Confectionary - Notes

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Food Processing and Technology

Semester - IV
Course No: - FPT - 3512
Confectionery and Snacks Technology
ONLY FOR EXAM PURPOSE TUSHAR. K. D.

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Unit (1-2)
History; Traditional confectionary goods; Types of confectionary; Classification of

confectionery products.
 HISTORY OF CONFECTIONERY
Just like its present day character, confectionery has a history that is colourful and lively.
Entire books are written on the subject and its origins can be dated right back to the first
cavemen! Just as history shows, there has always been more to confectionery than the taste.
Today for example, many positive emotions are associated with sweets and chocolates; used
to demonstrate love, lift the spirits, enhance an occasion or simply provide a reward to the
consumer. A multi billion pound industry today that touches the lives of old and young alike,
right across the globe, let’s look at some of the highlights from the history of confectionery.
Where did it all start? Liquorice Allsorts :- ,Whilst much evidence is anecdotal, it is
generally believed that cavemen first established the concept of enjoying a sweet treat.
Perhaps this is where the history of confectionery starts. Much can be learnt from their
drawings which depict men taking honey from beehives and dropping it into their mouths. So
given that the history of sweets and the history of cakes and confectionery items are
somewhat entangled, it would be fair enough to suggest that it all started with honey!
Long before sugar, the Egyptians, Chinese and Indians also liked to combine honey with
fruits and nuts to make natural sweet treats. Indeed Liquorice juice was extracted from the
plant at this time, considered to offer many health properties. Evolution had much work to do
before we could tuck into a handful of Liquorice Allsorts though.
The discovery of sugar – the “health” ingredient :-
Back in Roman times, sugar had been identified as a sweetener but most importantly
as a product that could offer many healing properties. So initially, its use was confined to
medicinal concoctions from the apothecaries. However, when sugar processing was
discovered, it became a sought after commodity and was highly traded.
The luxury of the Middle Ages :-
A more coherent history of confectionery originates from the Middle Ages when
highly skilled and regarded confectioners became established in key cities, creating
sweetmeats and treats that were only affordable to the very wealthy.
An eighteenth century confectioner found high status and great financial reward. His
ingredients were expensive and if he did not have his own shop he would find ample work in
the households of the aristocracy. It was fashionable to offer a “grand dessert” at elegant
meals and this would include a spread of sweetmeats, biscuits and ices.
Boiled Sweets The automation of the early 19th century. :-

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As the history of confectionery continues, sugar processing developed and some

sweet treats started to be mass-produced instead of painstakingly by hand. These
developments began the process of opening up the confectionery market to a much wider
audience as availability grew through mechanisation and prices dropped.
What about cocoa? :-
Good question! The Aztecs in Mexico were the first known people to use the cocoa
bean to create a bitter drink. Only 1500 years later did someone think of sweetening it with a
little sugar? This marriage of cocoa and sugar was perhaps the biggest stepping stone in the
history of confectionery and it led to a chocolate drink making its debut in Europe, first
reaching London in 1657.
The History of Candy
It is generally believed that the idea of a sweet treat was first conceived by cavemen,
who liked honey from beehives. Before they had sugar the Egyptians, the Chinese, the
Indians, the people of Middle East, and then the Greeks and Romans combined fruits and
nuts with honey to make candy. It is believed that the first sweets were consumed as a sort of
medical treatment for digestive troubles.
As civilization began to develop and when sugar processing was discovered it became a
highly traded commodity.
During the middle Ages, sugar candy came at a high price which made it a delicacy available
only to wealthy. During the same period sugar was classed as a drug that was regarded as the
cure for many ailments and was sold by the apothecaries.
In the seventeenth century, as sugar became a little more available, people in England
and in America ate boiled sugar candies mixed with fruit and nuts. Caramels and lollipops
were known in the early eighteen century. By the mid-1800s over 380 factories was built in
the United States to manufacture candy. Most of them were producing individual hard
candies which were then sold loose. First chocolate factory in the United States was
established in 1765.
During the early nineteenth century, after the discovery of the ''sugar beet'' and the
advancement of the mechanical age sweet-making developed rapidly into an industry and an
assortment of flavours began to be introduced into the candy mixture. Since sweets no longer
handmade and started to be mass-produced, they were available for the first time to all people.
The very first sweets were boiled sweets, marshmallows and Turkish delight. Also at this
time, hard candies, such as peppermints and lemon drops became hugely popular in America.
England was the first country to manufacture hard candies in large quantities, and at 1851
London Prince Albert's Great Exhibition, a large assortments of boiled sweets, bonbons,
chocolate creams, caramels and many others types of candy were represented to European
and American confectioners.

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Ancient Olmec civilizations of Mexico made the first chocolate drink. The Spaniards
introduced Europe to chocolate in 16th century.
Cocoa powder was made in 1828 but chocolate became mass produced and widely available
in the middle of the nineteenth century when it was introduced into the candy industry as both
cocoa and sugar production rose to new heights. In the beginning the chocolate was made of
a bittersweet chocolate. The first candy bar for the mass market was created by Joseph Fry in
1847. In 1854 the first packaged box of Whitman's chocolates was introduced. Richard
Cadbury introduced the first Valentine's Day box of candy in 1868.
David Peter and Henry Nestle from Switzerland created the first milk chocolate in
1876 which made the American candy bar such a phenomenon of the late nineteenth century.
Today many different sorts of other ingredients are added to the chocolate bar. The popular
Halloween candy, Candy Corn, was invented by George Renninger in 1880. George Smith
invented the first Lolly Pop in 1908
Types of confectionery:-
Confectionery is the art of making confections, which are food items that are rich in
sugar and carbohydrates. Exact definitions are difficult.[1] In general, though, confectionery
is divided into two broad and somewhat overlapping categories, bakers' confections and sugar
confections.[2]
Bakers' confectionery, also called flour confections, includes principally sweet pastries, cakes,
and similar baked goods.
Sugar confectionery includes candies (sweets in British English), candied nuts,

chocolates, chewing gum, bubble gum, pastillage, and other confections that are made
primarily of sugar. In some cases, chocolate confections (confections made of chocolate) are
treated as a separate category, as are sugar-free versions of sugar confections.[3] The words
candy (US and Canada), sweets (UK and Ireland), and lollies (Australia and New Zealand)
are common words for the most common varieties of sugar confectionery.
1) Baker’s Confectionery :-
Bakers' confectionery includes sweet baked goods, especially those that are served for
the dessert course. Bakers' confections are sweet foods that feature flour as a main ingredient
and are baked. Major categories include cakes, sweet pastries, doughnuts, scones, and
cookies.[15] In the Middle East and Asia, flour-based confections predominate.
Types :-
1) Cakes have a somewhat bread-like texture, and many earlier cakes, such as the centuries-
old stollen (fruit cake), or the even older king cake, were rich yeast breads. The variety of
styles and presentations extends from simple to elaborate. Major categories include butter
cakes, tortes, and foam cakes. Confusingly, some desserts that have the word cake in their

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names, such as cheesecake, are not technically cakes, while others, such as Boston cream pie
are cakes despite seeming to be named something else.
2) Pastry is a large and diverse category of baked goods, united by the flour-based dough
used as the base for the product. These dough are not always sweet, and the sweetness may
come from the sugar, fruit, chocolate, cream, or other fillings that are added to the finished
confection. Pastries can be elaborately decorated, or they can be plain dough.
3) Scones and related sweet quick breads, such as bannock, are similar to baking powder
biscuits and, in sweeter, less traditional interpretations, can seem like a cupcake.
4) Cookies are small, sweet baked treats. They originated as small cakes, and some traditional
cookies have a soft, cake-like texture. Others are crisp or hard.
2) Sugar confectionery :-
Sugar confections include sweet, sugar-based foods, which are usually eaten as snack
food. This includes sugar candies, chocolates, candied fruits and nuts, chewing gum, and
sometimes ice cream. In some cases, chocolate confections are treated as a separate category,
as are sugar-free versions of sugar confections.[17]
Types:-
Sugar confectionery items include candies, lollipops, candy bars, chocolate, cotton candy,
and other sweet items of snack food. Some of the categories and types of sugar confectionery
include the following:[14]
1. Chocolates: Bite-sized confectioneries generally made with chocolate, considered

different from a candy bar made of chocolate.
2. Divinity: A nougat-like confectionery based on egg whites with chopped nuts.
3. Dodol: A toffee-like delicacy popular in Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines
4. Dragée: Sugar-coated almonds and other types of sugar panned candies.
5. Fudge: Made by boiling milk and sugar to the soft-ball stage. In the US, it tends to be
chocolate-flavoured.
6. Halvah: Confectionery based on tahini, a paste made from ground sesame seeds.
7. Hard candy: Based on sugars cooked to the hard-crack stage. Examples include lollipops,
jawbreakers (or gobstoppers), lemon drops, peppermint drops and disks, candy canes,
rock candy, etc. Also included are types often mixed with nuts such as brittle.
8. Ice cream: Frozen, flavoured cream, often containing small pieces of chocolate, fruits
and/or nuts.
9. Jelly candies: Including those based on sugar and starch, pectin, gum, or gelatin such as
Turkish delight (lokum), jelly beans, gumdrops, jujubes, gummies, etc.[23]
10. Liquorice: Containing extract of the liquorice root, this candy is chewier and more
resilient than gums or gelatin candies. For example, Liquorice allsorts. It has a similar
taste to star anise.
11. Marshmallow: For example, circus peanuts.
12. Marzipan: An almond-based confection, doughy in consistency.
13. Mithai: A generic term for confectionery in the Indian subcontinent, typically made from
dairy products and/or some form of flour. Sugar or molasses are used as sweeteners.

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14. Persipan: similar to marzipan, but made with peaches or apricots instead of almonds.
15. Pastillage: A thick sugar paste made with gelatin, water, and confectioner's sugar, similar
to gum paste, which is moulded into shapes, which then harden.
16. Tablet: A crumbly milk-based soft and hard candy, based on sugars cooked to the soft
ball stage. Comes in several forms, such as wafers and heart shapes. Not to be confused
with tableting, a method of candy production.
17. Taffy (British: chews): A sugar confection that is folded many times above 120 °F
(50 °C), incorporating air bubbles thus reducing its density and making it opaque.
18. Toffee: A confection made by caramelizing sugar or molasses along with butter. Toffee
has a glossy surface and textures ranging from soft and sticky to a hard, brittle material.
Its brown colour and smoky taste arise from the caramelization of the sugar.
Classification of Confectionery
Confectionery can be classified into four major groups. They are as follows:
1. Sugar confectionery: - It includes products using mainly sugar such as boiled sweets,
fondants, fudge, jellies, toffees, etc.
2. Chocolate confectionery: - It includes mainly cocoa, chocolate and chocolate products.
Sugar confectionery coated with chocolate is also included in it.
3. Flour confectionery: - It includes baked products such as cakes, biscuits, cream rolls, etc.
Traditional Indian cereal and legume flour based sweets such as mysorepak, soanpapdi,
badushah, jalebi, etc. are also included in this category.
4. Milk-based confectionery: - It includes mainly Indian traditional milk-based sweets such
as burfi, peda, rasogolla etc. In sugar confectionery; sugar is the main or principal
ingredient while in other confectionery sugar is used as one of the ingredient.
5. Sugar Confectionery Groups :- Depending on the structural geometry, sugar
confectionery is grouped into two major groups: amorphous and crystalline.
6. Amorphous sugar confectionery :-These products are characterized by hard, chewy,
homogenous and non-crystalline nature. It includes hard boiled candy, caramels, toffee,
taffy, brittles, gums, jellies, etc.
7. Crystalline sugar confectionery :- These are characterized by crystal structure. It includes
chocolate, fondant, nougats, fudge, marshmallows, etc.

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Unit (3-6)
Raw Materials/ ingredients- sugar, sugar qualities, physical, chemical, optical

properties, sugar grinding, dextrose, fructose, lactose, caramel, maltose, honey, sorbitol,
xylitol, iso-malt, soy maltose, polydextrose, mannitol .
 Raw Materials and Ingredients Used in Sugar Confectionery.
The raw materials and different ingredients used in sugar confectionery are sucrose and
its derivatives, glucose syrups, other sugars, other sweeteners, fats, milk products, foaming
agents, gelling agents, thickeners and stabilizers, colours, flavours, acids, nuts and some
processing aids.
1. Sucrose :- White sugar extracted from sugar cane or sugar beet is very nearly pure
sucrose with traces of mineral matter.
2. Sucrose derivatives :-Alternative to sucrose, sometimes liquid sugar with less than 75%
solids, brown sugar, icing or milled sugar, golden syrup with about 80-83% soluble solids,
invert sugar, refinery syrups which are darker than golden syrups with more flavour,
molasses and dark treacle, etc. are used.
3. Glucose syrups :- Glucose syrup is occasionally called as �confectioners' glucose�. It
contain a number of different sugars all built up from dextrose units, with dextrose and
maltose predominating. The pH of the glucose syrup ranges between 4.8 and 5.2. The
grading of glucose syrup is based on the solids content as indicated by Baume reading
and on the reducing sugar content of the solid matter calculated as dextrose (termed as
DE value or dextrose equivalent value). Many grades of glucose syrup are available to the
sugar confectioner including 35 DE (low DE), 42 DE (regular DE), 55 DE, 63 DE (high
DE) and high maltose glucose syrup. The average TSS content for glucose syrups ranges
between 78 and 83%. High maltose glucose syrups contain maltose as high as 75% with
very low dextrose contents. High fructose corn syrups (HFCS) are produced by
isomerisation of dextrose to fructose by enzymes. Usually HFCS contain fructose in the
range of 42 to 90%. Confections made with HFCS are sweeter than those made with
conventional glucose syrups. Honey :-Honey is a clear liquid ranging in colour from pale
straw to brown. The water content of most honey ranges between 15-20% depending on
the area of origin. It contains about 40% fructose, 34-38% dextrose and 4-5% sucrose.
Upon prolonged storage, the dextrose may crystallize out.
4. Intense sweeteners :- Sugar replacers are sometimes used in sugar confectionery for
making low-calorie or dietetic confectionery products. The intense sweeteners such as
aspartame, acesulfame-K, saccharin, cyclamates, etc. exhibit sweetness many times that
of cane sugar. The relative sweetness of aspartame and acesulfame-K is 180 and 200
times, respectively compared to sucrose. Their use is widespread in chewing gums than in
other confectionery.
5. Bulk sweeteners :-Bulk sweeteners provide sweetness to a lesser extent compared to
equal weight of sucrose and hence provide fewer calories. However, they provide
significant bulk to the formulation. They include polyols such as sorbitol, mannitol,
isomalt, maltitol, etc. Substances which are non-caloric or low-calorie fillers and provide

