9/27/18

Wind Energy Basics

Outline
1. What is a wind plant?
2. Power production
a. Wind power equation
b. Wind speed vs. height
c. Usable speed range
3. Problems with wind; potential solutions

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1. What is a wind plant?

Overview

1. What is a wind plant? Tower & Blades

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1. What is a wind plant? Towers, Rotors, Gens, Blades

Manu- Capacity Hub Height Rotor Gen type Weight (s-tons)
facturer Diameter Nacelle Rotor Tower
0.5 MW 50 m 40 m

Vestas 0.85 MW 44 m, 49 m, 55 m, 65 52m DFIG/Asynch 22 10 45/50/60/75/95,

m, 74 m wrt to hub hgt
GE (1.5sle) 1.5 MW 61-100 m 70.5-77 m DFIG 50 31

Vestas 1.65 MW 70,80 m 82 m Asynch water cooled 57(52) 47 (43) 138 (105/125)

Vestas 1.8-2.0 MW 80m, 95,105m 90m DFIG/ Asynch 68 38 150/200/225

Enercon 2.0 MW 82 m Synchronous 66 43 232

Gamesa (G90) 2.0 MW 67-100m 89.6m DFIG 65 48.9 153-286

Suzlon 2.1 MW 79m 88 m Asynch

Siemens (82-VS) 2.3 MW 70, 80 m 101 m Asynch 82 54 82-282

Clipper 2.5 MW 80m 89-100m 4xPMSG 113 209

GE (2.5xl) 2.5 MW 75-100m 100 m PMSG 85 52.4 241

Vestas 3.0 MW 80, 105m 90m DFIG/Asynch 70 41 160/285

Acciona 3.0 MW 100-120m 100-116m DFIG 118 66 850/1150

GE (3.6sl) 3.6 MW Site specific 104 m DFIG 185 83

Siemens (107-vs) 3.6 MW 80-90m 107m Asynch 125 95 255

Gamesa 4.5 MW 128 m

REpower (Suzlon) 5.0 MW 100–120 m Onshore 126 m DFIG/Asynch 290 120

90–100 m Offshore
Enercon 6.0 MW 135 m 126 m 5 Electrical excited SG 329 176 2500

Clipper 7.5 MW 120m 150m

1. What is a wind plant?

Electric Generator
Type 1 Plant
Feeders
Conventional Induction generator

Generator (fixed speed) PF control

capacitor s

Type 2 Pla nt
Fee ders

Wound-rotor Induction gene rator

Generator w/variable rotor ac PF control

capacitor s
resistance Slip power
to
dc
as heat loss

Type 3 Plant
Feeders

Doubly-Fed Induction generator

Generator (variable speed) ac

to
dc
to
dc ac

partial power

Type 4 Plant
Feeders
Full-converter interface generator
ac
to
dc
to
dc ac

6
full power

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1. What is a wind plant?

Type 3 Doubly Fed Induction Generator
• Most common technology today
• Provides variable speed via rotor freq control
• Converter rating only 1/3 of full power rating
• Eliminates wind gust-induced power spikes
• More efficient over wide wind speed
• Provides voltage control Plant
Feeders
generator

ac dc
to to
dc ac

7
partial power

1. What is a wind plant?

Collector Circuit
• Distribution system, often 34.5

POI or
connection
to the grid Collector System
Station

Interconnection
Transmission Line

Individual WTGs

8 Feeders and Laterals (overhead

and/or underground)

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1. What is a wind plant?

Offshore
• About 600 GW available 5-50 mile range
• About 50 GW available in <30m water
• Installed cost ~$3000/MW; uncertain
because US cont. shelf deeper than N. Sea

2. Power production
Wind power equation
Swept area At of turbine blades:
The disks have larger cross
sectional area from left to
right because
• v1 > vt > v2 and
• the mass flow rate must
v1 vt v2 be the same everywhere
within the streamtube.

Therefore, A 1 < At < A 2

xà

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2. Power production
Wind power equation
Δx
1. Wind velocity: v = 2. Air mass flowing: Δm = ρAΔx
Δt Δm ρAt Δx
3. Mass flow rate at swept area: Qt = = = ρAt vt
Δt Δt
4a. Kinetic energy change: 4b. Force on turbine blades:
1 Δv m
ΔKE = m v1 − v2
2
2 2
( ) F = ma = m = Δv = Qt v1 − v2
Δt Δt
( )
5a. Power extracted: 5b. Power extracted:
P=
ΔKE 1 m 2 2 1
=
Δt
(v1 − v2 ) = Qt (v12 − v22 )
2 Δt 2
P = Fvt = Qt vt v1 − v2 ( )
6a. Substitute (3) into (5a): 6b. Substitute (3) into (5b):
2 2
P = (1 / 2) ρAt vt (v1 − v2 ) 7. Equate P = ρAt vt2 (v1 − v2 )
⇒ (1 / 2)vt (v22 − v12 ) = vt2 (v2 − v1 ) ⇒ (1 / 2)vt (v1 − v2 )(v1 + v2 ) = vt2 (v1 − v2 ) ⇒ (1 / 2)(v2 + v1 ) = vt
8. Substitute (7) into (6b):P = ρAt ((1 / 2)(v1 + v2 ))2 (v1 − v2 ) = ρAt (v12 − v22 )(v1 + v2 )
ρA v 3 v 2 v 4
9. Factor out v13: P = 4t 1 (1 − ( v2 ) )(1 + v2 )
1 1

2. Power production
Wind power equation
10. Define wind v2 This ratio is fixed for a given
a=
stream speed ratio, a: v1 turbine & control condition.

