Subsurface and Seismic Methods

Zagazig University Faculty of Science
SUBSURFACE GEOLOGY
AND
SEISMIC METHODS
(G-419)
Lecture Notes
Dr. Ashraf Ghoneimi

Dr. Shaker Ibrahim
Geology Department
First Semester - Fourth Year

Petroleum and Water Science Program
2021-2022
SUBSURFACE AND SEISMIC METHODS (G-419) 2021/2022
Course Specifications
A-Basic Information
Program(s) on which the course is given: Petroleum and Groundwater
Sciences Program
Major or Selective element of program: Major
Department offering the program: Geology
Department offering the course: Geology
Academic level: Fourth year - Credit hour 3 -
First semester
Academic year: 2021/2022
Date of specification approval: 20/9/2020
Title: Subsurface Geology and Seismic methods Code: G 419

Lecture: 2h/ w Practical: 1h/ w Total: 3h/ w
B - Professional Information
1 - Overall Aims of Course
The main aim of the course is to ensure that the students should be able
to:
1. Understand the defferences between surface and subsurface geology.
2. Definition of the sources of subsurface data
3. Knowledge the different maps of subsurface geology
4. Understand the basic concepts of seismic methods.
5. Improve the practical skills in interpretation of different seismic
methods
6. Develop specific seismic methods of data to sonic applied courses
according to the field and market requirements.
7. Improve the individual skills to interpret the seismic methods.
2 - Intended Learning Outcomes of Course (ILOs)

a- Knowledge and Understanding:
By the completion of this program, the student should be able
to:
a.l- Explain the basses of methods of correlation.
a.2- List the different subsurface maps.
a.3- Outline the descriptors of rock units .
a.4- Describe the different tools and types of seismic methods.
a.5- Define the concept of application for each seismic methods
a.6- Describe the field measurements of the different seismic methods.
Dr. Ashraf Ghoneimi and Dr. Shaker Ibrahim i |

b- Intellectual Skills
b.1- Distinguish the deposition environments.
b.2- Compare between the faces maps.
b.3- Evaluate the sources of Subsurface data.
b.4- Distinguish successfully the suitable seismic methods according to
the target of exploration.
b.5- Analyze effective interpretation of the measured field data to get
satisfactory information.
b.6- Develop the ability of thinking in a creative way to discuss the
obtained results and report the conclusions
c- Professional and Practical Skills

c.1- Apply the character of depositional environment
c.2- Operate the apparatus of subsurface geology.
c.3- Apply the report for faces maps
c.4- Examine the skills of seismic data analyzing and interpretations.
c.5- Illustrate the presented data in form of TDC, 2-D and 3-D models
to conclude and interpret the geological information.
c.6- Examine the ability to integrate different type of seismic methods.
d- General and Transferable Skills

d.1- Operate the ability to treat different social situations and team
working.
d.2- Operate the skills of dealing with the computers in the data
processing and interpretation.
d.3- Employ training for the effective communication (with peoples
and organizations), solve problems and time management skills.
d.4- Improve the ability to achieve continuous self education and
development.
3- Contents
No. of
Topic Lecture Practical
hours
1. Introduction, surface and subsurface geology, 3 2 1
Seismic methods
2. Sources of subsurface data, geophysical 3 2 1
methods, well measurements
3. Well sampling, well logging data 3 2 1
4. Presentation of subsurface data, subsurface 3 2 1
maps, contour lines, cross sections
Dr. Ashraf Ghoneimi and Dr. Shaker Ibrahim ii |

5. Isopach and isochore mapping, structure-contour 3 2 1

maps
6. Three dimentional presentations, Case studies of 3 2 1
subsurface geology
7. Elasticity and Seismic waves 3 2 1
8. Types of seismic methods, wave geometry, time 3 2 1
distance relations
9. Seismic refraction method 3 2 1
10. Seismic reflection method, seismic instruments, 3 2 1
seismic data acuisition
11. Seismic data processing 3 2 1
12. Seismic data Interpretation 3 2 1
4.Teaching and Leaning Methods

Teaching and Leaning Methods ILOs
4.1- Classroom teaching a.1,a.2,a.3,b.1, b5
4.2- Discussion c1, c2, c3 , c6
4.3- Search paper b.1,b2,b3 b4, b6
5. Student Assessment Methods

Student Assessment Methods ILOs
5.1 Written examination to assess the knowledge and b.1,b2, b3,c1, d1, d4
understanding
5.2 Practical examination to assess the knowledge and c1, c2, c3, d1, d2, d3
intellectual c5
5.3 Oral examination to assess the intellectual skills a.1,a.2,a.3,c1, c2, c3,
d1, d2
Assessment Schedule
Assessment 1- Through the lecture at the end of each topics (written Exam).
Assessment 2- Mid-Term Exam (written Exam at week 7).
Assessment 3- Final-Term Exam (written, practical, oral ) at week 14.
Weighting of Assessments
Semester work 10 %
Mid-term examination 10 %
Practical 10 %
oral examination 10 %
Final-term examination 60 %
-----------------------------------------------------------
Total 100 %
Dr. Ashraf Ghoneimi and Dr. Shaker Ibrahim iii |

6- List of References
6.1- Course Notes. Subsurface geology and seismic methods.
6.2- Essential Books (Text Books) Subsurface Geology.
6.3- Recommended Books.
6.4- Periodicals, Web Sites.
6.6- Textbooks: An Introduction to Geophysical Exploration, Philip Kearey.
- Fundamentals of Geophysics, William Lowrie.
6.7- Web Sites: http://www.seismic.com
7- Facilities Required for Teaching and Learning

- Suitable teaching classrooms provided with computers, data show.
- Erasable pens, overhead projectors and slide projectors.
- Suitable lab. provided with 10 Computers, Internet connection and
Interpretation software programs.
Course Coordinator: Dr. Ashraf Ghonimi and Shaker Ibrahim

Head of Department: Dr. Abeer El-Kenawy
Date of department council:
Course Matrix (Subsurface and Seismic Methods, G 419)

Skills
Knowledge and
Topics Professional and General and
Understanding Intellectual
Practical Transfer
a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 b1 b2 b3 b4 5b c1 c2 c3 c4 c5 d1 d2 d3 d4
Introduction, surface and subsurface x x
geology, Seismic methods
Sources of subsurface data, x x
geophysical methods, well
measurements
Well sampling, well logging data x x x
Presentation of subsurface data, x
subsurface maps, contour lines, cross
sections
Isopach and isochore mapping, x x x x
structure-contour maps
Three dimentional presentations, Case x x x x x x x x x
studies of subsurface geology
Elasticity and Seismic waves x x x x x x x x x x
Types of seismic methods, wave x x x x x x x

geometry, time distance relations
Seismic refraction method x x x x
Seismic reflection method, seismic x x x x x x x x x
instruments, seismic data acuisition
Seismic data processing x x x x x x x x x x
Seismic data Interpretation x x x x x x x
Dr. Ashraf Ghoneimi and Dr. Shaker Ibrahim iv |

CONTENTS
COURSE SPECIFICATIONS .......................................................ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

CONTENTS ........................................................................................................................... V
PART ONE SEISMIC METHODS ......................................................................................... VII
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 1
Importance of seismic exploration ................................................................................ 2
ELASTICITY .......................................................................................................................... 3
Stress and Strain ............................................................................................................ 3
Elasticity of Rocks (Hook’s Law) .................................................................................... 5
Elastic Constants (Moduli) ............................................................................................. 6
SEISMIC WAVES .................................................................................................................. 9
General definitions (characteristics) of waves: ............................................................. 9
Types of Seismic Waves ............................................................................................... 10
Seismic wave velocities of rocks .................................................................................. 15
Measurement of velocity: ............................................................................................ 17
SEISMIC WAVE REFLECTION AND REFRACTION ............................................................................. 19
Snell's law: ................................................................................................................... 19
Critical refraction: ........................................................................................................ 20
REFLECTION COEFFICIENT ........................................................................................................ 21
Reflection and Refraction Surveying ........................................................................... 22
Characteristics of travel time curves: .......................................................................... 23
INSTRUMENTS .................................................................................................................. 25
Seismic wave sources .................................................................................................. 26
Marine Sources ............................................................................................................ 32
Seismic Receivers (Detectors) ...................................................................................... 33
Seismic Recording ........................................................................................................ 35
SESMIC REFLECTION .......................................................................................................... 37
Seismic reflection surveying ........................................................................................ 37
Geometry of reflected ray paths ................................................................................. 37
SESMIC DATA ACQUISITION .............................................................................................. 41
Seismic survey planning .............................................................................................. 42
Field Layouts ................................................................................................................ 43
Source Arrays............................................................................................................... 44
Receiver Arrays ............................................................................................................ 44
Common Mid-Point (CMP) .......................................................................................... 47
BOREHOLE SEISMIC SURVEYS............................................................................................ 51
Up-hole survey ............................................................................................................. 51
Synthetic seismogram ................................................................................................. 53
SEISMIC DATA PROCESSING .............................................................................................. 57
Types of Noise ............................................................................................................. 58
Objectives of seismic data processing: ........................................................................ 60
2- Vibroseis Correlation ............................................................................................... 62
3- Amplitude Recovery ................................................................................................ 63
4- CMP Trace Gathering .............................................................................................. 64
6- NMO Correction ...................................................................................................... 65
8- Muting ..................................................................................................................... 66
9- Static correction ...................................................................................................... 67
10-Stacking .................................................................................................................. 69
12- Migration .............................................................................................................. 70
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SESMIC DATA INTERPRETATION........................................................................................ 71

Requirements of Seismic Data Interpretation ............................................................. 71
Examples of seismic sections ....................................................................................... 75
SESMIC REFRACTION METHODS ....................................................................................... 82
1- Single horizontal planar interface ........................................................................... 83
2- Multilayered horizontal planar interfaces ............................................................... 84
3- Dipping planar interface ......................................................................................... 85
4- Discontinuous (faulted) refractor ............................................................................ 86
5- Other cases .............................................................................................................. 87
PART TWO SUBSURFACE GEOLOGY ................................................................................. 91
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 93
Surface and Subsurface Geology ................................................................................. 93
Importance (Applications) of Subsurface Geology ...................................................... 94
SOURCES OF SUBSURFACE DATA ...................................................................................... 97
How is subsurface information collected? ................................................................... 97
WELL MEASUREMENTS ................................................................................................... 101
Wells .......................................................................................................................... 101
Datum (Reference) .................................................................................................... 101
Depths of Deviated Wells .......................................................................................... 102
TYPES OF SUBSURFACE DATA .......................................................................................... 103
Well Sampling............................................................................................................ 103
Well Logging Data ..................................................................................................... 104
PRESENTATION OF SUBSURFACE DATA........................................................................... 111
One-Dimensional Presentation (1-D): ....................................................................... 111
Two-Dimensional Presentation (2-D): ....................................................................... 111
Three-Dimensional Presentation (3-D): ..................................................................... 113
SUBSURFACE MAPS ......................................................................................................... 117
Contour Lines ............................................................................................................. 117
Isopach and Isochore Mapping ................................................................................. 119
Structure-Contour Maps ............................................................................................ 121
Dr. Ashraf Ghoneimi and Dr. Shaker Ibrahim vi |