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no sweetness are often used in low-calorie confectionery and are called as bulking agents.
These provide functionality similar to sugar e.g. polydextrose.
6. Fats :- Fats for confectionery use must be completely or almost completely melted at
about 37�C. If they have higher melting point they give an unpleasant greasy sensation
in the mouth. On the other hand, low melting fats lack body and tend to make sweets oily,
which can also result in bloom defect on chocolate covered products. Cocoa butter has
almost ideal properties for use in confectionery. Lauric fats such as palm kernel and
coconut oils, partially hydrogenated oils such as soy, ground nut, rapeseed, etc. are also
used. Butter is used mainly for its flavour.
7. Emulsifiers :-The usual emulsifiers used in confectionery are lecithin or glycerol
monostearate. Both are used to assist the emulsification of fat into product but while the
lecithin is generally used for hard boiled sweets, glycerol monostearate is preferred for
toffees and caramels as it provides lubrication for cutting knives during processing.
8. Milk products :-Milk products such as spray dried milk powder, sweetened condensed
milk, sweetened condensed skimmed milk, whey powder, sweetened condensed whey, etc.
are used for their nutritive value, flavour and sometimes colour generated due to Maillard
browning and caramelization.
9. Gelling agents, thickeners and stabilizers :-These substances are mainly used for binding
water and gives strength to the confectionery products. Gelatin, starch and modified
starches, pectin, gum arabic, guar gum, locust bean gum, xanthan gum, alginates, etc. are
commonly used.
10. Colours ;- Many foods in the natural state are coloured and in many cases the colour
influences the consumer�s perception of flavour. Most confectionery products are not
naturally coloured so colours are added to assist in flavour perception and to provide a
means of differentiation between sweets in an assortment of flavours. Natural colours
such as caramel and permitted artificial colours are commonly used in confectionery.
11.Flavours :-Natural flavours, essential oils, and artificial flavours are used in confectionery
applications. All flavours are to a greater or lesser extent volatile and in confectionery
applications they are often added at high temperatures.
 Physical, chemical, optical properties of Sugar.
Sugar It is reported that the sugar cane was cultivated in India as early as 400 B.C and
was later introduced into Europe. The refined granulated sugar commercially produced in
India is derived from sugar cane. It is also produced from sugar beets in several countries.
It is 99.9% pure sucrose. Sucrose is a term used to mean refined cane or beet sugar.
Chemically speaking there are two types of sugars: a) simple sugars which include
glucose or dextrose, fructose and glalctose and b) Compound sugars which include
sucrose, maltose, lactose etc. The functions in the confectionery products are not
performed by all sugars to the same degree.
Sugar properties:
Hydrolysis: Compound sugars like sucrose are split into their component sugars by
specific enzymes or acids. Maltose and sucrose are hydrolyzed by the enzymes maltose

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and invertase, respectively. Both these enzymes are present in bakers‘ yeast. Those
reactions take place in the dough before the sugars are fermented. Sucrose is converted
into two simple sugars, fructose and dextrose, so rapidly that the hydrolysis is complete a
few minutes after mixing and it is so thorough that practically no sucrose is detectable in
the finished bread. In contrast, almost all of the original lactose content remains in bread
because yeast does not have an enzyme to hydrolyze lactose.
Yeast Fermentation: Glucose, fructose, sucrose and maltose are readily fermented by
bakers‘ yeast to produce carbon dioxide and alcohol as principal end products. Lactose is
not fermentable because baker‘s yeast lacks the enzyme which could split this compound
sugar.
Residual sugars: About two per cent of the sugars added, based on flour, are used up
during the bread fermentation. The remaining sugars which are present in bread are called
'residual sugars‘. Therefore, the higher the percentage of sugar used in the formula, the
higher is the amount of residual sugars.
Sweetness and flavour: since there is no physical or chemical test for sweetness it must,
therefore, be related to taste.
Hygroscopicity and Hydration: Hygroscopicity is the ability of a substance to absorb
moisture and retain it. Some sugars are more hygroscopic than others.
Heat Susceptibility: When sugars are heated, molecules combine to form coloured
substances called ‗Caramel‘. Sugars vary in their heat sensitivity, i.e. the temperature at
which they begin to caramelize. Fructose, maltose and dextrose are more sensitive and
lactose and sucrose are the least. By lowering the pH of the sugar solution, fructose and
dextrose become less sensitive.
Browning reaction: Reducing sugars, when heated with proteins, react to form dark
compounds called melanoidins.
Solubility and Crystallization: The difference in solubility of sugars can be used to control
crystallization in products that require higher amounts of sugar.
Siftening: The tenderising action of sugars in baked products with the resultant improvement
in texture, volume and symmetry may indirectly be attributed to the ability of sugar to hold
water.
Sugar Alcohols :-
Sugar alcohols (also called polyhydric alcohols, polyalcohols, alditols or glycitols) are
organic compounds, typically derived from sugars, that comprise a class of polyols. They are
white, water-soluble solids that can occur naturally or be produced industrially from sugars.
They are used widely in the food industry as thickeners and sweeteners. In commercial
foodstuffs, sugar alcohols are commonly used in place of table sugar (sucrose), often in
combination with high intensity artificial sweeteners to counter the low sweetness. Xylitol
and sorbitol are popular sugar alcohols in commercial foods.[1]
Health effects :- Sugar alcohols do not contribute to tooth decay. Studies have shown xylitol
to be a deterrent to tooth decay. [2][3]Food containing xylitol increased bone density in rat
studies. These results have generated interest in the sugar alcohol that would examine if it

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could be a human treatment for osteoporosis.[4][5] Consumption of sugar alcohols affects

blood sugar levels, although much less than does sucrose comparing by glycemic index.[6][7]
Sugar alcohols may also cause bloating and diarrhea when consumed in excessive amounts.[8]
Types:-
Sorbitol :-
Sorbitol is primarily used in manufacture of diabetic and sugar free confections. The
most important applications includes chewing gum, compressed mints, high boiling, gums,
pastilles and chocolates. In chewing gum sorbitol is typically used together with maltitol
syrup which provides the liquid phase and saccharin or aspartame which are needed to boost
the sweetness. A proportion of mannitol may be included in order to inhibit crystallization if
desired chewing gum dragees may be hard coated with sorbitol. Sorbitol cannot be used to
manufacture high boiling by conventional means due to its low viscocity. It is however
possible to prepare deposited high boiling.
Xylitol :-
Xylitol is currently used in a variety sugar free and diabetic confectionary products.
Xylitol can be used in the hard panning of chewing dragees or of other confectionery centres.
Xylitol can act as the sole sweetner in recrystallized hard candies. Fondant is another
application for which xylitol is well suited. Xylitol solutions are lower in both viscocity and
water activity then equivalent concentrations of other polyols but do not have particularly
good humectants properties.
Maltitol :-
Maltitol syrups have been used in a wide variety of applications either alone in
combination with other polyols. Their function is sugarless chewing gums and in high boiling
which can be manufactured simply by adding acid, colour and flavour to a boiled maltitol
syrup. Caramels and chews can be prepared from maltitol syrup. Gums, jellies and pastilles
based on gum Arabic or gelatin may be successfully made with malitol syrup. Malitol syrup
is also used to prevent the crystallization of other polyols in hard and soft confections.
Isomalt :-
Isomalt can be used in a variety of sugar free confectionery products including high
boiling, compressed tablets, marzipan, chews, liquorice and chocolate. In other applications
isomaltase best used in combination with other polyols which are needed to inhibit
crystallization as well as to increase the sweeteners. Compressed tablets also benefits from
the low hygroscopicity of isomalt. A wet granulation stage is required in order to improve the
compressibility.

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Polydextrose :-
Polydextrose can be used in the manufacture of high boiling since it forms a stable
glass structure. It also reduces the viscosity thus improving handling properties. In the
context it has been successfully combined with xylitol in reduced calorie chews with sorbitol
or xylitol in gelatin jellies and with isomalt in fondant. In addition to its application in sugar
free products polydextrose is used in combination with fructose for diabetic lines or with
sucrose in standard reduced calorie lines.

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Unit (7-8)
Whipping, release agent, thickeners, acidulents, milk and milk products, flavours, for
confectionery, emulsifiers and other additives.
AND
Unit (9-10)
Starch derivatives, colours used in confectionary. Production of glucose syrup, Acid

hydrolysis, enzyme hydrolysis.
1) Enzymes used in confectionery :-
Enzymes in Glucose syrup production: How then have enzymes improved the range
of glucose syrups available to the confectioner?
Specificity:- First of all enzymes give specificity. Provided that the glucose manufacturer
could produce a soluble non-retrograding starch substrate at 600C, he could avail himself
of amylolytic activity to produce starch hydrolysates of controlled/tailored sugar
distribution. The need to use mineral acid was not avoided because this was used to
provide the non-retrograding substrate and a series of acid/enzyme syrups was created.
The specificity gave the possibility of making sweeter, more highly converted, syrups of
good colour and taste widely used in marshmallows, preserves and beer fermentation.
Total Enzyme Conversation:- Total enzyme conversion using thermostable -amylases
and maltogenic enzymes (fungal -amylases , vegetable -amylases ) allowed maltose
syrups of higher maltose levels (approximately 55%) to be produced. These have led to
significant improvements in confectionery, particularly in high-boiled products, where
better control of the rheology of the sugar mass has resulted in the ability to use higher
sugar replacement levels and thus to obtain better texture, better shelf life, low colour
formation and other properties.
Hydrogenated starch hydrolysates:- Hydrogenated starch hydrolysates from sorbitol to
maltitol and hydrogenated glucose syrups are used increasingly in the so-called ‗sugar-
free‘ confectionery, sorbitol is also used in diabetic products. The use of all enzyme
hydrolysis has allowed starch hydrolysates of high dextrose (glucose) content to be made
(>97%). This has allowed the achievement of higher yields and glucose/dextrose
production whether anhydrous or monohydrate, and the manufacture of hydrolysates of
specific use in the fermentation industry. Dextrose can be used to produce confectionary
tablets with a smooth cooling sensation of the palate.
Fructose:- The most significant advance brought about in the starch industry by enzymes
involves the actual isomerisation of the monomeric unit whereby fructose can be
produced from starch. With the discovery of an enzyme, an isomerase, which could
isomerise glucose to a 42% fructose- containing equilibrium mixture having a sweetness
level equivalent to sucrose, a new generation of products was born. These had obvious
potential in the soft drinks are, and today many products in the USA contain high fructose
corn syrup (HFCS). In Europe the product is not so widely used due to the imposition of a
production quota by the EEC.

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Enzymes used in Whipping and Gelling :- The requirements of a good whipping agent are:
1) Solubility in the aqueous liquid phase.
2) They must concentrate at the liquid-air interface.
3) They must denature during the manufacturing process and so form a structure with
sufficient mechanical strength to support the form.
Egg Albumen:- Egg albumen crystal is produced by drying liquid egg white in shallow trays,
breaking up the sheets and then grinding to finished size. Egg albumen is now frequently
used in a spray-dried form. The spray-dried albumen provides a material free from offensive
odours and flavours. These spray-dried products include the ‗fluff-dried‘ albumen, produced
by prewhipping the egg to produce a foam which is then dried rapidly.
Egg albumen is the most commonly used whipping agent because of its excellent whipping
properties associated with reasonable stability and the characteristic of readily denaturing
with temperature. The temperature of coagulation in a sugar solution rises from 650C in a
40% syrup to 750C in a 60% syrup.
Gelatin as a Whipping agent:- Gelatin is used as a whipping agent particularly for mallow
products. Although it does not produce a mallow as tender as that produced using albumen, it
is easy to use and provides a stable product.
The depression of surface tension produced by gelatin is much greater in concentrated sugar
syrup than in water, so that tests to evaluate deliveries, based on a water foam test, may be of
little value. Equally, a 30-45% sugar solution is needed to maximize the efficiency of the
whipping operation. Gelatin of bloom strength in the range 180-200 is often used for mallow
products and a low –viscosity gelatin produces a greater volume of foam. Whether the gelatin
is prepared for whipping or as a gelling agent, it should first be dispersed in cold water to
soak. Gelatin is difficult to disperse in hot syrups. The degree of swelling during soaking is
dependent on pH. Gelatin can absorb up to 40 times its own weight of water under specific
conditions.
Milk proteins:- Native proteins are generally water-insoluble, those which are water-soluble
tend to be pH-sensitive and precipitate at their isoelectric point. They are also easily
denatured by heat, and the methods of extraction usually result in defects in the fundamental
characteristic and adverse flavours. Native proteins have high molecular weight and can
cause allergic responses in sensitive individuals.
2) Gelling ( or Thickening agent ) and Whipping agents used in confectionery :-

Gelling and Whipping agents are used to provide a wide range of textures in the sugar
confectionary industry.
Agar agar E406:- Agar agar is dried hydrophilic, colloidal polysaccharide from red
seaweeds and related marine species. It is available as white to pale yellow agglutinated strips
or in flate or powder form. It may have a slightly characteristic odour and mucilaginous
flavour. It is soluble in boiling water and insoluble in cold water and most organic solvents. It
has a molecular weight of over 20,000.
Agar is extracted from a wide range of seaweed varieties which grow in many areas of the

