + k ⋅ Pout + Pout
where : P0 : min. input (or quiescent) power, k∙Pout : power losses depending on Pout
Using above expression, it is possible to compute the evolution of the efficiency of the converter in
dependence of the output power, expressed in percentage vs. the nominal power (i.e. η10 is the
efficiency at 10% of the nominal output power): −1
 P0 
η p = 1 + k +
 0.01 p ⋅ PN 
Taking into account of the solar power distribution available in european countries, a mean
efficiency ηEUR of the converter could be computed with (according [7]):

3.3.6 Control, safety & power quality aspects

As previously explained (see fig. 3.58), the MPPT and output current control of an inverter needs the
measurement of input voltage and current (IPV, UPV) as well as output current and voltage (IO, UO).
Apart from the earth grounding, resp. isolating aspects, input and/or output connection relays need
to be foreseen for the safe handling and maintenance operations of the installation (see also §3.4.3).
Another important aspect is linked to the current harmonics injected in the power network and the
resulting power quality aspects. Fig. 3.63 illustrates the effect of a 3rd harmonic on the total output
current. The distortion current idis is defined as: i (t ) = i (t ) −1i (t )
dis o o
The resulting rms (root mean square) value becomes:

∞
I dis = I − I O =
2
o
1 2
∑
n =2
n 2
IO 1I
o fundamental
Io total current
Where nIO is the nth harmonic of the output current

IO. The Total Harmonic Distortion factor THD is
defined as:
I I O2 −1I O2
THD = 1 dis =
3I 3rd harmonic
o
1
IO IO
As the distortion current has only an impact on
the reactive power it also influences negatively the
power factor. Fig. 3.63: Effect of 3rd harmonic on sine-wave signal

P 1 I s ⋅ cos1ϕ
The power factor is given by: PF = = where 1ϕ is the phase between 1Is and Ugrid
S Is
P cos1 ϕ
Consequently the power factor becomes: PF = =
S 1 + THD 2
As the general complex phasor diagram (fig. 3.52) remains also valid for the n
UO
harmonics (except that nUgrid ≈ 0 for n>1), the output current harmonics can be
n
IO =
estimated with the output voltage harmonics, using:
n ⋅ ωL
In general the THD is limited to 5% for typical grid-connected PV applications. Fig. 3.64 shows typical
voltage harmonic distribution for a H-bridge inverter. Detailed harmonic voltage amplitudes for
mono-phase and 3-phase inverter can be found in annex of this document.
n
Û o
U in
Fig. 3.x: 19.50 & 19.51

f
f fond
Fig. 3.64: harmonic voltage distribution of a typical mono-phase H-bridge converter.

3.4 Converters for PV AC & battery backup systems
Instead of injecting directly the PV power into the AC line network, the PV energy can be (partially)
stored into a battery before being injected. Such an energy “backup” system has following
advantages:
• Restitution of energy, stored during
available solar irradiation periods
(daytime), during periods of absence
of solar irradiation power (night-time)
• Independence on AC network hazards
(AC line breakdowns)
• Downsizing of Inverter required peak
power.
• Power peak shifting capabilities (see
also §3.4.1) Fig. 3.65: Bloc schematics of PV AC with battery back-up
Fig 3.65 shows the bloc schematics of a typical (mono-phased) household PV AC system with
battery backup capabilities: the PV power is converted by a DC/DC-converter to DC power link,
which drives the inverter and the battery.
As mentioned above, grounding has to be performed in accordance to the galvanic separation
capabilities of the inverter used.
The battery does not only represent a higher investment cost, but also increases the maintenance &
running costs. Moreover the aging of the battery influences its lifetime and depends on operational
conditioning of the battery (depth of discharge, temperature and charge conditioning).

