VECTORS AND

THE GEOMETRY OF SPACE

VECTORS AND THE GEOMETRY OF SPACE

Vectors

In this section, we will learn about:

Vectors and their applications.
VECTOR

The term vector is used by scientists to

indicate a quantity (such as displacement
or velocity or force) that has both magnitude
and direction.
REPRESENTING A VECTOR

A vector is often represented by

an arrow or a directed line segment.

▪ The length of the arrow represents the magnitude

of the vector.

▪ The arrow points in the direction of the vector.

DENOTING A VECTOR

We denote a vector by either:

▪ Printing a letter in boldface (v)

▪ Putting an arrow above the letter ( v )

VECTORS

For instance, suppose a particle

moves along a line segment from
point A to point B.
VECTORS

The corresponding displacement vector v

has initial point A (the tail) and terminal point
B (the tip).

▪ We indicate this by
writing v = AB .
VECTORS

Notice that the vector u = CD has the same

length and the same direction as v even
though it is in a different position.
▪ We say u and v are equivalent (or equal)
and write
u = v.
ZERO VECTOR

The zero vector, denoted by 0, has

length 0.

▪ It is the only vector with no specific direction.

COMBINING VECTORS

Suppose a particle moves from A to B.

So, its displacement vector is AB.
COMBINING VECTORS

Then, the particle changes direction,

and moves from B to C - with displacement
vector BC .
COMBINING VECTORS

The combined effect of these

displacements is that the particle
has moved from A to C.
COMBINING VECTORS

The resulting displacement vector AC

is called the sum of AB and BC .
We write:

AC  AB  BC
ADDING VECTORS

In general, if we start with vectors u and v,

we first move v so that its tail coincides with
the tip of u and define the sum of u and v
as follows.
VECTOR ADDITION—DEFINITION

If u and v are vectors positioned so the initial

point of v is at the terminal point of u, then
the sum u + v is the vector from the initial
point of u to the terminal point of v.
VECTOR ADDITION

The definition of vector addition is

illustrated here.
TRIANGLE LAW

You can see why this definition is

sometimes called the Triangle Law.
VECTOR ADDITION

Here, we start with the same vectors u and v

as earlier and draw another copy of v with
the same initial point as u.
VECTOR ADDITION

Completing the parallelogram,

we see that:
u+v=v+u
VECTOR ADDITION

This also gives another way to construct

the sum:

▪ If we place u and v so
they start at the same
point, then u + v lies
along the diagonal of
the parallelogram with
u and v as sides.
PARALLELOGRAM LAW

This is called the Parallelogram

Law.
VECTOR ADDITION Example 1

Draw the sum of the vectors a and b

shown here.
VECTOR ADDITION Example 1
First, we translate b and place its tail at the tip
of a—being careful to draw a copy of b that
has the same length and direction.
VECTOR ADDITION Example 1
Then, we draw the vector a + b starting at
the initial point of a and ending at the terminal
point of the copy of b.
VECTOR ADDITION Example 1
Alternatively, we could place b so it starts
where a starts and construct a + b by
the Parallelogram Law.
MULTIPLYING VECTORS

It is possible to multiply a vector

by a real number c.
SCALAR

In this context, we call the real

number c a scalar—to distinguish
it from a vector.
MULTIPLYING SCALARS

For instance, we want 2v to be the same

vector as v + v, which has the same direction
as v but is twice as long.

In general, we multiply a vector by a scalar

as follows.
SCALAR MULTIPLICATION—DEFINITION

If c is a scalar and v is a vector, the scalar

multiple cv is:

The vector whose length is |c| times the length

of v and whose direction is the same as v if
c > 0 and is opposite to v if c < 0.

▪ If c = 0 or v = 0, then cv = 0.
SCALAR MULTIPLICATION

The definition is illustrated here.

▪ We see that real

numbers work like
scaling factors here.

▪ That’s why we call

them scalars.
SCALAR MULTIPLICATION

Notice that two nonzero vectors are

parallel if they are scalar multiples of
one another.
SCALAR MULTIPLICATION

In particular, the vector –v = (–1)v has the

same length as v but points in the opposite
direction.

▪ We call it the negative

of v.
SUBTRACTING VECTORS

By the difference u – v of two vectors,

we mean:

u – v = u + (–v)
SUBTRACTING VECTORS

So, we can construct u – v by first drawing

the negative of v, –v, and then adding it to
u by the Parallelogram Law.
SUBTRACTING VECTORS

Alternatively, since v + (u – v) = u,
the vector u – v, when added to v,
gives u.
SUBTRACTING VECTORS

So, we could construct u by means of

the Triangle Law.
SUBTRACTING VECTORS Example 2

If a and b are the vectors shown here,

draw a – 2b.
SUBTRACTING VECTORS Example 2
First, we draw the vector –2b pointing in
the direction opposite to b and twice as long.
Next, we place it with its tail at the tip of a.
SUBTRACTING VECTORS Example 2

Finally, we use the Triangle Law to

draw a + (–2b).
COMPONENTS

For some purposes, it’s best to

introduce a coordinate system and
treat vectors algebraically.
COMPONENTS

Let’s place the initial point of a vector a

at the origin of a rectangular coordinate
system.
COMPONENTS

Then, the terminal point of a has coordinates

of the form (a1, a2) or (a1, a2, a3).

