Steady State Theory:

The steady-state theory is a view that the universe is always expanding but
maintaining a constant average density, matter being continuously created to form
new stars and galaxies at the same rate that old ones become unobservable as a
consequence of their increasing distance and velocity of recession. A steady-state
universe has no beginning or end in time; and from any point within it the view on the
grand scale--i.e., the average density and arrangement of galaxies--is the same.
Galaxies of all possible ages are intermingled.

The theory was first put forward by Sir James Jeans in about 1920 and again in
revised form in 1948 by Hermann Bondi and Thomas Gold. It was further developed
by Sir Fred Hoyle to deal with problems that had arisen in connection with the
alternative big-bang hypothesis. Observations since the 1950s have produced much
evidence contradictory to the steady-state picture and supportive of the big-bang
model

Theories of the Universe

The big bang

It is believed that the universe started with a single source. This source is thought
to have exploded making the big bang theory. The big bang theory proposes that
the universe was estimated to be made around ten million
years ago. The matter in the universe was a hot dense ball of radiant and subatomic
particles. The temperature would have been extremely high (billions of billions of
degrees). Although the theory explains most it does not explain the origin of the ball of
matter. That still remains a mystery in science.

Steady State
Steady State Theory believes that the universe has always existed. It explains the
universe as it is always the same and has always been the same and has never changed.
It says that the universe is infinity old, it has no birth date and will never
end. This theory suggest that new matter is created everywhere in the universe which
makes new galaxy that slowly move away from each other. This theory believes that
the universe is endless in time and space. It also believes that stars and galaxies die
and re-form. The theory cannot explain how the universe was made and it currently is
only
followed by few.

Similarities
The similarities in the big bang and steady state theories are few. Both theories
explained the galaxies discovered by Vesto Slipher, Edwin Hubble and Milton
Humason. They each don’t have an answer for everything. Such as the big bang does
not explain the ball of matter and the steady state does not explain how the universe
was formed.

Differences

The difference are many. The big bang theory believes that the universe always
changes but the steady state theory believes it is and always has been the exact same
for ever and will never change. The big bang believes it was formed by a big ball of
matter and it hasn't always been around and will eventually die. This is how different
these theories are.

Which Theory do I believe

I personally believe the big bang theory is more plausible. It fits all the facts. It
explains how the universe was made and the steady state does not. As well, the steady
state says that the universe does not which is incorrect. Due to satellites science has
confirmed the universe is constantly changing. This is why I believe the big bang is
more plausible.

My Theory

I believe that God is the creator of the universe. How it was created is a concept that I
find difficult to understand. I believe that the universe is constantly changing
and evolving. I believe God is in control of our universe. The bible is what I think
explains every thing and is what is correct. It is the religion side that I think is true.

Discovery of Dubnium
The chemical element dubnium is classed as a
transition metal. It was discovered in 1970 by a team
of scientists led by Georgy Flerov.
Credit for the discovery of dubnium is shared between teams of scientists at the Joint
Institute for Nuclear Research at Dubna, Russia and scientists at Lawrence Berkeley
National Laboratory, California.

In 1968, the team in Russia led by Georgy Flerov bombarded an americium-243 target
with neon-22 ions and synthesized isotopes of element 105, identified as 260Db or 261Db.
The experiment was repeated a year later using gradient thermochromatography for
more precise identification of the isotopes formed. Synthesis of 260Db was confirmed in
1970.

The Dubna team proposed calling the new element neilsbohrium (Ns) after the Nobel
Prize winning physicist Niels Bohr.

In 1970, the team in California led by Albert Ghiorsio also attempted to synthesize
element 105. They had no success with repeating the Russian experiment but they
successfully synthesized element 105 by bombarding a californium-249 target with
nitrogen-15 ions.

They suggested the name hahnium (Ha) for the new element, after the Nobel Prize
winning chemist Otto Hahn.

The Council of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) decided
in 1997 that transactinide element 105 should be given the name Dubnium (Db) after
the research facility in Russia where it was synthesized.

Appearance and Characteristics

Harmful effects:

Dubnium is harmful due to its radioactivity.