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world. The main suppliers are Japan, New Zealand, Denmark, Australia, South Africa and
Spain. The gel strength varies according to the source and checks should be carried out on
each delivery to determine gel strength.
Normally agar is dissolved in 30-50 times its weight of water, usually premixed with about
10 times weight of sugar to prevent lumping. Very high viscosities are achieved with
concentration up to 10%.Agar provides good gel strength. It forms a firm gel at
concentrations as low as 1% and is usually used in confectionery at the level of 1-1.5% of
sugar glucose agar recipe. Agar is not absorbed by the body during digestion and can
therefore be used in low calorie confections. Agar does not carry flavour well, and as a result
of this and its sensitivity to acid and particular types of texture it is being replaced by pectins
or modified starches.
Alginate E401:- Alginate were first is isolated by Stamford by alkaline extraction from
brown algae, a process used for iodine production. Commercial extraction is from seaweeds
such as Laminaria digitata, Ascophyllum nodosum and Fucus serratus. Each of the seaweeds
provides a differing proportion of the main attribute of alginate. It is a white to yellow
granular powder, colloidal, insoluble in water, acids and organic solvents. Alginates are
comprised of mannuronic and guluroni acids. These can link to form homogeneous segments
in which guluronic acid binds to guluronic acid andmannuronic acid binds to mannuronic
acid.
Carrageenans :- The name carrageenans is derived from the country of Carraghen on the
south coast of Ireland, where Irish moss was used in foods and medicines more than 600
years ago. Red seaweeds were used because of their unique property in gelling milk when
they are heated together. The carrageenan coagulates into fibres, leaving impurities in the
solution. This product is pressed and washed again with alsochol to complete its dehydration.
It is then dried under vacuum, milled and sieved to the exact particle size. The elation of k
and I carrageenans is induced by the association of chains through double helices. In native
carrageenans there are ‗kinks‘ caused by the presence of k and I fractions. In seaweeds there
is an enzyme present which carries out this conversion naturally. and carrageenans can
therefore be considered precursors of the k and I fractions.
Gelatin:- Gelatin does not exist naturally but is produced by the partial hydrolysis of
collagen in the raw material substrate. Collagen is a structural component in animal tissues,
present in skin, bone and connective tissue. The raw materials are sourced from
slaughterhouses, meat-packing plants or tanneries. The products from tanneries have already
been salted or limed for preservation. Collagen is made up of films and fibrils. Industrial
modification of collagen to produce gelatin is by stepwise destruction of the organized
structure to obtain the soluble derivative gelatin. The extraction of gelatin from the raw
material is initiated by either liming or acidulation, which disrupts the molecular linkages
within the collagen. Gelatin is then extracted by hot-water hydrolysis. This is carried out as a
batch operation. Several extracts are produced with a concentration of 5-10% gelatin.

15
A typical analysis of a gelatin would be

Moisture - 14%
Protein - 84%
Ash - 2%
Gelatin picks up water in a moist atmosphere and should be stored in a cool dry store. At
about 16% moisture mould growth is possible. Gelatin solutions from an ideal medium for
bacterial growth. Hygienic procedures must be implemented when using this product in
solution and equipment must be thoroughly cleaned.
Pectin:
Pectin substances are matrix components in the cell walls of higher plants. The compounds
are insoluble in aqueous solution and are referred to as protopectins. Pectin Protein consists
mainly of the partly methylated esters of polygalacturonic acid and their ammonium, sodium,
potassium or calcium salts. The molecular weight is between 20,000 and 100,000. The
protopectin is hydrolysed using acid in hot aqueous solution. The aqueous extract contains
soluble products such as neutral polysaccharides, gums and others. LM pectins are defined as
having a degree of methoxylation of less than 50% i.e. less than 50% of the functional groups
on the molecule are methoxylated.
The grade strength of a pectin is defined as the number of grams of sugar with which one
gram of pectin will produce a gel of standard firmness, when tested under standard conditions
of acidity and soluble solids content. During cooking the product mixture is normally
buffered to maintain the pH within controlled limits. Pectins can be purchased pre-buffered or
the manufacturers can add citrates, tart rates, etc, to act as the buffering agent.
Xanthan gum E415:- A polysaccharide gum produced by Xanthomonas campestris. It

occurs as a cream-colored powder, soluble in water, insoluble in alcohol. Xanthan gum is a
secondary metabolite of Xanthomonas campestris produced during the commercial aerobic
fermentation of carbohydrates. Fermentation is carried out in a batch process. The gum is
recovered from the broth by the addition of propan-2-01. The precipitate obtained is washed
and pressed to remove residual alcohol.
Xanthan gum is a mixed polysaccharide with a molecular weight of approximately 2.5
million. The monomer units are D-glucose, D-mannose and Dglucoronic acid. Xanthan gum
is readily dissolved in hot or cold water to produce an opaque solution of relatively high
viscosity. This solution exhibits pseudoplastic flavour characteristics, i.e. the viscosity of the
solution decreases rapidly when shear is applied. As the shear rate decreases there is an
immediate return to the high original viscosity. This characteristic makes Xanthan an
excellent suspending agent at low concentration. Xanthan forms a thermo reversible cohesive
gel system with locust bean gum.
3) Food Colures and Flavours used in confectionery :-

Colours :- When synthetic colours were first added to foods the dyes used were merely
batches of the sort of dye used in the textile industry. The use of colours in foods is strictly
regulated. Governments around the world have lists of permitted colours. Unfortunately, the

16
lists differ throughout the world.
Synthetic colours :-Synthetic colours are available for almost all possible shades.
Intermediate shades can be produced by blending colours. In general, Synthetic colours are
much more stable than natural colours to light, heat and extremes of pH. Synthetic colours
can be supplied as soluble powders, prepared solutions, easily dispersed granules, pastes or
gelatine sticks. Blocks of colour in vegetable fat are available for use in fat-based products.
The attraction of soluble powders is that they are the least expensive and can be made up as
required for use. The other forms have the advantage that they are at a concentration that is
ready to use. The disadvantage is usually financial Synthetic colours are normally so intense
that they must be considerably diluted for them to be readily measured and dispersed into the
product. Colour solutions made up in the factory have to be prepared not more than twenty
four hours before use to avoid mould spoilage. The pre-prepared colour solutions will contain
a permitted preservative or will be made up in glycerine, propylene glycol or propan-2-o1.
These non-aqueous solvents inhibit mould growth lists some synthetic colours.
Natural colours :- There is a belief that natural products are inherently safer and more
healthy than man-made ones. This belief is lacking in intellectual rigour. Of the most toxic
substance known to man most are natural, egg., aflatoxin, a mould metabolite, and ricin,
found in castor oil beans. However, the presence of natural colours is a marketing advantage
and so they are used. Natural colours in general are less heat stable, less lights table and give
aless intense and less pure colour than Synthetic colours.
Natural colours have been used in the form of impure extracts rather than pure products. In
this form higher doses are needed than with synthetic products. When purified, some natural
pigments are more intense in colour and can be used in lower doses than Synthetic colours.
One other problem with natural colours is that the range of colours available is restricted.
Several sources of natural colours are given in the following subsections.
Caramel (E150):-Caramel in this context means a brown colour that is produced either
traditionally by heating sugar or as a very intense product that is made by heating
carbohydrate, usually glucose syrup, with ammonia. Caramel colour is the product of the
Maillard reaction , i.e. the reaction of a reducing sugar with an amino group. Chemically the
colour is a melanoidin. These substances are extremely stable chemically and can be used in
any type of confectionery.
Copper Chlorophyll (E141):- This is the green pigment that is responsible for
photosynthesis. It is widely distributed in nature, sources are green leaves, grass, alfalfa and
nettles. The extract that is used is a mixture of chlorophyll with lutein and other carotenoids.
This product gives an olive green colour. Chlorophyll is most stable in neutral or alkaline
conditions but has a limited stability to heat and light. Chlorophyll preparations are available
for colouring boiled sweets. This is made from chlorophyll. It is more blue than natural
chlorophyll. The chemical modification makes it much more stable to heat and light. It is a
more useful material than natural chlorophyll.

17
Cochineal (E120):- Cochineal is a traditional natural colour. It is made from a Mexican

beetle. The only problems with cochineal, apart from expense, is that it is not kosher and it is
not animal free. Cochineal is not kosher not because it is made from an insect but because the
insect is not itself kosher.
Riboflavin: - This is vitamin B2. Riboflavin can be extracted from yeast but is normally
encountered as a nature identical substance. Unfortunately, riboflavin has an intensely bitter
taste. The colour produced is an orange yellow. It is stable to acid but is unstable in water.
Riboflavin is sometimes used for panned goods.
Riboflavin-5-phosphate (E 101 a):-This material is both less bitter and more water stable than
riboflavin. It is normally only encountered as a pure synthetic substance. Like riboflavin it is
used on panned products.
Carbon Black: - This is carbonized vegetable matter, i.e., very finely divided char coal.
Inevitably it is the most light fast of all colours. Obviously, it is only available as a solid. A
common use is in liquorice products
Curcumin (E100):- curcumin is obtained from the spice turmeric, which comes from the
plant curcuma longa, of the ginger family. Curcumin is obtained by extraction from the plant
to give a deodorized product.
Curcumin is a bright yellow pigment that is oil soluble. It is sometimes produced in a water
dispersible form.
The colour of curcumin varies with the pH of the medium. Under acid conditions a bright
yellow is obtained but under alkaline conditions a reddish brown hue is obtained. This colour
shift occurs because curcumin undergoes keto-enol tautomerism. The most serious problem
with curcumin is instability to light. One recommendation is that curcumin should not be
used in products that are exposed to light unless the moisture content is very low. A
confectionery product that fits this description is boiled sweets. The heat stability of curcumin
is sufficiently good that it can withstand 1401C for 15 min in a boiled sweet mass. The other
stability problem with curcumin is sulfur dioxide. If the sulfur dioxide level is above 100 ppm
then the colour will fade. Within the restrictions outlined curcumin is a successful natural
colour.
Carotenoids: - The carotenoids are a wide range of substances. They are extremely abundant
in nature. Natural production has been estimated to be 3.5 tonnes s_1. Some 400 carotenoids
have been identified to date. They are found in fruits, vegetables, eggs, poultry, shell fish and
spices. Orange juice and peel contain 24 different carotenoids. Several carotenoids egg., b-
carotene, are important as pro-vitamins. The ordinary diet contains large quantities of
carotenoids, much greater than any quantity that might be used as a colouring agent. Dietary
advice is to eat more carotenoids. B-carotene is sometime erroneously referred as vitamin A.
In fact it is pro-vitamin A. The human body has a regulatory system that turns off the
conversion of b-carotene into retional (vitamin A) if stocks are adequate. This prevents hyper
vitamin sis. Over doses of fat-soluble vitamins can be very serious since the body can not
readily dispose of any excess. Thus, using carotenoids as food colours does not pose a risk of

18
vitamin A overdoses. Legally, carotenoids are divided between two E numbers. E 160 covers
the carotenoids hydrocarbons b-carotene, lycopene and paprika as well as the apo-carotenoids,
e.g., bixin. E 161 covers the xanthophylls and the carotenoids lutein, astaxanthin and
canthaxanthin.
Raw materials: - Most carotenoids are fat soluble, although preparations that allow them to
be dispersed in water are made. The colours available from acrotenoids vary between pale
yellow and red. Chemically carotenoids have conjugated double bonds that render them liable
to oxidation. This tendency to oxidation can be diminished by adding antioxidants to the
product. In the sort of product where natural colours are used suitable antioxidants would be
to copherols or ascorbic acid. Chemically antioxidants such butylated hydroxytoluene might
be suitable technically but would not fit the image of an all natural product. Ascorbic acid
could be declared as vitamin C rather than as an antioxidant. Oxidation can be started by
exposure to light and so this is best avoided. Carotenoids are generally stable to heat. The
levels required can be as low as 10ppm. b-carotene is available as a nature identical form.
Crocin: - Crocin is found in saffron and in gardenias. Extracting crocin from saffron is not
economically viable. Saffron is obtained from Crocus sativus. Seventy thousand plants are
needed to produce 500g of saffron, which would contain 70g of crocin. The commercial
source of crocin is the gardenia bush. The town of Saffron Walden in Essex, UK, takes its
name because saffron used to be produced there. Chemically, crocin is the digentiobioside of
crocetin. It is one of the few water-soluble carotenoids to produce a bright yellow shade in
water. Unfortunately, crocin is bleached by sulfur dioxide levels above 50 ppm. the heat
stability of crocin is good enough to use it in boiled sweets.
b-Carotene [E160(a)] :- The natural sources that are exploited commercially for b-carotene
are carrots and algae. The EU classifies b-carotene as E160(a). b-carotene is an oil-soluble
pigment, although forms that can be dispersed in water are available. The colour obtained
varies between yellow and orange, depending on concentration.b-carotene is stable to heat,
sulfur dioxide and pH changes. It is, however, sensitive to oxidation, particularly when
exposed to light. b-carotene is successfully used to colour boiled sweets and other
confectionery products.
Annatto[E160(b)] :- Annatto is classified as E160(b). it is extracted from the seeds of a tree

(Bixa orellana), which grows in America, India and East Africa. The extract is a mixture of
two pigments, bixin and nor –bixin. Bixin is oil soluble while nor-bixin is water soluble. Both
bixin and nor-bixin produce orange solutions. Bixin produces an orange solution in oily
media while nor-bixin produce orange aqueous solution. Obviously, bixin is the product of
choice for high fat systems while nor-bixin is used in aqueous systems. Nor-boxin is one of
the two water-soluble carotenes.
Nor-bixin is damaged by sulfur dioxide if the concentration exceeds 100 ppm. Acidic
conditions or divalent cations, particularly calcium, can cause nor-bixin to precipitate. These
problems are tackled by producing nor-bixin preparations with buffers and sequestrants. Nor-
bixin is relatively stable to heat. The most severe conditions will either isomerise the pigment