▪ This depends on whether our coordinate system

is two- or three-dimensional.
COMPONENTS

These coordinates are called

the components of a and we write:

a = ‹a1, a2› or a = ‹a1, a2, a3›

COMPONENTS

We use the notation ‹a1, a2› for the ordered

pair that refers to a vector so as not to confuse
it with the ordered pair (a1, a2) that refers to
a point in the plane.
COMPONENTS

For instance, the vectors shown here are

all equivalent to the vector OP  3, 2 whose
terminal point is P(3, 2).
COMPONENTS

What they have in common is that the terminal

point is reached from the initial point by a
displacement of three units to the right and
two upward.
COMPONENTS

We can think of all these geometric vectors

as representations of the algebraic vector
a = ‹3, 2›.
POSITION VECTOR

The particular representation OP from

the origin to the point P(3, 2) is called
the position vector of the point P.
POSITION VECTOR

In three dimensions, the vector

a = OP = ‹a1, a2, a3›
is the position vector of the point P(a1, a2, a3).
COMPONENTS

Let’s consider any other representation AB

of a, where the initial point is A(x1, y1, z1) and
the terminal point is B(x2, y2, z2).
COMPONENTS

Then, we must have:

x1 + a1 = x2, y1 + a2 = y2, z1 + a3 = z2
Thus,
a1 = x2 – x1, a2 = y2 – y1, a3 = z2 – z1

▪ Thus, we have the following result.

COMPONENTS Equation 1
Given the points A(x1, y1, z1) and B(x2, y2, z2),
the vector a with representation AB is:

a = ‹ x 2 – x 1, y 2 – y 1, z 2 – z 1›
COMPONENTS Example 3
Find the vector represented by the directed
line segment with initial point A(2, –3, 4) and
terminal point B(–2, 1, 1).

▪ By Equation 1, the vector corresponding to AB

is:
a = ‹–2 –2, 1 – (–3), 1 – 4› = ‹–4, 4, –3›
LENGTH OF VECTOR

The magnitude or length of the vector v

is the length of any of its representations.

▪ It is denoted by the symbol |v| or║v║.

LENGTH OF VECTOR

By using the distance formula to compute

the length of a segment OP , we obtain
the following formulas.
LENGTH OF 2-D VECTOR

The length of the two-dimensional (2-D)

vector a = ‹a1, a2› is:

| a | a  a
2
1
2
2
LENGTH OF 3-D VECTOR

The length of the three-dimensional (3-D)

vector a = ‹a1, a2, a3› is:

| a | a  a  a
2
1
2
2
2
3
ALGEBRAIC VECTORS

How do we add vectors

algebraically?
ADDING ALGEBRAIC VECTORS

The figure shows that, if a = ‹a1, a2›

and b = ‹b1, b2›, then the sum is
a + b = ‹a1 + b1, a2 + b2›

at least for the case

where the components
are positive.
ADDING ALGEBRAIC VECTORS

In other words, to add

algebraic vectors, we add
their components.
SUBTRACTING ALGEBRAIC VECTORS

Similarly, to subtract vectors,

we subtract components.
ALGEBRAIC VECTORS

From the similar triangles in the figure,

we see that the components of ca are
ca1 and ca2.
MULTIPLYING ALGEBRAIC VECTORS

So, to multiply a vector by a scalar,

we multiply each component by that
scalar.
2-D ALGEBRAIC VECTORS

If a = ‹a1, a2› and b = ‹b1, b2›, then

a + b = ‹a1 + b1, a2 + b2›

a – b = ‹a1 – b1 , a2 – b2›

ca = ‹ca1, ca2›
3-D ALGEBRAIC VECTORS

Similarly, for 3-D vectors,

 a1 , a2 , a3   b1 , b2 , b3    a1  b1 , a2  b2 , a3  b3 

 a1 , a2 , a3   b1 , b2 , b3    a1  b1 , a2  b2 , a3  b3 

c a1 , a2 , a3   ca1 , ca2 , ca3 

ALGEBRAIC VECTORS Example 4

If a = ‹4, 0, 3› and b = ‹–2, 1, 5›,

find:

|a| and the vectors a + b, a – b, 3b, 2a + 5b

ALGEBRAIC VECTORS Example 4

|a|  42  02  32

= 25
=5
ALGEBRAIC VECTORS Example 4

a + b =  4, 0, 3 + 2, 1, 5
=  4 + (  2), 0 + 1, 3 + 5
=  2, 1, 8
ALGEBRAIC VECTORS Example 4

a  b =  4, 0, 3  2, 1, 5
=  4  (  2), 0  1, 3  5
= 6, 1, 2
ALGEBRAIC VECTORS Example 4