3.4.1 3-phased systems and Power peak shifting

Besides the evident advantage of bypassing an AC
line power bottleneck or hazard, battery backup
systems can also be used to reduce (or shift) the
peak power demand of a consumer, an even on the
AC network. This becomes particularly interesting for
PV Energy system as the PV power peaks matches
with the AC network peak demand. On the user side
the peak power shifting may become an important
Fig. 3.67: Power peak shift concept
aspect on reducing the (over-)costs linked to the
peak power demand.
=
Fig. 3.66 shows a typical 3-phased PV AC system with = Inverter Transf.
battery backup: The PV power is adapted via DC/DC Ip =
=
converters to a DC-power link bus, which is connected = 3≈ 3x
to the 3-pase inverter and the charge & discharge Up
Converter
controller of the battery (bi-directional DC/DC =
converter). The peak power shifting is depicted on fig. =
PV SA
3.67: the PV power and energy accumulated in the
battery is deployed during the high power demand Battery
(peak power), whereas the battery is recharged during
the low-or medium power phases. Fig. 3.66: 3-phased PV AC with battery backup

3.4.2 Power & Battery sizing aspects

The energy storage capacity of the battery represents has important influence on the design of the
power converters used (voltage and power demand), on the cost and on the availability of the
system. The battery energy is often calculated as a multiple of the days of autonomy (autonomy
factor AF) the system is able to run, without solar energy support:
where Wd : daily needed mean electric energy

Considering the system efficiency factor k, the daily requested electric energy corresponds to a
daily requested mean solar irradiation Energy Gdim. This corresponds to the mean solar energy the
system is dimensioned for. As the efficiency factor is computed using the total SA surface, Gdim is
expressed in [kWh/m2], whereas k is in [m2].
As Gdim is a mean value, the effective solar irradiation energy G de pends on a statistic distribution,
which depends strongly on the geographical location of the PV system (see also part 4 : System
design). The availability a of a PV system is defined as a quantity indicating the energy effectively
received versus the mean quantity requested:
As the battery is able to “smooth down” the effect of the statistic variation of the irradiated energy
G, it is also able to increase, up to a certain amount the availability of the system.

The evolution of the mean availability in function of the required energy Gdim has been represented
on fig. 3.68 for two different geographic sites and its evolution showed for different autonomy
factors AF. Analysing the figure, we can conclude:
• For autonomy factors (AF) of 7 and above the
availability reaches asymptotic limits. site b
• The mean availability does not significantly
increase for AF > 3.
Mean Availability
• For AF > 3 the mean availability reaches the site a
asymptotic value of 1 for Gdim < GA
• Remark : GA is the mean available irradiated
energy for each site (site a : GA = 4.2 kWh/m2,
site b : GA = 5.5 kWh/m2)
From above conclusions, we see that the autonomy Required Energy
factor of the battery should be within:
3 ≤ AF ≤ 6 Fig. 3.68: System availability & Required Energy [7]
The resulting nominal battery capacity CN can then be easily calculated with the nominal battery
voltage UN, using:
The power of the DC/DC converters respectively the DC/AC inverter of a PV AC System are then
calculated with the maximum SA power and the maximum injected AC power respectively.

3.4.3 Control & Safety

One of the biggest advantage of a PV AC System with battery backup, the independence to AC
network hazards, can also turn in one of its major danger: the so-called “islanding” problem.
“Islanding” may occur, after a network brake-down or failure if the PV AC System is still feeding the
network with power : the network my then remain in unsafe situation and technicians attempting to
solve the network failure may be endangered.
To solve the islanding problem, “anti-islanding” control strategies have been worked out. Some
strategies observe the grid voltage evolution, other act on the grid frequency to decide if an AC
network breakdown occurred or not:
• The output frequency of the inverter may be slightly changed compared to the measured grid
frequency.
• If the AC network is operating normally (no breakdown), this output frequency variation will have
no impact on the grid, as latter is acting like an ideal voltage source.
• In case of an AC network breakdown or if the network becomes “weak”, the network impedance
is increased and the slight frequency variation on the inverter output will affect the measured AC
network frequency measured. In such a case, the inverter may be disconnected from the AC grid
to prevent any islanding problem.
Unfortunately there is actually no international valid standard for applicable criteria to decide when
an power plant has to be disconnected from the grid or not. The existing grid codes are actually
varying from country to country.

Due to the fact that PV system may also help to stabilize (power peak shifting) the AC network and to
prevent from (minor) network breakdowns, the simple question of connection or disconnect ion
criteria and network fault criteria are controversial.
Fig. 3.70 shows an example of grid voltage limit
in dependence of the fault duration (Irish grid
code). If the grid voltage is above the depicted
limit, the (PV) power plant may not be
disconnected from the AC network as the fault
(or voltage breakdown) may be considered as
“minor”.
Other directives consider the variation of the grid
frequency as criteria for power (active and
reactive) variation.
As already mentioned, in absence of any
international (or even european) standard, the
Fig. 3.70: Grid code extract (fault voltage tolerance in
anti-islanding procedure as well as power quality Ireland)
acceptance criteria have to be considered from
case to case with the local power network operator. The inverter control and regulation parameters
may then be adapted to comply with these “local” standards or grid codes. In central Europe, the
UCTE (Union for Co-ordination of Transmission of Electricity) assumes the harmonization of the
“conditions for the development of the (liberalized) electricity market”.

