AE 175: AQUACULTURE ENGINEERING

Laboratory Exercise No. 1

CULTURE OF AQUACULTURE SPECIES

Group Species: Tilapia

Group Members: Arguelles, Evan Adam Paul M.
Bulingot, Bless MariZ B.
Castil, Joey Niel R.
Dulosa, Michelle G.
Gil, Allen Glen C.
Labrador, Krystel Denice L.
Maitem, Lenard D.
Ngoho, Cathlyn Mae B.
Pelicano, Kenneth A.
Salili, Ronald H.
Tallecer, Darwin C.
Course and Year: BS in Agricultural Engineering- 5
School Term: First Semester, SY 2019-2020

I. OBJECTIVES:
1. To gather information on the biological characteristics and cultural requirements and
practices of an important aquaculture specie in captivity; and
2. To critically analyze the system of production in captivity.

II. MATERIALS AND METHODS:

1. Conduct a library research on the aquaculture specie assigned

2. Do internet surfing for the best and current practices

3. Make a critical discussion on the cultural requirements and systems of production in

captivity

4. Submit written report in computerized using A4 paper with 1”x 1” margin in all sides

III. INTRODUCTION:

The Philippines is an archipelago of 7,100 islands covering 299,735 square kilometers

(km2), with a total coastline of approximately 17,460 km. The inland waters comprise brackish and
freshwater swamplands (3,384 km2), fishponds (2,538 km2), lakes (2,000 km2), rivers, and
reservoirs (500 km2). This is why many Filipinos engaged in fish culturing. And one of these fishes
is tilapia.

Tilapias are native only to Africa and the Levant. There are no native species with
comparable characteristics for aquaculture in the Philippines. The first tilapia introduced to the
Philippines was the Mozambique tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus), imported from Thailand in
1950. The Nile tilapia (O. niloticus) was first introduced to the Philippines in 1972 and rapidly
gained popularity with farmers and consumers. It is now the main species of tilapia farmed in the
Philippines and throughout tropical Asia and the Pacific and has been called an "aquatic chicken,"
suitable for farming in diverse systems, from backyard ponds to large commercial ponds and
cages.

Substantial and continuous programs of freshwater aquaculture research and extension

have been undertaken in the Philippines since 1972. Tilapia farming in fishponds and small-scale
reservoirs developed mainly on irrigated and rainfed rice lands. Cage farming has been practiced
since the 1970s in large and small lakes. Other fishponds (mostly for tilapia) have long been part
of small-scale, mixed enterprise farms in the uplands and other remote areas. However, most
freshwater aquaculture in the Philippines has developed as a specialized enterprise: with fish as
a cash crop and not as a component of the kinds of integrated agriculture-aquaculture farming
systems that have typified its history in much of Asia. Similarly, rice-fish integrated farming has
not prospered in the Philippines and its future prospects seem limited. Tilapia farming in the
Philippines has been and remains a specialized enterprise, regardless of scale, while it retains an
artisanal character.

IV. LIFE CYCLE AND BIOLOGY:

Figure 1. Life cycle and production of tilapia

The Tilapia is a mouth-brooder. Mouthbrooding is an advanced reproductive tactic, a form

of intensive care whereby the seed can be protected from the outside world until their
development is more advanced. The male establishes a territory and builds a round nest in the
pond bottom. (Usually the diameter of a nest is 30 – 60 cm. The size of the nest is correlated to
the size of the male.) The female enters the nest and lay the eggs. The eggs are fertilized by
male. The female then collects and incubates the eggs in her mouth. The eggs are yellow in color.
Eggs hatch in about five to seven days. After hatching the fry remain in the mouth of the female
for another 4-7 days.

The fry begin to swim freely in schools, but may return to the mouth of the mother when
threatened. Females do not feed during incubation or the brooding period. Female spawn every
four to six week, but may spawn sooner if the eggs are removed. The number of eggs per
spawning is related to the size of the female. A female of about 100 grams may produce
approximately 100 eggs per spawning while a female weighing 100-600 g can produce 1,000-
1,500 or more per spawning (Hepher and Prugunin, 1981). The sex of a 1-ounce (25-gram) tilapia
fingerling can be determined by examining the genital papilla located immediately behind the
anus. In males the genital papilla has only one opening (the urinary pore of the ureter) through
which both milt and urine pass. In females the eggs exit through a separate oviduct and only urine
passes through the urinary pore. Placing a drop of dye (methylene blue or food coloring) on the
genital region helps to highlight the papilla and its openings.

