Received: 14 January 2020 Revised: 17 February 2020 Accepted: 9 March 2020

DOI: 10.1002/est2.159

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Experimental investigation of a compressed air vehicle

prototype with phase change materials for heat recovery

Reza Alizade Evrin | Ibrahim Dincer

Faculty of Engineering and Applied

Science, Ontario Tech. University,
Oshawa, Ontario, Canada
Correspondence
Reza Alizade Evrin, Faculty of
Engineering and Applied Science,
University of Ontario Institute of
Technology, 2000 Simcoe Street North,
Oshawa, ON L1H 7K4, Canada.
Email: reza.mohammadalizadeh@
ontariotech.net
Abstract
In this article, an experimental investigation, where the prototype of a new
pneumatic vehicle is developed, analyzed, built and tested, is presented. The
system consists of a novel compressed air system integrated with phase change
materials for heat recovery purposes. The prototype is experimentally built and
tested at the Ontario Tech. University in Oshawa. Three different phase
change materials of polyethyleneglycol, paraffin and alkane mix are investi-
gated for heat recovery purposes in the prototype where the paraffin option
provides the best result. Furthermore, the maximum torque is found to vary
between 21 and 44 Nm with changing shaft speed from 400 to 1300 rpm while
the minimum torque fluctuates between 3 and 13 Nm with changing shaft
speed in the same range. The supplementary battery power is 2.18 kW, and the
turbine work output is found to be 1.25 kW with the recovered air which is
provides 36% of the heat required to heat up the PCM heat exchanger. The
total motor work consumed during operation is 18.36 kW, which can be
defined as the acceptable capacity for the powertrain of a small-size city vehi-
cle. The energetic efficiency for the compressed air vehicle is 59.5% while the
exergetic efficiency becomes 51.0%, respectively.

KEYWORDS
compressed air vehicle, efficiency, energy, exergy, phase change materials, prototype

1 | INTRODUCTION their own car (accounting for 72%) or by other means,

In Canada, where there are about 19.5 million registered
road vehicles, 96.1% are below 4.5 t weight, 2.3% are
light trucks of 4.5 to 15 t while heavy trucks with a curb
mass of over 15 t account for the remaining 1.6%. The
major fuel for road vehicles in Canada is still gasoline,
as indicated in Figure 1, which shows the share of trans-
portation fuels per type for the entire transportation sec-
tor. The yearly distance travelled by passenger cars,
buses and light trucks (with a weight less than 4.5 t) is
about 300 billion km. A major use of passenger trans-
port vehicles is for “going to work.” In Canada, people
go to work by public transport (accounting for 11%), by
such as cycling or walking. It should be noted that the
total Canadian workforce is around 16 million people.
Also worthy of note is that, from the total green house
gas (GHG) emissions of a household, 63% is due to pri-
vate vehicle use. The majority of passenger car GHG
emissions, such as 35%, is sourced from vehicles owned
by low/middle-income families, which account for 31%
of Canadian households.1 The electricity-to-shaft work
efficiency for electric vehicles (EVs), fuel cell vehicles
(FCVs), and pneumatic vehicles (PVs) allows for the cal-
culation of the electrical energy needed in each case to
produce a unit of energy at the vehicle shaft.2 The actual
data for GHG emissions in Canada and its provinces, as

Energy Storage. 2020;2:e159. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/est2 © 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1 of 12
https://doi.org/10.1002/est2.159
2 of 12 EVRIN AND DINCER

Heavy Fuel Oil

Diesel Fuel Oil 3% Propane
32% Aviation Turbo Fuel 0.49%
10%

Other
1%

Electricity
Aviation Gasoline 0.09%
Motor Gasoline 0.12%
54% Natural Gas
0.15%

F I G U R E 1 Fuel types and percentages as used in Canadian Transportation Sector. (Data from NRCAN. National Energy Use Database.
Natural resources of Canada. http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/corporate/statistics/neud/dpa/data_e/databases.cfm. 2018)

10000 F I G U R E 2 Greenhouse gas

Canadian passenger cars: 943 gCO2eqv/kWhMech FCV EV PV emissions (in CO2 equivalent) as
calculated for Canada and its
1000 provinces and territories by
considering FCV, EV and PV.
(Data from NRCAN. National
gCO2eqv/kWhMech