Dr. Ashraf Ghoneimi and Dr. Shaker Ibrahim vii |

Dr. Ashraf Ghoneimi and Dr. Shaker Ibrahim viii |

INTRODUCTION
The purpose of seismic exploration is to discover what lies

underground, based on measurements made on the earth's surface.
Seismic interpretation procedure represents a systematic workflow

that has proven to be a very powerful prediction tool for the evaluation
of the subsurface structurs and stratigraphy.
The reflection seismic method creates a geophysically sampled

image of the subsurface, which has to be interpreted in a geologically
meaningful manner.
The seismic method was first applied to earthquake monitoring and

allowed investigating the internal structure of the Earth. In the sixties and
seventies of the last century the basic principles behind the method were
further explored and the benefits for the petroleum industry have
increased its use ever since.
The reflection seismic method have made great further progress in

the last 20 years mainly because of the increase in computing power. The
cost effectiveness of the reflection seismic method has been proven by
numerous hydrocarbon exploitation projects around the world. The
added value to the worldwide exploration and exploitation efforts is truly
notable.
Seismographs record seismic waves that follow different paths into

the earth and then return back to the surface. The analysis of the recorded
seismograms is used to interpret the subsurface.
Dr. Ashraf Ghoneimi and Dr. Shaker Ibrahim 1 |

Importance of seismic exploration

1. Petroleum exploration:
Almost all oil companies depend on seismic interpretation for
selecting sites of exploratory wells. Seismic interpretation results
in mapping of geological structures rather than finding petroleum
directly.
2. Groundwater, engineering and environmental searches:
Seismic methods are important in groundwater searches and
in civil engineering projects and environmental problems,
especially to measure the depth to bedrock in connection with
construction of large buildings, dams, highways, harbor surveys
and location of buried hazardous wastes.
3. Mineral exploration:
Seismic methods have little application in direct exploration
for minerals, where seismic is only useful in layered media.
However, seismic methods are useful in locating features such as
buried channels where heavy minerals may be accumulated.

ELASTICITY
• Elasticity is the capacity of a material to be temporarily deformed by

applying a force (or by passing seismic waves). Elastic materials
retain its size and/or shape after releasing the applied force.
Elasticity differs in different rocks and influences the velocity of
seismic waves through these rocks.
• Seismic waves cause the particles of a rock to vibrate.
• The elasticity of a material can be measured by applying a stress and
calculating the resultant strain.
Stress and Strain

Stress
• is defined as the application of a force (such as compressing) on
the surface of an object.
It is measured by:
𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 (𝑭)
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 =
𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 (𝑨)
• The unit of stress is the Pascal (one Newton of force applied on a
surface of one meter square):
(1 Pa = 1 N/m2 or 1 Pa = 10 dyne/cm2)
Types of Stress
Depending on the direction of force, the following types of stress
are present:
1. Non-directional stress: when force is applied on the body in all
directions, such as the hydrostatic pressure (pressure of water at
some depth). It may be called compressive stress.
2. Directed stress: when the stress is applied in a one direction,
such as striking a hammer on an object. The directed stress may
be:
- Normal stress: the directed stress is perpendicular to the surface

of the object (compressional or tensional stress).

- Shear stress: the directed stress is parallel (tangential) to the
surface of the object.
Strain
• Strain is defined as a measure of the deformation or change of
size or shape of an object when subjected to a stress.
It is determined by dividing the value of change of size or shape
on the original size or shape, respectively. For example, in a
case of length:
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 (∆𝒍)
𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 =
𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 (𝒍)
• The strain is dimensionless.
Types of Strain
• The types of strain that can be produced in a material depends on
the elasticity of the material and the type, strength and direction
of stress.
• Elastic strain is proportional to the applied stress and disappears
when that stress stops. For example, when we pull a rubber
band, it will stretch, when we release the band, it will back to its
original length.
Elastic strain may be classified into compressive, normal and
shear, according to the type of stress producing it.
• Plastic strain is a permanent deformation that occurs when we
stretch, for example, a soft clay sample, it remains stretched after
we release it.

Elasticity of Rocks (Hook’s Law)

• Solid substances (such as rocks) respond elastically to weak
stresses, and exhibit plastic strain if stronger stress is applied. If the
stress exceeds the strength of the material, rupture occurs.
• Exploration seismic methods are concerned principally with elastic
strain.
• When we use explosions to generate seismic waves, plastic strain or
rupture may occur at a small zone close to the energy source. As
the seismic waves travel, they produce only elastic strain.
A typical stress-strain curve for a solid body

Elastic Constants (Moduli)
𝒂 𝒕𝒚𝒑𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
𝑬𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝑴𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔 =
𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒚𝒑𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
Bulk Modulus (K):

It is a measure of the capacity of a substance to be
compressed elastically.
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝑷
𝑲= =
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 ∆𝑽/𝑽
The unit of K is dyne/cm2
The bulk modulus can be measured for any kind of
solids, liquids and gases.
Young's Modulus (E):

It is a measure of the capacity of a substance
to be elastically changed in length.
𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 ∆F/A

𝑬= =
𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 ∆𝒍
𝒍
The unit of E is dyne/cm2.

Young's modulus can be measured only
for solids.
Shear Modulus (µ):

It is a measure of the capacity of a substance to be changed
elastically in shape.
𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 ∆F/A

𝝁= =
𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 ∆𝒍/𝒍
The unit of µ is dyne/cm2.
• The shear modulus can be applied only for solids.
• For most rocks E generally being the largest and µ is the

smallest of the three.

• Generally, for most rocks these elastic moduli (K, E, µ) increase with
increasing the rock density.
Poisson's Ratio ():

When we measure the Young's modulus, the change in diameter is
proportional to the change in length.
𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 ∆𝑑/𝑑

𝜎= =
𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 ∆𝑙/𝑙
• The Poisson's ratio () can be measured only for

solids.
For most rocks the value of  ranges from more
than 0 to less than 0.5, and the average value is
0.25.
• Poisson’s ratio of hard rocks is less than that of soft rocks.
Examples

Relations between elastic constants

SEISMIC WAVES
• The seismic wave occurs by moving the elastic strain (or

deformation) through an elastic substance.
General definitions (characteristics) of waves:

By representing the wave in terms of displacement versus time
(or distance), we could describe the following wave features
(waveform):
• Amplitude (H):
it is the maximum displacement of a particle above (at crest) or
below (at trough) the position of un-disturbance (at zero
displacement).
• Period (T):
is the time (in second) required for one cycle of oscillation.
• Frequency (f):
it is the number of cycles that occur during one second. It is
the reciprocal of the period (f=1/T). The unit of frequency is hertz,
which is one cycle per second.
• Wavelength (λ):
It is the distance needed for one cycle of oscillation. Therefore,
we could relate the period (T), wavelength (λ) and wave velocity
(V) by: V=λ/T.
In seismic exploration, seismic waves have frequencies of tens or
hundreds of Hertz.
• Wave fronts and rays:

The waves produced at a point (source) inside a substance (for
example by explosion) move as spherical wave fronts.
These wave fronts may be illustrated as concentric circles
outwarding as the wave advances through a substance.
The straight lines drawn radiating from the source are called rays or
paths that show directions along which the wave is advancing
(propagating). These rays are perpendicular to wave fronts.

Types of Seismic Waves

Seismic waves cause particle motion in a certain direction
relative to the path of wave propagation; and this relation states the
type of the seismic wave.
Two types of seismic waves will be explained:
• Body waves:
These are the waves that can travel directly through a substance
in any direction. P-wave and S-wave are two types of body
waves and are considered the most basic kinds seismic waves
used in seismic exploration.
• Surface waves:
These waves travel only near the surface of a substance.
Rayleigh waves and Love waves are two types of surface waves.

P-Wave
• The P-wave is also called primary,
compressional and longitudinal wave.
• P-wave could be produced simply by
normally striking one side of a
substance with a hammer.
• It causes particles to move back and
forth parallel to the direction wave
propagation.
• The particle motion consists of compressions and rarefactions.
• The P-wave velocity depends on the density and elastic constants
of the material and could be determined from the equation:
4
𝐾+ 𝜇
𝑉𝑝 = √ 3
and
𝜌
𝐸 1−𝜎
𝑉𝑝 = √ ((1−2𝜎)(1+𝜎))
𝜌
• The velocity of P-wave is more than the velocity of other types of

seismic waves.
• P-wave can travel through any substance: solids, liquids and gases.
• P-waves are the most applicable in seismic exploration.
• The amplitude of P-wave in is smaller than that of other wave
types.

S-Wave
• The S-wave is also called secondary, shear and transverse wave.
• S-wave could be produced simply by striking tangentially one side
of a substance with a hammer.
• It causes particles to move in a directional pe pendicular to the
direction of wave propagation.
• The speed of S-wave depends on the density and elastic constants
and could be determined from:
𝜇 𝐸
𝑉𝑠 = √ or 𝑉𝑠 = √
𝜌 2𝜌(1+𝑠)
• S-waves travel only in solids.

𝑉𝑝
• These ratios show that Vp>Vs for any solid substance (where >
𝑉𝑠
1). Therefore, the P-wave must always travel faster than S-wave
through the same substance.
• S-wave show higher amplitude than P-wave.
• The relations between Vp, Vs and ratio of Vp/Vs to the Poisson’s

ratio () are:
𝑽𝒑 𝟏−𝝈 𝑽𝟐𝒑 −𝟐𝑽𝟐𝒔
=√ and 𝝈=
𝑽𝒔 𝟎.𝟓−𝝈 𝟐(𝑽𝟐𝒑 −𝑽𝟐𝒔 )
• For rocks of average Poisson’s ratio 0.25: VP = 1.72 VS or VS =

0.58 VP

Rayleigh (R) Wave

• The Rayleigh wave is also called ground roll wave.
• It involves ground movement in a vertical plane.
• Particle motion near the surface is elliptical and retrograde.
• The amplitude of the vibration diminishes with depth.
• It persists much longer time than body waves.
• The speed of R-wave is slower than that of S-wave (VR<VS).
• For a Poisson ratio of 0.25, VR = 0.9194 VS.
• R-wave shows higher amplitude than that of body waves.
Love (L) Wave

• The Love wave causes a horizontal ground movement
perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation with no vertical
motion.
• The L-wave amplitude diminishes with depth.
• It travels at a slower velocity than S-wave (VL < VS).

• It travels faster than Rayleigh waves (VL > VR).

• It persists much longer time than body waves.
• L-wave shows higher amplitude than that of body waves.
Differences between types of seismic waves

Relations between elastic constants and wave velocities
Seismic wave velocities of rocks

• Rocks differ in their elastic moduli and densities due to their
various compositions, textures (e.g. grain shape and degree of
sorting), porosities and contained pore fluids. Therefore, they differ
in their seismic velocities.
• Information on the compressional and shear wave velocities (Vp and
Vs) of rock layers is important for two main reasons:
1- the conversion of seismic wave travel times into depths;
2- it indicates to the lithology of a rock and the nature of the pore
fluids contained within it.
• P-wave velocity (Vp) has a relationship with the wave velocity in
rock matrix (Vm) and pore fluid (Vf) and the rock porosity ():

1 Ø (1 − Ø)
= +
𝑉𝑝 𝑉𝑓 𝑉𝑚
• For S-wave velocity, the S-waves will not travel through pore
spaces. Therefore, the S-wave velocity depends only on the matrix
grain properties and their texture.