Legendre (1983) under culture conditions in enclosures found first sexual maturity in
females of 154 mm fork length. In brackish water ponds in the Niger Delta, first maturity begins at
25 to 35 g (standard length 8 to 9 cm). However, specimens from the wild in the Nigeria Delta will
spawn at smaller sizes (10 to 15 g). One individual female actually spawned viable eggs in an
aquarium at 8.5 g.

Taxomic Positions of Tilapia

Most tilapia species of the tribe Tilapiani now being used in aquaculture were grouped
initially into one genus, Tilapia. The species within this genus were later classified according to
differences in their mode of reproduction (Low McConnel; 1959 Trewawas, 1973, 1978, 1982).
Species which evolved as substrate spawner but guard their eggs were retained in the genus
tilapia while those which orally rear their clutches were grouped into a new species
Sarotherodon. Classification of the three genera Tilapia, Sarotherodon and Oreochromis was
based largely on the differences on their reproduction and feeding habits.

Classification of Tilapia Species used in Aquaculture

 Genus Tilapia (Substrate spawners). Both parents guard, protect, aerate the breed,
and help move clutch to different nest sites. Fry at first feeding are 4-5 mm and show
feeble swimming ability. Fry survival relatively low.
 Genus Sarotherodon (Paternal/biparental). Both parents stay close to each other.
Eggs and fry brooded in oral cavity up until they are ready for release. Brood may not
be collected once released. Fry are between 7-9 mm at first breeding, well developed
fins for swimming. Fry survival high.
 Genus Oreochromis (Maternal). Female solely involve in brood care. After spawning,
female leaves nest to rear her clutch in safety. Fry brooded up until free swimming.
There is an extended period of care during which fry seek shelter in buccal cavity for
safety. First feeders have well-developed fins for swimming. Fry survival high.

Sex Identification

Sex identification of tilapia is relatively simple. The male has two openings just in front of
anal fin. The large opening is the anus and the smaller opening at the tip is the urogenital pore.
The female has three openings: the anus, the genital pore, and the urinary pore. The genital
papilla is usually smaller in the female. Tilapia can be sexed when it has attained the weight of 15
grams. Application of ink or dyes to the papillae may increase the accuracy of sexing and may
allow sexing of smaller fish. By rubbing ink along the papillae of the tilapia, sexes can be readily
distinguished.
 Figure 2. Sex differentiation of male and female tilapia

Physical characteristics

Tilapia are shaped much like sunfish or crappie but can be easily identified by an
interrupted lateral line characteristic of the Cichlid family of fishes. They are laterally compressed
and deep-bodied with long dorsal fins. The forward portion of the dorsal fin is heavily spined.
Spines are also found in the pelvis and anal fins. There are usually wide vertical bars down the
sides of fry, fingerlings, and sometimes adults.

Banding Patterns and Coloration

The main cultured species of tilapia usually can be distinguished by different banding
patterns on the caudal fin. Nile tilapia have strong vertical bands, Blue tilapia have interrupted
bands, and Mozambique tilapia have weak or no bands on the caudal fin. Male Mozambique
tilapia also have upturned snouts. Color patterns on the body and fins also may distinguish
species. Mature male Nile tilapia have gray or pink pigmentation in the throat region, while
Mozambique tilapia have a more yellow coloration. However, coloration is often an unreliable
method of distinguishing tilapia species because environment, state of sexual maturity, and food
source greatly influence color intensity. The “red” tilapia has become increasingly popular
because its similar appearance to the marine red VI March 1999 PR SRAC Publication No. 283
Tilapia Life History and Biology Thomas Popma1 and Michael Masser2 1Auburn University
2Texas A&M University snapper gives it higher market value. The original red tilapias were
genetic mutants. The first red tilapia, produced in Taiwan in the late 1960s, was a cross between
a mutant reddish-orange female Mozambique tilapia and a normal male Nile tilapia. It was called
the Taiwanese red tilapia. Another red strain of tilapia was developed in Florida in the 1970s by
crossing a normal colored female Zanzibar tilapia with a red-gold Mozambique tilapia. A third
strain of red tilapia was developed in Israel from a mutant pink Nile tilapia crossed with wild Blue
tilapia. All three original strains have been crossed with other red tilapia of unreported origin or
with wild Oreochromis species. Consequently, most red tilapia in the Americas are mosaics of
uncertain origin. The confused and rapidly changing genetic composition of red tilapia, as well as
the lack of “head-to-head” growth comparisons between the different lines, make it difficult for a
producer to identify a “best” red strain. Other strains of tilapia selected for color include true
breeding gold and yellow Mozambique lines and a “Rocky Mountain white” tilapia (a true breeding
line originating from an aberrant Blue tilapia, subsequently crossed with Nile tilapia). Most strains
selected for color do not grow well enough for food fish culture. Identifying the species of an
individual fish is further complicated by natural crossbreeding that has occurred between species.
Electrophoresis is often used to determine the species composition of a group of tilapia.