100 Energy Use Database. Natural

resources of Canada. http://oee.
nrcan.gc.ca/corporate/statistics/
10 neud/dpa/data_e/databases.
cfm. 2018)

shown in Figure 1, are used to calculate the results pres-
ented in Figure 2. Basically, the gram of CO2 equivalent
generated by the grid for each kWh of electricity has
been divided by the electric-to-shaft efficiency of the
vehicle, which represents the kWh of mechanical energy
at shaft over the kWh of electricity input.
In Figure 2, the dash-dot line indicates the actual
average emissions of Canadian passenger cars. It can be
concluded from this result that all three considered
types of grid-connected EVs bring benefits with respect
to GHG emission reductions in comparison with gaso-
line cars in Canadian provinces (as average), with the
exception of Alberta, Nova Scotia and Saskatchewan.
According to the work of Dincer et al.,2 an indicator of
5.11 g CO2eqv per kWh electricity is used in the calcula-
tions. It also appears justifiable to develop power sta-
tions based on renewable energy sources for fueling
proximity vehicles with a clean energy carrier. Each
vehicle powering option has its own advantages and
drawbacks. As an example, the electric battery of the
EV is voluminous and heavy. The compressed air tank
is also voluminous, but less heavy than electric batteries
for the same usable energy output. Compressed hydro-
gen tanks are the lightest but are still voluminous and
EVRIN AND DINCER
may be explosive. It can be said that the three options
as given in Figure 2 complement each other, rather
than compete against each other. Hybrid vehicles, such
as the pneumatic-hydrogen or pneumatic electric, also
appear to be a possible solution for clean transportation.
In addition, the gasoline-pneumatic hybrid can be seen as
an alternative to gasoline-electric vehicles, featuring low
GHG emissions.3
Huang et al4 presented the experimental study
results concerning the operating capabilities of the
HPPS and the effects of the contraction of the cross-
sectional area (CSA) at the merging region of the
energy merger pipe for the change in the compressed
air flow pressure on the exhaust-gas energy recycling
of the HPPS. They performed the experiments on an
HPPS that uses an innovative energy merger pipe with
a total length of 530 mm with a diameter of 34 mm and
an angle between the two pipes. The CSA was adjusted
for the change in pressure. Their experimental results
show that the exhaust-gas energy recycling and the
merger flow energy are significantly dependent on the
CSA adjustment for the change in the pressure. The
optimum conditions for the best merging process were
achieved at a CSA of around 5% to 35% in the full
range. Under their operating conditions, the exhaust-
gas energy recycling efficiency reached approximately
75% to 81%. Therefore, they equipped a vehicle with
the HPPS to achieve an efficiency that was approxi-
mately 40% higher than that of conventional vehicles.
Qi et al5 presented a novel design for a pneumatic
regenerative system hybridized in an electric car. First,
in order to increase the life-time of battery, it was not
recharged while the car was running, but only charged
by the main power in the garage. This was known as a
plug-in electric car. Second, the energy from the car's
deceleration was captured by a special gearbox and
stored in the compressed air tanks. Third, the energy
stored was able to drive an air motor to supply supple-
mental power. Since this chain was a mechanical
energy transformation in theory, the efficiency became
higher than a typical hybrid car. Their experiments
obtained a satisfactory result in driving. Shi et al6 built
a power system for a new kind of air-powered vehicle
using an HP transformer as the pneumatic pressure
boosting structure and a hydraulic motor as the power
unit. This became the foundation for the optimization
of the powering system. The dynamic characteristics
were analyzed by building a mathematic model and set-
ting up an experimental station. Moreover, the effects
of several key structure parameters were investigated.
Through their experimental and simulation studies, it
could first be concluded that the mathematical model
3 of 12
was proved to be effective. Second, increasing the area
ratio of the pistons was able to improve the output
power as well as increase the system efficiency. Third,
the output power and the system efficiency will rise
with a larger oil discharge orifice. Finally, the increas-
ing pressure of the input air was able to raise the power
and meanwhile decrease the efficiency.
In a recently developed system7, the efficiency was
kept above 30%. Their research was referred to the design
of the powering system of air-powered vehicles and an
optimization study on the dynamic characteristics. The
modeling and analysis results of air consumption in a
pneumatic system of a compressed air-powered vehicle
were also presented. A mathematical model of their pneu-
matic system was developed and analyzed during the sim-
ulation studies and compared their results with
experimental data which were measured. They performed
analysis and presented its results to help determine the
efficiency of the pneumatic system in the compressed air
car. Shen and Hwang8 developed a model pneumatic
hybrid motorcycle system and simulated its acceleration
and driving performance (km driven per L of fuel). A
novel engine design for a pneumatic hybrid motorcycle
was presented. Their results showed that a pneumatic
hybrid motorcycle was able to improve the efficiency.
Liu and Yu9 investigated the feasibility and outlook
of air-powered vehicles, including compressed air-
powered and liquid nitrogen-powered vehicles. Ther-
modynamic analysis results and experimental data
were used to investigate various aspects, such as the
energy density, efficiency, safety, driving performance,
fuel circulation economy, and consumer acceptance.
Their results showed: (a) compressed air and liquid
nitrogen have similar energy density as a Ni H bat-
tery; (b) the characteristics of an air-powered engine
are suitable for driving a vehicle; (c) the circulation
efficiency of liquid nitrogen is 3.6% to 14% and that of
compressed air is 25% to 32.3% in practice; and (d) exis-
ting technology can assure its safety. They concluded
that although the performance of an air-powered
engine was not as good as the traditional inert combus-
tion engine, an air-powered vehicle was proposed to
better fit for future green cars to realize the sustainable
development of society and the environment.
The work of Sharma and Singh10 was reviewed in
order to analyze the different effects of various parame-
ters on the air engine, including: air pressure from the
compressor; capacity of the compressor tank; the num-
ber of strokes of the engine; cylinders; storage tanks;
inlet and exhaust ports; pneumatic guns; and use of
electrical devices such as a piezometer and solenoid val-
ves. A review of their work identified that an engine
4 of 12
speed of 3000 rpm was obtained at a maximum pressure
of 8 bar. Furthermore, a high power gain of about
0.95 kW was achieved at 9 bar and 1320 rpm. At a pres-
sure of 10 bar with a varying injection angle from 10