3b = 32, 1, 5
= 3(2), 3(1), 3(5)
= 6, 3, 15
ALGEBRAIC VECTORS Example 4

2a + 5b = 2 4, 0, 3  52, 1, 5
= 8, 0, 6  10, 5, 25
= 2, 5, 31
COMPONENTS

We denote:

▪ V2 as the set of all 2-D vectors

▪ V3 as the set of all 3-D vectors

COMPONENTS

More generally, we will later need to

consider the set Vn of all n-dimensional
vectors.

▪ An n-dimensional vector is an ordered n-tuple

a = ‹a1, a2, …, an›

where a1, a2, …, an are real numbers that are

called the components of a.
COMPONENTS

Addition and scalar multiplication are

defined in terms of components just as
for the cases n = 2 and n = 3.
PROPERTIES OF VECTORS

If a, b, and c are vectors in Vn and c and d

are scalars, then

1. a + b = b + a 2. a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
3. a + 0 = a 4. a + (  a) = 0
5. c(a + b) = ca + cb 6. (c + d )a = ca + da
7. (cd )a = c(da) 8. 1a = a
PROPERTIES OF VECTORS

These eight properties of vectors can

be readily verified either geometrically or
algebraically.
PROPERTY 1

For instance, Property 1 can be seen from

this earlier figure.

▪ It’s equivalent to the

Parallelogram Law.
PROPERTY 1

It can also be seen as follows for the case

n = 2:
a + b = ‹a1, a2› + ‹b1, b2›
= ‹a1 + b1, a2 + b2›
= ‹b1 + a1, b2 + a2›
= ‹b1, b2› + ‹a1, a2›
=b+a
VECTORS IN V3

Three vectors in V3 play

a special role.
STANDARD BASIS VECTORS

Let i = ‹1, 0, 0›
j = ‹0, 1, 0›
k = ‹0, 0, 1›
These vectors i, j, and k are called
the standard basis vectors.

▪ They have length 1 and point in the directions

of the positive x-, y-, and z-axes.
STANDARD BASIS VECTORS

Similarly, in
two dimensions,
we define:
i = ‹1, 0›
j = ‹0, 1›
STANDARD BASIS VECTORS

If a = ‹a1, a2, a3›, then we can write:

a   a1 , a2 , a3 
  a1 , 0, 0  0, a2 , 0  0, 0, a3 
 a1 1, 0, 0  a2 0,1, 0  a3 0, 0,1
STANDARD BASIS VECTORS Equation 2

a  a1i  a2 j a  a1i  a2 j  a3k

STANDARD BASIS VECTORS

Thus, any vector in V3

can be expressed in terms
of i, j, and k.
STANDARD BASIS VECTORS

For instance,

‹1, –2, 6› = i – 2j + 6k
COMPONENTS

Compare the geometric interpretation

of Equations 2 and 3 with the earlier
figures.
COMPONENTS Example 5

If a = i + 2j – 3k and b = 4i + 7k,
express the vector 2a + 3b in terms
of i, j, and k.
COMPONENTS Example 5
Using Properties 1, 2, 5, 6, and 7 of vectors,
we have:

2a + 3b = 2(i + 2j – 3k) + 3(4i + 7k)

= 2i + 4j – 6k + 12i + 21k
= 14i + 4j + 15k
UNIT VECTOR

A unit vector is a vector whose

length is 1.

▪ For instance, i, j, and k are all unit vectors.

UNIT VECTORS Equation 4

In general, if a ≠ 0, then the unit vector

that has the same direction as a is:

1 a
u a
|a| |a|
UNIT VECTORS

In order to verify this, we let c = 1/|a|.

▪ Then, u = ca and c is a positive scalar;

so, u has the same direction as a.

▪ Also, 1
| u || ca |  | c || a | | a | 1
|a|
UNIT VECTORS Example 6

Find the unit vector in

the direction of the vector
2i – j – 2k.
UNIT VECTORS Example 6
The given vector has length

| 2i  j  2k | 2  (1)  (2)
2 2 2

 9 3
▪ So, the unit vector with the same direction is:

1
3 (2i  j  2k )  23 i  13 j  23 k
VECTORS AND THE GEOMETRY OF SPACE

So far, we have added

two vectors and multiplied
a vector by a scalar.
VECTORS AND THE GEOMETRY OF SPACE

The question arises:

▪ Is it possible to multiply two vectors

so that their product is a useful quantity?
VECTORS AND THE GEOMETRY OF SPACE

One such product is the dot

product, which we will discuss
in this section.
VECTORS AND THE GEOMETRY OF SPACE

Another is the cross product,

which we will discuss in the next
Section.
VECTORS AND THE GEOMETRY OF SPACE

The Dot Product

In this section, we will learn about:

Various concepts related to the dot product
and its applications.
THE DOT PRODUCT Definition 1

If a = ‹a1, a2, a3› and b = ‹b1, b2, b3›, then

the dot product of a and b is the number a • b
given by:

a • b = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3

DOT PRODUCT

Thus, to find the dot product of a and b,

we multiply corresponding components
and add.
SCALAR PRODUCT

The result is not a vector.