Characteristics:

Dubnium is a transactinide or super-heavy element.

It is a radioactive synthetic metal and has only been produced in tiny amounts.

Uses of Dubnium
Dubnium is of research interest only.

Abundance and Isotopes

Abundance earth’s crust: nil
Abundance solar system: parts per billion by weight, parts per trillion by moles

Cost, pure: $ per 100g

Cost, bulk: $ per 100g

Source: Dubnium is a synthetic radioactive metal, created by nuclear bombardment,

and has only been produced in tiny amounts. Dubnium is made by
bombarding californium-249 with nitrogen. It can also be produced by
bombarding americium-243 with neon.

Isotopes: Dubnium has 12 isotopes whose half-lives are known, with mass numbers
from 256 to 270. None are stable. The most stable isotope is 268
Db, with a half-life of 32
hours.

Discovery of Plutonium

The chemical element plutonium is classed as an actinide metal. It was discovered in 1940 by
Glenn Seaborg, Edwin McMillan, Joseph Kennedy, and Arthur Wahl.

Dr. Doug Stewart

Plutonium was first produced in 1940 by Glenn Seaborg, Edwin McMillan, Joseph
Kennedy, and Arthur Wahl. It was the second synthetic transuranium element of the
actinide series to be discovered.

Plutonium-238 (half-life 87.7 years) was produced by deuteron bombardment of

uranium-238 in the 60-inch cyclotron in Berkeley, California.

The Berkeley team made neptunium-238 (half-life 2.1 days) which decayed to
plutonium-238: (1)

238U + 2H ⇒ 238Np +2n

ß decay: 238Np ⇒ 238Pu

The new element was identified chemically.

The metal was later found naturally in minute quantities as a decay product in
uranium ores.

The much longer lived isotope plutonium-239 (half-life 24 110 years) was first made
in 1941. Uranium-238 was bombarded with neutrons to produce uranium-239, which
beta decayed to neptunium-239, which itself beta decayed to plutonium-239. (2)

In the same year it was found that slow neutrons cause plutonium-239 to undergo
fission. The fission releases more neutrons, hence can result in a nuclear chain
reaction. (See uranium for more about chain reactions.)

This discovery would lead to the use of plutonium as a source of nuclear energy. (2)

A microgram of pure plutonium-239 compound (plutonium IV iodate) was isolated in

1942 by Burris Cunningham and Louis Werner at the Metallurgical Laboratory of the
University of Chicago.

This was the first time a compound of an artificially produced element had been made
in a visible quantity, allowing detailed studies of its properties. (1), (2)
The metal was first isolated in 1943 by reducing plutonium trifluoride with lithium. A
few small globules of silvery metal weighing 1-3 micrograms each were produced. (3)

The element is named after the planet Pluto, continuing the theme started by Martin
Klaproth when he named uranium after the planet Uranus.

Mars Rover, Curiosity

On Nov. 26, 2011 NASA launched ‘Curiosity’, the largest, most capable rover ever
sent to another planet. Radioactive decay of 10.6 pounds (4.8 kilograms) of plutonium
dioxide has produced a steady flow of heat to warm the rover’s systems during the
intensely cold Martian night and allowed electricity to be generated. Image: NASA.

Voyager

The Voyager 2 spacecraft, launched on Aug. 20, 1977, is about 17 billion kilometers
(10 billion miles) from the sun. It is the longest continuously operating NASA
spacecraft. It owes its long life to radioisotope thermoelectric generators; these
generate electricity from heat flowing from plutonium-238’s radioactive decay.
Image: NASA.

Plutonium radioactive decay

Radioactive decay of plutonium-238. Each decay produces uranium-234, an alpha-

particle and a large amount of energy. Image: NASA.
The separation of uranium from plutonium.

Appearance and Characteristics

Harmful effects:

Plutonium is harmful due to its radioactivity.

Plutonium and its compounds are also toxic. It collects in the bones and the liver
where it can remain for a long period of time. (4)

Characteristics:

Plutonium is a silvery radioactive metal that tarnishes in air to give a yellow oxide
coating.

It has six allotropic forms, which vary widely in crystal structure and density.