Measurement of velocity:
Rock velocities can be measured by different methods:
1- in situ by field measurement, where seismic surveys yield
estimates of velocity for rock layers delineated by reflecting or
refracting interfaces.
2- in the laboratory using suitably prepared rock samples, by
measuring the travel-time of high-frequency (about 1MHz)
acoustic pulses transmitted through cylindrical rock samples.
3- in boreholes in the vicinity of a seismic survey, it may be
possible to correlate velocity values with rock units encountered
within borehole sequences.
4- in boreholes using a sonic probe, which emits high-
frequency pulses and measures the travel time of the pulses
through a small vertical interval of rock.

Notes:

Seismic Wave Reflection and Refraction
Snell's law:
• The directions of reflected and refracted waves depend on the
incident wave and the wave velocities in substances through which
the waves passed.
• Snell's law states generally that:
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑖 𝑉𝑖 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑖 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑟

= or =
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑟 𝑉𝑟 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑟
• where i is the angle of incidence and r is the angle of reflection or

refraction, Vi is the wave velocity of layer in which the incident
wave pass and Vr is the wave velocity of layer in which the
reflected or refracted wave pass.
• If the incident wave is P-wave or SV-wave, each one divides into

four paths: two reflected P- and SV-wave paths and two refracted P and
SV-wave paths. The SV-wave is an S-wave in which the transverse
particle motion is polarized in a plane that contains the wave path and is
perpendicular to the boundary.

• If the incident wave is SH-wave, it divides only into reflected and

refracted SH-wave paths. The SH-wave is an S-wave that produces
horizontal transverse particle motion.
• If the two layers or one of them are liquid, Explain and plot the
state of conversion of seismic waves (P, SV and SH) between them.
Critical refraction:
According to Snell's law, when a boundary separates two
layers of wave velocities V1 and V2 in the upper and lower layers,
respectively, where V2>V1, the angle of refraction (R) will be
larger than angle of incidence (i). In this case, for a particular
wave path that refracts with an angle 90° the angle of incidence
will be called the critical angle. Based on Snell's law:
𝑉1
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑐 =
𝑉2
This equation shows that the critical angle depends on the
wave velocities in the upper and lower layers. The critically
refracted wave traveling along the top of lower at velocity V2
continually produces waves that refract across the and travel in the
upper layer at velocity V1.

Reflection Coefficient
• Reflection coefficient (R) or Reflectivity: is the ratio of the

amplitude of reflected wave (Hr) to that of the incident wave (Hi):
R=Hr/Hi at the boundary between two different layers.
• For normal incidence (angle i=0), then:

𝜌2 𝑉2 − 𝜌1 𝑉1
𝑅=
𝜌2 𝑉2 + 𝜌1 𝑉1
where ρ1, V1 and ρ2, V2 are the density and P-wave velocity
values in the first and second layers. The product of density (ρ)
and wave velocity(V) is called the acoustic impedance (Z=ρV) of
that rock.
• From this equation it follows that -1 ≤ R ≤ +1.
• Acoustic impedance: is the apparent resistance of a material to the
passage of waves . It is the product of wave velocity in that
medium and its density.
• A negative value of R indicates a phase change of 180° in the
reflected ray (i.e. the peak is reflected as trough and vise versa).

• If R = 0, all the incident energy is transmitted. This is the case

when there is no contrast of acoustic impedance across an
interface, even if the density and velocity values are different in
the two layers (Z1=Z2).
• If R = +1 or -1, all the incident energy is reflected. A good
approximation to this situation occurs at the free surface of a
water layer: rays travelling upwards from an explosion in a water
layer are almost totally reflected back from the water surface
with a phase change (air density 0.0012 g/cm3, velocity 330 m/s
and water density 1 g/cm3, velocity 1500 m/s, then
R = -0.9997 ≈ -1)
• Values of reflection coefficient R for interfaces
between different rock types rarely exceed ±0.5 and
are typically much less than ±0.2. Thus, normally
the bulk of seismic energy incident on a rock
interface is transmitted and only a small proportion
is reflected.
Reflection and Refraction Surveying

• Consider a simple geological section involving two layers of wave
velocities V1 and V2 separated by a horizontal interface at a depth Z,
where V2 > V1. From a surface seismic source (S), there are three
types of wave path by which energy reaches the surface, where it
may be recorded by a suitable detector (as at D) a horizontal
distance X from S.
1. The direct path travels along a straight line through the top layer
from source to detector at velocity V1. The travel time of a direct
ray is given simply by:
tdir = X/V1
which defines a straight line of slope 1/V1.
2. The reflected path is incident on the interface and reflected back
through the top layer to the detector, travelling along its entire path
at velocity V1. The travel time is given by:
1
𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙 = √𝑋 2 + 4𝑍 2
𝑉1
which is the equation of an hyperbola.

3. The refracted path travels to the interface at velocity V1, along a

segment of the interface at the velocity V2, and back up through the
upper layer at V1. The travel time is given by:
𝑋 2𝑍 cos 𝑖𝑐 𝑋 2𝑍√𝑉22 − 𝑉12
𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟 = + 𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟 = +
𝑉2 𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉1 𝑉2
which is the equation of a straight line of a slope 1/V2.
Characteristics of travel time curves:

Generally, the following remarks are noted for travel time curves:
1. The first arrival time is always for a direct path or a refracted path.
2. The direct path is reached by a refracted path at the crossover
distance Xcros. Beyond the Xcros the first arrival is always a refracted
path.
3. Since critically refracted rays travel down to the interface at the
critical angle there is a critical distance Xcrit, within which refracted
waves will not be returned to the surface. At the critical distance,
the travel times of reflected paths and refracted paths coincide
because they follow effectively the same path.
4. Reflected rays are never first arrivals, they are always preceded by
direct paths and, beyond the critical distance, by refracted paths
also.

Notes:

INSTRUMENTS
The purpose of seismic surveys is to record the ground motion

caused by a source. The record of ground motion with time constitutes
a seismogram and is the basic information used for interpretation.

The essential instruments are:

• Source: to generate a seismic pulse
• Receiver (detector): to detect the seismic waves in the ground
• Recorder (seismograph): to record and display the seismic
waveforms.
Seismic wave sources

• A seismic source is a localized region within which the sudden
release of energy leads to a rapid stressing of the surrounding
medium.
• The main requirements of the seismic wave source are:
1. Sufficient energy: suitable for the target depth and survey
distances.
2. The broadest possible frequency range: suitable for required
resolution.
3. Energy should be concentrated in the type of wave energy: P-
wave or S-wave.
4. The source must be safe, effective, and environmentally
acceptable.
5. They must be as cost-effective as possible.
6. They must be free of noise as possible.
The seismic sources are classified into:

• according to location:
1. Land sources: used in land areas, such as dynamite.
2. Marine sources: used in marine areas, such as air gun.
• according to used tool (or instruments):
1. Explosive sources: such as dynamite
2. Non-explosive sources: such as Vibroseis, hammers, air gun.

• according to wave-shape (waveform):

1- Impulsive sources: produce a very sharp wave of very short time
duration, such as dynamite, weight drops, hammers, air gun,
water gun.
2- Non-impulsive sources: produce a relatively longer time
duration, such as vibroseis.
Explosive sources:
On land, explosives (dynamite capsules) are normally detonated in
shallow shot holes to improve the coupling of the energy source with the
ground and to minimize surface damage.
• Advantages of explosives:
1. A cheap seismic source.
2. Strong highly effective seismic source.
3. Provide a wide frequency spectrum.
4. Relatively low surface wave generation
5. Give good signal-to-noise ratio
• Disadvantages of explosives:
1. Not safe: requires permission and presents difficulties of storage
and transportation.
2. Slow: because of the need to drill shot holes.
3. Not repeatable: do not provide repeatable source required by
processing techniques.

Charge Depth Consideration

1) To avoid large surface wave, the charge depth should be in
a sub-weathering layer.
2) To get large amplitude seismic wave, the charge depth
should be under water table.
First of all we have a drilled hole in the ground containing the

dynamite - which I will call an explosive mass - M.
Then the dynamite is detonated to cause the explosion, like so:
The explosion occurs and causes anelastic deformation of the
surrounding rock.
And we initiate elastic wave propagation of the shock wave, going
into the ground in the form of a spherical wave - when you look at it in
two dimensions.
This wave will propagate to a far field receiver, where we are able
to record the arriving wavelet, so:

Non-Explosive Sources
Weight drops (Thumper) and hammers:
- Thumper (weight dropping): a truck dropping a weight of
several (three) tons from a height of 10 ft.
- Hammer: a sledge–hammer which impacts against a steel plate
laid on the ground. Used for shallow depths, such as
groundwater, engineering and environmental investigations
• The horizontal impact of a weight or hammer on to one side of a
vertical plate partially embedded in the ground can be used as a
source for S-wave source.

Vibroseis:
• Vibroseis is the most common non-explosive and non-impulsive
source used for reflection surveying for petroleum exploration.
• It uses vibrators to generate an extended vibration of low
amplitude and continuously varying frequency, known as a
sweep signal.
- Up Sweep: frequency begins low and increase gradually to
high.
- Down Sweep: frequency begins high and decrease gradually to
low.
• The vibroseis sweep varies in frequency between about 10 and
80 Hz.
• The sweep time duration is up to a few tens of seconds (between
16 and 30 sec).
• Usually, several vibroseises are used simultaneously to increase
the amplitude of input wave.
• Recorded signals need to be correlated with source sweep (a data
processing step called vibroseis correlation).

▪ When using vibroseis we generally work with several vibrators

simultaneously. Eveiy vibrator creates its own sweep.
• These synchronized when the recording cycle starts (initiated by
a radio signal from the recorder).
▪ The recorder creates and records a reference sweep, identical to
the sweeps of the vibrators, that will used to perform the cross
correlation.

Impulse vs Sweep
Impulse
• Contains all necessary frequencies
• All phases are syncronized
• Big energy in a short time
Sweep
• Contains all necessary frequencies
• Each phase is shifted
- Energy is dispersed in a long time
- Energy at a moment is small
- Become impulse by data processing
(Correlation)
Marine Sources
Air Gun:
• High-pressure air flows into the upper chamber and through the
shuttle into the lower chamber. Opening the solenoid valve puts
high-pressure air under the shuttle seat causing the shuttle to
move upward, opening the lower chamber and allowing its air to
flow out through ports to form a bubble of high-pressure air in
the water.

Seismic Receivers (Detectors)

A seismic detector is a device that converts the received seismic
energy (ground motion) into an electrical signal.
Geophones:
• Devices used on land to detect seismic ground motions are
known as geophones.
• The moving-coil geophone consists of a coil of wire suspended
from a spring and surrounded by a W-shaped magnet. The
geophone is fixed firmly by a spike base into ground. Seismic
waves are detected as electrical current generated by movement
of coil due to ground motion.
The geophone sensitivity depends on: the number of turns

coil wire and the strength of the magnet.
The geophone natural frequency depends on: the stiffness
coefficient of the spring and the mass of suspended coil.
Geophone natural frequency is the frequency at which the moving
part of the geophone oscillates with its maximum amplitude.