V. DESCRIPTION OF PRODUCTION CYCLE IN CAPTIVITY UNDER TROPICAL

CONDITIONS:

Figure 3. Production cycle of tilapia

 Tilapias are asynchronous breeders. Hormones are not used to induce spawning, which
occurs throughout the year in the tropics and during the warm season in the subtropics. Breeding
is conducted in ponds, tanks or hapas. The stocking ratio for females to males is 1-4:1 with 2 or
3:1 being the most common. The brood fish stocking rate is variable, ranging from 0.3-0.7 kg/m2
in small tanks to 0.2 - 0.3 kg/m2 in ponds. The popular hapa-in-pond spawning system in
Southeast Asia uses 100 g brood fish stocked at 0.7 kg/m2. Spawning ponds are generally 2000
m2 or smaller. In Southeast Asia, a common hapa size is 120 m2.

Brood fish are given high quality feed at 0.5-2 percent of body weight daily. Swim-up fry
gather at the edge of a tank or pond and can be collected with fine-mesh nets. Fry collection can
begin 10 to 15 days after stocking.

Multiple harvests (six times per day at 5 day intervals) are conducted up to a maximum
of 8-10 weeks before pond drainage and a complete harvest is necessary. Tanks must be drained
and recycled every 1-2 months because escaped fry are very predaceous on fry from subsequent
spawns. Alternatively tanks or ponds are harvested completely after a 2-4 week spawning period.
Production of optimum-sized (<14 mm) fry ranges from 1.5 to 2.5 fry/m2/day (20 to 60 fry/kg
female/day).

In the South East Asian hapa method, fish are examined individually every 5 days to
collect eggs. This system is much more productive, but it is labour intensive. Brood fish are more
productive if they are separated by sex and rested after spawning.

Sex-reversal

Commercial tilapia production generally requires the use of male monosex populations.
Male tilapia grow approximately twice as fast as females. Therefore, mixed-sex populations
develop a large size disparity among harvested fish, which affects marketability. Moreover, the
presence of female tilapia leads to uncontrolled reproduction, excessive recruitment of fingerlings,
competition for food, and stunting of the original stock, which may not reach marketable size. In
mixed-sexed populations, the weight of recruits may constitute up to 70 percent of the total harvest
weight. It is therefore necessary to reverse the sex of female fry. This is possible because tilapia
do become sexually differentiated for several days after yolk sac absorption.

If female tilapia receive a male sex hormone (17 α methyltestosterone, MT) in their feed,
they will develop as phenotypic males. Fry collected from breeding facilities need to be graded
through 3.2 mm mesh material to remove fish that are >14 mm, which are too old for successful
sex reversal. Swim-up fry are generally <9 mm. MT is added to a powdered commercial feed or
powdered fish meal, containing >40 percent protein, by dissolving it in 95-100 percent ethanol,
which is mixed with the feed to create a concentration of 60 mg MT/kg feed after the alcohol has
evaporated. The alcohol carrier is usually added at 200 ml/kg feed and mixed thoroughly until all
the feed is moist. The moist feed is air dried out of direct sunlight, or stirred in a mixer until dried,
and then stored under dark, dry conditions. Androgens break down when exposed to sunlight or
high temperatures.

Fry are stocked at 3 000 to 4 000/m2 in hapas or tanks with water exchange. Stocking
densities as high as 20 000/m2 have been used if good water quality can be maintained. An initial
feeding rate of 20-30 percent body weight per day is gradually decreased to 10-20 percent by the
end of a 3 to 4 week sex-reversal period.
 Rations are adjusted daily, and feed is administered four or more times per day. If sex-
reversal is conducted in hapas, the feed must be of a consistency that allows it to float. Otherwise
a considerable amount of feed would be lost as it settles through the bottom of the hapa. Sex-
reversed fry reach an average of 0.2 g after 3 weeks and 0.4 g after 4 weeks. The average efficacy
of sex-reversal ranges from 95 to 100 percent depending on the intensity of management.