before the top dead center to 15
after the top dead cen-
ter, the rotating speed was found to be 715 rpm to
965 rpm whereas, at a higher pressure of 25 bar with
varying injection angle, the speed ranged from 1191 rpm
to 1422 rpm. At a lower pressure of 5 bar, the maximum
speed was 28.9 km/h with a traveling distance of
2.5 km, whereas at a high pressure of 9 bar, the maxi-
mum speed attained was 36.5 km/h traveling 1.7 km.
The main goal of the present research is to conceptu-
ally develop a new compressed air vehicle prototype with
phase change materials for heat recovery, study it ther-
modynamically, and build and test it experimentally. In
this regard, the specific objectives of this study are item-
ized as follows:
• To develop and explore the thermodynamic limits and
proposing conceptual solutions for using air expansion
for vehicle applications.
• To design innovative compressed air powering system
by considering the comprehensive thermodynamic
modeling criteria.
• To analyze this system energetically and exergetically
with determining the flow energy and exergy flows for
each stream in the system, and hence energy and
exergy efficiencies for each unit, as well as identifying
exergy destruction rates.
• To build this conceptually developed prototype with
available components from the market and test it
under various operating conditions for performance
evaluation.
2 | E X P E R I M E N T A L A PP A R A T U S
AND P ROCEDURE
The present compressed-air prototype, with an air motor,
regulator, turbine, valve, air tank, generator, wheels and
auxiliary components as PCM and a regular heat
exchanger, is used for recovering and interstage
reheating of expanding air. As shown in Figure 3, the air
from the main storage tank travels to a pressure regula-
tor that reduces the pressure to 807 kPa, which is the
operating pressure for the four drive motors.11-13 The air
motor inlet occurs at state points 5, 6, 7 and 8. After
expansion in the wheel's motors, the air becomes colder
at state points 9, 10, 11 and 12. The expanded air from
the air motors is collected in Stream 13. Therefore, this
air passes through the heat exchanger with PCM storage
option and reheated using the thermal storage onboard.
EVRIN AND DINCER
Further, the second stage of expansion occurs in the tur-
bine that drives an electric generator for onboard power
requirements. When air is expanded with a large expan-
sion ratio, the temperature is dramatically reduced, and
battery and generator power might be applied to meet
system heat demand. As mentioned one of the benefits
of a heat exchanger is that it avoids a freezing effect on
the system. Increasing air temperature before entering
the expanders increase the systems work potential and
directly improves the system efficiency. The positive
temperature coefficient (PTC) components during the
test period are inside the PCM in order to store and heat
up the PCM heat exchanger materials and provide the
required energy to heat air through the heat exchanger.
In colder days of the year, the external plug may need to
be plugged into a prototype heat exchanger/storage.
While the prototype is in a station, it can be plugged in
for fast recharging of the battery and, at the same time, it can
store heat in the PMC. In the present prototype, the pneu-
matic power system may include a multiplicity of air storage
devices. A regulator device may reduce gas pressure from the
gas storage device from an exemplary. The pneumatic power
system may also include an exhaust multidirectional valve,
wherein the exiting air (exhaust) from each of the pneumatic
motors may be directed toward and collected in the exhaust
multidirectional valve, which may be configured to direct
the collected exhaust back toward the first heating unit to be
reheated, whereby the reheated gas may be directed toward
and through an exhaust motor, thus turning the exhaust
motor. Moreover, the exhaust motor may be operably
coupled to the first generator, wherein the turning of the
exhaust motor may cause the first generator to produce and
output an electrical charge. At the lowest pressure, air col-
lected from a multiplicity of vehicle components may be
expanded in a single air turbine.
The compressed air system with a PCM heat
exchanger prototype, built as shown in Figure 4, consists
of air motors, a turbine and valve, fiberglass heating tape,
air tanks, a generator, pipe connectors, a regulator and
convertor, wheels and heat exchangers. The prototype
vehicle was built and tested with three types of PCMs in
order to investigateits performance improvements. A type
of rope brake dynamometer is used to measure the power
from rotating the shaft. This test system basically works
on the principle of absorption of power. A digital torque
tester connected to the shaft shows the amount of torque
during the test.
3 | THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS
The engineering equation solver (EES) software14 is used
to perform the thermodynamic analyses. The balance
EVRIN AND DINCER 5 of 12

