Q7.

Aquifer
An aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock, rock fractures or
unconsolidated materials (gravel, sand, or silt). Groundwater can be extracted using a water well.
The study of water flow in aquifers and the characterization of aquifers is called hydrogeology.
Related terms include aquitard, which is a bed of low permeability along an aquifer,
and aquiclude (or aquifuge), which is a solid, impermeable area underlying or overlying an
aquifer. If the impermeable area overlies the aquifer, pressure could cause it to become a confined
aquifer.

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 Types of Aquifers
Aquifers come in two types which are shown below:
1. Unconfined
2. Confined
Unconfined: Unconfined aquifers are those into which water seeps from the ground surface
directly above the aquifer.

Confined aquifers: Confined aquifers are those in which an impermeable dirt/rock layer exists
that prevents water from seeping into the aquifer from the ground surface located directly above.
Instead, water seeps into confined aquifers from farther away where the impermeable layer
doesn't exist.

Groundwater is not "held" in one place underground--it flows through the aquifer. Groundwater
is transported through aquifers because of two main reasons: gravity and pressure. In unconfined
aquifers, which we concentrate on because they are more likely to be contaminated, water always
flows from high points to low points because of gravity.
Since groundwater flow is similar to water flowing in a sponge, how fast do you think groundwater
moves? Use the animation below to compare the speed at which groundwater moves to other water
flows.

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 Section C
Q3. Duty:
The term duty means the area of land that can be irrigated with unit volume of irrigation water.
Duty represents the irrigating capacity of a unit. It is the relation the between the area of a crop
irrigated and the quantity of irrigation water required during the entire period of the growth of
that crop. For example, if 3 cumecs of water supply is required for a crop sown in an area of
5100 hectares, the duty of irrigation water will be 5100/3 = 1700 hectares/cumecs, and the
discharge of 3 cumecs will be required throughout the base period.
Delta:
It is the total depth of the water required by a crop during the entire period the crop is in the field
and is denoted by the symbol ∆. For example, if a crop requires about 12 watering at an interval
of 10 days, and a water depth of 10 cm. If the area under the crop is A hectares, the total quantity
will be 1.20 X A = 1.2 A hectare-metres in a period of 120 days.
Base Period:
Base Period for a crop refers to the whole period of cultivation from the time when irrigation
water is first issued for preparation of the ground for planting the crop, to its last watering before
harvesting.
Relation between Duty and Delta
D= duty in hectares/cumec
∆= total depth of water supplied in metres
B= base period in days
Let,
Duty = D (hectares/cumecs)
Delta = A meters Base period = B days
By definition,
One cumec of water flowing continuously for “B” days gives a depth of water “A” over an area
of “D” hectares.
Volume of water @ 1m3sec in one day = 1x24*60*60 = 86400 m3
Volume of water @ 1m3sec in "B" days = 1x24*60*60 = 86400B m3 = 86400 m2 m — (i)
As, 1 Hectare = 10000 m2
1 m2 = 1104 H
Then, equation (i) becomes,
Volume of water @ 1 m3sec in "B" days = 86400B m3 = 86400B*1104 H-m Volume of
water @ 1 m3sec in "B" days = 8.64 x B H-m — (ii)
Depth of water required by crop, A = Volume Area A = 8.64xB H-mD H
A = 8.64*B D m

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 Q1. Comparison between Kennedy’s and Lacey’s Theories:

This article provides a comparison between Kennedy’s and Lacey’s theories.

1. The basic concept regarding silt transportation is the same in both the theories. In both

the theories it is stated that the silt remains in suspension due to vertical force of eddies.

2. Kennedy assumes that the eddies are generated on the bed only and hence he derives the

formula for finding out critical velocity in terms of depth.

3. Lacey proposes that regime section is semi-circular ultimately and eddies are generated

along the whole wetted perimeter. He drives formula for mean regime velocity in terms

of hydraulic mean radius. 3 Lacey states that as the shape of irrigation channel is fixed to
a particular geometrical figure (generally trapezoidal) it cannot achieve final regime

conditions and hence may be said to achieve initial regime. Kennedy assumes that when

there is neither silting nor scouring the channel is in its regime.

4. Kennedy selects Kutter’s formula for designing irrigation channel. But in Kutters formula

value of N is arbitrarily fixed. Lacey has not fixed any value arbitrarily.

5. Kennedy has made use of term “CVR” (m) but he did not give any basis for calculating

m. He simply states that it depends on silt charge and silt grade.

Lacey has introduced a term “silt factor” (f). He related f to mean diameter of the bed

material and gave basis to calculate f.

The formula is f = 1.76 √mr

6. Kennedy gives no clue for calculating longitudinal regime slope. Lacey produced a

regime slope formula.

7. Design based on Kennedy’s theory can only be achieved after making trials. Of course

Woods has simplified the procedure by giving normal design table which provides BID

ratio.

Lacey gave very important wetted regime perimeter equation

1. Pw = 4.825 Q1/2

He of course admitted that value of constant in the above equation is in no way constant and

varies from 4 to 5.8 for regime channels.

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