19
or shorten the chain. Either of these changes will make the pigment more yellow. Nor-bixin
can associate with protein, which stabilizes the nor bixin. The other effect of this association
is to redden the colour.
Lutein [E161 (b)] :- Lutein is one of the four most common carotenoids found in nature. The
EU classifies it as E161(b). chemically, lutein is a xanthophylls and is similar to b-carotene.
Although lutein occurs in all green leafy vegetation, egg yolks and in some flowers the
commercial sources are the petals of the Aztec marigold and to a lesser extent, alfalfa.
Purified alfalfa gives a clean, bright lemon yellow shade. Lutein is more stable to oxidation
than the other carotenoids. It is also resistant to the action of sulfur dioxide. Lutein is oil
soluble and is most effective dissolved in oil. Aqueous dispersible preparations based on
lutein are available.
Betalaines :- The main pigment in the concentrated colour beet red is betanin. This is
classified as E 162 by the EU. The pure pigment is obtained by aqueous extraction of the red
table beet. Approximately 80% of the pigment present in beetroot is betanin. In an aqueous
solution betanin gives a bright bluish red. The pure pigment is so intensely coloured that dose
levels of a few parts per million are satisfactory. The problems with betanin relate to stability.
Betanin is extremely sensitive to prolonged heat treatment. Short spells such as ultrahigh
temperature (UHT) are tolerated. The conditions that make betanin unstable are oxygen,
sulfur dioxide and high water activity. As confectionery is a low water activity system
without sulfur dioxide or oxygen, betanin can be used.
Anthocyanins :- Anthocyanins are water soluble and are responsible for the colour of most
red fruits and berries. Some 200 individual anthocyanins have been identified. It has been
estimated that consumption of anthocyanins is an average of 200mg per day. This is several
times greater than the average consumption of colouring material. There are claims made that
consuming anthocyanins has health benefits. Chemically anthocyanins are glycosides of
anthocyanins and are based on a 2-phenylbenzopyrilium structure. The properties of the
anthocyanins depend on the anthocyanidins from which they originate. Anthocyanins are
extracted commercially using either acidified water or alcohol. The extract is then vacuum
evaporated to produce a commercial colour concentrate. The raw materials can be black
currants, hibiscus, elderberry, red cabbage or black grape skins. The most commonly used
commercially are black grape skins, which can be obtained as a by-product . Anthocyanins
usually give a purple red colour. Anthocyanins are water soluble and amphoteric. There are
four major pH dependent forms, the most important being the red flavylium cation and the
blue quinodial base. At pHs up to 3.8 commercial anthocyanin colours are ruby red; as the pH
becomes less acid the colour shifts to blue. The colour also becomes less intense and the
anthocyanin becomes less stable. The usual recommendation is that anthocyanins should only
be used where the pH of the product is below. As these colours would be considered for use
in fruit flavoured confectionery this is not too much of a problem. Anthocyanins are
sufficiently heat resistant that they do not have a problem in confectionery. Colour loss and
browning would only be a problem if the product was held at elevated temperatures for a long
while. Sulfur dioxide can bleach anthocyanins- the monomeric anthocyanins the most

20
susceptible. Anthocyanins that are polymeric or condensed with other flavonoids are more
resistant. The reaction with sulfur dioxide is reversible. Anthocyanins can form complexes
with metal ions such as tin, iron and aluminium. The formation of a complex as expected
alters the colour usually from red to blue. Complex formation can be minimized by adding a
chelating agent such as citrate ions. Another problem with anthocyanins is the formation of
complexes with proteins. This can lead to precipitation in extreme cases. This problem is
normally minimized by careful selection of the anthocyanin.
Flavours used in confectionery :- Flavours are complex substances that can conveniently
be divided into three groups: natural, nature identical and synthetic.
Natural flavours :- These can be the natural material itself; one example would be pieces of
vanilla pod or an extract, egg, vanilla extract. Extracts can be prepared in several ways. One
is to distil or to steam distil the material of interest. Another is to extract the raw material
with a solvent, egg, ethyl alcohol. Alternately, some materials are extracted by coating the
leaves of a plant with cocoa butter and allowing the material of interest to migrate into the
cocoa butter.
These techniques are also used in preparing perfumery ingredients, indeed materials like
orange oil are used in both flavours and perfumes. In practice some natural flavours work
very well; any problems are financial rather than technical. Examples of satisfactory when all
natural. Notably, citrus oils are prepared from the skin rather than the fruit.
The view exists that natural products are inherently safer and healthier than synthetic
materials. Curiously, any new synthetic ingredient has to be most rigorously tested before it is
allowed in foods. Natural products, provided their use is traditional, are normally allowed
without testing. There is a legal distinction applied between an ingredient and an additive. In
the UK, additives generally need approval while natural ingredients, provided their use is
traditional, do not. Periodically, some natural substance is tested and found to have some
previously unknown potential risk.
Natural Identical Flavourings :- These are materials that are synthetic but are the same
compound as is present in a natural flavouring material. From time to time it emerges that
one substance produces a given flavour. Most chemists know that benzaldehyde has a smell
of almonds.
Some chemists know that hydrogen cyanide smells of bitter almonds. If a natural flavouring
can be represented by a single substance and that substance can be synthesized then the
flavour is likely to be available as a nature identical flavour. Vanilla flavour is a good
example. Vanilla flavour can be all natural and derived from vanilla pods or nature identical
or artificial. The nature identical product would be based on vanillin, which is in vanilla pods
and has a flavour of vanilla. An artificial vanilla flavour would be ethyl vanillin, which is not
present in vanilla pods but has a flavour two and a half times stronger on a weight basis than
vanillin. The claim nature identical does not seem to be much appreciated in the English
speaking countries. In some other countries it is an important claim for marketing purposes.
The qualification for nature identical varies between jurisdictions. In the EU,ethyl acetate
made from fermented ethyl alcohol and fermented acetic acid is nature identical. In the USA,

21
provided that the ethyl alcohol and acetic acid are natural, i.e., produced by fermentation, the
ethyl acetate would be natural. Practical flavours often contain a mixture of substances, some
natural, some nature identical some synthetic. UK law classifies a flavour that contains any
nature identical components as nature identical even though the rest of the flavour is natural.
Similarly, the presence of any artificial components renders the flavour artificial. The case for
Nature Identical flavours. Although not much appreciated in English-speaking countries,
nature identical claims are more popular in German-speaking countries.
Presumably the advantage of a nature identical substance is assumed because it is thought to
be inherently safe. This is a paradox since synthetic substances are normally tested for safety
much more exhaustively than natural ones. Nature identical flavours do have the advantage
over natural products that the price or quality is not affected by adverse harvests.
Synthetic Flavours :-
These are flavours that are produced synthetically but are not present in a natural
flavouring material. The chemistry of flavours is a complex topic that has been the subject of
many books. Synthetic flavours are made from a mix of flavouring substances that have been
found to produce a given flavour ‗note‘. Those who develop flavours are referred to as
flavourists. Flavourists take the musical analogy of notes further by referring to the top notes
and the bottom notes of a flavour. Flavour research is driven by a need to find compounds
that produce desirable flavours. In some cases the improvement that is sought over the natural
substance is not flavour intensity or cheapness but chemical stability. One view of the way
that flavours work is that they interact with certain receptors in the nose. Any other
compound that has the same shape will work as well. A typical synthetic flavour is a very
complex mixture of substances. The mixture used will have been chosen to give the desired
properties in the system of choice. Compounding flavours is a mixture of chemistry and
sensory skill. Flavourists spend years learning how to produce flavours.
Dosing :-Whether the flavour used is natural, nature identical, synthetic, or mixture it has to
be dosed into the product. Although some flavourings are very intense the volume added to
the product has to be large enough for the equipment or the people to add it with sufficient
accuracy. The flavour of course has to be uniformly distributed in the product. This normally
means producing the flavour as a solution. Flavours are prepared for a particular use. As an
example, citrus oil based flavours can be dissolved in various alcohols.
Development in flavours :-
The application of ever improving analytical methods will continue to reveal new
flavouring compounds, be they natural, nature identical or synthetic. Not only are ever more
sophisticated analytical techniques available but also improved methods of data analysis. The
new science of chemometrics has developed to cope with the situation where chromatograms
with hundreds of compounds are obtained. Biotechnology could be applied to produce
flavouring substances.
If the gene responsible for producing a given substance can be identified then, in theory, that
gene can be expressed in other organisms. No doubt the legislators will examine whether
such products qualify as natural or nature identical and will come to several different

22
conclusions. Conventional plant breeding methods are used to produce varieties of flavouring
plants that give flavours with improved characteristics. It remains an interesting speculation
what would happen if a mutation of vanilla was produced that produced ethyl vanillin rather
than vanillin. The new variety would be much more potent as a flavour.
Release Agent used in confectionery:-Release agents are used in all kinds of food and
technical applications. Sticking of food products or burned pieces on pans, tins, molds and
belts are a common burden in bakery and confectionary applications. Release agents are also
used for removal of sticking materials from hot or cold surfaces of moulds and pans. Or it can
be the substance that prevents sticking of products to each other, like slices of cheese. The
dosage on oil basis varies between 5 to 15%.
Due to its amphoteric behaviour (lecithin possesses both positive and negative charges
and contains both hydrophobic and hydrophilic groups), lecithin can interact between polar
and non-polar materials, like in pan release and lubricants. The lecithin molecules form a
barrier between the food product and the pan, meld or belt. An interface is formed between
the non-polar oil release product/food product and the polar groups of the pan/meld or belt.
A release agent (also meld release agent, release coating, or meld release coating) is a
chemical used to prevent other materials from bonding to surfaces. It can provide a solution
in processes involving meld release, die-cast release, plastic release, adhesive release, and tire
and web release.
Release agents provide the critical barrier between a molding surface and the substrate,
facilitating separation of the cured part from the meld. Without such a barrier in place, the
substrate would become fused to the meld surface, resulting in difficult clean-up and dramatic
loss in production efficiency. Even when a release agent is used, factors such as irregular
applications or improper release agent choice may have a dramatic effect on the quality and
consistency of the finished product.[1]
Types of release agents :-

Semi-Permanent :- One of the key attributes of a release agent is its degree of
permanence: how long will it last before reapplication is necessary. A semi-permanent
release agent does not need to be reapplied for every cycle of a molding operation and even
works better when it is not over-applied to the meld surface.
How many releases can be achieved before reapplication is necessary varies by process,
material, and application method. In order to achieve multiple releases per application, the
semi-permanent release coating generally must be applied to a clean, dry surface free of dirt,
rust, grime or previous coatings. This allows the release agent to properly bond to the meld
and meld tooling, improving durability and longevity of the coating.
Sacrificial :-Sacrificial coatings must be applied before every cycle of a molding operation
and are therefore considered more labour intensive. Most molders will prefer semi-permanent
coatings to sacrificial coatings, especially when molding rubber and plastic parts. These

23
coatings contain fewer solid ingredients, and thus do not last as long as semi-permanent
coatings.
Water or Solvent-based :- Release agents may be water or solvent-based and use of either
will depend on the personal preference of the molder, plant safety regulations, hazardous
materials shipping costs, state, local, or federal regulations, and/or desired drying times of the
release coating.
Water-based :- Water-based release coatings generally dry slower than solvent-based release
agents but present fewer health and safety concerns. Water-based release agents will be less
expensive to ship because of their inherently non-flammable nature and satisfy most plant-
safety goals.
Solvent-based :- Solvent-based release coatings dry almost instantly but present serious
health and safety concerns. Fumes from solvent-based release agents may be hazardous
without proper ventilation of the work area. Most solvents used in release agents are
flammable.
Acidulents used in confectionery:-

Acidulents are an essential ingredient in sharp, zesty food products. These acids are
what give fruit its characteristic tang, and most of those that are added to food products are
common in nature. For example, citric acid occurs naturally in citrus fruits such as oranges
and lemons, malic acid is found in apples, and tartaric acid in grapes. They are important in
products such as jams, where the acidity of the fruit determines how it will set. Acids also
have preservative and antioxidant properties.
Common acids used in food products include:

Citric acid (E330) is by far the most widely used acid in food products. It was originally
extracted from citrus fruits, but now most is made by the fermentation of molasses and other
sugar sources. More than half of all citric acid in foods is used in beverages.
Lactic acid (E270) is produced in the body during metabolism and exercise. It is commonly
found in sour milk products like yoghurt. It is used to regulate acidity in processed food
products, and it also acts as an antioxidant and a preservative.
Malic acid (E296) is often found in unripe fruit. Common food uses include as a flavouring
in sour confectionery.
Phosphoric acid (E338) is a chemical that is responsible for the tangy taste of cola drinks.
Although it is a synthetic chemical, phosphoric acid derivatives are widely found in nature.
Tartaric acid (E334) occurs in fruits such as grapes and bananas. It is commonly used in
sour-tasting sweets, and also as an antioxidant.
Milk and Milk Products used in confectionery :-

Milk Powder for Chocolate
- By using ultra filtration to raise the protein content of the powders, it was possible to
produce high free-fat powders at a lower fat content than previously (40% rather than 56%

24
fat).
- The flow properties of high fat powders (40% and 56% fat) were poorer than commercial
whole milk powders (26% fat). There was no significant effect of fat content (40 - 56%) and
free-fat content (39%- 100%) on the flow properties. The flow properties disimproved as the
temperature increased from 5 to 25ºC.
- Confirmatory trials showed that the free-fat of the milk powders was predicted well by the
protein and solid fat content at 10ºC of the milks. However, the size of the powder particles
was predicted lesswell. The vacuole volume of the powders was not related to milk
composition.
- It was possible to predict the viscosity and final hardness of the chocolates from the free-fat
and particle size of the powders but the yield value of the chocolates was predicted less well
from the solid fat at 10ºC and vacuole volume of the powders.
- The free-fat level of recombined powders was unaffected by the solid fat content of the fat.
There were no differences in the flow properties of chocolates made with recombined
powders with milk fats of different solid fat content, that is, the expected decrease in yield
value did not occur with increasing solid fat content.
Milk Powder for Low Moisture Confectionery (Toffee) :-