FIGURE 3 Compressed air vehicle prototype with PCM heat exchanger

equations for mass, energy, entropy and exergy are writ- Heat storage (PCM) unit:
ten for the components in the analysis of the system with The mass balance equation for the heat storage unit
a PCM heat exchanger as follows2,15: can be written as:
6 of 12 EVRIN AND DINCER

m _ 4:
_ 3 =m ð1Þ For charging:

The energy balance equation for the heat storage unit Sic _ Sfc Qlosscharging
_ 3 s3 + mPCM
m + Sgencharging = mPCM +
can be written as: Δtc Δtc Δtc T 0
_
+ m 4 s4
For charging: ð5Þ
For storing:
Q
_ in battery + mPCM uic = mPCM2 ufc + losscharging
_ 3 h3 + W
m
Δtc Δtc Δtc Sis Sfs Qlossstorage
mPCM = mPCM + ð6Þ
+m_ 4 h4 Δts Δts Δtc T 0
ð2Þ
For storing: For discharging:
Sid Sfd Qlossdischarging
uis ufd Qlossstorage _ 3 s3 + mPCM
m = mPCM + _ 4 s4 :
+m
mPCM = mPCM2 + ð3Þ Δtd Δtd Δtd T 0
Δtd Δtd Δtd
ð7Þ
For discharging: The exergy balance equation for the heat storage unit
can be written as:
uid ufd Qlossdischarging
_ 3 h3 + mPCM2
m = mPCM + _ 4 h4 :
+m
Δtd Δtd Δtd
For charging:
ð4Þ
The entropy balance equation for the heat storage _ in battery + mPCM exic = mPCM exfc
_ 3 ex3 + W
m
unit can be written as: Δtc Δtc
  ð8Þ
Qlosscharging T 0 Exdescharging
+ 1− _ 4 ex4
+m
Δtc TS Δtc2

