EARTHQUAKES

• Vibration, sometimes violent, of the earth’s surface as a result

of a release of energy in the earth’s crust

• This can be caused by

 Sudden dislocations of segments of the crust,
 Volcanic eruptions, or
 Even explosions created by the humans

• The dislocations of crust segments however lead to most

destructive quakes
1
• In the process of dislocation, vibrations called seismic waves
are generated

• These waves travel outward from the source of the

earthquake at varying speeds, causing earth to quiver or ring
like a bell or turning fork

• During an earthquake, enormous amounts of energy are

released

• The size and severity of an earthquake is estimated by 2

parameters - magnitude and intensity

• The magnitude is a measure of the amount of energy

released, while the intensity is the apparent effect
2
experienced at a specific location
• Earthquakes have been recorded as early as 1177 B.C. in China

• Aristotle was one of the first Europeans to create a theory about

the origin of Earthquakes. He thought that they were the result
of heavy winds

• Not much more study was concentrated on earthquakes until

the mid - 1700s

• Natural earthquakes are classified as 3 based on the source of

stresses that cause the movement –
1. Tectonic (relative movement of plates)
2. Plutonic (Deep-seated changes)
3. Volcanic 3
CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES

4
 INTERNAL
STRUCTURE OF
EARTH

5
• Long time ago, a large collection of material masses coalesced
to form the Earth

• Large amount of heat was generated by this fusion

• As the Earth cooled down, the heavier and denser materials

sank to the center and the lighter ones rose to the top

• The differentiated Earth consists of the

i. Inner Core (radius ~ 1290km),
ii. Outer Core (thickness ~ 2200km),
iii. Mantle (thickness ~ 2900km) and
iv. Crust (thickness ~ 5 to 40km)
6
• Inner Core is solid and consists of heavy metals (e.g., nickel
and iron) - density 16000kg/m3

• Outer Core is liquid in form – contains nickel and iron alloyed

with silica – density 12000kg/m3

• Temperature at the core – 2500ᵒC

• Mantle has the ability to flow – density 5000 - 6000kg/m3

• Crust consists of light materials (e.g., basalts and granites) –

density 1500kg/m3 – temperature 25ᵒC

7
CONVECTION
CURRENTS

8
• Convection currents are developed in viscous mantle

• Due to high pressure and temperature gradients between the

crust and the core

• Energy for the circulation is derived from the heat produced

from incessant decay of radioactive elements in the rock
throughout the earths interior

• These convection currents result in a circulation of earths mass

9
• Hot molten lava comes out and cold rock mass goes into the
earth

• Mass absorbed eventually melts under high temperature and

pressure

• Then they becomes a part of the Mantle

• Many such local circulations are taking place at different

regions underneath the earths surface

• This leads to different portions of the earth undergoing

different directions of movements along the surface
10
PLATE TECTONICS

11
• The convective flows of Mantle material cause the Crust and
some portion of the Mantle, to slide on the hot molten outer
core

• This sliding of Earth's mass takes place in pieces called

Tectonic Plates

• The surface of the Earth consists of seven major tectonic plates

and many smaller ones

12
• These plates move in different directions and at different
speeds from those of the neighboring ones – Inter-plate
interactions

• Sometimes, the plate in the front is slower; then, the plate

behind it comes and collides – Convergent Boundaries

• On the other hand, sometimes two plates move away from

one another – Divergent Boundaries

• In another case, two plates move side-by-side, along the same

direction or in opposite directions – Transform Boundaries

13
• The convergent boundary has a peculiarity that sometimes
neither of the colliding plates wants to sink (like at the
Himalayas)

• The relative movement of these plate boundaries varies across

the Earth; on an average, at a rate of 5 to 10cm per year

TYPES OF INTER-PLATE
BOUNDARIES
14
AND THE EARTHQUAKE…!!

15
• These tectonic plates are made of elastic but brittle rocky
materials

• So elastic strain energy is stored in them during the

deformations that occur due to the gigantic tectonic plate
actions that occur in the Earth

• But, the material contained in rocks is also very brittle

• Thus, when the rocks along a weak region in the Earth's

Crust reach their strength, a sudden movement takes place
there

16
• Opposite sides of the fault (a crack in the rocks where
movement has taken place) suddenly slip

• This release the large elastic strain energy stored in the

interface rocks

• For example, the energy released during the 2001 Bhuj

(India) earthquake is about 400 times (or more) that released
by the 1945 Atom Bomb dropped on Hiroshima!!

• The sudden slip at the fault causes the earthquake....