- The firmness of cooked toffee at 90ºC was increased by the caseincontent and decreased by
the lactose content of the skim milk powders.
- The hardness of the final toffees was increased both by the caseincontent and the lactose
content of the skim milk powders.
- Toffee firmness, hardness and colour were affected by the casein: whey protein ratio of milk
powders. Pre-heat treatment of their constituted milk at low milk solids concentration was
necessary for the production of toffees stable to heat.
- Microscopic examination of the toffees showed that the casein: whey protein ratio affected
the size of the fat pools and protein aggregates in the toffees and that the degree of whey
protein denaturation was responsible for toffee structure.
Emulsifiers used in confectionery :-

Types/Variations
Common emulsifiers that condition dough or batter via strengthening the protein network,
resulting in better gas retention, improved texture, and increased volume are:
Lecithins: First emulsifiers used in commercial baking applications. Phospholipids within

the egg itself exhibit the necessary emulsifying properties. Two fatty acid component exhibit
a great affinity for fat molecules when concurrently the hydrophilic phosphoric radical exerts
a strong affinity for water, thereby leading to emulsion. Using Lecithin in bread dough has
been proven to increase fermentation tolerance, exhibit better dough machinability, produce a
better crumb colour, tenderize crust, and smooth texture, while maintaining grain uniformity
and lengthening shelf life.
Sodium- and calcium stearoyl lactylate (SSL5 and CSL): HLB value of 21 & 10. Shows
dough-conditioning properties as well as soften crumb effectively. Dough performance is also
strengthened, attributed to the capability of forming a protein complex once mixing begins

25
and then later during baking to form a starch complex, consequently retarding staling
resulting in the softening of the crumb.
Ethoxylated mono- and diglycerides (EMG): HLB value in between 9-10. In today’s
baking industry, these are the most widely used emulsifiers. Imparts great dough
strengthening properties.
Polysorbates (PS): HLB value in between 14-16. Very surface active. Improves crumb colour
and strength, increases volume, and improves shelf life.
Succinylated monoglycerides (SMG): HLB value 5.3. Interacts with flour proteins as a
result of monoglyceride reacting with succinic anhydride. Greatly effective as a dough
conditioner via enhancing crumb softening while increasing volume and shelf life.
Diacetyl tartaric acid esters of monoglycerides (DATEM): HLB value 9.2. Denotes
excellent handling properties as well as increased volume and lengthened shelf life.
Mono & Diglycerides: HLB value 2.8 to 3.5. One of the most popular emulsifiers used in
the bakery as a dough strengthener and crumb softener. They also aid fat and oil dispersion in
batter systems.
With the popularity of clean label trend, the identification of natural alternatives to synthetic
emulsifiers has considerable economic implications. Examples of the natural ones are
amphiphilic proteins, polysaccharides, bio surfactants, phospholipids, and bio particles.
Starch Derivative: -
It is one of the important food ingredients in terms of sheer versatility of applications
in the food industry. The native and modified starches from different sources like corn,
tapioca, wheat, rice and potato are extensively used in many processed foods. The native
starches may not possess the functionalities required for many processed food systems,
chemical and physical modifications to native starches can help in enhancing required
functionalities. Modified starches offer freeze-thaw stability and stable viscosity under
various process conditions. The modified starches have been tailored to create competitive
advantage in a food product to enhance product aesthetics, reduce production costs, ensure
product consistency and extend shelf life.
Application of starches, modified starches in processed food :-

Starch can be modified by physical, chemical methods and combination of both
treatments. Physical treatment improves water solubility and chemical modifications add
functional properties. The most common chemical methods involved in starch modification
include acid treatment, cross linking, oxidation, substitution and combinations of two or more
of these treatments. The emergence of biotechnology has helped in starch modification
during the growth phase of the plant. Different amylase levels and amylopectin structure can
be produced with the help of biotechnology.
Starch and its derivatives have emerged as the most promising environment-friendly
ingredient over the years and offers varied application benefits in both food as well as non-
food industries. There has been a steady increase in demand of starch in food & beverage
industry due to high prices of sugar.

26
A modified starch is a starch that has been chemically modified to allow the starch to
function properly under conditions frequently encountered during processing or storage, such
as high heat, high shear, freezing and cooling. As an additive for food processing, food
starches are typically used as thickeners and stabilisers in foods such as puddings, custards,
soups, sauces, gravies, pie fillings, and salad dressings, and to make noodles and pastas.
Cross-linked and stabilised starches (such as acetylated distarch phosphate) are the
most suited starches for use in processed food because of their functional attributes. Owing to
their beneficial functional properties like excellent freeze-thaw stability and resistance to
breakdown under harsh processing conditions, they are especially suitable for use in
processed food.
Anil Ltd is a leading manufacturer / supplier of native, modified starches sweeteners

& enzymes for food, beverages & confectionary industries. Company’s products find
application in processed foods, stabilisers, thickeners, syrups, dairy & bakery products, juices,
ice creams, instant food premixes, gravies, puddings, custards, mayonnaise, ketchups &
sauces and oral hygiene formulations.
The most common type of starch modification is the treatment of native starch with
small amounts of approved reagents. Starch-based sweeteners are other class of products
manufactured in starch industries. A variety of sweeteners for very specific end-users are
produced by acid / enzyme hydrolysis of starch. Among major starch sweeteners in use,
which Anil Ltd manufactures, are liquid glucose, maltose corn syrup, dextrose monohydrate
and sorbitol (dextrose) syrup.
Maltodextrin: - It is white or cream coloured powder with moderate sweetness. It is used

extensively in baby food and feed supplements.
Liquid Glucose :-Mixture of glucose and maltose - It is used as bodying agent for frozen
dairy products and as sweetening agent in confectionary depending on the requirement of the
user.
Dextrose Monohydrates:-A crystallised powder, key derivative of starch - It finds
applications in bakery, confectionery and soft drink industry.
High Maltose Syrup: - It is characterised by low content of glucose and high content of
maltose. It is used in soft and hard confectionery, fruit canning and candies.
Sorbitol (Dextrose) Syrup: - It is hydrogenated dextrose syrup not having any reducing
sugars widely used in cakes, fruit juices and wine production. Also used as preservative.
When it comes to food applications, functionality is the key to marketing starch. The
extent of specific functional properties of starches required by the food industry is almost
unlimited. Major functional properties include viscosity, adhesiveness, freeze-thaw stability,
gel texture and formation, colour, cystallinity and processing conditions tolerance. Higher
functional properties in starch would lead to higher demand of indigenous crops from which
starch is made. This means that the particular physical and chemical properties of individual
starches are the keys to their commercial success.

27
Glucose Syrup: - Glucose syrup, also known as confectioner's glucose, is a syrup made from
the hydrolysis of starch. Glucose is a sugar. Maize (corn) is commonly used as the source of
the starch in the US, in which case the syrup is called "corn syrup", but glucose syrup is also
made from potatoes and wheat, and less often from barley, rice and cassava.[1]p. 21[2]
Glucose syrup containing over 90% glucose is used in industrial fermentation,[3] but
syrups used in confectionery contain varying amounts of glucose, maltose and higher
oligosaccharides, depending on the grade, and can typically contain 10% to 43% glucose.[4]
Glucose syrup is used in foods to sweeten, soften texture and add volume. By converting
some of the glucose in corn syrup into fructose (using an enzymatic process), a sweeter
product, high fructose corn syrup can be produced.
It was first made in 1811 in Russia by Gottlieb Kirchhoff using heat and sulphuric acid.[5]
Types: - Depending on the method used to hydrolyse the starch and on the extent to which
the hydrolysis reaction has been allowed to proceed, different grades of glucose syrup were
produced, which have different characteristics and uses. The syrups are broadly categorised
according to their dextrose equivalent (DE). The further the hydrolysis process proceeds, the
more reducing sugars are produced, and the higher the DE. Depending on the process used,
glucose syrups with different compositions, and hence different technical properties, can have
the same DE.
Confectioner's syrup: - The original glucose syrups were manufactured by acid hydrolysis
of corn starch at high temperature and pressure. The typical product had a DE of 42, but
quality was variable due to the difficulty of controlling the reaction. Higher DE syrups made
by acid hydrolysis tend to have a bitter taste and a dark colour, due to the production of
hydroxymethylfurfural and other by-products.[1]p. 26 This type of product is now
manufactured using a continuous converting process[6] and is still widely used due to the low
cost of acid hydrolysis. The sugar profile of a confectioner's syrup can also be mimicked by
enzymatic hydrolysis.[6] A typical confectioner's syrup contains 19% glucose, 14% maltose,
11% maltotriose and 56% higher molecular mass carbohydrates.[7]p. 464 A typical 42 DE
syrup has about half the sweetness of sugar,[1]p. 71 and increasing DE leads to increased
sweetness, with a 63 DE syrup being about 70%, and pure dextrose (100 DE) about 80% as
sweet as sugar.[1]p. 71
High-maltose glucose syrups :- By using β-amylase or fungal α-amylase, glucose syrups

containing over 50% maltose, or even over 70% maltose (extra-high-maltose syrup) can be
produced.[7]p. 465 This is possible because these enzymes remove two glucose units (i.e. one
maltose molecule) at a time from the end of the starch molecule. High-maltose glucose syrup
has a great advantage in the production of hard candy: at a given moisture level and
temperature, a maltose solution has a lower viscosity than a glucose solution, but will still set
to a hard product. Maltose is also less humectant than glucose, so candy produced with high-

28
maltose syrup will not become sticky as easily as candy produced with a standard glucose
syrup.[1]p. 81
Commercial preparation:-Irrespective of the feedstock or the method used for hydrolysis,

certain steps are common to the production of glucose syrup:
Preparation: - Before conversion of starch to glucose can begin, the starch must be
separated from the plant material. This includes removing fibre and protein (which can be
valuable by-products, for example wheat or maize gluten[1]p. 22). Protein produces off-
flavours and colours due to the Maillard reaction, and fibre is insoluble and has to be
removed to allow the starch to become hydrated. The plant material also needs to be ground
as part of this process to expose the starch to the water.
Soaking: - The starch need to be swelled to allow the enzymes or acid to act upon it. When
grain is used, sulfur dioxide is added to prevent spoilage.
Gelatinization:-By heating the ground, cleaned feedstock, starch gelatinization takes place:
the intermolecular bonds of the starch molecules are broken down, allowing the hydrogen
bonding sites to engage more water. This irreversibly dissolves the starch granule, so the
chains begin to separate into an amorphous form. This prepares the starch for hydrolysis.
Hydrolysis:-Glucose syrup can be produced by acid hydrolysis, enzyme hydrolysis, or a

combination of the two. Currently, however, a variety of options are available.
Formerly, glucose syrup was only produced by combining corn starch with dilute
hydrochloric acid, and then heating the mixture under pressure. Currently, glucose syrup is
mainly produced by first adding the enzyme α-amylase to a mixture of corn starch and water.
α-amylase is secreted by various species of the bacterium Bacillus; the enzyme is isolated
from the liquid in which the bacteria are grown. The enzyme breaks the starch into
oligosaccharides, which are then broken into glucose molecules by adding the enzyme
glucoamylase, known also as "γ-amylase". Glucoamylase is secreted by various species of the
fungus Aspergillus; the enzyme is isolated from the liquid in which the fungus is grown. The
glucose can then be transformed into fructose by passing the glucose through a column that is
loaded with the enzyme D-xylose isomerase, an enzyme that is isolated from the growth
medium of any of several bacteria.[8][9]
Clarification :- After hydrolysis, the dilute syrup can be passed through

columns[clarification needed] to remove impurities, improving its colour and stability.
Evaporation :- The dilute glucose syrup is finally evaporated under vacuum to raise the
solids concentration.

29
Types of hydrolysis in glucose syrup preparation :-

1) Acid Hydrolysis :-
In organic chemistry, acid hydrolysis is a process in which a protic acid is used to catalyze
the cleavage of a chemical bond via a nucleophilic substitution reaction, with the addition of
the elements of water (H2O). For example, in the conversion of cellulose or starch to glucose.
For the case of esters and amides, it can be defined as an acid catalyzed nucleophilic acyl
substitution reaction.
The term is also applied to certain nucleophilic addition reactions, such as in the acid
catalyzed hydrolysis of nitriles to amides. Acid hydrolysis does not usually refer to the acid
catalyzed addition of the elements of water to double or triple bonds by electrophilic addition
as may originate from a hydration reaction.
2) Enzyme Hydrolysis :-
Enzymatic hydrolysis is a process in which enzymes facilitate the cleavage of bonds in
molecules with the addition of the elements of water. It plays an important role in the
digestion of food.[1] It may be used to help provide renewable energy, as with cellulosic
ethanol.[2]

30
Unit (11-14)
Cocoa processing: cocoa bean, processing, roasting, fermentation, Production of cocoa
butter, cocoa powder, its quality.
 Processing the Cocoa Beans:-

Processing cocoa beans ready for chocolate making involves six main steps:
Fermentation:-
During fermentation the cocoa pulp clinging to the beans matures and turns into a
liquid, which drains away and the true chocolate flavor starts to develop. Fermentation
methods vary considerably from country to country, but there are two basic methods - using
heaps and "sweating" boxes.
The heap method, traditionally used on farms in West Africa, involves piling wet cocoa beans,
surrounded by the pulp, on banana or plantation leaves spread out in a circle on the ground.
The heap is covered with more leaves and left for 5-6 days, regularly turned to ensure even
fermentation.
In large plantations in the West Indies, Latin America and Malaysia, strong wooden boxes
with drainage holes or gaps in the slats in the base are used, allowing air and liquid to pass
through. This process takes 6-8 days during which time the beans are mixed twice. In Nigeria,
cocoa is fermented in baskets lined and covered with leaves.
Drying and bagging:-

When fermentation is complete, the wet mass of beans is dried, either traditionally by
being spread in the sun on mats or using special drying equipment. The cured beans are
packed into sacks for transportation to Singapore, where we process the beans. After quality
inspection they are shipped to the our processing factory in Singapore, which produces the
basic ingredients from which Cadbury chocolate products are made. On arrival at the factory,
the cocoa beans are sorted and cleaned.
Winnowing:-
The dried beans are cracked and a stream of air separates the shell from the nib, the
small pieces used to make chocolate.
Roasting:-
The nibs are roasted in special ovens at temperatures between 105-120 degrees
Celsius. The actual roasting time depends on whether the end use is for cocoa or chocolate.
During roasting, the cocoa nibs darken to a rich, brown color and acquire their characteristic
chocolate flavor and aroma. This flavor however, actually starts to develop during
fermentation.