For storing:
 
exis exfs Qlossstorage T0 Exdescharging
mPCM = mPCM + 1− +
Δts Δts Δts TS Δts
ð9Þ

For discharging:
 
exid exfd Qlossdischarging T0
_ 3 ex3 + mPCM
m = mPCM + 1−
Δtd Δtd Δtd TS
+m_ 4 ex4:
ð10Þ

The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equa-

tions for the system components are listed in Table 1
(for details, see Refs. 2,15,16 ).
The energy efficiency can be defined for the sys-
tems considered here as the ratio of useful energy
output to the total energy input. The exergy efficiency
is also defined here as the ratio of useful exergy out-
put to the total exergy input. In this, the energy and
exergy efficiencies for the air motors, turbine, mixer,
valve, regulator, and overall system are defined and
FIGURE 4 Actual experimental prototype evaluated.
EVRIN AND DINCER 7 of 12

TABLE 1 List of mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations

Components Mass balance: Energy balance: Entropy balance: Exergy balance:

Air Motors _ 5 =m
m _ 9: _ 5 h5 = m
m _ AM :
_ 9 h9 + W _ 5 s5 + S_ genAM = m
m _ 9 s9 : _ 5 ex5 = m
m _ AM + Ex
_ 9 ex9 + W _ dAM :
Turbine m _ 15
_ 14 = m m _T
_ 15 h15 + W
_ 14 h14 = m _ 14 s14 + S_ genT = m
m _ 15 s15 m _ T + Ex
_ 15 ex15 + W
_ 14 ex14 = m _ dT :
Mixers m _ 5 +m
_ 4 =m _6 m _ 5 h5 + m
_ 4 h4 = m _ 6 h6 _ 4 s4 + S_ genMA = m
m _ 5 s5 + m _ 6 s6 m _ 5 ex5 + m
_ 4 ex4 = m _ 6 ex6 + m
_ 7 ex7
+m _ 7 +m _ 8: +m _ 7 h7 + m _ 8 h8: +m _ 7 s7 + m _ 8 s8: +m _
_ 8 ex8 + ExdMA:
Valve _ 1 =m
m _2 m _ 2 h2:
_ 1 h1 = m m _ 2 s2 + S_ genV:
_ 1 s1 = m _ dV = m
_ 1 ex1 + Ex
m _ 2 ex2:
Regulator _ 4 =m
m _ 3: _ 4 h4 = m
m _ 3 h3: _ 4 s4 + S_ genReg = m
m _ 3 s3 : _ 4 ex4 = m
m _ dReg:
_ 3 ex3 + Ex

TABLE 2 Overall exergy and energy efficiencies of a compressed air system with a PCM heat exchanger

Reference Bias Relative bias Statistical Absolute

Variable Device value error error (%) uncertainty (%) uncertainty (%)
Potential Mastercraft Multimeter/ 2V 0.006 V 0.3 2.13 2.15
clamp meter
Current Mastercraft Multimeter/ 2A 0.012 A 0.24 1.30 1.32
clamp meter
Resistance Mastercraft Multimeter/ 1Ω 0.001 Ω 0.4 3.2 5
clamp meter
Weight High Precision Lab Digital 0.1 g 0.01 g 0.09 0.67 1.24
Scale
Temperature Vernier Temperature 53
C 0.5
C 0.94 2.24 2.43
Sensor
Dimensions Mastercraft Digital Caliper 0.01 mm 0.001 mm 0.005 0.082 0.165
Pressure Fluke Pneumatic Pressure 1 bar 0.01 bar 0.001 0.035 0.05
Gauge
Rotational AGPtek Digital Laser Photo 0.1 rpm 1 rpm 0.005 0.05 0.5
Speed Tachometer
Torque Generic YC-AUS2 Measu 1 Nm 0.01 Nm 0.2 2 2.2
Ratchet
Parameter Value
ηen, Prototype 74.0%
ηex, Prototype 61.5%