Hydrophones:
• In water, the passage of a compressional seismic wave is marked
by pressure changes and these are detected by hydrophones
suspended in the water. These hydrophones detect seismic
waves as electrical current generated by a ceramic piezoelectric
device due to pressure of water.
• Hydrophones are made up into hydrophone streamers by
distributing them along an oil-filled plastic tube.
Hydrophone Streamer

Receiver Arrays:
• Arrays of geophones or hydrophones may be connected together
into arrays containing tens or hundreds whose individual outputs
are summed. Such arrays facilitate the enhancement of signal
and the suppression of certain types of noises.
Seismic Recording
• The electrical signals from receivers (geophones or hydrophones)
must be recorded in real time.
• Analog recording: Before the 1960’s the majority of seismograms
were recorded as wiggly traces written directly to paper or
photographic film charts.
• Digital recording: While direct paper recording is still used for
some applications, all seismic data are now recorded by digitizing

(sampling) the analogue detectors output and storing the series of

digital samples in some computer format.
• Seismic signals from receivers must be amplified, filtered if
necessary, digitized then stored in a certain format.
• The physical nature of the computer media used is continuously
being upgraded from the magnetic tape, to magnetic cartridge and
CD ROM. Huge data volumes are produced in petroleum
exploration.

SESMIC REFLECTION
Seismic reflection surveying

• Seismic reflection surveying is the most widely used and well-
known geophysical technique in petroleum exploration.
• Seismic sections can now be produced to reveal details of
subsurface geological structures important for petroleum trapping.
• The current state and development of the seismic reflection
surveying is largely a result of the enormous investment made by
the hydrocarbon industry, in addition to the advanced electronic and
computing technology.
Geometry of reflected ray paths

1- Single horizontal reflector:
• For the simple case of a single horizontal reflector at a depth Z
beneath a top layer of velocity V, the equation for the travel time
t of the reflected path from a shot point to a detector at a
horizontal offset X is given by:
1
𝑡= √𝑋 2 + 4𝑍 2
𝑉
• The graph of travel time plotted against offset distance (time–
distance curve) is a hyperbola whose axis of symmetry is the
time axis.
• Normal incidence: substituting X = 0 in the t-x relation, the zero-
offset travel time (t0) of a vertically reflected ray is:
2𝑍
t0 =
𝑉
• Normal moveout (NMO, ΔT): it is the difference in travel time
(ΔT) at an offset distance (x) between reflected arrivals (tx) at x
and at zero offset (t0):
𝑋2 𝑋
ΔT = tx –t0 ≈ 𝑉≈
2𝑉 2 𝑡 0 √2𝑡0∆𝑇

Using this equation, the velocity V above any reflector can be

computed from knowledge of the zero-offset reflection time (t0) and the
NMO (ΔT ) at a particular offset x.
2- Dipping reflector:
• In the case of a dipping reflector, the time–distance relation is:
√𝑋2 + 4𝑍2 + 4𝑋𝑍𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑡=
𝑉
• The equation has the form of a hyperbola, but the axis of
symmetry of the hyperbola is now no longer the time axis, it
shifts a distance (Xm) against the dip direction. At Xm the time tm
is the smallest time.
• Dip moveout ΔTd is defined as the difference in travel times tx
and t-x of rays reflected from the dipping interface to receivers at
equal and opposite offsets x and –x:

ΔTd = tx –t-x = 2X sin/V

θ = sin-1(2ΔTd V/2X)

Notes:

SESMIC DATA ACQUISITION
The fundamental purpose of seismic surveys is to record the ground

motion caused by a source. The record of ground motion with time
constitutes a seismogram and is the basic information used for
interpretation.
The general methodology of examining subsurface structures by

studying their effects on artificially generated seismic waves has a wide
range of applications covering a wide range of scales. Within the more
geophysical applications, the scales range from depths of a meter or less
in engineering, environmental or archaeological surveys to tens of
kilometers for crustal and upper mantle studies.
For each application there is a limit to the smallest structures that

can be detected, known as the resolution of the survey. The resolution is
basically determined by the pulse length. The pulse width is determined
by both the maximum frequency and the frequency bandwidth of the
recorded signal. Therefore, It is an important characteristic of all seismic
surveys that they must be designed individually for each specific case.
The purpose of acquisition is to provide subsurface seismic data

from a specified survey area that, after processing, may be interpreted to
relate the recorded signal information (seismic sections) to geological
boundaries.
Field methods for the acquisition of seismic reflection data vary,

depending on whether the area is land or marine, on the nature of the
geologic problem, and on the accessibility of the area.

Seismic crews differ greatly in size, ranging from two or three

people for a shallow land survey for engineering objectives to more than
a hundred people for surveys in petroleum exploration.
Acquisition is the most important first step in the process of seismic

surveying. To a large extent the successful outcome of a seismic survey
will depend on the quality of the acquisition.
Acquisition is the most costly part of the seismic survey project.

There must be close collaboration throughout a project between the
acquisition and processing staff and the oil company who has
commissioned the work.
The end product of the field acquisition is the tapes and the paper
data which is supplied to the data processing contractor.
Seismic survey planning

• The planning of a survey is the starting point for the seismic
exploration project. The selection of the survey area is based on
a previous geological and/or other geophysical studies (gravity or
magnetic) or on a previous seismic work.
• The planning of the survey will be controlled by many factors:
– Depth of target: Shallow/deep
– Nature of prospect: Structural features / Stratigraphic
features
– Resolution: horizontal (spatial) resolution, vertical (time-
based) resolution
– Geometry of overburden: line direction, arrays to match
dip, source-receiver geometry
– Signal /noise: CMP fold, offset distribution, source-
receiver arrays
– Operational: equipment availability, costs

– People: crew personnel, permanen

– Safety: equipment, people
– Environmental: pollution, disturbance to local
population, wildlife
Field Layouts
Spread types:
Spreads are the relative locations of the source and the centers of
the geophone groups used to record the reflected energy.

Source Arrays
Source arrays: are distributions of sources that fire
simultaneously, or the nearby locations of sources for which the
outputs are combined by stacking.
Receiver Arrays
Receiver arrays: are groups of geophones (or hydrophones)
connected by a cable that transmits the analog electric data. The
location of the receiver array is the center of the group of receivers.

During each shot: the analog data for a receiver array are summed to
give one seismic trace in the shooting record.
• Arrays of geophones provide a directional response and are used
to enhance the near-vertically travelling reflected pulses and to
suppress several types of horizontally travelling coherent noise.
Receiver Array Types

• Geophones are designed to record only frequencies of the input

signal (source), discriminating against noise outside source
frequencies. Most geophones are designed to respond to vertical
motions. Therefore, reflected compressional waves are
enhanced, at the expense of events that produce horizontal
motions at the surface (e.g. direct compressional waves and
reflected shear waves).
• Most surveys are designed so that the stations of receivers
(geophones, hydrophones) commonly are not a single instrument,
but rather an array of several receivers (geophone groups),
connected electronically and centered around a point.
• The geometry of an array (or geophone group) is designed to
cancel certain unwanted noise (such as Rayleigh waves),
while enhancing reflected waves. Rayleigh waves are an
example of unwanted noise; which produce an up-and-down
surface.
Array design
• The design of source and geophone arrays to attenuate noise is an
important part of the field seismic work.
• For attenuation of noise by field arrays, there are some rules to

be followed when designing arrays:
1. Obtain information on the nature and behavior of noise in the
survey area from tests such as walk-away noise tests.
2. Identify the dominant inline noises and crossline noises - this will
determine whether linear or areal arrays are needed.
3. Measure graphically the minimum and maximum noise group
velocities. This may be done from walk-away tests.

4. Determine the minimum and maximum values for the period of

the noise wave, hence the frequency and then the wavelength of
the noise. wavelength = period x velocity
5. Determine the length of array to best attenuate the noise
wavelengths - the array must be at least as long as the longest
noise wavelength.
Common Mid-Point (CMP)

• The seismic reflection survey is commonly conducted using the
common midpoint CMP (common depth point CDP or common
reflection point) method, where the seismic zones from different
shots have a common point on the subsurface, midway between
source and receiver pairs.
• Common midpoint (CMP) method: is a recording method
where each source is recorded at a number of geophones and
each geophone is used to record from a number of sources.
• Common reflection point: is a point in the subsurface where
energy is reflected for a certain number of source-receiver pairs.
• Common midpoint gather: is a collection of the seismic traces
that all reflect from the same reflection point.
• The CMP method enhances the signal-to-noise ratio and
facilitates the processing and interpretation.
• Fold: is the multiplicity of common-midpoint data. 𝑭𝒐𝒍𝒅 =
𝑵 × ∆𝑮
𝟐 × ∆𝑺
where N =no. of recording channels, ΔG = receiver spacing and

ΔS = shot spacing.




BOREHOLE SEISMIC SURVEYS
Up-hole survey
• Successive sources at varying depths in a borehole in order to
determine the velocities of the near-surface formations, such as
the LVL weathering thickness (Dw) and velocity (Vw), and the
velocity of sub-weathering layer (VH).
• Sometimes a string of geophones is placed in a hole to measure
the vertical travel times from a nearby shallow source.

• Checkshot data are collected at formation tops and/or at regular

depths downhole.
• They allow well data and seismic data to be calibrated, and may
be used for determining average and interval velocities.
• The number of checkshot surveys needed for an interpretation is
variable. It depends on how variable the velocity structure is, a
function of Lithologic changes, Pressure regime changes,
Structural complexity, etc

• Checkshots may not even be collected if it is felt that the tie

between the seismic and well data is sufficiently well understood
(i.e., mature basins).
Synthetic seismogram
• The most common way of tying log and seismic data is through
the generation of synthetic seismograms (“synthetics”).
• In theory, a synthetic should show what the seismic data should
look like at the location of a well.

• Use digital sonic and density logs to generate acoustic impedance

log
• Use velocity data (e.g., checkshot surveys)
• Use acoustic impedance log to derive reflection coefficients
(stick diagram)
• Convolve reflection coefficients with a wavelet that
approximates wavelet
• in the seismic data (phase, frequency content)
• Compare synthetic with seismic data



SEISMIC DATA PROCESSING
Seismic data processing separates into two distinct areas:

1. The conversion of the shot records (recorded samples of a wave)
into a seismic section (the seismic expression of a geological
cross-section of the earth’s layers).
2. The identification and suppression of noises.

Types of Noise
• Seismic Noise: are seismic energy other than primary
reflections.
Noises can be subdivided into:

1- Coherent noise:
• Including non-reflection coherent events.
• It is likely to be constant in a particular situation, ie. would repeat
in the same way if the data were recorded again under the same
conditions.
• It appears over several traces.
• It is often source-generated (although not necessarily so).
• Examples of coherent noise:
1. diffraction
2. multiples
3. ground roll
4. air waves from shot
5. ship's propeller noise.
2- Random noise:
• does not repeat
• often involves noises which vary continuously
• may be source-generated or ambient in origin.
Examples of random noise:
1. passing vehicles, animals, people
2. wind noise
3. ground unrest (eg. micro-earthquakes)
4. recording instruments
5. overhead power cables.

3- Source-generated noise:
may be random or coherent.
Examples of source-generated noise:
Random: debris falling from a blown shot hole.
Coherent: diffraction, ground roll, multiples, air waves from shot
4- Ambient noise:
unavoidable background noise and is usually random.
Examples of ambient noise:
1. passing vehicles, animals, people
2. wind and weather noise
3. ground unrest (eg. micro-earthquakes)
4. local machinery
5. recording instruments
6. overhead power cables.
How to improve S/N Ratio

Before recording
• Equipment - instrument, cables, sensors, source
• Source identification - e.g. rig noise
• Acquisition planning
During Recording
• Arrays - source & receiver
• Filtering
• Equipment maintenance
Line discipline
After Recording

• Muting/editing
• Filtering F, FK
• Deconvolution
• Migration
• Stacking
Objectives of seismic data processing:

Seismic reflection data are subjected to various processing steps to:
- enhance reflected signals,
- attenuate noises that were not canceled during acquisition,
- to present the data in a more interpretable format (such as seismic
sections).
• In most cases, signals to be enhanced are primary reflections that
occur within the plane of the seismic profile.