The metal is chemically reactive, forming compounds with carbon, nitrogen, and
silicon and the halogens.

Plutonium has five oxidation states (+3 to +7). These produce different colors in
solution. For example, in 1 M perchlorate:
III: Pu3+ (blue lavender)

IV: Pu4+ (yellow brown)

V: PuO2+ (pink) (in sodium perchlorate)

VI: PuO22+(yellow)

VII: PuO52+ (olive green) (in sodium hydroxide). (5)

If you were to touch a small piece of plutonium metal (please don’t!) it would feel
warm because of the energy released by alpha decay. A larger piece of the metal could
boil water.

Uses of Plutonium

Plutonium-239, which can undergo nuclear chain reactions, is used in nuclear bombs
and nuclear reactors

Plutonium-238 is used as a long-lived heat and power source for space probes. (Its
intrinsic heat output is approximately 0.5 watts per gram.) The Pioneer and Voyager
space probes used plutonium-238 nuclear batteries as a power source.

Three radioisotope heater units (each containing 2.7 grams of plutonium-238 dioxide)
were used as heat sources on the Pathfinder Mars robot lander. Each radioisotope
heater unit produces about one watt of heat. (6), (7)

Early pacemaker batteries also used tiny amounts of plutonium-238.

The image on the left shows the decay of one atom of plutonium-238. This releases
5.6 million electron volts of energy. To get an idea of what this means, consider
NASA’s Curiosity Mars rover, which will be powered by 4.8 kg of plutonium dioxide.

During its first 87.7 year half-life, the plutonium will produce about 4800 gigajoules
of energy. To generate the same energy using natural gas (mainly methane) the Mars
rover would need to carry about 86 metric tons of methane and 345 metric tons of
oxygen.

Abundance and Isotopes

Abundance earth’s crust: negligible

Abundance solar system: unknown

Cost, pure: $4000 per gram

The chemical element nobelium is classed as an actinide metal. It was discovered in

1966 by research scientists at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna.

Data Zone
Classification: Nobelium is an actinide metal

Color:

Atomic weight: (259), no stable isotopes

State: solid

Melting point:

Boiling point:

Electrons: 102

Protons: 102

Neutrons in most abundant isotope: 157

Electron shells: 2,8,18,32,32,8,2

Electron configuration: [Rn] 5f14 7s2

Density @ 20oC:

Show more, including: Heats, Energies, Oxidation,

Reactions, Compounds, Radii, Conductivities
Atomic volume: –

Structure: –

Hardness: –

Specific heat capacity –

Heat of fusion –

Heat of atomization –

Heat of vaporization –

1st ionization energy 642 kJ mol-1

2nd ionization energy –

3rd ionization energy –

Electron affinity –

Minimum oxidation number 0

Min. common oxidation no. 0

Maximum oxidation number 3

Max. common oxidation no. 3

Electronegativity (Pauling Scale) 1.3

Polarizability volume 17.5 Å3

Reaction with air

Reaction with 15 M HNO3

Reaction with 6 M HCl

Reaction with 6 M NaOH

Oxide(s)

Hydride(s) –

Chloride(s)

Atomic radius –

Ionic radius (1+ ion) –

Ionic radius (2+ ion) 105 pm

Ionic radius (3+ ion) –

Ionic radius (1- ion) –

Ionic radius (2- ion) –

Ionic radius (3- ion) –

Thermal conductivity –

Electrical conductivity –

Freezing/Melting point: –

Transuranium elements discovery and experiments. 1963 chemistry educational documentary narrated
by Glenn Seaborg, Stanley Thompson and Albert Ghiorso.
 Argonne National Laboratory: Analysis of gamma rays generated in the Gammasphere established that
the nuclei in nobelium atoms are not shaped like spheres, but are actually elongated like footballs. The
10-foot-tall, 14-ton Gammasphere has 110 germanium detectors cooled with liquid nitrogen.

Discovery of Nob
Research scientists at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna, Russia
synthesized nobelium for the first time in 1966.

The element was given its name in honor of Alfred Nobel.

‘Nobelium’ had actually been proposed as the element 102’s name in 1957, by
scientists from the Nobel Institute of Physics in Sweden who believed they had
produced it. Further investigations ruled out the possibility they had made nobelium.