VI. ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS

Global aquaculture has grown drastically due to the dramatic increase in population and
therefore an increase in the demand of fish food supply. Asia dominates this billion-dollar worth
production, accounting for 89 percent by volume and 79 percent by value, with China by far the
largest producer with 32.7 million tonnes in 2008, driven by pre-existing aquaculture practices,
population growth, economic boom, relaxed regulatory framework, and expanding export
opportunities (Bostock, 2010).

Tilapia, being one of the most renowned and widely farmed and cultured fish for its high
adaptability in a wide range of environmental conditions and wide variety of dietary sources.
However, for this report, the aquaculture practice that shall be discussed would be freshwater
aquaculture.

Temperature

The factor that affects the physiology, growth, reproduction and metabolism of tilapia,
temperature is of prime importance in temperate and subtropical regions, which are prone to
seasonal fluctuations in water temperature, although, nowadays, fluctuations in water
temperature, seasonal or not, stands correct in all regions of the world due to global warming. It
has been known that tilapia can tolerate a wide range of water temperature and further studies
found out that the normal development temperature ranges from about 20 to 35°C, depending on
fish species, with an optimum range of about 25–30°C (Balarin and Haller, 1982; Chervinski,
1982; Philippart and Ruwet, 1982).

However, A.-F.M. El-Sayed and M. Kawanna (1996), found out in a study that a
tremendous difference in the growth and feed efficiency of tilapia can occur even with the narrow
water temperature range. In the study, three water temperatures (24, 28 and 32°C, lying within
the optimum range of tilapia tolerance) were evaluated on several Nile tilapia fry in an indoor,
recirculating system. The growth of the fish at 28°C was almost double the growth at 24 and 32°C.
Fish performance at 24 and 32°C was not significantly different. It is clear that optimum water
temperature (not only optimum temperature range) is essential for maximum fish growth (A.-F.M.
El-Sayed and M. Kawanna, 1996).

Tilapia can tolerate to as low as 7-10°C, but only for brief periods (Balarin and Haller,
1982; Chervinski, 1982; Jennings, 1991; Sifa et al., 2002) because longer exposure could lead to
mass mortality. Tilapia feeding is sharply reduced below 20°C, and they stop feeding at about
16°C, while severe mortality occurs at 12°C (Balarin and Haller, 1982; Chervinski, 1982).

Compared to that of its tolerable low temperatures, tilapia can tolerate high water
temperatures depending on its species, strain, size, duration of exposure, other environmental
factors, aquaculture systems, and geographical location (Balarin and Hatton, 1979; Chervinski,
1982). The upper lethal temperature limits for tilapia vary from one species to another, but it has
been reported that most tilapias cannot tolerate water temperatures above 40–42°C for a long
time (Morgan, 1972; Hauser, 1977; Balarin and Haller, 1982; Chervinski, 1982).

Fish species and size play a significant role in tilapia response to water temperature. Other
studies concluded that the small fingering tilapias are more susceptible to lower temperatures
making it more appropriate in transportation and culture because of its higher cold tolerance
(Hofer and Watts, 2002), while some hybrids cannot. While having higher cold tolerance lets some
species to tolerate low temperatures as low as 6–7°C, longer exposure could eventually render
the fish unable to maintain body position (Yashouv, 1960).

The effects of culture systems and environmental conditions on tilapia response to water
temperature are also evident. El-Sayed et al. (1996) found that the growth and survival of Nile
tilapia reared in earthen ponds were significantly affected by pond depth and water temperature.
Poorest growth and highest mortality were on shallow depths of 50 cm. Optimal depth at 100-120
cm was identified and as it deepens, refuge for extreme temperatures on summer and winter
seasons are subsequently given to the tilapias.