▪ It is a real number, that is, a scalar.

▪ For this reason, the dot product is sometimes
called the scalar product (or inner product).
DOT PRODUCT

Though Definition 1 is given for three-

dimensional (3-D) vectors, the dot product
of two-dimensional vectors is defined in
a similar fashion:

‹a1, a2› ∙ ‹b1, b2› = a1b1 + a2b2

DOT PRODUCT Example 1
‹2, 4› ∙ ‹3, – 1› = 2(3) + 4(–1) = 2

‹–1, 7, 4› ∙ ‹6, 2, –½› = (–1)(6) + 7(2) + 4(–½)

=6

(i + 2j – 3k) ∙ (2j – k) = 1(0) + 2(2) + (–3)(–1)

= 7
DOT PRODUCT

The dot product obeys many of the laws

that hold for ordinary products of real
numbers.

▪ These are stated in the following theorem.

PROPERTIES OF DOT PRODUCT Theorem 2

If a, b, and c are vectors in V3 and c is

a scalar, then

1. a  a=|a|2

2. a  b  b  a
3. a  (b  c)  a  b  a  c
4. (ca)  b  c(a  b)  a  (cb)
5. 0  a  0
Scalar 0
Vector 0
DOT PRODUCT PROPERTIES

These properties are easily proved

using Definition 1.

▪ For instance, the proofs of Properties 1 and 3

are as follows.
DOT PRODUCT PROPERTY 1 Proof

a∙a
2 2
= a1 + a 2 + a3 2

= |a|2
DOT PRODUCT PROPERTY 3 Proof

a • (b + c)
= ‹a1, a2, a3› ∙ ‹b1 + c1, b2 + c2, b3 + c3›
= a1(b1 + c1) + a2(b2 + c2) + a3(b3 + c3)
= a1b1 + a1c1 + a2b2 + a2c2 + a3b3 + a3c3
= (a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3) + (a1c1 + a2c2 + a3c3)
=a∙b+a∙c
GEOMETRIC INTERPRETATION

The dot product a • b can be given

a geometric interpretation in terms of
the angle θ between a and b.

▪ This is defined to be the angle between

the representations of a and b that start
at the origin, where 0 ≤ θ ≤ π.
GEOMETRIC INTERPRETATION

In other words, θ is the angle between

the line segments OA and OB here.

▪ Note that if a and b

are parallel vectors,
then θ = 0 or θ = π.
DOT PRODUCT

The formula in the following theorem

is used by physicists as the definition
of the dot product.
DOT PRODUCT—DEFINITION Theorem 3

If θ is the angle between the vectors

a and b, then

a ∙ b = |a||b| cos θ
DOT PRODUCT—DEFINITION Proof—Equation 4

If we apply the Law of Cosines to triangle OAB

here, we get:
|AB|2 = |OA|2 + |OB|2 – 2|OA||OB| cos θ

▪ Observe that
the Law of Cosines
still applies in
the limiting cases
when θ = 0 or π, or
a = 0 or b = 0
DOT PRODUCT—DEFINITION Proof

However,
|OA| = |a|

|OB| = |b|

|AB| = |a – b|
DOT PRODUCT—DEFINITION Proof—Equation 5

So, Equation 4 becomes:

|a – b|2 = |a|2 + |b|2 – 2|a||b| cos θ

DOT PRODUCT—DEFINITION Proof

Using Properties 1, 2, and 3 of the dot

product, we can rewrite the left side of
the equation as follows:
|a – b|2 = (a – b) ∙ (a – b)
=a∙a–a∙b–b∙a+b∙b
= |a|2 – 2a ∙ b + |b|2
DOT PRODUCT—DEFINITION Proof

Therefore, Equation 5 gives:

|a|2 – 2a ∙ b + |b|2 = |a|2 + |b|2 – 2|a||b| cos θ

▪ Thus,
–2a ∙ b = –2|a||b| cos θ

or
a ∙ b = |a||b| cos θ
DOT PRODUCT Example 2

If the vectors a and b have lengths 4

and 6, and the angle between them is π/3,
find a ∙ b.

▪ Using Theorem 3, we have:

a ∙ b = |a||b| cos(π/3)
=4∙6∙½
= 12
NONZERO VECTORS Corollary 6
The formula in Theorem 3 also enables us to find the
angle between two vectors.