3.5 PV Grid Integration
3.5.1 Effect of PV-power on grid parameters

The PV power injected into the grid may generate a reverse power flow (power generated “flowing
back” to the power source
of the grid). This reverse
power flow may generate,
through the line
impedance (Fig. 3.71):
• An increase of the grid
voltage (Vgrid > 110% Vn)
• A change (increase) of
the reactive power Q on
the grid-(sub)station.
As a consequence, a large
scale voltage increase can
in turn generate an
increase of the frequency
on the grid.
To resume: a large scale
PV power injection can
have an effect on the
three most important Fig. 3.71: Effect of PV power injection on grid voltage [9]
parameters of the grid. On the other hand the effects depend highly on the nature and the properties
of the grid (interconnections, line impedances, loads, flexibility of generator sources & storage
capacities).
3.5 PV grid integration
In addition, the distribution supply operator (DSO), has to face the highly time dependent nature of
the PV power generation and therefore
A time dependent reverse
power flow effect and grid
parameter variation.
Fig. 3.72 shows an example
of highly time dependent
power load measured on a
sub-station level.
The seasonal, and to
certain extend daily, power
variation may be absorbed
or counterbalanced by
adequate grid source
management. Fig. 3.72: Example of Sub-station load power variation [9], Bayern (D) 2011
On the opposite, short-time variations appearing locally, need an adequate active and reactive power
control of the PV power sources to stabilize the grid parameters.
It is evident, that the situation shown in fig. 3.72 is only representative for a high amount on total PV
power compared to the total power consumption respectively generation.
Example : end of 2012, the total PV energy, resp. power generation represent:
Germany Switzerland
Energy 5.6% 0.5% of total electricity consumption
Power 45% 2.2% of total electric power generation
source: EPIA 2012

3.5.2 Methods for «smart» PV grid integration
Active and reactive PV power

generation my be controlled in a
centralized, decentralized or local way.
• Centralized & decentralized control
need a remote control of the active
and reactive power generated by the
different PV-Inverters. This remote
control is operated via a defined
communication interface or bus.
• Local control need “intelligent” PV –
inverter, acting on the cosϕ and/or
injected active power P depending
on the grid voltage, resp. frequency. Fig. 3.73: Control of PV power generation[10]
Fig. 3.74 shows a typical active power reduction curve
versus grid frequency variation for a local control of
injected PV power. Frequencies below 47.5 Hz, resp. above
51.5 Hz are considered as inacceptable for grid stability.
Consequently, the PV inverter needs to cut-off power
injection when these frequency limits are reached.
Fig. 3.74: Active power vs frequency[10]

The power factor (cos ϕ) may also by varied

as a function of the injected active power
(Fig. 3.75).
The exact definition for the local active and
reactive power control need to be defined in
conjunction with the local grid operator, as
a function of the local grid properties, and
in accordance with the applicable (national)
grid code.
• Switzerland: industry recommendations
and grid code are published by
swissgrid (website: www.swissgrid.ch).
• Germany: grid code and requirements
for PV-installations defined by VDE 4105 Fig. 3.75: Typical cos ϕ versus active power curve [10]
and BDEW codes of practice.
• European Union (EU): First draft of the “European Network of Transmission System Operators
for Electrcicity (ENTSO-E)” for european directive is available since 2012.
• USA & Canada : grid code established by the “North American Electric Reliability Corporation
NERC” and the “Institute of Electric and Electronic Engineers IEEE”

3.6 Decisional criteria & market survey
3.6.1 Efficiency, cost & lifetime

The efficiency of a PV system influences significantly its cost effectiveness. Although the efficiency
is not only given by the efficiency of its components, it depends also on the design of the system.
Fig. 3.80 shows the most straightforward way to built an AC PV system: the different solar modules
are assembled in strings (serial connection) in order to comply with the required input voltage of the
inverter. Several strings are connected in parallel to generate the requested PV power. Each string is
terminated by a serial diode, in order to avoid current reflows between the different parallel strings.
Using a unique centralized inverter, String : modules in series
String in parallel
this solution may be cost- and
efficiency effective from an inverter
AC line
point of view. Apart from this
advantage, this “centralized”
topology presents some inherent
inconvenients: Fig. 3.80: centralized inverter with strings in parallel
• The serial diodes represent additional losses
• The MPPT of the inverter will try to find a global MPP, which my not well adapted to each module
• The characteristic mismatch between the modules may impose an operating point which is less
efficient than each module operating at its MPP individually.
• This centralized approach is not flexible enough to allow power improvement(s) of the system.