11. Substitute a into P=

ρAt v13
(1 − a 2 )(1 + a)
power expression of (9): 4
∂P ρAt v13
12. Differentiate and find a ∂a
=
4
[
− 2a (a + 1) + (1 − a 2 ) = 0 ]
which maximizes function: − 2a 2 − 2a + 1 − a 2 = −3a 2 − 2a + 1 = 0
(−3a + 1)(a + 1) = 0 ⇒ a = 1 / 3, a = −1
13. Find the maximum power ρAt v13 1 4 ρA v 3 8 4 8ρAt v13
by substituting a=1/3 into (11): P= (1 − )( ) = t 1 =
4 9 3 4 93 27

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2. Power production
Wind power equation
14. Define Cp, the power (or performance) coefficient, which
gives the ratio of the power extracted by the converter, P, to
the power of the air stream, Pin.
power extracted ρAt v13
P= (1 − a 2 )(1 + a)
by the converter 4
power of the ΔKE 1 m 2 1 1 1
air stream
Pin =
Δt
=
2 Δt
(
2 2
)
v1 − 0 = Q1v12 = ρAt v1v12 = ρAt v13
2
ρAt v13
(1 − a 2 )(1 + a) 1
P 1
Cp = = 4
1
= (1 − a 2 )(1 + a) P = C p Pin = C P ρAt v13
Pin ρAt v13 2 2
2
15. The maximum value of Cp occurs when its numerator
is maximum, i.e., when a=1/3:
The Betz Limit!
P 1 8 4 16
Cp = = ( )( ) = = 0.5926
Pin 2 9 3 27

2. Power production
Cp vs. a

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2. Power production
Cp vs. λ and θ
u: tangential velocity of blade tip
Tip-speed ratio: u ωR
λ= = ω: rotational velocity of blade
v1 v1 R: rotor radius
v 1: wind speed

Pitch: θ

GE SLE 1.5 MW

2. Power production
Cp vs. λ and θ
u: tangential velocity of blade tip
Tip-speed ratio: u ωR
λ= = ω: rotational velocity of blade
v1 v1 R: rotor radius
v 1: wind speed

Pitch: θ

GE SLE 1.5 MW

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2. Power production
Wind Power Equation
1
P = C p Pin = CP (λ ,θ ) ρAt v13
2
So power extracted depends on
1.Design factors:
• Swept area, At
2.Environmental factors:
• Air density, ρ (~1.225kg/m3 at sea level)
• Wind speed v3
2. Control factors:
• Tip speed ratio through the rotor speed ω
• Pitch θ

2. Power production
Control

In Fig. a, a dotted curve is drawn through the points of

maximum torque. This curve is very useful for control, in
that we can be sure that as long as we are operating at a
point on this curve, we are guaranteed to be operating the
wind turbine at maximum efficiency. Therefore this curve,
redrawn in Fig. b, dictates how the machine should be
controlled in terms of torque and speed.

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2. Power production
Effects on wind speed: Location
Classes of Wind Power Density at 10 m and
50 m(a)
10 m (33 ft) 50 m (164 ft)

Wind Wind Speed(b) Wind Speed(b)

Power Power m/s (mph) Power m/s (mph)
Class Density Density
(W/m2) (W/m2)
1 <100 <4.4 (9.8) <200 <5.6 (12.5)
4.4 5.6
2 100 - 150 (9.8)/5.1 200 - 300 (12.5)/6.4
5.1 6.4
3 150 - 200 (11.5)/5.6 300 - 400 (14.3)/7.0
5.6 7.0
4 200 - 250 (12.5)/6.0 400 - 500 (15.7)/7.5
6.0 7.5
5 250 - 300 (13.4)/6.4 500 - 600 (16.8)/8.0
6.4 8.0
6 300 - 400 (14.3)/7.0 600 - 800 (17.9)/8.8
7 >400 >7.0 (15.7) >800 >8.8 (19.7)

2. Power production
Effects on wind speed: Location

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2. Power production
Effects on wind speed: Height
“In the daytime, when 10 m
temperature is greater than
at 80 m, the difference
between the wind speeds is
small due to solar irradiation,
which heats the ground and
causes buoyancy such that
turbulent mixing leads to an
effective coupling between
the wind fields in the surface
layer. During nighttime the
temperature DIFFERENCE
changes sign because of the
cooling of the ground. This
inversion dampens turbulent
mixing and, hence,
decouples the wind speed at
different heights, leading to T80m < T10m èGround heatingèAir rise
pronounced differences èTurbulent mixingèCoupling
between wind speeds.” è v 80m ~ v 10m

Source: M. Lange and U. Focken, “Physical approach to Short-Term Wind Power Prediction,”
Springer, 2005.