Typical processing flow chart

1- Vibroseis Correlation
• Vibroseis correlation: The field recordings consist of
overlapping reflected wave trains of very low amplitude. In
order to increase the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and to shorten
the pulse length, each recorded seismogram is cross-correlated
with the known (source) sweep signal to produce a correlated
seismogram or correlogram.
• The correlogram has a similar appearance to the type of
seismogram that would be obtained with a high-energy explosion
source, but the seismic arrivals appear as zero phase wavelets.

2- Amplitude Recovery
• Seismic signals are attenuated as they penetrate the Earth for
three reasons:
1) Spherical Divergence: Amplitude of seismic waves decrease
with distance from the source.
2) Absorption: As seismic panicles vibrate, some of their energy
is lost through friction.
3) Reflection: Energy that is reflected back is no longer available
to be transmitted deeper into the Earth as the primary wave front.
The net effect of these three factors is that reflections from depth
have amplitudes less than shallow reflections.
• Automatic Gain Control (AGC) balances amplitudes along the
length of a seismic trace, generally amplifying the trace as time
increases.

3- CMP Trace Gathering

• In the gather process, seismic traces from different shot gathers
are rearranged as common midpoint (CMP) gathers.

4- NMO Correction
• Normal moveout corrections are determined for several
prominent reflections in a CMP gather. For a given t0 and
velocity, events originally falling along hyperbolas align after
NMO corrections.
• Commonly, a deeper reflection is corrected for TNMO with a
higher velocity VRMS2 than that used for a shallower event VRMS1.
a) Shot point gather showing two hyperbolic events, with T-axis

intercepts at to(1) and to(2).
b) TNMO corrections applied according to velocities that best move the
hyperbolic events to horizontal alignment at to(1) and to(2).
c) Model of the two-way travel times to the events [t0(1) and t0(2)] and
the velocities that best align the events [VRMS(1) and VRMS(2)].

5- Muting
• At distance from the source, the tops of records commonly have
unwanted noise (such as direct P and S waves, refractions, events
distorted by NMO corrections), with few or no reflections. This
noise together with reflections recorded near the source, a
commonly triangular region of CMP gather traces are muted (set
to zero amplitude).

6- Static correction
• In land seismic field data, the surface elevations vary, and the near-
surface geology is usually highly variable, primarily due to variable
weathering of bedrock, drift deposits and variable depth of the
water table.
• Reflection times on seismic traces have to be corrected for time
differences introduced by near-surface irregularities, which have the
effect of shifting reflection events on adjacent traces out of their
true time relationships.
• If the static corrections are not performed accurately:
- the traces in a CMP gather will not stack correctly.
- the near-surface effects may be interpreted as false structures on
deeper reflectors.
• The corrections for a shot and/or geophone comprise two
components:
1. Elevation static corrections, which correct for the surface heights
of the shot and geophone above a datum (usually taken at sea-
level).
2. Weathering static corrections, which correct for the
heterogeneous surface layer of abnormally low seismic velocity and
variable thickness.
• Static correction is simply done by adding or subtracting time to
traces within CMP gathers.

The upper image shows a gather with a prominent “valley” to the left
of station 1500. The “valley” persists throughout the length of the
section. These data will stack poorly after NMO corrections are made
and the final image will not be clear.
The lower image shows the same gather after static corrections have
been applied. This version of the data will stack better, giving a more
interpretable image.

7-Stacking
• After undergoing NMO, mute, and statics corrections, CMP
traces are stacked (added or summed) together. The fold of stack
refers to the number of seismic traces that are combined to make
one trace. Stacked traces are displayed side-by-side to make an
immigrated time section.
• The display represents the situation that would result if each
seismic trace were recorded at a common source/receiver
position.
a) CMP gather (including random noise), after velocity analysis, TNMO,

mute, and elevation statics corrections,
b) Three-fold, stacked seismic trace. The reflected events from (a) add
constructively (in phase), while the noise adds with destructive
interference (out of phase).

8- Migration
• Migration attempts to move events to their true horizontal
positions, relative to common source/receiver positions on the
surface.
• Migration is the process of reconstructing a seismic section so
that reflection events are repositioned under their correct
surface location and at a corrected vertical reflection time.
• Migration also improves the resolution of seismic sections by
focusing energy spread over a Fresnel zone and by collapsing
diffraction patterns produced by point reflectors and faulted beds.
• In the presence of dip along the survey line the actual reflection
point is displaced in the up-dip direction.

SESMIC DATA INTERPRETATION
Seismic interpretation refers to the extraction of geological

information from the seismic data. It is used to generate reasonable
models and predictions about the properties and structures of the
subsurface.
Seismic interpretation is usually supported by other non-seismic

data such as gravity, magnetic, well-log, and geological data.
Seismic interpretation is mainly used for two purposes:
• Prospect evaluation
• Reservoir development
Although seismic interpretation comes after seismic data

acquisition and processing, it is important for acquisition and processing
and interpretation professionals to communicate continuously.
Seismic interpretation is performed on migrated and stacked

seismic data.
Requirements of Seismic Data Interpretation

To start interpretation, we must have:
1. Base Map: shot point location map.
2. Seismic sections: Inline and Crossline (or dip lines and strike
lines).
3. Available wells.
4. Velocity data from wells: from Check Shot, synthetic
seismogram, VSP.
5. Formation Tops in the well: to determine the top of horizons.
6. Logs and reports: Sonic, GR, Density & other logs.

The basic steps of seismic data interpretation are:

1. Tying seismic sections to well data.
2. Picking horizons.
3. Looping at intersections.
4. Timing.
5. Posting to the map.
6. Contouring TWT maps.
7. Time to depth conversion and Constructing structure contour
maps.
1- Tying seismic sections to well data.

2- Picking horizons.
3- Looping at intersections

4- Timing
5- Posting to the map
6- Contouring TWT maps
7- Time to depth conversion and Constructing structure

contour maps

Examples of seismic sections



Faults
Important evidences of faulting on seismic sections include:
1.Reflection termination against the fault plane.
2.Diffractions along fault plane.
3.Offset (vertical and horizontal) of reflections across the fault
plane.
4.Differential reflection dip across the fault plane.

Folds
Folding is associated with the following environments:
1.Excessive horizontal compressive stresses
2.Diapers:
•Salt
•Shale
3.Differential compaction
4.Arching due to intrusions

Unconformities
They are time periods during which sediment erosion or no deposition
occurred.

Reefs
Reefs are carbonate depositional structures that develop in tropical
areas.

SESMIC REFRACTION METHODS
Seismic refraction surveying is one of most applicable methods for

detecting subsurface structures. Refracted seismic waves can be used
to detect the thickness and physical (especially mechanical) properties
of buried rock layers.
Refracted waves can be identified on a seismogram by

characteristic alignments of pulses. At these pulses, the times required
for refracted waves to travel from a source point to geophones can be
estimated. By plotting these travel times versus their distances (t-x
curve), we can find the velocities of seismic waves through different
subsurface layers and layers thicknesses.
These ideas will be explained for a number of cases, such as:

single horizontal layer, multilayered structure, dipping layer and faults.

1- Single horizontal planar interface

• In this case, we describe simple structure consisting of a single
planar horizontal interface (refractor) between two layers of
wave velocities V1 in the upper layer and V2 in the lower layer,
where V2>V1. The thickness of the top layer is h1.
• Two time-distance (t-x) relations govern their travel, these are:
𝑥
𝑡𝐷 =
𝑉1
for the direct wave path, and:
𝑥 2ℎ1 √𝑉22 −𝑉12

𝑡𝑅 = + or
𝑉2 𝑉2 𝑉1
𝑥 2ℎ1
𝑡𝑅 = + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑐
𝑉2 𝑉1
for the refracted wave path.

2- Multilayered horizontal planar interfaces

• In the case of a multilayered structure, we deal with a number (n)
of horizontal planar interfaces separating a number (n+1) of
layers of seismic wave velocities (V1, V2, …Vn+1) increasing with
depth, and having thicknesses h1, h2, …hn. The time-distance
curve obtained from such a case consists of n+1 of straight lines;
each one represents a layer.
• The time-distance relation for refracted wave paths for any nth
interface (where V1<V2<…<Vn+1) is:
𝑛
𝑥 ℎ𝑘
𝑡𝑅𝑛 = +2∑ cos 𝑖𝑘,𝑛+1
𝑉𝑛+1 𝑉𝑘
𝑘=1
𝑉𝑘
where: cos 𝑖𝑘,𝑛+1 = √1 −
𝑉 𝑛+1

3- Dipping planar interface

• In seismic refraction survey, the dealing with the possible
presence of a dipping refractor is to use a technique called
reversed refraction shooting. This method is carried by shooting
at each end of the profile (called forward and reverse shooting)
and recording wave arrivals from both shots.
• The time-distance relations for a dipping refractor are:
𝑥
𝑡𝐷 =
𝑉1
for the direct wave path which is not affected by interface dipping, and:
𝑥 2ℎ1𝑑
𝑡𝑅 𝑑 = sin(𝑖𝑐 + 𝛼) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑐
𝑉1 𝑉1
𝑥 2ℎ1𝑢
𝑡𝑅 𝑢 = sin(𝑖𝑐 − 𝛼) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑐
𝑉1 𝑉1
for the refracted wave path, where tRd and tRu are the travel times of
down-dip and up-dip refracted wave paths and h1d and h1u are depths
perpendicular to the refractor at the two profile ends.

4- Discontinuous (faulted) refractor

• The presence of a discontinuous interface may occur, for
example, as a result of a fault, a sedimentary termination or an
erosional scarp. In this case, the direct wave is unaffected by the
discontinuity, and their arrival times will be plotted on a straight
line having a slope 1/V1 as shown on the t-x graph (Fig. ##).
But, the straight line of the refracted wave will be shifted up (or
down) on the other side of the fault. There are two parallel
straight line segments of slopes 1/V2 and two intercept times (ti
and ti') with a difference Δti which is a measure of the fault throw
(Δh1). If the faulted interface is horizontal, then:
2∆ℎ1 √𝑉22 − 𝑉12

Δt 𝑖 = cos 𝑖𝑐 = 2∆ℎ1
𝑉1 𝑉1 𝑉2
where Δh1 = h1' – h1 and Δti = ti' - ti, then:
∆𝑡𝑖 𝑉1 𝑉2
∆ℎ1 =
2 √𝑉 2 − 𝑉12
2
The fault location (F) is displaced a distance (d) to the left of the t-x
curve shift, where:
d = h1 tan ic

5- Other cases



Notes:

Dr. Ashraf Ghoneimi 91 |


INTRODUCTION
Surface and Subsurface Geology

Surface Geology
There are several areas to look for oil. The first is the observable, on the
surface of the ground. Oil and gas seeps are where the petroleum has migrated
from its source through either porous beds, faults or springs and appears at the
surface. Locating seeps at the surface was the primary method of exploration in
the late 1800’s and before.
Surface Geology
Subsurface Geology
Subsurface Geology
Subsurface geology is the study of the physical properties and location of
rock and soil found below the ground surface. In case of shallow depths, these
studies are commonly called geotechnical reports and are critical for building
structures safely in areas with geologic hazards, or for groundwater exploration.
In case of deep depths, these studies are called exploration reports and are
necessary for petroleum prospecting and development.