Corollary: If θ is the angle between the

nonzero vectors a and b, then
a b
cos  
| a || b |
NONZERO VECTORS Example 3

Find the angle between the vectors

a = ‹2, 2, –1› and b = ‹5, –3, 2›

NONZERO VECTORS Example 3

| a | 22  22  (1) 2  3
and
| b | 5  (3)  2  38
2 2 2

Also,
a ∙ b = 2(5) + 2(–3) +(–1)(2) = 2
NONZERO VECTORS Example 3

Thus, from Corollary 6, we have:

ab 2
cos   
| a || b | 3 38
▪ So, the angle between a and b is:

 2 
  cos 
1
  1.46 (or 84 )
 3 38 
ORTHOGONAL VECTORS

Two nonzero vectors a and b are called

perpendicular or orthogonal if the angle
between them is θ = π/2.
ORTHOGONAL VECTORS

Then, Theorem 3 gives:

a ∙ b = |a||b| cos(π/2) = 0

▪ Conversely, if a ∙ b = 0, then cos θ = 0;

so, θ = π/2.
ZERO VECTORS

The zero vector 0 is considered to be

perpendicular to all vectors.

▪ Therefore, we have the following method for

determining whether two vectors are orthogonal.
ORTHOGONAL VECTORS Theorem 7

Two vectors a and b are orthogonal

if and only if

a∙b=0
ORTHOGONAL VECTORS Example 4

Show that 2i + 2j – k is perpendicular

to 5i – 4j + 2k.

▪ (2i + 2j – k) ∙ (5i – 4j + 2k)

= 2(5) + 2(–4) + (–1)(2)
=0

▪ So, these vectors are perpendicular

by Theorem 7.
DOT PRODUCT

As cos θ > 0 if 0 ≤ θ < π/2 and cos θ < 0

if π/2 < θ ≤ π, we see that a ∙ b is positive
for θ < π/2 and negative for θ > π/2.

▪ We can think of a ∙ b as measuring the extent

to which a and b point in the same direction.
DOT PRODUCT

The dot product a ∙ b is:

▪ Positive, if a and b point in the same general direction

▪ Zero, if they are

perpendicular

▪ Negative, if they point

in generally opposite
directions
DOT PRODUCT

In the extreme case where a and b

point in exactly the same direction,
we have θ = 0.

▪ So, cos θ = 1 and

a ∙ b = |a||b|
DOT PRODUCT

If a and b point in exactly opposite

directions, then θ = π.

▪ So, cos θ = –1 and

a ∙ b = –|a| |b|
DIRECTION ANGLES

The direction angles of a nonzero vector a

are the angles α, β, and γ (in the interval
[0, π]) that a makes with the positive x-, y-,
and z-axes.
DIRECTION COSINES

The cosines of these direction angles—cos α,

cos β, and cos γ—are called the direction
cosines of the vector a.
DIRECTION ANGLES & COSINES Equation 8

Using Corollary 6 with b replaced by i,

we obtain:

ai a1
cos   
| a || i | | a |
DIRECTION ANGLES & COSINES

This can also be seen directly from

the figure.
DIRECTION ANGLES & COSINES Equation 9

Similarly, we also have:

a2 a3
cos   cos  
|a| |a|
DIRECTION ANGLES & COSINES Equation 10

By squaring the expressions

in Equations 8 and 9 and adding,
we see that:

cos   cos   cos   1

2 2 2
DIRECTION ANGLES & COSINES

We can also use Equations 8 and 9

to write:
a = ‹a1, a2, a3›
= ‹|a| cos α, |a| cos β, |a| cos γ›
= |a|‹cos α, cos β, cos γ›
DIRECTION ANGLES & COSINES Equation 11

Therefore,

1
a  cos  , cos  , cos 
|a|

▪ This states that the direction cosines of a

are the components of the unit vector in
the direction of a.
DIRECTION ANGLES & COSINES Example 5

Find the direction angles of the vector

a = ‹1, 2, 3›

▪ | a | 12  22  32  14
▪ So, Equations 8 and 9 give:

1 2 3
cos   cos   cos  
14 14 14
DIRECTION ANGLES & COSINES Example 5

▪ Therefore,
 1 
  cos 
1
  74
 14 
1  2 
  cos    58
 14 
1  3 
  cos    37
 14 
PROJECTIONS

The figure shows representations PQ and PR

of two vectors a and b with the same initial
point P.
PROJECTIONS

Let S be the foot of the perpendicular

from R to the line containing PQ .
VECTOR PROJECTION

Then, the vector with representation PS is

called the vector projection of b onto a and is
denoted by proja b.
▪ You can think of it as a shadow of b.
SCALAR PROJECTION

The scalar projection of b onto a

(also called the component of b along a)
is defined to be the signed magnitude
of the vector projection.
PROJECTIONS

This is the number |b| cos θ, where θ

is the angle between a and b.