31
Grinding:-
The roasted nibs are ground in stone mills until the friction and heat of the milling
reduces them to a thick chocolate-colored liquid, known as 'mass.' It contains 53-58% cocoa
butter and solidifies on cooling. This is the basis of all chocolate and cocoa products.
Pressing:-
The cocoa mass is pressed in powerful machines to extract the cocoa butter, vital to
making chocolate. The solid blocks of compressed cocoa remaining after extraction (press
cake) are pulverized into a fine powder to produce a high-grade cocoa powder for use as a
beverage or in cooking. The cocoa mass, cocoa butter and cocoa powder are then quality
inspected and shipped to our factories in Australia and New Zealand, ready to be made into
chocolate.
Summary of the process of transforming cocoa beans into chocolate:-

Step 1. The cocoa beans are cleaned to remove all extraneous material.
Step 2. To bring out the chocolate flavour and colour, the beans are roasted. The temperature,
time and degree of moisture involved in roasting depend on the type of beans used and the
sort of chocolate or product required from the process.
Step 3. A winnowing machine is used to remove the shells from the beans to leave just the
cocoa nibs.
Step 4. The cocoa nibs undergo alkalisation, usually with potassium carbonate, to develop the
flavour and colour.
Step 5. The nibs are then milled to create cocoa liquor (cocoa particles suspended in cocoa
butter). The temperature and degree of milling varies according to the type of nib used and
the product required.
Step 6. Manufacturers generally use more than one type of bean in their products and
therefore the different beans have to be blended together to the required formula.
Step 7. The cocoa liquor is pressed to extract the cocoa butter, leaving a solid mass called
cocoa press cake. The amount of butter extracted from the liquor is controlled by the
manufacturer to produce press cake with different proportions of fat.
Step 8. The processing now takes two different directions. The cocoa butter is used in the
manufacture of chocolate. The cocoa press cake is broken into small pieces to form kibbled
press cake, which is then pulverised to form cocoa powder.
Step 9. Cocoa liquor is used to produce chocolate through the addition of cocoa butter. Other
ingredients such as sugar, milk, emulsifying agents and cocoa butter equivalents are also
added and mixed. The proportions of the different ingredients depend on the type of
chocolate being made.
Step 10. The mixture then undergoes a refining process by travelling through a series of
rollers until a smooth paste is formed. Refining improves the texture of the chocolate.
Step 11. The next process, conching, further develops flavour and texture. Conching is a
kneading or smoothing process. The speed, duration and temperature of the kneading affect
the flavour. An alternative to conching is an emulsifying process using a machine that works
like an egg beater.

32
Step 12. The mixture is then tempered or passed through a heating, cooling and reheating
process. This prevents discolouration and fat bloom in the product by preventing certain
crystalline formations of cocoa butter developing.
Step 13. The mixture is then put into moulds or used for enrobing fillings and cooled in a
cooling chamber.
Step 14. The chocolate is then packaged for distribution to retail outlets
 Cocoa Butter :-
Cocoa butter, also called theobroma oil, is a pale-yellow, edible vegetable fat extracted from
the cocoa bean. It is used to make chocolate, as well as some ointments, toiletries, and
pharmaceuticals.[2] Cocoa butter has a cocoa flavour and aroma. Its melting point is just
below human body temperature.
Extraction and Composition: - Cocoa butter is obtained from whole cocoa beans. For use in
chocolate manufacture, the beans are fermented before being dried. The beans are then
roasted and separated from their hulls to produce cocoa nibs.[3] About 54–58% of the cocoa
nibs is cocoa butter. The cocoa nibs are ground to form cocoa mass, which is liquid at
temperatures above the melting point of cocoa butter and is known as cocoa liquor or
chocolate liquor. Chocolate liquor is pressed to separate the cocoa butter from the non-fat
cocoa solids.[4] Cocoa butter is sometimes deodorized to remove strong or undesirable
tastes.[5]
Cocoa butter contains a high proportion of saturated fats as well as monounsaturated

oleic acid, which typically occurs in each triglyceride. The predominant triglycerides are POS,
SOS, POP, where P = palmitic, O = oleic, and S = stearic acid residues.[6][7][8][9] Cocoa
butter, unlike non-fat cocoa solids, contains only traces of caffeine and theobromine.[10
Adulterants: - Some food manufacturers substitute less expensive materials such as

vegetable oils and fats in place of cocoa butter. Several analytical methods exist for testing
for diluted cocoa butter. Adulterated cocoa butter is indicated by its lighter colour and its
diminished fluorescence upon ultraviolet illumination. Unlike cocoa butter, adulterated fat
tends to smear and have a higher non-saponifiable content.[12]
The beverage we call cocoa, or hot chocolate, in the United States is not the same as
the hot cacao liquid consumed throughout most of history. The original "hot cacao" was
made by combining water with ground cacao beans, which still contained all their natural
cocoa butter. Since oil and water don't mix, the cocoa butter in the ground beans prevented
the cacao from dispersing evenly in the water. The result was a thick, gritty beverage with a
layer of oily fat floating on its surface -- a far cry from the smooth and creamy cocoa we
enjoy today.
Modern hot chocolate was born in 1828 in Holland. That's when chemist Coenraad Johannes
Van Houten patented a process for removing much of the cocoa butter from ground cacao
beans and then treating the resulting powder with an alkali substance such as baking soda to

33
make it mix better with water. The alkali treatment is referred to as "Dutching," in
recognition of its origins, and the darker-colour, lighter-flavoured cocoa that results is called
Dutch cocoa.
 Cocoa powder :-
Cocoa powder is one of the staples of baking and a key ingredient in everything from cakes
and brownies to frostings and even beverages.
And if it weren't confusing enough figuring out the difference between Dutch-process
and regular cocoa powder, there's also that little voice in your head wondering if cocoa
powder is the same thing as hot cocoa mix (it's not!). Read on for everything you need to
know about cocoa powder.
What is Cocoa Powder?

Cocoa powder is an unsweetened powder produced by grinding the seeds of the fruit of
a tropical evergreen tree called the cacao, or cocoa tree. These seeds, or beans, are first
fermented, then dried and roasted. After roasting, the beans have their hulls removed and are
then processed to extract their fat, which is known as cocoa butter. The leftover solids are
further ground into what eventually is sold as cocoa powder.
Cocoa butter is in turn one of the key ingredients in bar chocolate, along with sugar,
cocoa powder, and some form of emulsifier, such as lecithin, to hold them all together.
Not all of the fat from the cocoa butter is removed from the cocoa powder and higher-quality
powders actually have more fat in them. You can generally determine the quality of a cocoa
powder by comparing its fat content as shown on the nutritional label.
Another fun fact: Cocoa powder is the missing ingredient in so-called "white chocolate,"
which is produced by combining cocoa butter and sugar (plus an emulsifier), but no actual
cocoa solids.
More crucially, we should establish that cocoa powder is not the same thing as cocoa
mix, or instant cocoa, which—when combined with hot water or milk—instantly produces a
mug full of hot cocoa. Typically sold in packets, this product contains cocoa, sugar,
dehydrated milk and other ingredients, but is not what you would use to bake brownies or
chocolate cake.
The Difference Between Dutch and "Natural" Process:-

The two basic types of cocoa powder are Dutch process and natural process. You'll find
them sold and labeled each way, in addition to others that say "Dutch and natural blend." But
how exactly do these cocoas differ and what does the term Dutch process refer to?
To begin with, pure ground cocoa powder has a pH level between 5.3 and 5.8, which is
to say that it is acidic. It's perfectly edible, but the acidity affects its flavour, the way it
interacts with other ingredients, and how soluble it is.
Ordinary supermarket cocoa powder—what's often referred to as "natural" or "Broma"
processed cocoa powder—is exactly what's described above: ground cocoa beans that have
undergone no processing to alter their pH levels. It's a lighter, almost reddish-brown colour.

34
Dutch process (sometimes called "Dutching") is a technique that washes beans in an

alkaline solution, producing a cocoa powder that is darker brown and less acidic, with a pH of
between 6.8 and 8.1, which is chemically neutral.
The Dutching process produces a cocoa powder that dissolves more easily, making it
easier to work with in recipes, especially when it comes to ice cream and chocolate drinks. It
has a milder flavour. Dutching also reduces the antioxidant properties of cocoa.
How to make Cocoa Powder:-

To make Dutched cocoa powder, chocolate liquor is pumped into giant hydraulic
presses, where about half of the cocoa butter is squeezed out. Baking soda is added to the
remaining material, which is called "press cake." The treated press cake is then cooled,
pulverized, and sifted to form cocoa powder. The cocoa powder is then packaged for sale in
grocery stores as hot-chocolate mix or sold in bulk for use as a flavouring by dairies, bakeries,
and candy manufacturers (the Dutching process makes the cocoa powder far more useful as a
flavouring for other foods, as well).
The yellowish, liquid cocoa butter pressed out of the chocolate liquor does not go to
waste. It is actually a very valuable commodity that is vital for manufacturing chocolate.
Cocoa butter can also be sold -- at high prices -- to other manufacturers for use in
pharmaceuticals and cosmetics.
Although their origins are the same, the process of making chocolate is different than the
process of making cocoa. Move on to the next section to learn how chocolate is made.

35
Unit (15-18)
Chocolate processing: ingredients, mixing, refining, conching, tempering, molding,
cooling, coating, fat bloom.
How To Make Chocolate: From Cacao Bean to Chocolate :-

Cocoa beans are stored in silos or warehouses in their original sacks. Imported raw
cocoa is subject to strict quality control. Laboratory technicians ensure that the beans are
healthy, perfectly fermented and dried, and have suffered no damage during transport. Silos,
measuring from 40 to 120 feet in height can store up to 1000 tons or more. The raw cocoa is
sucked up by powerful vacuums and fed into the silos.
The storage area must be isolated from the rest of the building to protect the sensitive
beans from strong odours that might be absorbed. Good air circulation and a cool temperature
are important, and the humidity regularly checked. You must be able to identify the beans
according to their particular type and origin in order to control the flavour by blending beans
for roasting.
Step 1: Cleaning
The process of making chocolate starts with the cocoa beans being passed through a
machine that removes dried cocoa pulp, pieces of pod and other extraneous material. The
beans are carefully weighed and blended according to specifications. Finally, the last vestiges
of wood, jute fibres, sand, and even the finest dust are extracted by powerful vacuum
equipment. The separated cocoa bean husks are passed on to the chemical industry which
extracts valuable compounds.
Step 2: Roasting
To bring out the characteristic chocolate aroma, the beans are roasted in large rotary
cylinders. Depending upon the variety of the beans and the desired end result, the roasting
lasts from 30 minutes to two hours at temperatures of 250 degrees Fahrenheit and higher. As
the beans turn over and over, their moisture content drops, their colour changes to a rich
brown, and the characteristic aroma of chocolate becomes evident. Although all steps are
important, proper roasting is one of the keys to good flavour.
Fun Fact: Cocoa butter can be kept for years without spoiling
Step 3: Shell Removal

The cocoa beans are cooled quickly and their thin shells, which have become brittle
by roasting, are removed. A giant winnowing machine that passes the beans between serrated
cones so they are cracked rather than crushed. In the process, a series of mechanical sieves
separate the broken pieces into large and small grains while fans blow away the thin, light
shell from the meat or "nibs." Here's where the first secrets of the chocolate manufacturer
comes in. The nibs are blended, combining as many as 8-10 varieties. It is control of these
subtle mixtures that maintain constant quality and brings out the flavour of each particular
variety of chocolate.