17
• A violent shaking of the Earth when large elastic strain energy
released spreads out through seismic waves

• These travel through the body and along the surface of the
Earth

• And, after the earthquake is over, the process of strain build-

up at this modified interface between the rocks starts all over
again

• Earth scientists know this as the ‘Elastic Rebound Theory’

18
19
CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES

• Plate Tectonic Theory

• Elastic Rebound Theory
• Volcanic earthquake - small in energy and seldom
damaging

20
NATURE AND OCCURRENCE

• When there is a sudden localized disturbance in rocks, waves

similar to those caused by a stone thrown into a pool spread
through out the earth

• An earthquake generates a similar disturbance

• The maximum effect of earthquake is felt near its source

• It diminishes with distance from the source

21
• Vibrations felt in the bedrock - Shocks

• A big earthquake is called the Main Shock

• A number of smaller size earthquakes takes place before and

after the main shock

• Those occurring before the big one – Foreshocks – interpreted

as being caused by plastic deformations or small ruptures

• Those occurring after the big ones – Aftershocks – usually due

to fresh ruptures or readjustment of fractures rocks
22
• Point of generation of an earthquake – Focus, Centre, or
Hypocenter

• Point on earths surface directly above the focus – Epicentre

• Depth of focus from the epicentre – Focal Depth

• Distance from the epicentre to any point – Focal Distance or

Epicentral Distance

23
• A small step or offset on the ground when one side of fault has
moved vertically with respect to other – Fault Scrap

24
• Seismic destruction propagates from the focus through a
limited region of the surrounding earths body – Focal Region

• Line joining the locations experiencing equal earthquake

intensity – Isoseismal line

• Line joining locations at which the shock arrives

simultaneously – Homoseismal line

25
• Location of focus indicates the depth of rupture and movement

• Earthquakes are usually concentrated in upper 700km only even

though movement of material occurs in mantle and core

• Based on Focal Depth:

i. Shallow Focus Earthquakes – most frequent – Focal depth
upto 70km
ii. Intermediate Focus earthquakes – occur between 70 and
300km
iii. Deep focus earthquakes – focal depth > 300km

26
• As the focal depth increases, maximum energy released by
earthquake progressively decreases

• Intermediate focus and deep focus earthquakes gets largely

dissipated by the time it reaches the surface

• Hence, main consideration for the design of earthquake

resistant structures are shallow focus earthquakes

27
CONSEQUENCES / EFFECTS OF
EARTHQUAKES
• Direct effects – direct damages – includes ground motion
and faulting

• Indirect effects – indirect damages – due to processes set

in motion by an earthquake

28
 DIRECT EFFECTS
a) Seismic waves through the surface rock layers results in ground
motion. Such motion can damage and completely destroy the building

b) In regions of hills and steep slopes,

- Earthquake vibrations may cause landslides and mudslides
- Cliffs may collapse which can damage buildings and lead
to loss of life

c) These can either shake a building off its foundations, modify its
supports, or cause its foundation to disintegrate

d) Strong surface seismic waves make the ground heave and lurch, and
damage the structure
29
e) Can cause liquefaction in areas with very wet ground
 Quick sand condition
 Lateral pressure on retaining wall
 Lateral spreading

• Quick Sand Condition

 In wet soil, the soil particles may be jarred apart which allows water to
seep in between them
 This reduces friction between the soil particles (responsible for strength
of soil)
 Wet saturated soil lose their bearing capacity and become fluid due to
sudden reduction in shear resistance caused by temporary increase of
pore fluid pressure
 Ground then behaves like quicksand
 When this occurs, building starts to lean and can just topple over or
partially sink into the liquefied soil 30

 As the soil has no strength to support them

• Lateral pressure on retaining wall
 Increased lateral pressure on retaining walls, resulting in their
displacement

• Lateral Spreading
 Also, large masses of soil can be displaced laterally, called
Lateral Spreading
 The displaced ground suffers cracks, rifting, and buckling
 Lateral spreading disrupts foundations of buildings built across
the fault, and causes bridges to buckle and service pipelines to
break

31
INDIRECT EFFECTS

a) Tsunamis
b) Sieches
c) Fire
d) Rupture dams and levees

32
 INDIRECT EFFECTS
a) Tsunamis:
• Following violent movement of the seafloor, series of sea waves
with extremely long time periods occur

• These are very common in the Pacific ocean

• In open sea, tsunami is only a broad swell on the water surface

• These will develop into breakers as they approaches the shore and
undulating water touches the bottom

• Near shores – energy of tsunamis gets concentrated in vertical

direction and in horizontal direction

• Breakers associated with tsunamis can easily be over 15m high in

33
case of larger earthquakes
• Several such earthquakes may crash over the coast in
succession between the waves, water may be pulled swiftly
seaward, emptying a harbor

• These can travel very quickly – 1000kmph

• Velocity with large wavelengths can be estimated as,

Vt = √(gh)