One of the most valuable reasons for learning about the subsurface is
understanding the materials below the ground surface. The subsurface data also
contain the locations and information for water wells, geotechnical borings, oil
and gas wells, and geothermal wells.
Subsurface Geologists use different types of subsurface data to:
– Produce and develop resource maps,
– Make the subsurface interpretation of geologic maps,
– Better understand faults and other structures,
– Produce 3d models of the geology,
– etc …
Importance (Applications) of Subsurface Geology

• Petroleum exploration: The usefulness of subsurface geological methods
in petroleum exploration and production problems has increased steadily
since the beginning of the petroleum industry. As more subsurface
understanding is called for, more and more geologists become specialized
in this type of work, until in many areas practically all of the exploration
geology is based on subsurface interpretations.
• Groundwater: Subsurface studies are very important for understanding

and protecting groundwater aquifers in order to maintain a steady supply of
clean water. These studies help us to understand how water flows through
and is stored in aquifers as well as how contaminants may enter an aquifer.
This allows people to plan future development so that aquifers remain viable
for years to come.
• Environment: The subsurface studies can reveal hazards such as

underground coal mine workings and unstable slopes. It is significantly
cheaper to design for hazards than to repair the damage later. Thus,

engineering companies often obtain geotechnical reports before starting any

major project.
• Engineering (Geotechnical): The construction industry relies heavily on

mining sand and gravel resources. These resources provide the raw
materials needed to produce concrete and asphalt for our roads, offices, and
homes. Understanding the amount and quality of the sand and gravel in a
resource deposit can influence many decisions in the mining process. Total
reserve estimates, mine design, and mining method all depend on having
quality subsurface data.
• Others: Subsurface studies can also provide critical inputs for imaging
magma chambers, geothermal exploration, locating active faults (paleo-
seismology), and metal mining.

Notes:

SOURCES OF SUBSURFACE DATA
How is subsurface information collected?

There are several methods available to collect subsurface information. There
are depth and resolution limitations associated with each method. Thus,
knowledge of the limitations of each method is critical in undertaking a subsurface
survey.
Boreholes
• Drilling boreholes is the primary way used to obtain subsurface information.
Drilling brings soil and rock to the surface for direct study. These materials
are described on site and may also be sent to a laboratory for additional study.
• Information obtained from

drilling includes material
properties, changing rock or
soil type, fault locations, and
depth to water or bedrock.
• Tests can also be performed

within open boreholes, to better
understand the materials in
place.

Seismic surveys
• Seismic surveys rely on analysis of
seismic waves refracted or
reflected from subsurface layers.
Seismic surveys are commonly
categorized as either active or
passive. In active seismic surveys,
the geophysicist creates a seismic
wave by hitting the ground with a
hammer or using an air-gun if in
water. In rare cases, small
explosive detonations may be used
to create a seismic signal. In
passive seismic surveys, the geophysicist uses naturally occurring seismic
waves or the “background noise” as the seismic source. Seismic surveys can
be conducted on land or in the water—the effective depth of the survey may
vary from tens of feet to several kilometers.
• All active seismic surveys, regardless of the size of the study, involve sound
waves generated from a sources that travel through the ground, are refracted,
and are then received by detectors. The speed at which the waves travel tells
us a lot about what layers are made of and how they are arranged.

Gravity and magnetics

Two additional types of
surveys, gravity and magnetic,
often work hand-in-hand to
characterize the subsurface.
• Gravity surveys identify

density differences in rock
formations. This is useful
for identifying the depth of
bedrock under
unconsolidated sediment
and depth to basement
rocks under sedimentary
basins. Gravity surveys can
also locate contacts between two distinct densities of rock at depth.
• Magnetic surveys identify magnetic contrasts in rocks. This is useful for

mapping faults, folds, and rocks with more magnetic minerals.
• Both surveys can be conducted on the ground for high-resolution data. They
can also be run from an airplane for lower resolution and greater coverage.
• These surveys are generally faster and cheaper to acquire than other data
types. However, interpreting the data requires more training and is seldom
used independently.

Ground penetrating radar

• Ground penetrating radar (GPR)
is a method of imaging the
subsurface using radar pulses. We
commonly associate radar with
locating aircraft or tracking
weather systems.
• At an airport, for instance, a radio

tower will emit a radio wave that
bounces off an aircraft and returns
to the detector, informing an air-
traffic controller of the aircraft’s
location.
• The same concept applies if the radar wave is pointed down toward the earth.
The radio wave travels through the subsurface and bounces off of soil and
rock layers. Faults, contacts between different rock types, and discrete objects
like boulders or voids are then visible.
• GPR has a variety of effective depths (generally <100 feet) and resolutions,
depending on the type of wave frequency used and soil conditions at each
site.

WELL MEASUREMENTS
Wells
The location of points in a well are measured in well logs with respect to the
elevation of the wellhead and are usually given as positive numbers. Depths in oil
and gas wells are usually measured from the Kelly bushing. The elevation of the
Kelly bushing (KB) is given in a surveyor’s report included as part of the well-log
header information. Alternatively, depths may be measured from ground level
(GL) or the derrick floor (DF).
Datum (Reference)
The coordinates of points in a well need to be corrected to a common datum
elevation, normally sea level. The depths should be adjusted so that they are
positive above sea-level and negative below. In a vertical well the log depths are
converted to a sea-level datum with the following equation:
SD = KB – MD
where SD = subsea depth, KB = elevation of Kelly bushing or other

measurement of surface elevation, MD = measured depth on well log.

Depths of Deviated Wells

TYPES OF SUBSURFACE DATA
Well Sampling
Well Cuttings
Well samples are produced from drilling operations, by the drill bit
penetrating the formation encountered in the subsurface. Samples are taken at
regular intervals. They are used to establish a lithologic record of the well and are
plotted on a strip sample log.
Coring (Core Samples)

• One way to get more detailed samples of a formation is by coring, where
formation sample is drilled out by means of special bit.

• This sample can provide:
– Detailed lithological description.
– Porosity, permeability, fluid saturation and grain density.
• These parameters are measured in the laboratory and serve as a basis for
calibrating the response of the porosity logging tools and to establish a
porosity/permeability relationship.
Well Logging Data

Wireline Well-Logging
Wireline logging (WL) involves the measurement of various properties of a
formation including electrical resistivity, bulk density, natural and induced
radioactivity, hydrogen content and elastic moduli.
These measurements may then be used to evaluate not only the physical and
chemical properties of the formation itself, but also the properties of the fluids that
the formation contains. There are open hole logs and cased hole logs.
– Open hole logs are recorded in the uncased portion of the wellbore.
– Cased hole logs are recorded in the completed or cased well.

• There are measurements that can be made in both the open and cased holes
(such as gamma ray and induction logs) and some that can only be made
in open holes. Resistivity and density porosity are two examples of
measurements that can be made in an open hole but not in a cased hole.
Measurements While Logging (MWD)

The evaluation of physical properties, usually including pressure,
temperature and wellbore trajectory in three-dimensional space, while extending
a wellbore. MWD is now standard practice in offshore directional wells, where the
tool cost is offset by rig time and wellbore stability considerations if other tools
are used.
The measurements are made downhole, stored in solid-state memory for

some time and later transmitted to the surface. Data transmission methods involve
digitally encoding data and transmitting to the surface as pressure pulses in the
mud system. These pressures may be positive, negative or continuous sine waves.
Some MWD tools have the ability to store the measurements for later retrieval
with wireline or when the tool is tripped out of the hole if the data transmission
link fails. with the relatively low.

Example of wireline logs (caliper, SP, GR, resistivity, density and neutron)
Logging While Drilling (LWD)

• Logging While Drilling (LWD) is a technique of conveying well logging
tools into the well borehole down hole as part of the bottom hole assembly
(BHA).

• One of the major drawbacks of wireline information is that it is received

several hours to several weeks after the borehole is drilled.
• During this time period, the formation can undergo significant alteration,
especially in its fluid saturation, effective porosity, and relative
permeability.
Example of logging while drilling (LWD)

Types of Logging Tools

• Gamma Ray
• Resistivity
• Density
• Neutron
• Sonic
• Formation pressure
• Formation fluid sampler
• Borehole caliper
Formation Testing
It is a means of obtaining information concerning the liquid and pressure in
an open-hole formation. There are three methods of formation testing:
1. Wire line testing

2. Drill stem test (DST)
3. Well Test Analysis
Wireline testing
Provide reservoir fluid samples, reservoir pressure, an indication of fluid
mobility and information on reservoir continuity.

Drill stem Test:

A drill stem test (DST) is a procedure for isolating and testing the surrounding
geological formation through the drill stem.
Well Test Analysis:

Two types of testing: pressure build-up and draw down test.
The primary objectives of well testing are to establish:
1. Permeability thickness and permeability (K)
2. Stratification (by sequential testing of layer).
3. Well productivity.
4. Investigate reservoir boundaries and size.

Notes:

PRESENTATION OF SUBSURFACE DATA
One-Dimensional Presentation (1-D):

Well data that are represented
versus the depth,
Such as:
– well logs
– columnar sections, representing

the vertical distribution of some
rock property, such as lithology,
fossil content, …
Two-Dimensional Presentation (2-D):

Well data are represented in X-Y or
X-Z dimensions, such as
– cross-sections (X-Z dimension),
– contour maps (X-Y dimension)

such as: isopach maps, structure
contour maps, isolith maps,


Three-Dimensional Presentation (3-D):

Well data that are represented in X, Y and Z dimensions.
– 3D-models,
– fence diagrams
– block diagrams
– stratigraphic models
– depositional models


Cross-sections
One can think of the cross section as the portrayal of subsurface outcrop, with
sections of good exposure (well-constrained) and poor exposure (poorly
constrained). In areas of poor or incomplete exposure, it is necessary to project
contacts and structural trends into areas of better exposure using nearby data or
information. Commonly, nearby well or seismic data and projected contacts (from
contour maps) are used to correlate poorly constrained sections. Cross sections can
be divided into two categories, projected and anchored.
Projected cross sections: are profiles with no direct well control. This
category can be further subdivided into synthetic and bounded cross sections.
Synthetic cross sections are profiles with no direct data to constrain the position
of contacts and features; whereas, bounded cross sections utilize nearby data to
semi-constrain them.
Anchored cross sections: are profiles that intersect one or more wells and,
therefore, have some degree of direct well control. Well data are anchored, or tied,
to the cross section because its spatial position is known. It is standard practice to
place at least one well log trace (commonly gamma ray, sonic, resistivity, or
spontaneous potential) on an anchored cross section. Anchored cross sections can
be further subdivided into pinned and well-to-well cross sections.