The string-based inverter approach, shown in fig. 3.81

allow a better MPPT of each string. Compared to the
“centralized converter approach” the different inverters
may be smaller and therefore less efficient , but is
usually counterbalanced by a better MPPT.
The most efficient approach in terms of individual
MPPT is the module inverter approach shown in fig.
3.82. The module inverters need internal step-up Fig. 3.81: String inverter topology
DC/DC conversion stages and/or HF transformer in
order to adapt the lower module PV voltage to the level
needed for the inverter. Here again the lower efficiency
of the module inverter may be counterbalanced by a
better “over-all” MPPT.
The string inverter and module inverter topologies also
allow better power improvement and evolution
capabilities.
An intermediate solution between “modular” and
“centralized” inverter approach is presented in fig.3.66, Fig. 3.82: Module inverter topology
where the PV modules (or strings) have an individual
MPPT trough their respective DC/DC converters, which adapt the module voltage to the high voltage
needed by the centralized DC/AC inverter.

For PV system with battery based backup capabilities the battery has also a major contribution to
initial investment and running costs. Moreover:
• Typically 2/3 of the energy flow trough the battery in a autonomous power supply. Therefore the
battery reduces considerably the over-all efficiency of the system.
• The battery voltage influences the voltage of the DC/DC and DC/AC converters and vice versa.
• The battery is subject to aging. The aging depends very much on operating conditions (depth of
discharge, discharge and charge characteristics, temperature), which in turn influence the
system capabilities.
• The lifetime of the battery determines the running costs through the replacement investment.
• The battery needs regular maintenance, adequate housing (room) and venting/cooling.
3.6.2 Reliability aspects

Besides the different efficiencies and cost aspects, the different topologies presented in above
§3.5.1 also have an impact on the system reliability: a modular and parallel power flow topology (like
the module or string inverter topology) will have a higher reliability than a central and serialized one.
Between the module and string inverter approach the reliability increase of the module inverter may
be counterbalanced by the lower reliability of the HF-transformer based inverter (more components).
The system reliability will also be influenced by the cabling : cable length (-> risk of voltage spikes),
interconnections (corrosion effects) also have a negative impact on system reliability.

3.6.3 Power electronics evolution

The increase of power capabilities and efficiency of power converters are not only linked to the
evolution and performance increase of active power components (from thyristor to IGBT switches),
but is also linked to the performance increase of control and IT electronic components.
Using up-to-date DSP and
microcontrollers, allows a
more efficient control of
voltage and current involved
in power converters and in
turn allow the Power
implementation of MPPT,
peak power shift, and grid-
code linked control
algorithm and strategies.
Beside the increase of
efficiency the continuous
decrease of space Control &IT
requirements for power
electronics represent an
important aspect of its
evolution. Fig. 3.82: Power and electronics evolution

3.6.4 Market & trends
As mentioned in the introduction chapter (see §3.1.1 and fig. 3.2), the grid connected systems
represent the essential part of the installed PV power. This means that there might be a big market
potential for the DC/AC inverters. The large power plants will also become an important part of
installed PV power, which does not necessary mean that the DC/AC inverter of high power (> 1 MW)
will increase their sales; the required and efficiency effective modularity will keep or even increase
the demand on medium and small sized DC/AC inverter .
On the technical evolution, following trends are actually observed:
• The increasing demand on DC/AC inverter will certainly impact high pressure on the production
(and sales) cost of said inverters, which in turn will keep reinforce the trend for simple and
production effective (less components) inverters.
• The power efficiency of modular equipment, may reinforce the smaller sized converter and may
also produce incentives for inverter incorporated into PV modules.
• The increasing demand for “renewable” energy power supplies will also increase the need for
“intelligent”, smart-grid compatible equipment, able to comply or adapt with more complex grid
codes.
• Increasing importance of PV systems limited to local power consumption with energy storage
capabilities (battery) in order to avoid active power limitations as foreseen in existing grid codes.