▪ This is denoted
by compa b.

▪ Observe that
it is negative
if π/2 < θ ≤ π.
PROJECTIONS

The equation
a ∙ b = |a||b| cos θ = |a|(|b| cos θ)
shows that:

▪ The dot product of a and b can be interpreted

as the length of a times the scalar projection of b
onto a.
PROJECTIONS

Since
ab a
| b | cos    b
|a| |a|

the component of b along a can be

computed by taking the dot product of b
with the unit vector in the direction of a.
PROJECTIONS

We summarize these ideas

as follows.
PROJECTIONS

Scalar projection of b onto a: ab

compa b 
|a|
Vector projection of b onto a:
 a b  a a b
proja b     2a
 |a| | a| |a|
▪ Notice that the vector projection
is the scalar projection times
the unit vector in the direction of a.
PROJECTIONS Example 6

Find the scalar and vector projections of:

b = ‹1, 1, 2› onto a = ‹–2 , 3, 1›

PROJECTIONS Example 6

Since
| a | (2)  3  1  14
2 2 2

the scalar projection of b onto a is:

a  b (2)(1)  3(1)  1(2)

compa b  
|a| 14
3

14
PROJECTIONS Example 6

The vector projection is that scalar projection

times the unit vector in the direction of a:

3 a 3
proja b   a
14 | a | 14
3 9 3
  , ,
7 14 14
VECTORS AND THE GEOMETRY OF SPACE

The Cross Product

In this section, we will learn about:

Cross products of vectors
and their applications.
THE CROSS PRODUCT

The cross product a x b of two

vectors a and b, unlike the dot product,
is a vector.

▪ For this reason, it is also called the vector product.

▪ Note that a x b is defined only when a and b

are three-dimensional (3-D) vectors.
THE CROSS PRODUCT Definition 1
If a = ‹a1, a2, a3› and b = ‹b1, b2, b3›, then
the cross product of a and b is the vector

a x b = ‹a2b3 - a3b2, a3b1 - a1b3, a1b2 - a2b1›

CROSS PRODUCT

This may seem like

a strange way of defining
a product.
CROSS PRODUCT

In order to make Definition 1 easier

to remember, we use the notation of
determinants.
DETERMINANT OF ORDER 2

A determinant of order 2 is defined by:

a b
 ad  bc
c d
▪ For example,
2 1
 2(4)  1(6)  14
6 4
DETERMINANT OF ORDER 3 Equation 2
A determinant of order 3 can be defined
in terms of second-order determinants as
follows:

a1 a2 a3
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
b1 b2 b3  a1  a2  a3
c2 c3 c1 c3 c1 c2
c1 c2 c3
DETERMINANT OF ORDER 3

a1 a2 a3
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
b1 b2 b3  a1  a2  a3
c2 c3 c1 c3 c1 c2
c1 c2 c3
Observe that:
▪ Each term on the right side of Equation 2 involves
a number ai in the first row of the determinant.
▪ This is multiplied by the second-order determinant
obtained from the left side by deleting the row and
column in which it appears.
DETERMINANT OF ORDER 3

a1 a2 a3
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
b1 b2 b3  a1  a2  a3
c2 c3 c1 c3 c1 c2
c1 c2 c3

Notice also the minus sign in the second term.

DETERMINANT OF ORDER 3

For example,

1 2 1
0 1 3 1 3 0
3 0 1 1 2  (1)
4 2 5 2 5 4
5 4 2
 1(0  4)  2(6  5)  (1)(12  0)
 38
CROSS PRODUCT

Now, let’s rewrite Definition 1 using

second-order determinants and
the standard basis vectors i, j, and k.
CROSS PRODUCT Equation 3
We see that the cross product of the vectors
a = a1i +a2j + a3k and b = b1i + b2j + b3k
is:

a2 a3 a1 a3 a1 a2
ab  i j k
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
CROSS PRODUCT Equation 4
In view of the similarity between Equations 2
and 3, we often write:

i j k
a  b  a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3
CROSS PRODUCT

The first row of the symbolic determinant

in Equation 4 consists of vectors.

▪ However, if we expand it as if it were

an ordinary determinant using the rule
in Equation 2, we obtain Equation 3.
CROSS PRODUCT

The symbolic formula in Equation 4 is

probably the easiest way of remembering
and computing cross products.
CROSS PRODUCT Example 1
If a = <1, 3, 4> and b = <2, 7, –5>, then

i j k
ab  1 3 4
2 7 5
3 4 1 4 1 3
 i j k
7 5 2 5 2 7
 (15  28)i  (5  8) j  (7  6)k
 43i  13j  k
CROSS PRODUCT Example 2

Show that a x a = 0 for any vector a in V3.