A stronger claim to have made nobelium was made in 1958 by scientists at the
University of California, Berkeley.

After reviewing all claims IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry)
ruled that the discovery was most likely to have been made in Dubna in 1966.

Appearance and Characteristics

Harmful effects:

Nobelium is harmful due to its radioactivity.

Characteristics:
Nobelium is a synthetic, highly radioactive metal that has only been produced in
miniscule amounts.

Nobelium is normally a divalent ion in aqueous solution. (1)

Uses of Nobelium
Nobelium is of scientific research interest only.

Abundance and Isotopes

Abundance earth’s crust: nil

Abundance solar system: –

Cost, pure: $ per g

Cost, bulk: per 100g

Source: Nobelium is a synthetic element and is not found naturally.

Nobelium is created by nuclear bombardment, and has only been produced in miniscule
amounts. Nobelium can be produced by irradiating a californium-249 target with carbon-
12 ions. (1)

Isotopes: Nobelium has 12 isotopes whose half-lives are known, with mass numbers
250 to 262.

Nobelium has no naturally occurring isotopes. Its longest lived isotopes are 259No with a
half-life of 51.5 minutes, 255No, with a half-life of 31.8 minutes and 253No with a half-life of
1.7 minutes.

The chemical element curium is classed as an actinide metal. It was discovered in 1944
by Glenn T. Seaborg, Ralph A.James, and Albert Ghiorso.
Curium was the third synthetic transuranium element of the actinide series to be
discovered.

It was discovered by Glenn T. Seaborg, Ralph A.James, and Albert Ghiorso in 1944.

Curium-242 (half-life 162.8 days) was produced by bombarding plutonium-239 with

alpha particles in the Berkeley, California, 60-inch cyclotron. Each nuclear reaction
produced a neutron in addition to an atom of curium-242. (1)

The element was chemically identified at the metallurgical laboratory at the University of
Chicago.

The researchers at first referred to curium as ‘delirium’ owing to the difficulties they
encountered trying to isolate it from another new element with which it was very closely
associated, americium – or ‘pandemonium’ as it was first called.

Visible amounts of curium-242, in the form of curium hydroxide, were first isolated by
Louis Werner and Isadore Perlman of the University of California in 1947. Curium-242
was produced by bombarding americium-241 with slow moving neutrons for a year. (2)

In 1952, W. W. Crane, J. C. Wallmann, and Burris B. Cunningham prepared metallic

curium for the first time at Berkeley, California. (3)

The element is named after Marie and Pierre Curie, who pioneered work on radioactivity
and discovered radium and polonium.
 The Alpha Particle X-Ray Spectrometer (APXS) used on the Mars Exploration Rovers. It uses small
amounts of curium-244 to determine the concentrations of most major elements in rocks and soil.(Photo
credit: NASA)
Transuranium elements discovery and experiments. 1963 chemistry educational documentary narrated
by Glenn Seaborg, Stanley Thompson and Albert Ghiorso.

Appearance and Characteristics

Harmful effects:

Curium is harmful due to its radioactivity. It accumulates in bones and destroys the
marrow, stopping the formation of red blood cells.

Characteristics:

Curium is a hard, dense radioactive silvery-white metal.

It tarnishes slowly in dry air at room temperature.

Most compounds of trivalent curium are slightly yellow in color.

Curium is highly radioactive and it glows red in the dark. (4)

Uses of Curium
Curium is used mainly for scientific research purposes.

Curium-244 was used in the Alpha Proton X-ray Spectrometer (APXS) which measured
the abundance of chemical elements in rocks and soils on Mars.

Curium-244 is a strong alpha emitter and is being studied as a potential power source in
radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) for use in spacecraft and other remote
applications.

Abundance and Isotopes

Abundance earth’s crust: nil

Abundance solar system: unknown

Cost, pure: $ per g

Cost, bulk: per 100g

Source: Curium does not exist in nature. It is a synthetic element and it is produced in
nuclear reactors by bombarding plutonium with neutrons.
Isotopes: Curium has 15 isotopes whose half-lives are kn