3.7 Exercises
Exercise 1
Consider the BP585 PV module at 25°C ambient temperature with the I-U curve and characteristic data
as given below. The aim is to charge a lead-acid battery (Umin=10.5V, Umax=13.5V, Unom=12V).
a) Represent the corresponding current- and voltage-source models for the PV module and calculate
their corresponding characteristic values.
b) Calculate the peak voltage value at the opening of the
transistor of a serial regulator (Lline = 10µH, Cline = 4.7nF).
c) Determine the efficiency η of the serial regulator in function
of the battery voltage (voltage drop over T1 and D1 = 1V)
d) Determine the evolution of D and Iout of a step-down
converter in function of the battery voltage (efficiency η =
95%, converter with MPPT).

3.6 Exercises
Exercise 2
Consider a step-up/down converter replacing the step-down converter in fig. 3.57.
a) Compute and trace the evolution of the duty cycle of the step-up/down converter with following
input and output voltage conditions: Uin = 18 V (constant)
Uout = 36∙│sin(ωt) │, ω = 314 rad/s
b) Represent the corresponding input and output currents of the converter, with an input power of
80W and a mean efficiency of the converter of 95%.
Exercise 3
Consider a step-up & down converter of fig. 3.37.
a) Indicate the ON, OFF or pulsing state of each transistor of the converter in order to ensure a step-
down conversion (from U1 to U2).
b) Determine with the diL/dt value (see fig 3.34) of a step-down converter the ∆IL computation method
and calculate the inductance needed to ensure ∆IL < 0.5A with a switching frequency of 100 kHz
(Uin = 18 V, Uout = 12V).

3.6 Exercises
Exercise 4
Consider a H-bridge inverter with 50 Hz transformer (see fig. 3.58). The grid voltage has an rms value
of 240V, the transformer ratio Uo/Ugrid is 1/5 and its short-circuit impedance is : Rcc=50mΩ, Lcc=500µH
a) Estimate following output values of the inverter: Uo, Qo, Po for Io=50A.
b) Compute the needed PV mpp power, with a mean efficiency of the inverter of 95% and determine
the required mpp voltage for a modulation index ma = 0.8.
c) How many BP585-type modules need to be connected in series and how many serial strings in
parallel to reach the required voltage and power?
d) Estimate the first 3 harmonics generated by the inverter around mf, with a pulsing frequency of 10
kHz. Compute the THD and the PF (power factor) resulting from these harmonics.
Exercise 5
Consider two different inverters (one for centralized applications the other for module or string based
designs) with following data:
Inverter 1: PN=3kW, η100=95%, η10=88% Inverter 2: PN=200W, η100=92%, η10=82%
a) Determine the characteristic values (P0 and k), necessary to compute the efficiency for a given
partial load for both inverters. Evaluate for both inverters the mean european efficiency ηEUR.

3.6 Exercises
Exercise 6
The E20/327 Solar Panel from Sunpower, made of 96 monocristalline cells in series, has the electrical
data as shown below (measured in STC conditions).
a) Estimate the area, the form factor (FF) and the equivalent serial resistance (RS) of the panel.
b) With the parameters a and b (see §3.1.6), compute the Impp and Vmpp values and compare them with
the values given by the manufacturer.
c) Determine the main characteristics of the panel
for Tc = 50°C and Geff = 800 W/m2. (compute the
new Isc and Voc values, then determine the new
Pmpp value).

3.8 Literature
[1] Trends in photovoltaic applications: Survey report of selected IEA countries between 1992
and 2011, IEA-PVPS T1-21:2012, website : www.iea-pvps.org
[2] Photovoltaic Energy: Electricity from the Sun, European Photovoltaic Industry Association,
EPIA December 2009, website : www.epia.org
[3] String inverters for PV power plants, Crystalline Modules, Danfoss Solar Inverters A/S, May
2009, website : www.solar-inverters.danfoss.com
[4] Handbook of photovoltaic science an engineering, A. Luque & S. Hegedus, J. Wiley & Sons,
2006
[5] Convertisseurs statiques, H. Bühler, Presses Polytechniques Romandes, 1991
[6] EPU1, “Electronique de puissance 1”, Dr. M. Carpita, Polycopié cours Bachelor HEIG-VD,
2008
[7] Photovoltaic Engineering, Dr. A. Wagner, Springer-Verlag Berlin, 2006
[8] Transmission Code 2010 (TC 2010), Industry recommendations for the Swiss electricity
Market, Swissgrid AG Frick (AG), website: www.swissgrid.ch
[9] German perspectives on future energy system challenges by photovoltaic, Power Hub
January 2013, Frauenhofer IWES, Frank Marten
[10] PV grid integration, 4th edition May 2012, SMA-solar, website: www.sma-solar.com