Salinity

Due to the shortage in freshwater in most countries, and considerably, freshwater usage
is also in competition with agriculture, livelihood and development activities, brackish water
aquaculture and mariculture were two alleviating prospect solutions that could help address this
concern. Tilapia fish is believed to have evolved from a marine ancestor despite being known to
be a freshwater fish (Kirk, 1972); which explains why it could strive in a wide salinity range of
saline water. But salt tolerance does not necessarily indicate suitable conditions for maximum
production. Available information indicates that salt tolerance depends on tilapia species, strains
and size, adaptation time, environmental factors and geographical location (Balarin and Haller,
1982; Chervinski, 1982; Philippart and Ruwet, 1982; Suresh and Lin, 1992a).

The Nile tilapia is the least saline tolerant of the commercially important species, but grows
well at salinities of up to 15 ppt. The Blue tilapia grows well in brackish water up to 20 ppt salinity,
and the Mozambique tilapia grows well at salinities near or at full strength seawater. El-Sayed
(2006) had identified that salinity range of tilapia is up to 36 ppt, up to 19 ppt being optimum for
growth. Then again, other species goes over this range just like the Blue tilapia. Chance of survival
depends as well on the acclimatization period of the tilapias, making some euryhaline or
‘stenohaline’.

The salinity tolerance of tilapia is also affected by fish sex and size. Perschbacher and
McGeachin (1988) found out that adult fish were more salt-tolerant than fry and juveniles.
Ontogenetic changes in salinity tolerance that were observed were attributed to body size rather
than to chronological age. Watanabe et al. (1985) also reported that male tilapia tends to be more
salt-tolerant than females. Believed to descend from salt-tolerant ancestors, other strains display
better growth and performance when reared and grown in brackish water aquaculture and
mariculture. Moreover, the tolerance of tilapia hybrids to salinity may be influenced by fish strain,
as has been reported by Romana-Eguia and Eguia (1999).

Pre-acclimatization to salt water and gradual transfer to high salinity have a significant
effect on tilapia growth and survival, as has been reported by Al-Amoudi (1987b). The
acclimatization period is defined by the respiratory response of the fish to the gradual change of
water salinity. Feeding tilapia broodstock with diets containing higher salt levels may produce
seed with better adaptability to water salinity which was found out to have increased egg
hatchability and larval growth (Turingan and Kubaryk, 1992). It was also found that fry salinity
tolerance increased with increasing the salinity of spawning, hatching or acclimatization.

Dissolved Oxygen

A limiting factor that affects fish feeding, growth and metabolism, DO fluctuation is affected
by photosynthesis, respiration and diel fluctuation. Ambient DO range produces the best fish
performance, while low DO levels limit respiration, growth and other metabolic activities of fish
(Tsadik and Kutty, 1987). Most tilapias can tolerate DO levels as low as 0.1–0.5 mg/L for varying
periods of time and an optimum level for growth which is greater than 3 mg/L (Magid and Babiker,
1975; Tsadik and Kutty, 1987). They can even survive at zero DO concentration, if they are
allowed access to surface air. But tilapia usually suffer from high mortality if they fail to reach
surface air. On the other hand, tilapia can tolerate conditions of high oxygen supersaturation (up
to 400%), which usually occurs because of high photosynthesis resulting from phytoplankton and
macrophytes blooming (Morgan, 1972).

Increasing water temperature reduces the rate of DO in the water and leads to increased
respiration rate and oxygen consumption in tilapia, because under increased water temperature
the rate of metabolism and, in turn, the tissue demand for oxygen increase. Franklin et al. (1995)
found that the rate of oxygen consumption in tilapia increased from 0.74 to 0.97 mg/L/h with
increasing water temperature from 37 to 42°C. Moreover, aeration was noticed to lead to the
suspension of settled particulate matter and cause water turbidity. Tilapias can also tolerate and
withstand high levels of CO2 ranging from 50 to 72.6 ppm but must be kept into a minimal.

Ammonia

Nitrogenous wastes of fish are excreted via gills in the form of ammonia. Un-ionized
ammonia is toxic to fish although this usually depends on DO, CO2 and pH. The toxicity increases
with decreasing DO and decreases with increasing CO2 (Chervinski, 1982). Fish species and
size, acclimatization time and culture systems also affect the toxicity of ammonia to fish.