36
Step 4: Nibs are ground

The nibs, which contain about 53 % cocoa butter, pass through refining mills and are
ground between large grinding stones or heavy steel discs creating a cocoa paste. The paste is
subjected to hydraulic pressure, and the cocoa butter flowing out is a pure and valuable fat
with a marked aroma; after filtering and purifying it looks very much like ordinary butter.
The cocoa butter has important functions. It not only forms part of every recipe, but it also
later gives the chocolate its fine structure, beautiful lustre and delicate, attractive glaze. The
heat generated by grinding causes the cocoa butter or fat to melt and form a fine paste or
liquid known as chocolate "liquor". When the liquid is poured into molds and allowed to
solidify, the resulting cakes are unsweetened or bitter chocolate.
Fun Fact: Liquid Chocolate can be converted to hundredweight blocks for storage
Step 5: Cocoa is separated from Cocoa Butter :-

Up to this point, the manufacturing of
cocoa and chocolate is identical. The by-product of
cocoa, cocoa butter, is the essential component of
chocolate… about 25% of the weight of most
chocolate bars.
To make cocoa powder chocolate liquor is pumped
into hydraulic presses weighing up to 25 tons, and
when the pressure is applied, 80% cocoa butter is
removed. The fat drains away through metallic
screens as a yellow liquid, and then is collected for
use in chocolate manufacturing. Cocoa butter,
unique among vegetable fats, is a solid at normal
room temperature and melts at 89 to 93 degrees
Fahrenheit… just below body temperature. With
proper storage conditions, cocoa butter can be kept
for years without spoiling.
The "cake" which is left may eventually be made

into cocoa powder by being further crushed, milled
and finely sifted. Three or five vertically mounted
steel rollers rotate in opposite directions. Under
heavy pressure, they pulverize the tiny particles of
cocoa and sugar down to a size of approx. 30
microns. (One micron is a thousandth part of a
millimetre!)
Most manufacturers add non-fat milk, flavours, sugar and other ingredients. The
resulting product will contain between 10 and 22% cocoa butter. In the "Dutch" process,
cocoa is treated with an alkali and develops a slightly milder flavour, and has a darker
appearance. The alkali acts as a processing agent rather than as a flavour ingredient.
Fun Fact: Formulas for blending beans, conching techniques and time intervals, temperatures
and proportions of ingredients are secrets

37
Step 6: Other ingredients are added to the Chocolate Liquor

Milk chocolate is made by adding milk, sugar, cocoa butter and other ingredients to
the bitter chocolate liquor. At this point, Chocolate is prepared in according to individual
recipes. The blending of the various types of cocoa pastes and other ingredients determine the
ultimate taste. The ingredients go into a mixer with rotating, kneading arms until the result is
a homogeneous, paste-like mixture with a pleasant taste, but it still feels gritty to the palate.
Step 7: Conching machines knead the Chocolate Paste :-

This process develops flavours and changes the texture during controlled temperatures.
It’s the last and most important refining process, which allows the separate flavours of the
individual ingredients to combine. Conches [the paddles of the early machines resembled
conch shells] are equipped with heavy rollers that plow back and forth through the chocolate
paste, anywhere from a few hours to several days. Contemporary technologies can grind the
chocolate particles extremely fine, which can reduce conching times. Swiss and Belgian
chocolates, are conched as much as 96 hours. Some chocolates are not conched at all, or for
only 4 to 12 hours.
Under regulated speeds and temperatures, these rollers can produce different degrees of
agitation and aeration to create distinct chocolate flavours. The process can eliminate any
remaining bitterness by aerating the chocolate and expelling volatile acids. Additional cocoa
butter and lecithin are added which help to achieve the characteristic velvet smoothness. And
as the ultimate homogeneity of the ingredients is developed, a soft film of cocoa butter begins
to form around each of the extremely small particles. The chocolate no longer seems sandy,
but dissolves meltingly on the tongue. It has attained the outstanding purity which gives it its
reputation. The last stage of conching Swiss or Belgian chocolate is a magnificent sight…
huge paddles rolling slowly through great vats of chocolate, smooth and creamy and thick.
Circular conches use a rotary movement and can hold 9 tons of chocolate. They are the most
efficient of the conch machines In some manufacturing setups, there is an emulsifying
operation that either takes the place of conching [or supplements conching]. Emulsifying is
breaking up sugar crystals and other particles in the chocolate mixture to give it a fine,
velvety smoothness. The machine works like an eggbeater.
Fun Fact: Confectionery manufacturers use ten pound blocks
Step 8: Chocolate is Tempered by Heating, Cooling & Reheating :-

This thickens the chocolate and imparts the right flow properties for filling the moulds.
This complex operation is performed in the tempering plant and is necessary to give the final
chocolate product a delicate composition, a uniform structure and a well-rounded flavour.
The storage life is also increased in this way.
The still warm conched chocolate is placed in a tempering machine so that it can be slowly
and steadily cooled. Cooling chocolate at a fixed rate keeps the flavour from being
compromised, and prevents separation when the chocolate is poured into bar molds. Proper
tempering also results in a silky sheen and crisp "snap" when broken… another sign of a

38
superior quality chocolate bar. The tempered chocolate is poured into molds of many sizes,
from individual sized bars to a ten pound blocks used by confectionery manufacturers.
Step 9: Liquid Chocolate is Temporary Stored :-

A necessary step, conches are always filled with the largest amounts of chocolate for
efficiency, the molding machines can only accept small amounts of chocolate paste at one
time, in order to shape it into bars, chocolates and other products. Chocolate is frequently
shipped in a liquid state to other food manufacturers, or it can be stored for short periods of
time. For longer periods, it is solidified, usually in the form of hundredweight blocks. These
blocks must be reheated before further processing so that they liquefy again.
Automation has moved in on the chocolate industry. Computers are carefully programmed to
control and coordinate the entire chocolate making process. Every single stage of production
can be checked electronically.
Fun Fact: There are Cocoa Exchanges in New York, London, Hamburg and Amsterdam.
Boiled Sweets:-
Boiled sweets are, by legal definition, high cooked colored and flavored sugar masses
which are formed into candies of desired shape and size. However this definition is too
simplistic because it does not take into consideration the multiplicity of ingredients other than
carbohydrates which are used to produce hard candies with particular organoleptical
properties like butter scotch, milk, candy, peanut, brittle and honey flavored candy, further
more this definition does not take into account the various special technological treatments
which can be applied to modify the texture and the appearance of the cooked sugar mass with
a view to producing a wide variety of specialties likes honey comb striped candies satin
candies rocks mintoe.Technically the term boiled sweet is applied to mixtures of sucrose and
glucose syrup which are cooked to such a high temperature that the cooked mass becomes
clearly marked by the following characteristics.
1) Non-crystalline clear and glassy in appearance when after the cooking process the cooked
mass is not voluntarily opacified by pulling.
2) An extremely low amount of residual moistures (1-3%) with an equilibrium relative
humidity form the atmosphere.
3) After cooking the two main components sucrose and glucose syrup are accompanied by a
variable amount of invert sugar the result of partial inversion of sucrose which takes place
during the cooking process.
Classification:
The above description shows that the definition boiled sweet comprises a wide range of
various products. A classification is not easy and can be made under different aspects, for
instance.
1. Commercial definition
2. Applied forming process
3. Structure of finished products

39
Commercial definition :-
They also called high boiling sweets hard candies drops and are represented by three general
types.
Plain hard candy: This is the generic name for an infinite number of a large variety of candy
which as is produced in a wide range of shapes and sizes, flavors and colours as well as
textures. They can be classified as follows in four main groups.
Acidified hard candies/fruit drops :-

1) Non-acidified hard candies like peppermint drops cough drops, etc.,
2) Hard milk caramels
3) Hard candies with added –value ingredients such as
4) Honey-honey drops/ honey comb
5) Malt extract- malted hard candy
6) Peanut-peanut brittle
Filled boiled sweets :-

These are composed of a clear, pulled striped or grained jacket enclosing a center which can
be liquid. Semi liquid pasty or powdery. The main filling types are
1) Simple sugar- glucose syrup filling flavored with natural, nature-identical or artificial
flavor.
2) Fruit filling which besides sugar and glucose syrup contains fruit pulp or jam.
3) Alcohol filling.
4) Fat filling based on chocolate, hazelnut or almond paste, peanut butter etc.,
5) Powdery filling like sherbert filling, liquorice filling.
Sugarless boiled sweets: Clear, pulled or grained sugarless boiled sweets, plain or filled, are
characterized by the fact that they are composed of one or a combination of polyhydric
alcohols. The following polyols are used one or a combination of polyhydric alcohols. The
following polyols are used
1. Sorbitol mannitol, xylitol- the generation polyols.

2. Maltitol, lactitiol, isomaltitol- the second- generation plyols.
It is important to note that in most countries their use is subject to legal restriction. In
compliance with legal status sugarless candies can be classified in three main categories.
a. Hard candies for diabetics
b. Tooth – friendly hard candies
c. Low calorie hard candies
Applied forming process:

In relation to the applied forming method, boiled sweets can be divided into six main groups:
1) Drops when using old-fashioned drop rollers.
2) Candy balls, slices, chips snippers, etc using a balling machine.

40
3) Plastic candies when using a rotary plastic moulder or a cutting and forming chain.
4) Deposited hard candies when using a depositing plant.
5) Rocks slices, candy sticks etc, when using a cutting machine.
6) Lollipops when using a drop roller or a mould depositing system (flat lollipop) or rotary
plastic moulder (ball lollipop) with a stick push-in-device.
Drops:- These sweets are made by passing a sheet presized boiled sugar through two
horizontally arranged rollers, with engraved cavities in the corresponds to the roller gap is
compacted during the passage through the two rollers and adopts the shape of the cavities.
The complete article is formed by placing the two halves accurately on the top of each other.
Balled sweets:-Balled sweets are round or spherical in shape and are made by passing a
calibrated rope of sugar through three rollers, shaped according to the desired sweet profile
which by progressively approaching each other cut and shape the rope of sugar into a sweet
which also called rotary shape.
Plastic hard candy:-Die-formed sweets, also known by the technical term of plastic sweets,
are produced by cutting and forming a rope of boiled sugar in continuous rotary forming die
heads or with a chain-forming machine.
Deposited hard candies:- These sweets are of one single color, with a very smooth surface
and practically without entrapped air inclusions. They are made in a continuous process in
which a mass of boiled sugar of relatively low viscosity is deposited at high temperature
(130-1350C) into Teflon-lined metal moulds, equipped at the bottom with ejector pins to
eject the candies from the moulds once they have been solidified after passage through a
cooling tunnel.
To prevent an uncontrolled inversion rate as well as discoloration, the following factors must
be observed absolutely.
1. Only buffered acid can be used mainly buffered lactic acid.
2. Sugar mass level in the vacuum chamber where the acid solution is added must be
maintained as low as possible.
3. Sugar mall level in the depositing hopper must maintained constantly at a level of 8-12 cm.
4. Deposited candies must be rapidly cooled down from 130/135 to a temperature below
900C.
Lollipops: Basically three types of lollipops can be distinguished:

1. Flat lollipops:
A)The forming techniques can be applied
b) Depositing process by using special moulds.
c) Moulding stamping techniques including the following steps cutting of a well tempered
sugar rope free fall of the cut pieces into a mould and stamping the cut pieces in a rotating
disc.
d) Moulding / stamping process.

41
2. Boll lollipop:
They are mainly produced by applying the Rostoplast forming technique with
flapcutters. The filled or unfilled sugar rope is taken over by a set of sizing rollers and fed
into the forming die. In the forming die the sugar rope is cut by flaps and then formed by
pressing plungers. Flaps and plungers are moved by cams. The sugar pieces in the forming
dies receive their sticks form an automatic stick-feeder.
3. Whistle lollipop:
They are produced with a specially designed Rosto-plast forming die-hard.
Ingredients used in Preparation:-

It is quite erroneous to believe that boiled sweets result from simple basic
formulations of sucrose and glucose syrup by applying the average ratios. It is important to
emphasize at this point that the key to ensuring a satisfactory shelf life is an accurate mono-
di-poly saccharides balance in conjunction with a low amount of residual water. Variation
form following key composition values can lead quickly to graining or moisture pick-up.
Water:
Control of the quantity and quality of the water used in the production of boiled
sweets is the first step to assure the quality of the finished product. Nevertheless its influence
is often underestimated and only considered as the transient ingredient to dissolve the sugar.
In many cases its quality can be the source of inexplicable troubles during the production for
example uncontrolled inversion rate and discoloration during the cooking process (acidic
water) or lack of setting by pectin jelly (hard water).Furthermore, water is also an important
technical medium. Reduced output and efficiency of machines can find their source in a hard
water. By dissolving under atmospheric pressure, the required water ratio varies in relation to
the particle size of the sugar, from 33 to 40 parts sugar.
Sugar:-
Sugar in crystallized form is mainly used in the production of boiled sweets. Based
on the quality criteria of the European Community (EEC) sugar market Regulations two main
types of crystallized sugar are used.
1. Refined sugar category 1 with a purity of more than 99.9%
2. White sugar category 2 with a purity of more than 99.7%
Glucose syrup:- Glucose syrup is indispensable as a doctoring agent in boiled sweets to

prevent their graining. Additionally its influence in the forming plasticity (stamped candies)
or depositing viscosity as well as on the hygroscopicity of the finished products is another
important factor which has to be taken into account. The amount of glucose syrup needed
mainly depends on the following factors:
1. Less discoloration during the cooking process
 Preparation of Boiled Candy Sweet

42
Here’s a simple hard candy recipe for making small batches. This is an ideal recipe for
artisan producers who are making products by hand, or using any small scale laboratory or
demonstration machinery.
1. Start by adding your sugar, glucose and water to your boiling pan. (A tip if handling
glucose, wet your hands first to prevent it sticking!)
Stir the ingredients so they are thoroughly combined before turning the heat onto full power.
Put your thermometer into the pan and leave it to boil. Avoid stirring the mix if possible once
the batch is boiling. Agitation can cause the sugar to re-crystallize.
2. The candy needs to boil to at least 290℉ or 143℃. It’s important you monitor the
temperature carefully as falling short or over-running will dramatically change the product
and possibly ruin it.
3. Once the candy is up to temperature remove it from the heat and pour it straight onto the
candy cooling table. While the batch is still liquid on the table we can add our colours and
flavor. (adding them here as opposed to in the pan prevents colours and flavors leaking into
the next batch) Add the color and flavor to the centre of the batch and gently spread it out
using lollipop sticks or a scraper.
4. As the candy cools it will begin to form a skin on the underside during contact with the
cooling table. We need to ensure the cooling happens evenly throughout the batch. To
achieve this the batch is scraped from the table and folded in on itself. Experienced candy
makers can do this using their hands only. If you’re new to candy making then you may wish
to use a scraper and use gloves.
After each fold you should leave it to cool and settle for about 30 seconds before repeating.
At this point your candy should be firm but pliable.
Some people will now pull air into the batch either by hand over a hook or with an automatic
pulling machine. Pulling the batch bulks it out in size and helps develop colours.
5. Your candy should now be ready for processing into your chosen sweets.
Link :- 1) CANDY :- history, ingredient, properties,manufacturing,and what is

Nougut,Fondant,Fudge. by
Britannica
2)Preparation Method Of Candy. by Crafty baking