• Where, g – Acceleration due to gravity

h – Depth of water
34
b) Sieches:
• Similar to tsunamis
• Occurs as a result of sloshing of enclosed water in
reservoirs, lakes and harbors shaken by earthquakes

c) Can cause fire by damaging gas lines and snapping electric

wires
• Eg; after the Great San Francisco Earthquake in 1906, the city
burned for three days
• Most of the city was destroyed and 250,000 people were left
homeless

d) Can rupture dams and levees (raised river embankments),

causing floods, resulting in damage to structures and
considerable loss of life 35
CONSEQUENCES OF EARTHQUAKE DAMAGE
• Main concern :
 Destruction and damage of constructed and natural
environment and the loss and impairment of human life

• Devastation caused can be minimized technically with little extra cost

• Some structures demand greater earthquake resistance than others

because of their social and financial significance

• Decline in economic growth of the area - An important aspect of loss

of life, failure of infrastructure, and psychological fear of the region
being earthquake prone

• Hazards imposed by earthquake are unique in many aspects

36
• An attempt to mitigate the effects of an earthquake requires a unique
engineering approach

• An important feature of the disaster caused by earthquakes is that

harm to life is associated almost entirely with man-made structures

• Eg: collapse of buildings, bridges, dams, etc.

• Earthquakes cannot be predicted accurately

• Hence, it is necessary to construct EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT

STRUCTURES

• ie, structures may be susceptible to damage, but are essentially

collapse proof even in the event of the greatest possible earthquake
37
SIZE OF EARTHQUAKES
• Severity of an earthquake is assessed as:

 Quantifying its magnitude in terms of the energy released

(measuring amplitude, frequency, and location of seismic
waves)

 Evaluating the intensity – considering the destructive

effect of ground shaking on people, structures and natural
features

• Magnitude of a particular earthquake remains constant

• Intensity can vary with location 38

INTENSITY
• Describes the size of an earthquake

• INTENSITY - A qualitative measure which is based on direct

observation by individuals, rather than on instrumental
measurements

• Intensity or destructive power is an evaluation of severity of

the ground motion at a given location

• It is represented by a numerical index

• Measured in relation to the effect of the earthquake on human

life 39
• Generally destruction is described in terms of damage caused to
buildings, dams, bridges, etc., as reported by witnesses

• It is not a unique, precisely defined characteristic of an earthquake

• It is represented by roman capital letters

• Intensity of an earthquake depends on:

Total amount of energy released
Distance from the epicenter
Type of rock
Degree of consolidation

40
• In soft, unconsolidated material - wave amplitude and extend
of destruction are greater than in dense, crystalline rock

• Intensity is greatest close to the epicenter

• Most widely used intensity scale is Modified Mercalli (MM)

earthquake intensity scale

• MM intensity of an earthquake is usually assessed by

 Distributing questionnaires to or interviewing persons
in the affected areas,
 Observations of the earthquake’s effects by
experienced personnel
41
MODIFIED
MERCALLI
INTENSITY
SCALE

42
MAGNITUDE
• Measure of amount of energy released

• Quantitative measure of actual size of an earthquake

• More precise than intensity

• Based on direct measurements of the amplitude of seismic

waves

• Total energy released is calculated from amplitude of waves

and distance from the epicentre

• A magnitude number is assigned based on the amount of

ground displacement or vibration it produced 43
• Often reported in Richter Scale (Local Magnitude Scale)

• Richter scale – Logarithmic scale

• Earthquake of magnitude M4 causes 10 times as much ground

movement as one of magnitude 3 and 100 times as much as
of magnitude 2, and so on

• Earthquake of magnitude M2 is the smallest normally felt by

humans

• M8.9 is the largest earthquake ever recorded on earth – Lisbon

(Portugal) earthquake, 1755
44
• Earthquakes are often classified into different groups based
on their size

GROUP MAGNITUDE ANNUAL AVERAGE NUMBER

Great 8 and higher 1
Major 7 - 7.9 18
Strong 6 – 6.9 120
Moderate 5 – 5.9 800
Light 4 – 4.9 6200 (Estimated)
Minor 3 – 3.9 49000 (Estimated)
Very Minor < 3.0 M2-3 : 1000/day ; M1-2 : 8000/day

45
MAGNITUDE AND INTENSITY IN SEISMIC
REGIONS

• An earthquake causes different shaking intensities at different

locations

• Thus, the damage induced in buildings at these locations is also

different

• Hence, a structure needs to be designed to resist a particular

level of intensity of shaking, not the magnitude of an
earthquake

• Peak ground acceleration (PGA) experienced by the ground

during shaking, is one way of quantifying the severity of
ground vibration 46
• Approximate empirical correlations between MMI and the
PGA