3.9 Annexes
3.9.1 Harmonics of mono-phase H-bridge inverter
The table shows the voltage harmonics ma
generated by a H-bridge inverter, nÛ /U
o in
where
nÛ = nth output voltage harmonic

o
amplitude
Uin = Converter input voltage (DC).
ma = modulation amplitude.
mf = modulation frequency.

3.8 Annexes
3.9.2 Harmonics of 3-phase inverter

The table shows the voltage
harmonics generated by a 3- nU
phase inverter, where ∆,eff/Uin
nÛ = nth output line

∆eff
voltage harmonic
rms value
Uin = Converter input
voltage (DC).
ma = modulation
amplitude.
mf = modulation
frequency.
Uˆ ∆
1
Ue
Harmonic distribution
f
f fondamentale

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PV – PHOTOVOLTAICS

Part 3 : Power Electronics

Prof. L. Bossoney, HEIG-VD

27/08/2013 PV – Power Electronics

3.1 Introduction page 3.4

27/08/2013 PV – Power Electronics 3.2

3.4 Converters for PV AC & battery backup systems page 3.53

27/08/2013 PV – Power Electronics 3.3

3.1.1 Application domain

PV systems can be subdivided in two different main categories:

 Grid-connected applications : where the PV power is converted in order to be adapted to

27/08/2013 PV – Power Electronics 3.4

27/08/2013 PV – Power Electronics 3.5

3.1.2 Grid connected systems

 Grid-connected distributed systems: where the PV system provides power to a grid

Fig. 3.3 (above): PV system of a sport

Fig. 3.4 (right side): typical grid-

27/08/2013 PV – Power Electronics 3.6

 Grid-connected centralized systems: where

Fig. 3.5 (above): 10 MW PV power plant in

27/08/2013 PV – Power Electronics 3.7

3.1.3 Off-grid systems

27/08/2013 PV – Power Electronics 3.8

Fig. 3.9 (left):

The charge controller regulates the power flow between the

27/08/2013 PV – Power Electronics 3.9

3.1.4 Electric model of PV solar panel

27/08/2013 PV – Power Electronics 3.10

27/08/2013 PV – Power Electronics 3.11

27/08/2013 PV – Power Electronics 3.12

27/08/2013 PV – Power Electronics 3.13

27/08/2013 PV – Power Electronics 3.14

Regarding the static I-U curve of a solar cell (or solar Id

• The operating zone, close to Isc, where the current Impp

is nearly constant: current-source zone (with

27/08/2013 PV – Power Electronics 3.15

3.1.5 Solar cells assembly

27/08/2013 PV – Power Electronics 3.16

3.1.5.1 Test conditions

STC (Standard Test Conditions)

NOCT (Nominal Operating Cell Temperature),

27/08/2013 PV – Power Electronics 3.17

3.1.5.2 Hot spot

respective open-circuit voltages (VOC). 0.5V

27/08/2013 PV – Power Electronics 3.18

3.1.5.3 Parallel module connection

To reach the requested output voltage and

27/08/2013 PV – Power Electronics 3.19

3.1.6 Solar cell and module parameter determination

27/08/2013 PV – Power Electronics 3.20

υOC − ln(υOC + 0.72 )

27/08/2013 PV – Power Electronics 3.21

27/08/2013 PV – Power Electronics 3.22

3.1.7 Maximum power point tracking (MPPT)

As already mentioned (see § 3.1.4), the I-U-curve of

27/08/2013 PV – Power Electronics 3.23

The MPPT is achieved through electronic power Ip

adaptor in order to track the MPP.

27/08/2013 PV – Power Electronics 3.24

3.1.7.1 Constant MPP to OC voltage ratio

27/08/2013 PV – Power Electronics 3.25

3.1.7.2 Incremental conductance

A more sophisticated MPPT is the observation of the