Pinned cross sections are a profile that intersects one or more wells.
Typically, this type of cross section is linear and partially constructed from
projected data.
Well-to-well cross sections are profiles that correlate multiple wells. These
profiles are completely controlled by well data and are commonly non-linear.
Vertical exaggeration
Vertical exaggeration (VE) is a dimensionless number that compares the
horizontal and vertical scales of a cross section. It is derived by dividing the
horizontal scale by the vertical scale. For example, geologic maps frequently have
a 1:24,000 (or 1/24,000) horizontal scale. If these maps have cross sections with a
vertical scale of 1:6,000 (or 1/6,000), the vertical exaggeration of these profiles
will be 4 (assuming the cross section has the same horizontal scale as the geologic
map).

SUBSURFACE MAPS
Subsurface mapping is a way to visualize various geologic features in any

dimension from a 1-D cross section to a 4-D production map. All subsurface map
types can be useful, but the key is to know what you are investigating and what
map types are most appropriate. For example, to evaluate facies changes, a 2-D
structure contour map may not be as helpful as a simple cross section.
Most subsurface maps and data are digitally constructed, manipulated, and
interpreted manually by geologists or by using advanced computer contouring
algorithms and software packages. Subsurface mapping and interpreting
geophysical logs are non-unique arts. There can be several plausible solutions, but
none of them have to be the correct answer. Keep in mind that a map is never
complete and new data will always alter it and possibly an inferred geological
paradigm.
Contour Lines
Contour lines are lines drawn on a map connecting points of equal values
(such as elevation or thickness), i.e, if you physically followed a contour line, the
contoured value would remain constant. For example, in topographic maps, the
contour lines show elevation and the shape of the ground surface or terrain.
They're useful because they illustrate the shape of the land surface - its topography
- on the map. In subsurface, contour lines connect points of equal values of depths
or thicknesses, as in the structure contour maps or thickness maps, respectively.


Isopach and Isochore Mapping

Isopach line:
individual line connecting points of equal thickness where the thickness is
measured perpendicular to the layer boundaries (true thickness).
Isopach map
displays lines of equal thickness in a layer where the thicknesses are
measured perpendicular to the layer boundaries (true thickness). Isopach
maps are also referred to as True Stratigraphic Thickness (TST) maps.
Isochore line:
individual line connecting points of equal thickness in a layer where the
thickness is measured vertically.
Isochore map:
displays lines of equal thickness in a layer where the thicknesses are
measured vertically.


Structure-Contour Maps
The structure contour map portrays a subsurface structural surface, such as
the top or bottom of a stratigraphic unit, marker beds and horizons, and surfaces
of unconformity, of fractures, of mineral deposits, and of aquifers. It is a type of
subsurface map whose contours represent the elevation of a particular formation,
reservoir or geologic marker in space, such that folds, faults and other geologic
structures are clearly displayed. Its appearance is similar to that of a topographic
map, but a topographic map displays elevations of the Earth's surface and a
structure map displays the elevation of a particular rock layer, generally beneath
the surface.
The structure contours are smooth lines that connect points of equal height
above or below a datum. The values used in contouring are depths or elevations,
and must be referred to a datum surface, such as the mean sea level or a certain
depth.
The data used in constructing a structure-contour map may be obtained from

geological surveys, the drilling of holes, mining, or geophysical investigations. On
the basis of these data, the depth of the structural surface is established at various

points in the area under study. The form and depth of occurrence are portrayed by
means of structure-contour lines, which are constructed in much the same way as
contour lines on a topographic map; the structure-contour lines take into account
all the data on the geologic structure of the area.
The scale used depends on the map’s purpose. Small-scale maps

(1:1,000,000) are generally used for depicting the surface of the foundation of a
craton. Large-scale maps (1:50,000, 1:10,000, or larger scales) are employed for
determining modes of occurrence, planning exploration, and calculating mineral
reserves.
Geologic structure-contour maps are of great practical importance. They are

used in searching and exploring for oil or minerals and in extracting them. Such
maps combine structure-contour maps and maps of the geologic structure of an
area or some underground horizon.
(1) Block diagram of an anticline with an oil-bearing stratum, (2) structure-

contour map (top) and block diagram (bottom) of the same section with the roof
of the oil-bearing stratum removed; the numbers indicate the absolute depths of
the structure-contour lines in meters.

Notes:

Notes:

Zagazig University
Faculty of Science
Geology Department
2021-2022 Seismic Method

and Subsurface
practical
Prepared by
Prof. Dr. Ashraf Ghoneimi
Professor of Applied Geophysics
Ahmed Mohamed Bakry
Teaching Assistant of Geophysics
Zagazig University 4th Year Geology, 2021-2022
Faculty of Science Seismic Method
Department of Geology Student Name:………………………..
SEISMIC EXPLORATION
Lab. (1)
1- To illustrate the interrelationship and magnitude of the elastic constants and seismic wave
velocities of different materials, complete the following Table (also include your calculations in
separates paper). Use the attached equations for calculations.
Note that these values apply to specific specimens; the values for rocks range considerably, especially as
porosity, depth and pressure change. Units of elastic moduli are in 1010 Pa while the density is in g/cm3
and velocity is in km/s.
Young's Bulk S-wave

Density Poisson's Shear P-wave
modulus modulus velocity
Material ρ Ratio modulus μ velocity Vp
E K Vs

(g/cm3) ( 1010 Pa) ( 1010 Pa) ( 1010 Pa) (km/s) (km/s)
Water 1 0.5 2.1
Granite 2.7 0.23 8.5
Sandstone 2.3 0.12 9.6
- Plot the relations between P-wave velocity (Vp) and each of density (ρ), Poisson's ratio (),
Young's modulus (E), Bulk modulus (K) and Shear modulus (μ).
2- In seismic exploration, the magnitudes of the period (T), the frequency (f), the wavelength
(λ) and the wave-number (k) are important parameters at all stages from array design
through acquisition and processing to interpretation. Given realistic P-wave velocities in
several types of sedimentary rocks, calculate the above parameters at frequencies of 15 Hz
and 60 Hz (which span the exploration seismic range) in the given table.
Vp f = 15 Hz f = 60 Hz
Rock type
m/s λ K T λ k T
water 1500
weathered zone 500
sandstone 2000
salt 4600
anhydrite 6100
Period: T=1/f [units are seconds (s)] Wavelength: λ =V/f [units are meters (m)]
Wavenumber: k=2π/λ [units are inverse meter (1/m)]
- Plot the relation between Vp and λ and k at the two frequencies, comment on these
relations.
1
Dr. Ashraf Ghoneimi Ahmed Bakry
Solutions
2
3
4
5
6
7
SEISMIC EXPLORATION
Lab. (2)
1- Write the equations for P- and S-wave velocities in terms of bulk modulus (k),
shear modulus (μ) and density (ρ). Using these two equations, can you show
why the P-wave velocity is always greater than the S-wave velocity?
2- Given the following layered

V1 = 1000 m/s ρ1 = 1.0 g/cm3
medium:
V2 = 1500 m/s ρ2 = 2.0 g/cm3
Calculate the reflection and
transmission coefficients for the vertically travelling P-waves (normal
incidence).
3- The given table shows the velocity and density of three layers:
Reflection
Velocity, V Density, ρ Acoustic Input
Layer Coefficient,
(ft/sec) (g/cm3) Impedance Wavelet
R
A 8000 2.20
R1 =
B 7500 2.00
R2 =
C 9000 2.21
a- Calculate the acoustic impedance for each layer.

b- Calculate the reflection coefficient for each interface (R1 and R2).
c- What would R1 be if layer A has a density 1.875 g/c m3?
d- Interpret the results of (b) and (c) in terms of seismic energy partition and
phase change.
e- Plot the reflectivity log and the expected synthetic seismic trace for cases
(b) and (c) using the simple input wavelet shown inside the table.
8
9
Solutions
10
11
12
SEISMIC EXPLORATION
Lab. (3)
1- ) Use the wave path geometry to derive the equation of critical distance (xcrit).
Then, use the time-distance relations of the direct and critically refracted wave
paths to derive the equation of crossover distance (xcross).
Calculate the critical (xcrit) and crossover (xcross) distances in the case of a
horizontal interface at a depth of 200m separating a top layer of velocity
3000 m/s from a lower layer of velocity 5000 m/s?
How long is the favorable seismic refraction profile for this case?
2- ) given is the following horizontally layered medium:

(a) Calculate the critical distance xcrit and
crossover distance xcross.
(b) How long is the favorable seismic
refraction profile for this case?
(d) Construct a time-distance (T-X) diagram (direct, reflection and refraction).
𝑋 1 𝑋 2𝑍 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑖𝑐
𝑡𝑑𝑖𝑟 = 𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙 = √𝑋 2 + 4𝑍² 𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟 = +
𝑉1 𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉1
13
Solutions
14
15
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SEISMIC EXPLORATION
Lab. (4)
1- ) the following table shows the distances of geophones from the shot point and
their reflection time of arrival.
X,(m) -1000 -900 -800 -700 -600 -500 -400 -300 -200 -100 0
T, (sec) 0.433 0.394 0.356 0.322 0.289 0.256 0.227 0.200 0.180 0.165 0.159
X,(m) 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
T, (sec) 0.165 0.179 0.200 0.226 0.256 0.288 0.322 0.358 0.394 0.431
a) Draw the time-distance curve and describe it.

b) Define the zero-offset time (t0) and determine its value.
c) Calculate the velocity (V1) of seismic wave in the upper layer.
d) Calculate the thickness (h1) of the top layer.
e) Calculate the angle of incidence at distances 200 and 400 m.
f) Sketch the subsurface and the reflected seismic wave paths.
2-) In a long spread reflection shooting, 21 geophones were located at equal

distances of 100 m on the two-sides of a shot point. The arrival times and
distances are shown in the following table:
X, m -1000 -900 -800 -700 -600 -500 -400 -300 -200 -100 0
T, sec 0.650 0. 550 0.459 0.390 0.325 0.276 0.234 0.221 0.209 0.200 0.210
X, m 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
T, sec 0.220 0.236 0.275 0.324 0.391 0.460 0.549 0.651 0.770 0.891
It is required to plot the time-distance curve and determine the following:

a) Minimum (tm) and zero-offset (to) time, then compare between them.
b) Minimum offset-distance (Xm).
c) Dip angle and direction.
e) Vertical depth (z1) below shot point.
d) Seismic wave velocity (V1).
f) Sketch the subsurface and the reflected seismic wave paths.
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19
Solutions
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24
SEISMIC EXPLORATION
Lab. (5)
1- A refraction survey of the soil layer that overlies bedrock was done at a construction
site. The print of the seismogram (shooting record) is given below. In this survey, a
spread of 10 geophones was used in a line with 5 m geophone interval.
- Read the first arrival times from this record, then plot the time-distance curve.
- What is the number of layers?
- Calculate the values of velocities, intercept time and thickness of the layers.
- Sketch the subsurface layers and wave paths.
X (m) F.B. (sec) X (m) F.B. (sec)
0 30
5 35
10 40
15 45
20 50
25
25
Solutions
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28
SEISMIC EXPLORATION
Lab. (6)
• Given the T-Z data of well A, use the data in the table below to draw a time-distance curve and from
the T-Z curve determine two formation tops at depth (1276 and 2035) with the seismic line.
• Pick the two formation tops are T and B on the seismic line iL 400.
• Use the intersection to pick the top of seismic lines iL200, iL600, xL500 and xL900.
• On the location map of 2D seismic lines, draw TWT maps for top T and B.
• Calculate the average velocity of formation tops.
• Use the average velocity values to convert TWT maps to depth maps for T and B.
• Describe the subsurface structure.
Z(m) TWT (sec)