MMI V VI VII VIII IX X

PGA 0.03 - 0.04 0.06 - 0.07 0.10 - 0.15 0.25 - 0.30 0.50 - 0.55 > 0.6

• In 1956, Gutenberg and Richter gave an approximate

correlation between the local magnitude ML and intensity I0
sustained in the epicentre area as,
ML = 2/3 I0 + 1

• In this, roman numbers of intensity are replaced with numerals

(Eg. VII with 7) 47
• Esteva and Rasenblueth gave relationship between seismic
intensity, magnitude and epicentral distance, r as:
I = 8.16 + 1.45M – 2.46 ln r

• Where, r – in km

• Limitation : cannot be used in cases where r reaches the

same order as the focal region

48
SEISMOGRAPHS
• Instrument used to measure the vibration of the earth

• Principle : Ground motion is measured by the vibration record of a

simple pendulum hanging from a steady point

49
• Three components:
1. The sensor – pendulum mass, string, magnet, support
2. The recorder – drum, pen, chart paper
3. The timer – motor which rotates the drum at constant
speed

• As the supporting frame shakes by earthquake waves, inertia of the

mass causes it to lag behind the motion of the frame

• This relative motion is recorded as a wiggly line by pen and ink on

paper wrapped around a rotating drum

• Earthquake records so obtained - Seismograms

50
• Magnet around the string provides required damping to control
the amplitude of oscillations

• One such instrument is required in each of two orthogonal

horizontal directions

• For measuring vertical oscillations, the string pendulum is

replaced with a spring pendulum oscillating about a fulcrum

51
• In modern seismographs, the relative motion between the
pendulum and the frame produces an electrical signal which is
electronically magnified

• Thus produces a seismogram depicting very weak seismic

waves

• Analog instruments have evolved over time

• But today, digital instruments using modern computer

technology are more commonly used

• Digital instruments record the ground motion on the memory

52
of an inbuilt microprocessor
CLASSIFICATION OF SEISMOGRAPHS
• Records obtained can be directly read directly as displacement,
velocity, or acceleration of the ground

1. Displacement Seismograph (Long Period Seismograph)

2. Velocity Seismograph
3. Acceleration Seismograph (Short Period Seismograph /
Accelerometers)

53
1. Displacement Seismograph: (Long Period Seismograph)

 If the natural period of the pendulum is long relative to the period of

ground motion

 Also if appropriate damping coefficient is chosen,

• The displacement x of the pendulum is proportional to the
ground motion xg; ie ; x α xg
• Thus recorded displacement can be expressed in terms of ground
motion times a constant

2. Velocity Seismograph:

• If the natural period of the pendulum is set close to that of ground motion

• Also if the damping coefficient of the pendulum is large enough

54
• Then x α x’g and ground velocity x’g can be determined
3. Acceleration Seismograph: (Short Period Seismograph /
Accelerometers)

• If the period of the pendulum is short enough relative to that of ground

motion by means of an appropriate value of pendulums damping coefficient,
x = x’’g is obtained

• Thus ground acceleration x’’g can be recorded

55
 SEISMOSCOPE
• Some instruments do not have a timer device (ie., drum holding the
chart paper does not rotate)

• Such instruments provide only the maximum extent of motion during

an earthquake - Seismoscopes

• Seismoscope is a device which indicates the occurrence of an

earthquake but does not write a record

• First earthquake recorder

• Invented by Chinese Scholar Chang Heng (132 A. D.) 56

• It did not record the complete time history of earthquake waves

• But did record the direction of principal impulse due to an earthquake

• Resembles a wine jar of dia. 6ft – outside of which 8 dragon heads,

facing 8 principal directions of the compass

• Mouth of each dragon held a ball

• Below each dragon head was a toad, with its mouth opened towards the
dragon

• At the occurrence of an earthquake, one of the 8 dragon mouths would

release a ball into the open mouth of the toad situated below

• This determines the direction of shaking 57

• It is reported to have recorded a 400mile distant earthquake which
was not felt at the location of seismoscope

• All assume the use of some kind of pendulum as the primary

sensing element, the motion of which would activate one of the
dragons

58
59
ACCELEROGRAPH – STRONG MOTION
INSTRUMENT
• Can be referred to as strong motion seismograph or simply earthquake
accelerometer
• Usually constructed as self-contained box, more commonly being
connected to the internet
• This measures acceleration

60
• Which can be integrated later to obtain velocity and position

• Useful when the earthquake ground motion is so strong so that it

causes more sensitive seismographs to go off-scale

• Within accelerograph, there is an arrangement of 3 accelerometer

sensing heads

• These are usually micro-machined (MEMS) chips that are sensitive

to one direction

• Thus constructed, the accelerometers can measure full motion of

the device in 3 dimensions

61
• Unlike continually recording seismographs, these nearly always
work in a triggered mode