Exposure to ammonia leads to lower number of red blood cells and haemolytic anaemia
which means there is a significant reduction in the blood oxygen content subsequently leading to
ammonia toxicity. It was found out that the toxic level of NH3-N and its negative effect on the
growth performance ranges from 0.07 to 0.14 mg UIA-N/l. They further recommended that the
NH3-N concentration should be maintained below 0.1 UAI-N mg/L. Ammonia content should range
minimally within up to 7.1 mg/L and for optimum growth, there must only be less than 0.05 mg/L
Redner and Stickney (1979).
Nitrite

Ammonia is oxidized into nitrite (NO2) and then into nitrate (NO3) through nitrifying
bacteria grown on suspended organic matter. The bacteria remove the organic matter from the
culture system by using it as food, while the bacteria themselves can be used as natural food for
filter-feeding fish such as tilapia and carp. While Nitrate is non-toxic and less likely to induce
mortality, if not exposed for too long; Nitrite, on the other hand, is highly toxic to fish, because it
disturbs the physiological functions of the fish and leads to growth retardation. The activity of
dehydrogenases, lactic dehydrogenase (LDH), succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) and glutamate
dehydrogenase (GDH) are the ones that are usually disrupted. The tolerance of tilapia to nitrite is
also influenced by fish size. To prevent this degradation, the addition of a chloride source (500
mg/l CaCl2 or NaCl) to culture water was introduced and was found out to be effective for it
protected both small and large fish from nitrite toxicity. Such protection was achieved at a
chloride:nitrite ratio of 1.5:1 (by weight).

pH Levels

Some of the tilapias are known to have higher tolerance of water pH. It was reported
that these fish were known to tolerate a pH range of 5 to 11 for at least 24 hours, but die when
the pH is less than 3.5 and greater than 12. The ammonia being excreted by these fish
apparently having a pH of 11. 6 at about 90 % solution can be overcome by these fish. These
nitrogenous wastes by the process that was facilitated by seawater-type gill chloride cells can
be tolerable. There were some varieties of tilapia that can overcome more than 3.5 PH value
like Nile tilapia and Tilapia congica. Nile tilapia can survive at a pH range of 4-11 and Tilapia
congica can survive up to 4.5-5 of water acidity.

In the study about the effects of acid water on the survival, behaviour and growth of Nile
tilapia fingerlings (0.4–1.0 g) and adults (45.4–46.3 g) (Wangead et al. 1988). It was found out
that at pH 2-3 both fingerlings and adult fish died within 1-3 days, but both tolerated the pH 4-5.
They both attained the survival and growth rates similar to control group having a neutral pH
after 60-70 days. Based on the study adult fish were more resistant to lower pH, having a
percentage survival rate of 86.6, 100 and 100% at pH 4, 5 and 7 respectively. The same given
pH values, the survival rate of fingerlings was 57.8, 82.2 and 84.5% respectively.

Other tilapias could be less tolerant to low pH which causes them to change
physiologically as pH of water changes from neutral to acidic with a pH of 4.5, 4.0 and 3.5.
Transferring neutral water to acidic water changes the level of Na+ plasma and increase in gill
Na+, K+ ATPase activity increased after the exposure to acidic water. Low or high-water pH may
lead to behavioural changes, damage of gill epithelial cells, reduction in the efficiency of
nitrogenous excretion and increased mortality of the fish. Tilapia exposed to pH 2-3 showed
rapid swimming and opercular movements, surfacing and gulping of air, lack of body position
and mass mortality within 1–3 days. Fish exposed to high pH for 7 days decreased ammonia
nitrogen excretion, but increased urea nitrogen excretion but reversed to low pH. It was also
reported that the median lethal dissolved oxygen (LDO50) increased significantly at low pH
(7.14, 4.02, 3.36, 0.84 and 0.32 mg/l at pH 4, 5, 6, 8.3 and 9.6, respectively).
 Exposure to acid do have a short-term effect on secretion of prolactin and but it depends
on pH and rate of acidification. Higher rate of acidification to pH 4 will tend to have a necrosis of
the integumental epithelium and caused damage of the skin and high plasma electrolyte loss
and impaired the response of prolactin cells. These symptoms hardly occurred at the rate of 0.5
pH units/ min but branchial permeability to water and ions increased and prolactin secretion
increased.

The metabolic rate both standard and maximum and oxygen consumption in tilapia
decreased in acidic water (pH 4). The median lethal time (LT50) increased from 1.2 h to 62 h with
the pH increasing from 2 to 3, while the critical lethal pH was 3.3. found that the routine
metabolic rate of small fish (1.4 g) was higher than that of larger fish (10.6 g) at high ambient
oxygen concentration (6.3 mg/l) and the metabolic rate decreased at low ambient oxygen
concentration.