90
80 Energy efficiency (%) Exergy efficiency (%)
70
Efficiency(%)

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
FIGURE 5 Energy and exergy
efficiencies of the selected units of the
present prototype
8 of 12 EVRIN AND DINCER

_ AM _ AM The energy and exergy efficiency of the overall system

W W
Air motors : ηenAM = and ηexAM = ð11Þ can be written as follows:
_ 8 h8
m _ 8 ex8
m
_ AM1 + W
W _ AM2 + W_ AM3 + W _ AM4
W_T W_ AM ηenov = ð15Þ
Turbine : ηenTA = and ηexAM = ð12Þ m _
_ 2 h2 + Win battery
_ 14 h14
m _ 14 ex14
m

_ AM1 + W
W _ AM2 + W_ AM3 + W _ AM4
m_ 4 h4 ηexov = : ð16Þ
PCM heat exchanger : ηenPHX = and _ in battery
_ 2 ex2 + W
_ 3 h3 + Q_ in PHX
m m
m_ 4 ex4 [Correction added on 03 October 2020, after first online
ηexPHX =

_ 3 ex3 + Q_ in PHX 1 − TT0
m publication: ‘equation 15 and 16’ and figure 3 have been
ð13Þ corrected in this version.]

m_ 14 h14
Heat exchanger : ηen , PHX = and
m_ 13 h13 + Q _ in HX
ð14Þ 4 | RESULTS A ND DISCUSSION
m _ 14 ex14
ηex, PHX =

_ 13 ex13 + Q
m _ in HX 1 − T0 In any experimental investigation, it is necessary to per-
T
form an uncertainty analysis and evaluation. The experi-
mental measurements and calculated values are subject
to device and statistical error that propagate within the
3% 2% 1% results. Table 2 summarizes the error values for measure-
ments associated with the primary devices used while
conducting experiments for measuring and recording
Valve
23% 19% data. Furthermore, efforts to conduct different conditions
Regulator for experiments in a consistent manner reduce additional
PCM HX random/rough errors. Testing situation placement of the
Turbine prototypes is maintained, and, as far as possible, data
Air motors
HX TABLE 4 Comparison results of experimental and
Mixer A theoretical state point properties of the compressed air system with
27% Mixer B a PCM heat exchanger
16%
Model Model Prototype Prototype
State pressure temperature pressure temperature
9% point (kPa) (K) (kPa) (K)

FIGURE 6 Exergy destruction rates of major components of 1 1034 298 1069 294
the present prototype 2 1034 298 1062 291
3 717 293 758 291
4 696 338 724 345
TABLE 3 Exergy destruction rates of major components of 5 689 336 683 345
the present prototype
6 689 336 683 345
Components Exergy destruction rates (kW) 7 689 336 683 345
Valve 0.005 8 689 336 683 345
Regulator 0.081 9 427 284 372 283
PCM HX 0.111 10 427 284 372 283
Turbine 0.036 11 427 284 372 283
Air motors 0.067 12 427 284 372 283
HX 0.098 13 421 283 372 283
Mixer A 0.012 14 413 294 338 288
Mixer B 0.009 15 96 258 97 267
EVRIN AND DINCER 9 of 12