▪ If a = <a1, a2, a3>,

then
i j k
a  a  a1 a2 a3
a1 a2 a3
 (a2 a3  a3a2 ) i  (a1a3  a3a1 ) j
 (a1a2  a2 a1 ) k
 0i  0 j 0k  0
CROSS PRODUCT

One of the most important

properties of the cross product
is given by the following theorem.
CROSS PRODUCT Theorem

The vector a x b is orthogonal

to both a and b.
CROSS PRODUCT Proof

In order to show that a x b is orthogonal

to a, we compute their dot product as
follows
CROSS PRODUCT Proof

(a  b)  a
a2 a3 a1 a3 a1 a2
 a1  a2  a3
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
 a1 (a2b3  a3b2 )  a2 (a1b3  a3b1 )  a3 (a1b2  a2b1 )
 a1a2b3  a1b2 a3  a1a2b3  b1a2 a3  a1b2 a3  b1a2 a3
0
CROSS PRODUCT Proof

A similar computation shows that

(a x b) · b = 0

▪ Therefore, a x b is orthogonal to both a and b.

CROSS PRODUCT

Let a and b be represented by directed

line segments with the same initial point,
as shown.
CROSS PRODUCT

Then, Theorem 5 states

that the cross product
a x b points in a direction
perpendicular to the
plane through a and b.
CROSS PRODUCT

It turns out that the direction of a x b

is given by the right-hand rule,
as follows.
RIGHT-HAND RULE

If the fingers of your right hand curl in

the direction of a rotation (through an angle
less than 180°) from a to b, then your thumb
points in the direction
of a x b.
CROSS PRODUCT

We know the direction of the vector a x b.

The remaining thing we need to complete its

geometric description is its length |a x b|.

▪ This is given by the following theorem.

CROSS PRODUCT Theorem 6

If θ is the angle between a and b

(so 0 ≤ θ ≤ π), then

|a x b| = |a||b| sin θ
 CROSS PRODUCT Proof
From the definitions of the cross product
and length of a vector, we have:
|a x b|2
= (a2b3 – a3b2)2 + (a3b1 – a1b3)2 + (a1b2 – a2b1)2

= a22b32 – 2a2a3b2b3 + a32b22 + a32b12

– 2a1a3b1b3 + a12b32 + a12b22
– 2a1a2b1b2 + a22b12
 CROSS PRODUCT Proof

= (a12 + a22 + a32)(b12 + b22 + b32)

– (a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3)2

= |a|2|b|2 – (a . b)2
= |a|2|b|2 – |a|2|b|2 cos2θ [Th. 3 in Dot Product]
= |a|2|b|2 (1 – cos2θ)
= |a|2|b|2 sin2θ
Remark: |a x b|2= |a|2|b|2 – |a|2|b|2 cos2θ [Lagrange Identity]
CROSS PRODUCT Proof
Taking square roots and observing that
sin   sin  because sin θ ≥ 0 when
2

0 ≤ θ ≤ π, we have:

|a x b| = |a||b| sin θ
CROSS PRODUCT

A vector is completely determined by its

magnitude and direction.
Thus, we can now say that a x b is the vector
that is perpendicular to both a and b, whose:

▪ Orientation is determined by the right-hand rule

▪ Length is |a||b| sin θ

CROSS PRODUCT Corollary 7

Two nonzero vectors a and b are parallel

if and only if

axb=0
CROSS PRODUCT Proof

Two nonzero vectors a and b are parallel

if and only if θ = 0 or π.

▪ In either case, sin θ = 0.

▪ So, |a x b| = 0 and, therefore, a x b = 0.

CROSS PRODUCT

The geometric interpretation

of Theorem 6 can be seen from
this figure.
CROSS PRODUCT

If a and b are represented by directed

line segments with the same initial point,
then they determine a parallelogram with
base |a|, altitude |b| sin θ, and
area
A = |a|(|b| sin θ)
= |a x b|
CROSS PRODUCT

Thus, we have the following way of

interpreting the magnitude of a cross
product.
CROSS PRODUCT MAGNITUDE

The length of the cross product a x b

is equal to the area of the parallelogram
determined by a and b.
CROSS PRODUCT Example 3

Find a vector perpendicular to the plane

that passes through the points

P(1, 4, 6), Q(-2, 5, -1), R(1, -1, 1)

CROSS PRODUCT Example 3

The vector PQ  PR is perpendicular to

both PQ and PR .

▪ Therefore, it is perpendicular to the plane

through P, Q, and R.
CROSS PRODUCT Example 3
From Equation 1 in Previous Section,
we know that:

PQ  (2  1) i  (5  4) j  (1  6) k
 3i  j  7k

PR  (1  1) i  (1  4) j  (1  6) k
 5 j  5k
CROSS PRODUCT Example 3
We compute the cross product of these
vectors:

i j k
PQ  PR  3 1 7
0 5 5
 (5  35) i  (15  0) j  (15  0) k
 40i  15 j  15k
CROSS PRODUCT Example 3

Therefore, the vector ‹-40, -15, 15›

is perpendicular to the given plane.