Photoperiod

Photoperiod is one of the factors in regulating of the fish daily activity like fish growth,
metabolic rates, body pigmentation, sexual maturation and reproduction but depends upon the
fish size and species. Fish response to photoperiod cycle depends upon the developmental
stage and sex of the fish. Larval stage was more sensitive to photoperiod, fry fish required long
photoperiods 24- and 18-hours, short light phases insufficient time will be available for the
establishment of a robust rhythmicity. The effect of photoperiod on synchronizing an
endogenous rhythm to the external environment may also require more energy in the shorter
photoperiods, leading to a reduction on somatic fish growth (Biswas and Takeuchi, 2002;
Biswas et al., 2002). Increase in the photoperiod will tend to reduce the standard metabolic
rate.

Some of the studies reported that photoperiod and light intensity affect the reproductive
activity of the fish. Low light intensity resulted to low reproduction. Ridha and Cruz (2000)
recommended a light intensity of 2500 lux and a photoperiod of 18 h/day for optimum seed
production. It appears that the best reproductive performance is achieved under normal day
length (12 h light: 12 h dark cycles) (Campos-Mendoza et al., 2004; A.-F.M. El-Sayed and M.
Kawanna, unpublished results).

Water Turbidity

According to Yi et al. (2003a), this turbidity originates from a number of sources, namely:
(i) turbid source water; (ii) rainwater runoff from pond dykes containing clay materials; and (iii)
resuspension of bottom mud by water and fish movements. Suspension of greater number of
colloidal particles reduces the fertilizer effect, cause water acidity and inhibit light penetration, and
in turn adversely affect primary productivity in fish ponds. Increase in water turbidity will reduced
the Fish growth, feed efficiency and survival but the differences at the higher levels of 100–200
mg/l were not significant.

In clay turbidity levels in earthen ponds should be kept below 100 mg/l. The effective
mitigation technique in clay turbidity the runoff from pond dykes represented the main clay
turbidity and covering pond dykes were effective in mitigating this turbidity. The straw- and weed-
covered treatments produced the best growth rates and yield. The authors attributed the better
performance and effective control of turbidity in straw- and weed-covered treatments to the
following: (i) the increased natural food availability; (ii) metabolic and decomposition products
from plant materials cleared pond water and reduced the shading effect of turbid water; (iii) the
aggregation of clay particles and algal cells may have led to the sedimentation of larger particles;
and (iv) the adsorption of clay on weed and straw. However, covering pond dykes with rice straw
significantly reduced clay turbidity caused by runoff and enhanced fish growth through the
microbial biofilm developed on the rice straw. Therefore, the authors suggested that covering
pond dykes.

VII. FOOD REQUIREMENTS

The low trophic level and the omnivorous food habits of tilapia make them a relatively
inexpensive fish to feed, unlike other finfish, such as salmon, which rely on high protein and lipid
diets based on more expensive protein sources like fish meal. In addition, tilapia are similar to
channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus), in that they can tolerate higher dietary fiber and
carbohydrate concentrations than most other cultured fish. To ensure high yield and fast growth
at least cost, a well-balanced prepared feed is essential to successful tilapia culture. Slight
variations exist among tilapia species, but nutrient requirements are primarily affected by the size
of the fish.

Protein

Fish do not have a specific requirement for crude protein (CP) per se, but rather they need
a combination of essential amino acids. Therefore, the profile of dietary protein is important when
formulating diets for tilapia. Dietary proteins are used continuously by fish for maintenance,
growth, and reproduction functions. When fed in excess, protein may be used as energy;
however, the latter function is not desirable because of the expensive cost of proteins. The protein
requirement of tilapia decreases with age and size (table 2), with higher dietary CP concentrations
required for fry (30–56%) and juvenile (30–40%) tilapia but lower protein levels (28–30%) for
larger tilapia and Stickney, 1981; Jauncey, 1982; Al Hafedh, 1999; Siddiqui et al., 1988; Twibell
and Brown, 1998). As with other warmwater fish, tilapia require 10 essential amino acids that
need to be supplied by the diet. Essential amino acid requirements can be met by the use of a
balance of both plant and animal proteins, and if necessary, by the inclusion of synthetic amino
acids in the complete feed.
 Table 1. Protein requirements (dry basis) of tilapia of various species and sizes.