with significant errors due to the different conditions are
retaken under more consistent parameter conditions.
Both energetic and exergetic efficiencies of prototype
are assessed to be 78.63% and 70.82%, respectively. The
results are presented in Table 2. The exergy and energy
efficiencies of the major components of prototype are cal-
culated and shown in Figure 5. The maximum efficien-
cies are observed in the valve, followed by the regulator,
while the third highest efficiency occurs in the air
motors. In order to improve the performance of the over-
all system, an effort is needed to increase efficiency in the
heat exchangers.
Figure 6 represents the portion of the compressed air
system with the PCM heat exchanger main components in
exergy destruction. As the figure shows, the heat
exchangers are the most important exergy destructive com-
ponents. Nevertheless, not much can be done to enhance
the air motors' exergetic performance as all the sources of
irreversibility, that is, air expiation and big air consumption
for functioning air motors and turbine. Referring to
Table 3, the major part of exergy destruction occurs in the
PCM heat exchanger 0.111 kW and heat exchanger
0.098 kW. The next highest exergy destructions are the air
motor and turbine with amounts of 0.067 and 0.036 kW,
respectively.
The exergy destructions in Mixer A and Mixer B are
not much different, at about 0.012 to 0.009 kW. The con-
tributions of the valve in the total exergy destruction is
in all 15 state points. The working fluid of the system is
dry air.
It can be seen that the theoretical and experimental
temperature and pressure values are fairly close to each
other. However, the magnitude of discrepancy varies
from point to point. Figure 7 shows the pressure and tem-
perature vs state point and it can be seen that the pres-
sures from state points 1 to 15 dramatically decrease.
The pressure levels of the states 1 to 4 prototype are
slightly higher than the theoretical levels but the states
5 to 14 actual pressures are slightly less than the theoreti-
cal pressures. When we look at the temperatures at state
points, the theoretical temperature from state 4 to state
5 is higher than the actual prototype levels while for the
other states the actual temperature is close to the theoret-
ical results. Table 5 indicates the prototype results for the
compressed air system with a PCM heat exchanger,
shows supplementary battery power is 2.18 kW and tur-
bine work out will be 1.25 kW. Each air motor work will
be 4.59 kW, hence, total work by four air motors will be
18.36 kW, which is perfect for the powertrain of a small-
TABLE 5 Simulation results of the compressed air system
with a heating element
Parameter Value
_ IN
Q 2.18 kW
Battery

comparatively small at about 0.005 kW. Table 4 summa- _ outturbine

W 1.25 kW
rizes the experimental and theoretical state point proper- _ outAir motor
W 4.59 kW
ties of the compressed air system with a PCM heat
F_ dragcruise 175.3 N
exchanger. The agreement among theory compares the
experimental and theoretical temperature and pressure Generated shaft work (kWh) 18.36 kW

1135 364
1045 350
955 336
865 322
Pressure (kPa)

775
Temperature (K)

308
685
294
595
280
505
Model Pressure (kPa) 266
415
Prototype Pressure (kPa) 252
325
Model Temperature (K)
235 238
FIGURE 7 Comparison Prototype Temperature (K)
result of experimental and 145 224
theoretical state point properties 55 210
of the compressed air system 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
with a PCM heat exchanger State point
10 of 12 EVRIN AND DINCER

105 F I G U R E 8 Temperature
98 distributions of three selected PCMs
91 during a 36-minute period
84
77
Temperature (°C)

70
63
56
49
42
35 Paraffin(Candle)
28 Polyethylene Glycol (Hot Pack)
21
14 Alkane mix(Antifreeze)
7
0
0
130
260
390
520
650
780
910
1040
1170
1300
1430
1560
1690
1820
1950
2080
2210
Time (s)

44 F I G U R E 9 Torque vs speed for

40 prototype air motor on test table
36
32
28
24
Torque (Nm)

20
16
12
8
4 7 bar 5.6 bar
0

Speed (rpm)

size city vehicle. The PV has a little contribution in terms car radiator antifreezes have become extremely popular
of power production it is only 100 W. Figure 8 shows the for keeping materials hot or cold during time. These anti-
temperature distributions of the selected PCMs paraffin freezes perform well and are nontoxic, nonflammable,
(candle), polyethylene glycol (hot pack), and alkane mix environmentally friendly, and easy to use. If a water-
(antifreeze) as TES materials at a specific point (measure- based PCM lower than 0
C is required, a salt can be
ment point) which is provides %36 of needed energy to added to the water to lower the freezing point. However,
heat up PCM heat exchanger. this significantly decreases the latent heat and broadens
The graph shows that for these three different types the melt/freeze temperature. Figure 9 shows torque vs
of PCMs as TES materials from the beginning of the speed for the prototype air motor on a test table. The
heating process until 1170, 1300, and 1430 seconds, the power that an air motor produces is simply the product
temperature of the plain PCM and TES increases. In this of torque and speed.
case, there is sensible heat storage and the amount of The air motor produces a characteristic power curve,
heat stored depends on the specific heat of the PCM and with maximum power occurring from 600 to 1200 rpm of
TES in different phases, temperature difference and mass the shaft speed. The air motor torque has significant
of material. The temperature of the PCM remains con- changes in torques with the change of air motor inlet air
stant until 900 seconds, meaning that the PCM and TES pressure. The test is repeated at four different pressures,
are a heat source. The sensible heat is stored but, in this such as, 7, 5.6, 4.2, and 2.8 bars. The amount of maxi-
case, the amount of heat stored depends on the specific mum torque fluctuates between 21 and 44 Nm with
heat of the PCM in liquid phase. Due to much higher changing shaft speed from 400 to 1300 rpm while the
thermal conductivity, a significantly less time is required minimum torque fluctuates between 3 and 13 Nm with
for the ice pack to heat and melt the PCM. Two different changing shaft speed in the same range.
EVRIN AND DINCER 11 of 12