▪ Any nonzero scalar multiple of this vector,

such as ‹-8, -3, 3›, is also perpendicular
to the plane.
CROSS PRODUCT Example 4

Find the area of the triangle with vertices

P(1, 4, 6), Q(-2, 5, -1), R(1, -1, 1)

CROSS PRODUCT Example 4

In Example 3, we computed that

PQ  PR  40, 15,15

▪ The area of the parallelogram with adjacent sides

PQ and PR is the length of this cross product:

PQ  PR  (40)  (15)  15  5 82
2 2 2
CROSS PRODUCT Example 4

The area A of the triangle PQR

is half the area of this parallelogram,
that is:
5
2 82
CROSS PRODUCT

If we apply Theorems 5 and 6 to the standard

basis vectors i, j, and k using θ = π/2,
we obtain:

ixj=k jxk=i kxi=j

j x i = -k k x j = -i i x k = -j
CROSS PRODUCT

Observe that:
ixj≠jxi

▪ Thus, the cross product

is not commutative.
CROSS PRODUCT

Also,
i x (i x j) = i x k = -j
However,
(i x i) x j = 0 x j = 0

▪ So, the associative law for multiplication

does not usually hold.

▪ That is, in general, (a x b) x c ≠ a x (b x c)

CROSS PRODUCT

However, some of the usual

laws of algebra do hold for cross
products.
CROSS PRODUCT

The following theorem

summarizes the properties
of vector products.
CROSS PRODUCT PROPERTIES Theorem 8
If a, b, and c are vectors and c is a scalar,
then
1. a x b = –b x a

2. (ca) x b = c(a x b) = a x (cb)

3. a x (b + c) = a x b + a x c
CROSS PRODUCT PROPERTIES Theorem 8
4. (a + b) x c = a x c + b x c

5. a · (b x c) = (a x b) · c

6. a x (b x c) = (a · c)b – (a · b)c
CROSS PRODUCT PROPERTIES

These properties can be proved by writing

the vectors in terms of their components
and using the definition of a cross product.

▪ We give the proof of Property 5 and leave

the remaining proofs as exercises.
CROSS PRODUCT PROPERTY 5 Proof

Let
a = <a1, a2, a3>

b = <b1, b2, b3>

c = <c1, c2, c3>

CROSS PRODUCT PROPERTY 5 Proof—Equation 9
Then,
a · (b x c) = a1(b2c3 – b3c2) + a2(b3c1 – b1c3)
+ a3(b1c2 – b2c1)
= a1b2c3 – a1b3c2 + a2b3c1 – a2b1c3
+ a3b1c2 – a3b2c1
= (a2b3 – a3b2)c1 + (a3b1 – a1b3)c2
+ (a1b2 – a2b1)c3
=(a x b) · c
SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT

The product a . (b x c) that occurs

in Property 5 is called the scalar triple
product of the vectors a, b, and c.
SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCTS Equation 10
Notice from Equation 9 that we
can write the scalar triple product
as a determinant:

a1 a2 a3
a  (b  c)  b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3
SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCTS

The geometric significance of the scalar

triple product can be seen by considering
the parallelepiped determined by the vectors
a, b, and c.
SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCTS

The area of the base parallelogram

is:
A = |b x c|
SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCTS

If θ is the angle between a and b x c,

then the height h of the parallelepiped is:
h = |a||cos θ|

▪ We must use
|cos θ| instead
of cos θ in case
θ > π/2.
SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCTS

Hence, the volume of the parallelepiped is:

V = Ah
= |b x c||a||cos θ|
= |a · (b x c)|

▪ Thus, we have proved the following formula.

SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCTS Formula 11
The volume of the parallelepiped determined
by the vectors a, b, and c is the magnitude of
their scalar triple product:

V = |a ·(b x c)|
COPLANAR VECTORS

If we use Formula 11 and discover that

the volume of the parallelepiped determined
by a, b, and c is 0, then the vectors must lie
in the same plane.

▪ That is, they are coplanar.

COPLANAR VECTORS Example 5
Use the scalar triple product to show
that the vectors

a = <1, 4, -7>, b = <2, -1, 4>, c = <0, -9, 18>

are coplanar.
COPLANAR VECTORS Example 5
We use Equation 10 to compute their scalar
triple product:
1 4 7
a  (b  c)  2 1 4
0 9 18
1 4 2 4 2 1
1 4 7
9 18 0 18 0 9
 1(18)  4(36)  7(18)  0
COPLANAR VECTORS Example 5

Hence, by Formula 11, the volume

of the parallelepiped determined by a, b,
and c is 0.
▪ This means that a, b, and c are coplanar.
HOMEWORK

1)

2)
Homework:
3)

4)

5)
Homework:
6)

7)
Homework:
8)

9)
Homework:
10)

11)
Homework:
12)

13)

14)