2. Power production
Effects on wind speed: Height
“The mean values of the
wind speed show a
pronounced dirunal cycle. At Nighttime peak occurs at 200 m.
10 m, the mean wind speed
has a maximum at noon and
a minimum around midnight.
This behavior changes with
increasing height, so that at
200 m, the dirunal cycle is
inverse, with a broad
minimum in daytime and
maximum wind speeds at
night. Hence, the better the
coupling between the Almost flat at 80 m.
atmospheric layers during Daytime peak occurs at 10 m.
the day, the more horizontal
momentum is transferred
downwards from flow layers
at large heights to those
near the ground.”
Average wind speed
increases with height.
Source: M. Lange and U. Focken, “Physical approach
to Short-Term Wind Power Prediction,” Springer, 2005.

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2. Power production
Effects on wind speed: Height
“The atmosphere is divided
into several horizontal layers
to separate different flow
regimes. These layers are
defined by the dominating
physical effects that
influence the dynamics. For
wind energy use, the
troposphere which spans the
first five to ten km above the
ground has to be considered
as it contains the relevant
wind field regimes.”
Source: M. Lange and U.
Focken, “Physical approach to
Short-Term Wind Power
Prediction,” Springer, 2005.
1
ßWind shear exponent differs locationally
⎛ Hub Height ⎞ 7
U = U ref ⎜ ⎟ U: wind speed estimate at Hub Height
⎜ H ⎟ Href is height at which reference data was taken
⎝ ref ⎠ Uref is wind speed at height of Href

2. Power production
Effects on wind speed: Contours

Wind profile at top of

slope is fuller than that
of approaching wind.

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2. Power production
Effects on wind speed: Roughness

2. Power production
Usable speed range

Cut-in speed (6.7 mph) Cut-out speed (55 mph)

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3. Problems with wind; potential solutions

Day-ahead forecast uncertainty
• Fossil-generation is planned day-ahead
• Fossil costs minimized if real time same as plan
• Wind increases day-ahead forecast uncertainty
Solutions:
Hourly Load Variability and Load-Wind Variability When Wind • Pay increased fossil costs from
fossil energy displaced by wind
Penetration is 10%

• Use fast ramping gen

4000

3500

3000

2500
• Distribute wind gen widely
Freqency

2000 • Improve forecasting

1500

1000 • Smooth wind plant output

500

0
• On-site regulation gen
• Storage
-800

-700

-600

-500

-400

-300

-200

-100

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

Load and Load-Wind Hourly Variability (MW)

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Load Hourly Variability Load-Wind Hourly Variability

3. Problems with wind; potential solutions

Daily, annual wind peak not in phase w/load
• Daily wind peaks may not coincide w/ load
• Annual wind peaks occur in winter
Solutions:
• “Spill” wind
• Shift loads in time
• Storage
• Pumped storage
• Pluggable hybrid vehicles
• Batteries
• H 2, NH 3 with fuel cell
Midwestern Region • Compressed air
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• …others

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3. Problems with wind; potential solutions

Cost

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3. Problems with wind; potential solutions

Cost
•$1050/kW capital cost
• 34% capacity factor
• 50-50 capital structure
• 7% debt cost; 12.2% eqty rtrn
• 20-year depreciation life
• $25,000 annual O & M per MW
è20-year levlzd cost=5¢/kWhr
• Existing coal: <2.5¢/kWhr
• Existing Nuclear: <3.0¢/kWhr
• New gas combined cycle:
>6.0¢/kWhr
• New gas combustion turbine:
>10¢/kWhr

Solution:
• Cost of wind reduces with tower height
• Tower designs, nacelle weight reduction, innovative constructn
• Carbon cost makes wind good (best?) option
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3. Problems with wind; potential solutions

Wind is remote from load centers
Transmission cost: a small 20% Wind Future Cumulative
Costs through 2024
fraction of total investment
& operating costs. 2%

…And it can pay for itself:

• Assume $80B provides 20,000 MW 30%

delivery system over 30 years, 70%

capacity factor, for Midwest wind
energy to east coast.
• This adds $21/MWh. 68%

• Cost of Midwest energy is $65/MWh.

• Delivered cost of energy would then
be $86/MWh.
•East coast cost is $110/MWh. 33
Production Generation Capital Transmission Capital

Conclusions

• High penetration levels

require solution to cost,
variability, and
transmission.
• Wind economics driven
by wind speed, & thus by
turbine height.
• Solutions to variability
and transmission
problems could increase
growth well beyond what
is not being predicted.
Source: European Wind Energy Association,
“Wind Energy – The Facts,” Earthscan, 2009.

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