Lipids

Dietary lipids provide a major source of energy, facilitate the absorption of fat-soluble
vitamins, play an important role in membrane structure and function, serve as precursors for
steroid hormones and prostaglandins, and serve as metabolizable sources of essential fatty acids.
Winfree and Stickney (1981) found that for tilapia up to 2.5 g, the optimum dietary lipid
concentration was 5.2%, decreasing to 4.4% for fish up to 7.5 g. Jauncey (2000) suggested that
to maximize protein utilization, dietary fat concentration should be between 8 and 12% for tilapia
up to 25 g, and 6 to 8% for larger fish. As with most fish, tilapia appear to have a requirement for
n-6 (linoleic) fatty acids, and to a lesser extent, a requirement for n-3 (linolenic) fatty acids. Dietary
lipids should supply at least 1% of n-6 fatty acids (Teshima et al., 1982). When dietary lipids
contain considerable amount of polyunsaturated fatty acids, attention should be given to prevent
oxidation of the dietary lipids. The resulting products of lipid oxidation are toxic, reduce the
availability of other nutrients, and impact the quality of fish-flesh products.

Table 2. Amino acid requirements (dry basis) of tilapia.

a
Santiago and Lovell (1988). Requirements estimated by the dose-response method. Initial weight
(13 to 87 mg) and finalweight (103 to170 g).
b
Jauncey et al. (1983). Requirements estimated by the who lebody and muscle amino acid
composition method.
c
Cystine 0.54% of dietary protein.
d
Tyrosine 1.79% of dietary protein.

* Note that the methionine requirement depends on dietary cystine concentration. If cystine is not
included in the diet, part of methionine would be used to synthesize cystine and if cystine is
supplied by the diet, the requirement of methionine is reduced. Likewise, tyrosine can be
synthesized from phenylalanine and its supply by the diet would decrease the dietary requirement
of phenylalanine for maximal growth.

Carbohydrates

Fish do not have a specific requirement for carbohydrates, because amino acid and fatty
acid precursors can supply the required glucose via gluconeogenesis. This does not imply that
carbohydrates should not be included in tilapia diets, however. Carbohydrates provide a relatively
inexpensive source of energy compared to protein, and their inclusion can improve the quality of
pelleted feeds.

Tilapia can effectively utilize carbohydrate levels up to 30 to 40% in the diet, which is
considerably more than most cultured fish (Anderson et al., 1984; Teshima et al., 1985). Fiber is
usually considered indigestible, as tilapia do not possess the required enzymes for fiber digestion
(although some cellulase activity from microbes has been found in the gut of O. mossambica)
(Saha et al., 2006). For this reason, and to attain maximum growth, crude fiber levels in tilapia
diets should probably not exceed 5% (Anderson et al., 1984). The relationship between
concentrations of dietary protein and energy is important in fish nutrition. Diets should be balanced
to maximize the use of protein for growth by providing optimal amounts of energy as
carbohydrates and lipids. The ratio of protein to energy (P:E; mg/ Kcal) varies with fish age and
size. For tilapia the optimum ratio for growth varies between 68 and 125, depending on species
and size (Winfree and Stickney, 1981; Shiau and Huang, 1990).

Vitamins and Minerals

Vitamins and minerals are essential for normal fish metabolism. Vitamin and mineral
supplementation in the form of premixes may be beneficial in intensive systems, although most
of these requirements are usually met naturally in extensive and semi-intensive pond cultures.
However, specific requirements are not exactly known for all vitamins. Because of the limited
knowledge and the uncertainty regarding vitamin requirements, it is difficult to make general
recommendations as to what the optimal concentrations should be, but general minimum levels
are commonly applied to feeds. Basic knowledge of mineral toxicity and interactions among
minerals is necessary when supplementation is made. Though not specific to tilapia, excessive
supplies of certain minerals can cause deficiencies of others and in extreme cases toxicity to fish.
For example, high dietary calcium can cause deficiencies in phosphorus, zinc, iron, and
manganese. On the other hand, it has been shown that zinc, copper, and selenium, at high
concentrations, can be toxic to various finfish species.

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Southern Regional Agricultural Center and the Texas Aquaculture Extension

Thomas Popma and Michael Masser of March 1999

Entrepinoys Atbp. Business Ideas Philippines

Linnaeus, 1758. FAO Fisheries & Aquaculture- Cultured Aquatic Species Information
Programme- Oreochromis niloticus