• A level of acceleration must be set which starts the recording

process

• Difficult to maintain without a direct internet connection

62
STRONG GROUND MOTION
• Vibration of earths surface is a net consequence of motions caused
by seismic waves

• Seismic waves are generated by the energy release at each material

point within 3D volume that ruptures at the fault

• These waves arrive at various instants of time, have different

amplitudes and carry different levels of energy

• Thus the motion at any site on the ground is random in nature, its
amplitude and direction varying randomly with time

63
• Large earthquakes at great distances can produce weak motions that
may not damage structures or even be felt by humans

• But sensitive instruments can record these

• This makes it possible to locate distant earthquakes

• However, from engineering point of view, strong motions that can

possibly damage structures are of interest

• This can happen with earthquakes in the vicinity or even with large
earthquakes at reasonable medium to large distances

64
• Based on ground motion:

1. Practically a single shock

2. A moderately long, extremely irregular motion
3. A long period ground motion exhibiting pronounced prevailing periods
of vibration
4. A ground motion involving large-scale, permanent deformations of the
ground

65
1. Practically a single shock:
 Motion occurs only at short distances from epicenter
 Only on firm ground
 Only for shallow earthquakes

2. A moderately long, extremely irregular motion:

 Associated with moderate distance from the focus
 Occurs only on a firm ground
 They are of almost equal severity in all directions

66
3. A long period ground motion exhibiting pronounced
prevailing periods of vibration

 Such motion results from:

̶ The filtering of earthquakes of preceding types through
layers of soft soil that exhibit linear or almost linear soil
behavior, and
̶ From the successive wave reflections at the interfaces of
mantles

4. A ground motion involving large-scale, permanent

deformations of the ground
• Slides or soil liquefaction
• Difficult to study either analytically or through simulation
67
CHARACTERISTICS OF STRONG GROUND
MOTION
• Motion of a ground can be described in terms of – displacement,
velocity and acceleration

• Variation of ground acceleration with time, recorded at a point on

the ground during an earthquake – Accelerogram

• Ground velocity and displacement can be obtained by direct

integration of an Accelerogram

• For structural engineering purposes, acceleration gives the best

measure of an earthquakes intensity
68
• Nature of accelerograms may vary depending on the,
 Energy released at the source
 Type of slip at the fault rupture
 Geology along the travel path from the fault rupture to
the earths surface
 Local soil

• Accelerograms carry distinct information regarding:

 Ground shaking
 Peak amplitude
 Duration of strong shaking
 Frequency content (amplitude associated with each
frequency)
 Energy content (energy carried by ground shaking at
each frequency)
69
70
• During short initial period, the intensity of ground acceleration
increases to strong shaking

• Which is followed by strong acceleration phase, which is followed

by a gradual decreasing motion

• The ground velocity is directly related to the

 Energy transmitted to the structures and
 Intensity of damage caused

• Thus, ground displacement may be of interest for the design of

underground structures

71
• Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA) is the most commonly used
measure of the intensity of shaking at a site

• A horizontal PGA value of 0.6g (g- acceleration due to gravity)

indicates that movement of the ground can cause a maximum
horizontal force on a rigid structure equal to 60% of its weight

• All points in a rigid structure move with the ground by the same
amount and hence experience the same PGA

• Ground motions with high peak accelerations are most damaging

• Strong ground motions carry significant energy associated with

shaking of frequencies in range of 0.03-30Hz
72
• Generally maximum amplitudes of horizontal motions in the two
orthogonal directions are about the same

• Maximum amplitude in the vertical direction < that in horizontal

direction

• Vertical design acceleration = ½ or 2/3rd of horizontal design

acceleration --- not applicable in vicinity of fault rupture

• Duration of strong motion – time interval in which 90% of the total

contribution to the energy of the accelerogram takes place

• Time interval between 5-95% contributions – Strong motion

duration
73
SEISMIC WAVES (Earthquake Waves)
• Earthquake vibrations originate from the point of initiation of rupture
and propagates in all directions

• Through earths layers by reflecting and refracting at each interface

• Or large strain energy released during earthquake propagates as

seismic waves in all directions

• Two types:
1. Body waves – travels through interior of elastic media
2. Surface waves – bound to free surfaces

74
1. Body waves -
i. Primary Waves (P, Longitudinal or compressional waves)
ii. Secondary Waves (S, Transverse or Shear Waves)

2. Surface waves -
i. Love Waves (L Waves)
ii. Rayleigh Waves

75
1. Primary P – Waves

• Also known as primary waves, push-pull waves, longitudinal waves,

compressional waves, etc

• Propagate by longitudinal or compressive action, which mean that the

ground is alternately compressed and dilated in the direction of propagation

• These causes momentary volume change in the material through which they
pass without any momentary shape change in the material