5 | C ON C L U S I ON S Q heat (kJ)
R gas constant (kJ/kgK)
Compressed air option for vehicles is recognized an active R universal gas constant (kJ/kgK)
area of research in providing green methods for powering s specific entropy (kJ/kgK)
options. Much of the theoretical and experimental S entropy (kJ/K)
research focuses on characterization and comparison of T temperature (K)
different prototype system components under ideal labora- T temperature (
C or K)
tory conditions on a small scale. The present study U speed (m/s)
develops and tests fully integrated prototype systems a V volume (m3); or velocity (m/s)
compressed air system with a PCM heat exchanger proto- v specific volume (m3/kg)
type. In this regard, the energetic efficiency for the system V_ volume flow rate (m3/s)
is found to be 74.0% while the exergetic efficiency for sys- w specific work (kW/kg)
tem is 61.5% where the predicted driving range for systems w work, specific (kJ/kg)
is 140 km. Three different PCMs of polyethylene glycol, W work (kJ)
paraffin and alkane mix are investigated for heat recovery W_ work rate or power (kW)
purposes in the prototype where the paraffin option pro-
vides the best results. Furthermore, the maximum torque
is found to vary between 21 and 44 Nm with changing GRE EK L ET TE RS
shaft speed from 400 to 1300 rpm while the minimum tor-
que fluctuates between 3 and 13 Nm with changing shaft η efficiency
speed in the same range. Supplementary battery power is ρ density (kg/m3)
2.18 kW and the turbine work output is found to be Φ exergy to energy ratio of the fuel
1.25 kW with the recovered air which is provides 36% of γ adiabatic exponent
needed heat to heat up the PCM heat exchanger. The total η energy efficiency
motor work consumed during operation is 18.36 kW, Δ difference
which can be considered sufficient for the powertrain of a
small-size city vehicle. When this type of compressed air
vehicle is deployed, they will make sense as they emit less SU BSC RI PT S
GHG than passenger cars. Hybrid vehicles also appear to
be a possible solution to cleaner transportation, especially 0 reference state
for their ability to run mostly on compressed air in cities, 1, 2,… state numbers
thus lowering emissions, and running mostly on hydrocar- b blade
bon fuel on highways as this increases driving range. cv control volume
Application of a multi-level heat exchanger network partly d destruction
embedded in the vehicle body for collecting heat associ- dest destruction
ated with solar radiation when available; a phase change en energy
heat fluid can be circulated at low pressure to transfer the ex exergy
heat to the pressurized expanding air. exp expander
elect electrical
NO MEN CLATU RE eqv equivalent
f fuel
ex specific exergy (kJ/kg) g generator
Ė energy rate (kW) gen generation
Ex_ exergy rate (kW) mech mechanical
h specific enthalpy (kJ/kg) opt optimum
H_ enthalpy rate (kW) ph physical
HHV higher heating value (kJ/kg)
m_ mass flow rate (kg/s)
m mass (kg) ACRO NYM S
N rotation speed (rpm)
P pressure (kPa, bar) AM air motor
q heat specific (J/kg) EES engineering equation solver
_
Q heat transfer rate (kW) GHG Green House Gas
12 of 12 EVRIN AND DINCER

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