0 0
500 0.3
1000 0.56
1276 0.68
1518 0.8
1750 0.94
2134 1.12
2500 1.22
3000 1.35
3500 1.46
4000 1.56
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Faculty of Science Subsurface Geology
TWT contour map for top (T)
29
TWT contour map for top (B)
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Depth contour map for top (T)
36
Depth contour map for top (B)
37
Thickness contour map between tops (T and B)
38
Lab. (1)
• Contour the following data and complete the two profiles
39
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Lab. (2)
• Make an isopach map of the sandstone thicknesses on the following map
42
Lab. (3)
• The data given represents the subsea elevation and the thickness of oil bearing sand
stone bed which encountered by 22 boreholes in the Gulf of Suez area you are
requested to construct:
1- Structure contour map for top of sandstone and thickness map for the oil bearing sand
stone bed.
Subsea elevation, m.
WELL NO.
Top Bottom
1 715 810
2 710 802
3 620 764
4 605 745
5 526 704
6 410 655
7 500 700
8 402 652
9 305 605
10 310 612
11 395 645
12 300 450
13 200 400
14 180 390
15 366 470
16 487 530
17 357 457
18 253 418
19 351 477
20 553 564
21 450 500
22 523 525
43
Structure contour map for top of sandstone
44
Thickness map for oil bearing sand stone bed.
45
Lab. (4)
• The data given below represent the surface depths to the top of a limestone bed and
the apparent thickness in meter of a limestone bed (dip angle 60º E). The well
location map shows the 18 wells drilled in the area with ground elevations
(1:10000):
Well Surface Thickness Well Surface Thickness
No. Depth (m) (m) No. Depth (m) (m)
1 675 575 10 730 50
2 515 600 11 1140 50
3 625 500 12 1000 200
4 630 400 13 950 175
5 550 300 14 730 50
6 560 200 15 1140 50
7 575 100 16 650 300
8 530 50 17 1150 250
9 940 50 18 1020 300
- Draw isochore map for the limestone bed.

- Draw structure contour map for the top of a sandstone bed underling the limestone bed.
- Estimate the true thickness of limestone bed encountered in wells 4 and 18.
46
Lab. (5)
• The data given below represent the depths to the upper surface of bed underlying
a certain reservoir bed. The true thickness of the reservoir bed is also given:
Well Depth Thickness Well Depth Thickness
No. (m) (m) No. (m) (m)
1 425 30 10 408 85
2 465 32 11 395 65
3 430 40 12 380 0
4 438 64 13 413 67
5 403 48 14 390 0
6 402 0 15 382 12
7 435 105 16 385 0
8 429 70 17 420 90
9 433 105 18 406 20
a- Draw structure contour map for the top and bottom of reservoir bed.
b- Draw isopach map for the reservoir bed.
c- Define the given structure.
Structure contour map for the top of reservoir bed
47
Structure contour map for the bottom of reservoir bed
Isopach map for the reservoir bed
48
49
Lab. (6)
• The following table represents the subsea depths from the sea level to the tops of
three alternative formations 1, 2 and 3. It is required:
1- Draw structure contour map for each top and give brief description for the structure obtained
and the probability of hydrocarbon accumulation.
2- Draw thickness maps for the 1 and 2 formation and interpret it.
DEPTH TO TOPS STATION DEPTH TO TOPS TATION

1 2 3 1 2 3
GB 31-81 GB 39-81
1809 2036 2321 180 1576 1849 2126 140
1947 2212 2515 200 1663 1961 2199 160
2110 2356 2674 220 1644 1933 2152 180
GB 33-81 1692 2004 2214 200
1646 1854 2091 160 1700 2102 2308 220
1788 2023 2264 180 1786 2072 2130 240
1955 2202 2453 200 GB 43-81
2134 2378 2664 220 1698 2011 2285 100
GB 35-81 1779 2094 2406 120
1668 1998 2133 160 1906 2199 2468 140
1784 2070 2286 180 2035 2318 2666 160
1952 2308 2502 200 1806 2081 0 180
2028 2430 2622 220 GB 45-81
GB 37-81 1652 0 2316 180
1563 1823 2128 180 1725 2019 2347 200
1665 1922 2171 200 1882 2103 2454 220
1740 2062 2285 220 2074 2327 2666 240
1854 2173 2355 240 2212 2478 0 260
1926 2196 2379 260 GB 47-81
1883 2205 2501 220
1973 2326 2546 240
50
Structure contour map for the top 1
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Thickness maps for the 1 and 2 formation
54
Lab. (7)
1- The below table show the depth of 4 beds at 4 wells.
BED WELL 1 WELL 2 WELL 3 WELL 4

Gravel 0 0 0 0
Limestone 100 100 100 100
Shale 400 200 300 500
Sand 650 450 550 800
a- Draw structure cross section with vertical scale is 1 cm = 100 m and the horizontal scale
is 1 cm = 1000 m, the distance between any two successive wells is 4000 m.
b- Locate the best area for oil accumulation.
2- The below table show the thickness of 5 beds at 5 wells.
BED WELL 1 WELL 2 WELL 3 WELL 4 WELL 5

Gravel 35 35 35 35 35
Shale 335 90 65 90 335
Sand ----- 75 135 75 -----
Shale ----- 170 135 170 -----
Limestone 30 30 30 30 30
a- Draw structure cross section with vertical scale is 1 cm = 50 m and the horizontal scale is 1
cm = 50 m, knowing that the total depth is 400 m and the distance between any two
successive wells is 150 m.
b- Locate the best area for oil accumulation.
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Lab. (8)
1- Draw a structure cross section map with vertical scale 1 cm: 1000 ft and the
horizontal scale is 1 cm: 1000 ft, knowing that the total depth is 8000 ft and the
distance between any two successive wells is 2000 ft. Where to drill an exploratory
well?
Bed Well 1 Well 2 Well 3 Well 4 Well 5 Well 6

Gravel & Sand 0 0 0 0 0 0
Shale 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000
Sandstone 2000 2500 3000 2500 3000 3500
Limestone 4000 4500 5000 4500 5000 5500
Dolostone 5500 6000 5500 6000 6500 7000
The above table show 5 beds depth at 6 wells.
2- The following presents the depths at which different lithological units were in 8
wells drilled in an oil field in Egypt. Draw a structure cross section map with
vertical scale is 1 cm = 1000 m and the horizontal scale is 1 cm = 1000 m and the
well No.1 at equal distances 2000 m. Then locate the best area of oil accumulation
and types of trap.
Well No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Gravel & sand 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Shale 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
Sand (1) ------- ------- 3000 2800 2600 2800 3000 -------
Shale ------- ------- 3500 3700 3800 3500 3100 -------
Sand (2) 4900 4700 4500 4900 5100 ------- ------- -------
Shale 5300 5700 5900 5700 5500 ------- ------- -------
Sand (3) ------- ------- ------- 6800 6600 6500 6800 7000
Shale ------- ------- ------- 7200 7800 7400 7600 7300
T.D. 7500 7400 7600 7600 8100 7500 7700 7500
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Lab. (9)
• In the gulf of Suez area were drilled 28 wells, the sand / shale ratio and clastic
ratio are tabulated as follows:
Well Sand/ shale Clastic Well Sand/ shale Clastic
No. ratio ratio No. ratio ratio
1 0 1.9 15 0 0.37
2 0.12 0.35 16 0 0.62
3 0.66 1.05 17 1.58 0.18
4 0.39 0.33 18 0 2.3
5 0 0.36 19 0 0.55
6 0.49 6.3 20 0 0.45
7 0.27 0.41 21 0.63 0.94
8 0.67 0.40 22 0 1.01
9 9 5.75 23 0 2.3
10 0 0.38 24 0 0.22
11 0.81 0.22 25 0 0.72
12 0 0.41 26 0 0.46
13 1.03 0.39 27 0 0.62
14 0.09 0.19 28 0 1.59
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Subsurface and Seismic Methods

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Subsurface and Seismic Methods

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Zagazig University Faculty of Science

Dr. Ashraf Ghoneimi

First Semester - Fourth Year

Title: Subsurface Geology and Seismic methods Code: G 419

2 - Intended Learning Outcomes of Course (ILOs)

Dr. Ashraf Ghoneimi and Dr. Shaker Ibrahim i |

c- Professional and Practical Skills

d- General and Transferable Skills

Dr. Ashraf Ghoneimi and Dr. Shaker Ibrahim ii |

5. Isopach and isochore mapping, structure-contour 3 2 1

4.Teaching and Leaning Methods

5. Student Assessment Methods

Dr. Ashraf Ghoneimi and Dr. Shaker Ibrahim iii |

7- Facilities Required for Teaching and Learning

Course Coordinator: Dr. Ashraf Ghonimi and Shaker Ibrahim

Course Matrix (Subsurface and Seismic Methods, G 419)

Types of seismic methods, wave x x x x x x x

Dr. Ashraf Ghoneimi and Dr. Shaker Ibrahim iv |

COURSE SPECIFICATIONS .......................................................ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

Dr. Ashraf Ghoneimi and Dr. Shaker Ibrahim v |

SESMIC DATA INTERPRETATION........................................................................................ 71

Dr. Ashraf Ghoneimi and Dr. Shaker Ibrahim vi |

Dr. Ashraf Ghoneimi and Dr. Shaker Ibrahim vii |

Dr. Ashraf Ghoneimi and Dr. Shaker Ibrahim viii |

The purpose of seismic exploration is to discover what lies

Seismic interpretation procedure represents a systematic workflow

The reflection seismic method creates a geophysically sampled

The seismic method was first applied to earthquake monitoring and

The reflection seismic method have made great further progress in

Seismographs record seismic waves that follow different paths into

Dr. Ashraf Ghoneimi and Dr. Shaker Ibrahim 1 |

Importance of seismic exploration

Dr. Ashraf Ghoneimi and Dr. Shaker Ibrahim 2 |

• Elasticity is the capacity of a material to be temporarily deformed by

Stress and Strain

Dr. Ashraf Ghoneimi and Dr. Shaker Ibrahim 3 |

of the object (compressional or tensional stress).

Dr. Ashraf Ghoneimi and Dr. Shaker Ibrahim 4 |

Elasticity of Rocks (Hook’s Law)

A typical stress-strain curve for a solid body

Dr. Ashraf Ghoneimi and Dr. Shaker Ibrahim 5 |

Elastic Constants (Moduli)

Bulk Modulus (K):

Young's Modulus (E):

𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 ∆F/A

The unit of E is dyne/cm2.

Shear Modulus (µ):

𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 ∆F/A

Dr. Ashraf Ghoneimi and Dr. Shaker Ibrahim 6 |

smallest of the three.

Poisson's Ratio ():

𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 ∆𝑑/𝑑

• The Poisson's ratio () can be measured only for

Dr. Ashraf Ghoneimi and Dr. Shaker Ibrahim 7 |

Relations between elastic constants

Dr. Ashraf Ghoneimi and Dr. Shaker Ibrahim 8 |

• The seismic wave occurs by moving the elastic strain (or

General definitions (characteristics) of waves:

• Wave fronts and rays:

Dr. Ashraf Ghoneimi and Dr. Shaker Ibrahim 9 |

Types of Seismic Waves

Dr. Ashraf Ghoneimi and Dr. Shaker Ibrahim 10 |

• The velocity of P-wave is more than the velocity of other types of