• P waves are the fastest among the seismic waves and travel as fast as
5 to 7km/sec

• Therefore, these are the first waves to reach any seismic station and hence
the first to be recorded
76
• The P waves resemble sound waves

• Hence obeys all the physical laws of science and acoustics

• These waves are capable of traveling through solids, liquids and

gases

77
• The P - waves propagates radial to the source of the energy release and the
velocity is expressed by;

Where; E - Young’s modulus

ν - Poisson’s ratio (0.25) for earth
ρ - Density 78
2. Secondary (S) Waves

• Also called shear waves, secondary waves, transverse waves, etc

• Material particles in S – waves oscillate at right angles to the direction of
propagation of wave

• Compared to P waves, these are relatively slow

• The ground is displaced perpendicularly to the direction of propagation

• In nature, these are like light waves

• These waves are capable of travelling only through solids

• Vs α Shear strength of the material through which they pass

• Hence they do not travel through liquids (as they do not have any shear
strength)
79
80
• S waves do not change the instantaneous volume of the material through
which they pass

• However, instantaneous shape of the material gets distorted

• Two types:
i. SH Waves - Particle motion is parallel to prominent planes in the medium
ii. SV Waves - Particle motion is vertical ie., up and down in vertical plane

• They travel at the rate of 3 to 4km/sec

• These waves are always recorded after P waves in a seismic station

• S-waves causes maximum damage to structures by rocking the surface in

both horizontal and vertical directions
81
• Shear wave velocity is given by;

• Where; G – Shear Modulus

• As P and S-waves reaches the earths surface, most of their energy is

reflected back

• Some of this energy is returned to the surface after being reflected from
different layers of soil and rock

• Shaking due to earthquake is more severe (about twice) at the earth’s

surface than at substantial depths 82
• Relation Connection Velocities of P- waves and S- Waves:

• Near surface of earth, VP = 5 - 7km/s

VS = 3 - 4km/s

• Duration of Primary Tremor, TSP:

• Time interval between the arrival of a P - wave and an S - wave at the
observation station

Where; S - Distance from focus to the observation point

83
SURFACE WAVES
• Confined to the surface layers of the earth only

• Surface waves travel through the earth crust and does not propagate into
the interior of earth unlike P or S waves

• Surface waves are the slowest among the seismic waves

• Last to be recorded in the seismic station at the time of occurrence of the

earthquake

• They travel at the rate of 2 to 4 km/sec

84
• Complex and elliptical particle motion is characteristic of these waves

• These waves are capable of travelling through solids and liquids

• Complex in nature

• The damage and destruction associated with earthquakes can be mainly

attributed to surface waves

• This damage potential and the strength of the surface waves reduce with
increase in depth of earthquakes

85
1. Love (L) Waves:

• These causes surface motion similar to that caused by S-waves, but

with no vertical component

• They can only propagate in a velocity layered medium

• Hence always dispersive

86
• These are generally shear waves that diminishes rapidly with
distance below the surface

• Effects – Ground Shaking - produces damage to the foundation of

structures

• Love waves do not propagate through water, it affects surface

water only

87
2. Rayleigh Waves:

• These are tension - compression waves similar to the P-waves

• Their amplitude diminishes with distance below the surface of the

ground

• Make a material particle oscillate in an elliptical path in the vertical plane

(in horizontal motion along the direction of energy transmission)

• Velocity depends on the Poisson’s ratio of the material through which

they pass

• Considered as principal component of ground roll

• Ground roll – coherent linear noise which propagates at the earths

surface at low velocity and low frequency

88
89
90
SEISMIC WAVES AND ITS PROPERTIES
• Waves consist of a disturbance in materials (media) that carry energy and
propagate

• However, the material that the wave propagates in generally does not
move with the wave

• The movement of the material is generally confined to particle motion of

the material as the wave passes

• After the wave has passed, the material usually looks just like it did
before the wave

• A source of energy creates the initial disturbance and the resulting waves
propagate out from the disturbance

• Then it becomes smaller (attenuate) with distance away from the source 91

or with time after the initial source, and thus, will eventually die out
• Waves are often represented mathematically and in graphs as sine waves
(or combinations of sine waves)

• The vertical axis on this plot represents the temporary motion of the
propagating wave at a given time or location as the wave passes

• The horizontal axis displays time or distance

92
WAVE PROPAGATION
• The waves travel at speeds which depend on the material properties
(elastic moduli and density)

• Several types of interaction between waves and the subsurface

geology (i.e. the rocks) are commonly observable on seismograms
1. Refraction
2. Reflection
3. Dispersion
4. Attenuation

93
1. REFRACTION

• As a wave travels through Earth, the path it takes depends on the velocity

• The change in direction depends on the ratio of the wave velocities of the
two different rocks

• Refraction has an important effect on waves that travel through Earth

• In general, the seismic velocity in Earth increases with depth

• Refraction of waves causes the path followed by body waves to curve

upward

94
• When waves reach a boundary between different rock types, part of
the energy is transmitted across the boundary

• The transmitted wave travels in a different direction which depends

on the ratio of velocities of the two rock types
95
• Part of the energy is also reflected backwards into the region with
Rock Type 1

• The overall increase in seismic wave speed with depth into Earth
produces an upward curvature to rays that pass through the mantle

• A notable exception is caused by the decrease in velocity from the

mantle to the core

• This reduction in speed bends waves backward and creates

a "P-wave Shadow Zone“

• The shadow zone is the area of the earth from angular distances of
100° to 140° (1° = 111.19 km) from a given earthquake that does
not receive any direct P waves
96
2. REFLECTION

• In some instances reflections from the boundary between the mantle

and crust may induce strong shaking that causes damage about
100 km from an earthquake

• A seismic reflection occurs when a wave impinges on a change in

rock type (which usually is accompanied by a change in seismic
wave speed)

• Part of the energy carried by the incident wave is transmitted through

the material and part is reflected back into the medium that contained
the incident wave

97
• When a wave encounters a change in material properties its energy
is split into reflected and refracted waves

• The magnitude of reflection depends strongly on the angle that the

incidence wave makes with the boundary and the contrast in
material properties across the boundary

• For some angles all the energy can be returned into the medium
containing the incident wave 98
3. DISPERSION
• The surface waves are dispersive which means that different
periods travel at different velocities

• The effects of dispersion become more noticeable with increasing

distance because the longer travel distance disperses the energy

• Usually, the long periods arrive first since they are sensitive to the
speeds deeper in Earth, and the deeper regions are generally faster

99
4. ATTENUATION OF WAVES
• Earthquake shaking is usually very strong on or very close to the fault,
and decreases or attenuates with distance from the fault

• This attenuation depends on the magnitude of the earthquake, and the

geology of the region

• Soft soils such as old filled-in marshes can greatly increase or amplify
the ground motion

• The effect of soil is a primary factor in the intensity of the shaking

• Hence, even though shaking generally attenuates with distance from the
fault, shaking can still be very strong at a large distance

100
DETERMINATION OF EARTHQUAKE FOCUS:
• The distance of focus from the observation station is determined by the
relative arrival times of the P and S waves

• The distance from hypocenter to observation point is given by;

• Time interval between the arrival of a P - wave and an S - wave at the

observation station is called as ‘Duration of Primary Tremor, TSP’

• The time TSP can be taken as the time of duration of the initial tremor to it
built-up

• While Vp and Vs are geological properties for a given locations 101

• Thus, the distance from the hypocentre to the observation point is
approximately proportional to the time of duration of the initial tremor

• The coefficient of proportionality is about 8km/sec

• When distance has been determined for each of three observation points
the hypocentre is located as the point of intersection of these spheres

102
DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKES: Globally
• Seismic belt is a narrow geographic zone on the Earth’s surface along
which most earthquake activity occur

• The outermost layer of the Earth (lithosphere) is made up of several large

tectonic plates

• The edges where these plates move against one another are the location of
inter-plate earthquakes that produce the seismic belts

• 3 major seismic belts:

1. Ring of Fire (Circum - Pacific Belt or Pacific Ring of Fire)
2. Alpide Belt (Alpine – Himalayan Orogenic Belt)
3. Mid-Atlantic Ridge Seismic Belt 103
RING OF FIRE
• A long horseshoe-shaped seismically active belt of earthquake epicentres,
volcanoes, and tectonic plate boundaries that fringes the Pacific basin

• Accounts for about 90% of the world's earthquake and 81% of world’s
largest earthquakes

• The stretch is approximately 40,000kms

̶ from New Zealand, all the way to the West Pacific through the
Philippines, Japan and Indonesia, covering parts of Bering Strait
between Alaska and Russia, and extending all the way to the West
coasts of North America and South America

• Volcanoes are associated with the belt throughout its length

• This ring accounts for 452 volcanoes (active and dormant). Hence, for
104
this
reason it is called the “Ring of Fire”
• Approximately 75% of the world’s volcanoes occur within the Ring of
Fire

• The Ring of Fire encapsulates several tectonic plates –

̶ including the vast Pacific Plate and the smaller Philippine,
Juan de Fuca, Cocos, and Nazca plates

105
• The Ring of Fire has been the setting for several of the largest
earthquakes in recorded history, including:

1. The Chile earthquake of 1960,

2. The Alaska earthquake of 1964,
3. The Chile earthquake of 2010, and
4. The Japan earthquake of 2011,
5. As well as the earthquake that produced the devastating Indian
Ocean tsunami of 2004

• Major causes of Pacific Ring of Fire:

1. Tectonic Activities
2. Plate Boundaries
3. Volcanic Activity 106
ALPIDE BELT (ALPINE – HIMALAYAN OROGENIC BELT)
• It is a mountain range which extends along Eurasian continent

• It is second most seismically active region in the world with 17% of the
world’s largest earthquakes

• It was created as the result of tectonic plates pushing into each other and
lifting the Earth’s crust upward

• The zone stretches as far west as the Atlantic coast of Northern Africa and
as far east as the islands of Sumatra and Java

• Between these two points, it runs across the Himalayan and

Mediterranean regions

• This earthquake belt represents the divergent plate boundaries

• The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake just off the coast of Sumatra was
located within the Alpide belt 107
MID-ATLANTIC RIDGE SEISMIC BELT
• It is one of the longest active Seismic belts where most of the
Earthquake epicentres are located continuously with a narrow axial zone

• The total length of this belt is around 70000km

• Along the Mid-Atlantic ridge, a purely oceanic seismic belt lies

• Accountable for only 3% of large earthquakes

• Roughly 5-million earthquakes happen annually along this belt, but most
of them are too small to be felt

• This belt represents the subduction zone of continental plates

108
SEISMIC BELTS

109
DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKES: Indian
• The Indian subcontinent has a history of devastating earthquakes

• The major reason for the high frequency and intensity of the earthquakes
is that the Indian plate is driving into Asia at a rate of approximately
47mm/year

• Geographical statistics of India show that almost 54% of the land is

vulnerable to earthquakes

• World Bank and United Nations report shows estimates that around 200
million city dwellers in India will be exposed to storms and earthquakes
by 2050

• The latest version of seismic zoning map of India given in the earthquake
resistant design code of India [IS 1893 (Part 1) 2002] assigns four levels
of seismicity for India in terms of zone factors 110
• In other words, the earthquake zoning map of India divides India into 4
seismic zones (Zone 2, 3, 4 and 5)

111
SEISMIC ZONING /SEISMIC ZONATION
• It is not possible to predict with any certainty
 When and where earthquakes will occur,
 How strong they will be, and
 What characteristics the ground motions will have

• A simple method is to use a seismic zone map, wherein the area is

subdivided into regions, each associated with a known or assigned
seismic probability or risk

• Seismic Zonation may be termed as the geographic delineation of areas

having different potentials for hazardous effects from future earthquakes

• This is done to serve as a useful basis for the implementation of 112

code
provisions on earthquake resistant design [IS 1893 (Part 1) 2002]
• Can be done at any scale - national, regional, local, or site

• A seismic zone is a region in which the rate of seismic activity remains

fairly consistent

• A number of different zoning systems are used, from numerical zones to

colored zones, with each number or color representing a different level of
seismic activity

• The present seismic zoning map used in India shows the country divided
into 4 zones: Zones II, III, IV, V of approximately equal seismic
probability depending upon local hazards

• Each of these zones is described in terms of the value of its peak ground
acceleration (Design Ground Acceleration)

113
• Associated with each zone is a factor which enters into the expression for
determining the total base shear and is known as ‘Zone Factor’

• Total Base Shear - Base shear is an estimate of the maximum expected

lateral force that will occur due to seismic ground motion at the base of a
structure

114
TYPES OF ZONATION
1. Macro-zonation
• For larger area like, zonation of country or continent macro level is
adopted

• Macro-zonation is carried out considering the seismicity, geology in lager

scales - without considering geotechnical aspects

• It involves dividing a national territory into several areas indicating

progressive levels of expected seismic intensity for different return
periods

• Described in terms of
 Expected intensity,
 Peak Ground Accelerations, or
 Any other strong motion parameter 115
2. Micro-zonation / Seismic Micro- zoning
• It involves incorporation of geologic, seismologic, geotechnical and
structural concerns

• Should provide general guidelines for the types of new structures that are
most suited to an area

• Provide information on the relative damage potential of the existing

structures in a region

• This maps in detail all possible earthquake and earthquake induced

hazards

• Seismic micro-zonation can be defined as mapping of seismic hazard at

local scales to incorporate the effects of local soil conditions

116
• The important places of concern for which seismic micro-zonation needs
to be carried out
 The urban or upcoming urban area that falls under the high seismic
hazard zone and
 Also for places with moderate (or low) hazard but where
amplification would be expected because of the local geological
conditions

• The damage pattern due to an earthquake depends largely on the,

 Local site condition
 Social infrastructures of the region
 Intensity of ground shaking at the time of the earthquakes (most
imp.)

• Micro-zonation works are carried out in important cities like Delhi,

117
Dehradun, Gujarat, Guwahati, Haldia, Jabalpur, Sikkim and Talchir