43
Unit (23-24)
Caramel: definition, composition, factors affecting quality of caramel, caramel
manufacture process, batch type, continuous types, checking of faults in caramel.
 Caramel
Background:-
Caramel is often eaten as little brown, sweet, buttery nuggets wrapped in cello-pane, but
it is also delicious in candy bars and on top of fresh popcorn. The best caramels are sweet and
just a bit chewy. Caramels can, in fact, have a variety of textures. Caramel manufacturers use
the term "short" to characterize a caramel that is too soft (perhaps too moist) or "long" for a
caramel that is quite chewy. Caramels are, in some ways, rather similar to other candies in
that the basis for candy is generally sugar, com syrup, and water. However, caramels vary in
an important way in that they also contain milk and fat. While hard candies are plastic or
malleable at high temperature, but glass-like (clear and easily cracked) when cooled,
caramels are plastic at both high temperature and room temperature. Caramels are softer
because they have been cooked to a lower temperature than hard candies (to approximately
245°F [118°C], or the firm ball stage) and contain more moisture. Because of this soft texture,
caramel may be extruded at lower temperatures, inserted into a mold, and put into a variety of
other candies or candy bars to add flavor, binding, and texture.
What makes a caramel a caramel? The action of the heat on the milk solids, in
conjunction with the sugar ingredients, imparts a typical caramel flavor to these sweets.
Essentially, the entire batch of candy undergoes a chemical reaction referred to by chemists
as the Maillard reaction. In a conventional caramelization process, the sugar syrups are
cooked to the proper moisture level, added to the fat and milk, heated, and then allowed to
caramelize (develop the characteristic flavor and brown color) in a browning kettle. The
confectioner can watch the chemical reaction take place in the kettle as the batch turns from a
milky white color to rich brown. The nose can smell the slight burning of the milk solids,
too—and a pleasant odor it is. If cooked even further, to about 290°F (143°C), the mixture
essentially becomes toffee, a hard-crack caramelized candy.
There is no question that chocolate is a wonderful ingredient in candies, but what would a
Snickers bar, a caramel apple, or Milk Duds be without caramel? If not used in a bar, the
caramel batch may be poured into a pan, scored, and cut apart in squares for plain
consumption. Vanilla caramels, the type most frequently eaten, are flavored with vanilla;
chocolate caramels have a bit of chocolate added to the batch, turning it a deep brown color.
However, maple caramels, those with molasses and brown sugar, and cream caramels are
other delicious varieties. Most Americans have only tasted mass-produced caramels.
However, many small confectioneries are springing up that manufacture caramels in fairly
small quantities, making them gourmet treats. Caramels are fairly easily made at home as
well.
History :-

44
It is difficult to know when humans first craved the sugar that gave them that extra bit of
energy and satisfied their sweet tooth cravings. Many believe that the earliest sweet treat was
honey—simple to acquire and needs no processing. The Arabs and the Chinese prepared
candies of fruits and nuts dipped in honey. But during the Middle Ages, refined sugar of any
kind was very expensive and a rare treat. Even in the New
World sugar was an expensive commodity, and refined sugar was purchased in a cone or
a loaf and pieces were carefully cut off with sugar nips. But by about 1650, Americans were
boiling water and sugar and making hard candies in deep kettles in the fire-place. Surely
someone added fat and milk to these concoctions and made caramels.
By the early nineteenth century, Americans used sugar beet juice to make new candies.
Still, hard candies were the primary confections. By the mid-1800s, there were nearly 400
American candy manufacturers that were producing primarily the hard candies often sold in
general stores—they were cheap to make, easy to transport, and did not spoil easily.
Caramels were made at these small confectioneries as well. In fact, Milton Hershey began his
chocolate empire not with chocolate, but with caramel. Hershey was born in 1857 in
Pennsylvania, and rather than become a printer, he founded a candy-making business in
Lancaster, Pennsylvania. By 1886, he had founded the Lancaster Caramel Company, surely
utilizing traditional recipes that were found in many regional cook-books. He learned about
chocolate-making because he sought new coatings for his famous caramels. Other long-lived
candy companies were founded upon caramels, including Goetz’s Candy Company, which
began in 1895 and is still going strong making cream caramels, among other things.
Originally, the production of caramels occurred using copper pots over direct gas flames,
watched carefully by a master confectioner who used a candy thermometer to monitor the
temperature, and poured out the cooling caramel batch onto a marble slab or a water-cooled
table and scored it into squares. The heavy, deep candy kettles (that some gourmet caramel-
producers still swear by) have given rise to batch cookers with vacuum systems for quick
cooling of the caramel syrup that run with little assistance from a machine operator. Brach's
Confections, Inc. is among the largest caramel manufacturers in the country, with caramels
being a staple of their output.
Raw Materials:-
The raw materials vary with the manufacturer and type of caramel under,, production.
However, the most frequently made caramel, the vanilla caramel, contains many ingredients
if it is mass-produced. The ingredients include milk, sometimes sweetened condensed milk,
corn syrup, sugar, oil, whey, calcium carbonate, salt, flavor, butter, another type of fat such as
vegetable oil, molasses, and corn starch. Milk is essential to distinguish the caramel from a
hard candy, and it is the milk solids that change chemically to produce the caramel. Corn
syrup lends additional sweetness to the candy batch but also keeps the mixture from
becoming grainy, which would indicate there is too much sugar in the batch (graininess will
ruin a batch of caramels). Corn syrup also lends body to the slurry. At least one fat is added
to the mixture as well. Butter is often the only fat added by gourmet caramel-makers as it
provides superior taste, but this proves to be very expensive for mass-production. So other
fats are added along with a fairly small amount of butter. As maple caramels or other flavored
caramels are produced, the ingredients vary accordingly.

45
The Manufacturing Process:-

There are a number of different caramel-making systems used for the mass-production
of these candies. The process described below utilizes one of the many different systems for
this purpose. The process is essentially the same, however—the batch is machine mixed,
cooked steadily, cooled, extruded, and formed into small squares.
All of the ingredients listed above are automatically batched and weighed using a
batching and dissolving machine made expressly for the manufacture of caramels. The liquid
and the dry ingredients are loaded into the machine. Then, the ingredients are weighed with
great precision by computer in the upper weigh tank. The ingredients are mixed by propellers
in this upper weigh tank.
After blending, this milky slurry drops automatically to the lower mixing and dissolving
tank. Steam heat brings the mixture up to a pre-determined temperature. In the mix tank,
gear-driven agitation equipment dissolves the ingredients thoroughly. Surface scrapers skim
along the bottom and sides were burned protein solids have a tendency to accumulate. These
burned solids are redistributed and mixed back into the slurry to ensure that the whole
mixture is a homogeneous batch.
The heated mixture is then sent to the heated surge tank. An operator's command
transfers the batch into a stainless steel scraped surface heat exchanger for the final
evaporation. Here a small variable-speed gear motor drives a scraping system within the
evaporator. The syrup is forced through a small space that is jacketed with steam, thus
forcing evaporation within the mixture.
The batch has now had much of its moisture removed and is thickening. It is gravity-fed
into a steam-jacketed caramelizing tank where the caramelizing is ensured by exposing the
batch to steam. The caramelizing mixture is re-circulated from the bottom to the top of the
tank, with incoming syrup mixing with the caramelizing slurry, promoting homogeneity of
the product. A discharge valve directs the mixture into the next processing machine, the
cooling wheel.
This caramel candy, now at about 240°F (116°C), has to be cooled. There are many
ways to cool the caramel, including moving it into cool rooms and running it through cooling
tunnels. The system described above utilizes as cooling wheel. The caramel is water-cooled
on the outside surface of a large wheel that is four feet wide and twelve feet in diameter. The
caramel is laid in a film about 1/8-inch (3.2-mm) thick on this wheel. The wheel completes a
half turn and the caramel comes off the wheel, becoming solid and of a consistency so that
the candy may be cut and packaged.
A batch roller takes the caramel film and shapes it into a rope. The rope is then shaped
and sized into the thickness of a finished caramel. Caramels are not molded; instead, they are
shaped by being cut from the thick rope. As the caramels are cut they are automatically
individually wrapped. From there, the caramels may weighed and placed in a sealed bag and
packed into cartons for shipping. If caramels are cooked to just the correct temperature, they
can be shipped easily in any type of weather and will hold their shape. If they are
undercooked just by a few degrees, they may do poorly after packaging and become too soft.
Quality Control:-

46
The machinery involved in the process of candy making is automated. The making of
caramels requires precise measurements of ingredients, since too much sugar makes the
candy grainy (the sugar does not entirely dissolve in the liquid) and makes it an inferior
product. If there is too much moisture in the product, the caramel will be too gooey in warm
weather. Too little moisture and cooked at too high a heat, and a "long" or chewy caramel is
the result. So, the machinery must be very carefully checked and calibrated for accuracy in
the mixing and weighing of materials. Temperature controls, too, must be extraordinarily
accurate, since just a few degrees can affect the consistency of caramels. Human operators on
the floor use their eyes and hands in order to maintain quality. Master caramel-makers are
essential to the production of gourmet caramels, made in smaller batches of 30-50 lb (14-23
kg) at a time. Their experience can detect any slight variation that may result in an inferior
batch just by the look, smell, and feel of the batch.
As with all food manufacture, the quality of all consumable ingredients must be checked for
quality. Corn syrup must be of the high quality needed for this candy manufacture. All other
ingredients must be tested for quality as represented by the suppliers.

47
Unit (25-26)
Toffee:- definition, composition, types of toffee ingredient and their role. Batch and
continuous method of toffee.
 Introduction :-
Toffee is a confection made by caramelizing sugar or molasses (creating inverted sugar)
along with butter, and occasionally flour. The mixture is heated until its temperature reaches
the hard crack stage of 149 to 154 °C (300 to 310 °F). While being prepared, toffee is
sometimes mixed with nuts or raisins.
Foolproof Toffee Recipe Toffee is a hard but chewy, caramel colour no crystalline
candy made by cooking sugar, water (or cream or milk) and usually butter or other fat. Other
ingredients such as nuts or chocolate are sometimes added. Depending on the recipe, a toffee
mixture may be cooked to anywhere from 236 degrees F to 300 degrees F measured with a
Candy Thermometer, or called the Hard Ball Stage. It is when syrup is dropped into ice water
and forms a hard ball which holds its shape on removal but is still plastic.
Malted Milk, Sponge or Sea Foam Candy Recipe Sponge Candy or Fairy or Angel Food
Candy is a mouth-watering type of aerated hard candy (toffee) with an inside that tastes
somewhat like molasses and caramelized sugar. It's texture is very unusual in that it is crisp at
first and then melts away in your mouth. It is thought to have originated in the eastern Great
Lakes area of the United States, and is known under various names, such as Sea Foam Candy,
Puff Candy, Cinder Toffee, Honey Comb and more, in different parts of the country and
world.
This candy is basically made with boiled sugar (white or brown) and corn syrup or
molasses. After being taken off the heat, some baking soda and vinegar are added to foam it
up or react to form carbon dioxide which is trapped in the highly viscous mixture. The lattice
structure is formed while the sugar is liquid, then the toffee sets hard which makes the
interior look like a sponge. The finished Sponge Candy is often enrobed with chocolate to
help maintain its freshness and add another flavour dimension. If you do, make sure you
cover the entire candy. If moisture or humidity gets inside, the centre loses that honeycomb
texture or they get mushy or can get damp and dry out, getting hard as a rock.
Creations :-
The process of making toffee requires the boiling of ingredients until the mix is stiff
enough to be pulled into a shape which holds and has a glossy surface. The resulting mixture
will typically be poured into a shallow tray and allowed to cool to form a slab. Different
mixes, processes, and most importantly, temperatures, will result in different textures and
hardness’s, from soft and often sticky to a hard, brittle material. A brown colour, and smoky
taste, is imparted to the toffee by the caramelization of the sugars.
Types of Toffee :-
Some toffee is made with slightly different ingredients which change not only the
flavour, but the texture. For example, if toffee is made with baking soda and vinegar, it can
have a honeycomb appearance. This type of toffee is known as honeycomb, cinder or sponge
toffee. One of the most famous and popular types of toffee is English Toffee. It has a buttery

48
flavour and is made with almonds. One of the reasons for its popularity is that the Heath
brand of candy bar is essentially made with a centre of English toffee. Here are some of the
other different kinds of toffee:
Peanut Butter Toffee: Peanut butter (crunchy kind, if desired) is quickly added once the heat
reaches correct heat
English Toffee: This type of toffee is made with almonds, dark chocolate, sugar, syrup and
butter.
Milk Chocolate Toffee: Made with chips if milk chocolate
Dark Chocolate Toffee: dark chocolate is added
White Chocolate Toffee: made with white, instead of dark or milk chocolate
Dark Toffee: made with dark brown sugar (instead of white sugar) and molasses
Pecan Toffee: contains chopped pecans and semi-sweet chocolate chips, if desired
German Chocolate Toffee: Made with shredded coconut, toasted pecans and semi-sweet
chocolate chips
Toffee Fudge: includes light-brown sugar and pieces of semi-sweet chocolate
Toffee with Nuts: simply made with your choice of pecans, almonds, walnuts or macadamia
nuts. You can use the nuts separately or a mixture. Simply sprinkle over the toffee as it is
cooling into he pan.
Candy Apples: apples on sticks are coated with melted toffee, and sometimes covered with
nuts.
Method to Prepare Toffee :-

Ingredients
1 cup coarsely chopped pecans
1 cup (2 sticks) Challenge unsalted butter
1 cup granulated sugar
1/2 tsp kosher salt
1 tsp vanilla extract
1 cup milk chocolate chips
Instructions
1.Spray a 9-inch square baking dish with cooking spray and line with parchment paper.
2.Spread the chopped pecans in a single layer on top of the parchment.
3.Add butter, sugar, and salt to a heavy bottomed 3 quart pot
4.Bring to a boil over medium low heat, stirring frequently to dissolve the sugar.
5.Once the candy is boiling, stir occasionally, slowly and evenly, until the candy has reached
290F to 300F, or "hard crack" on a candy thermometer.
6.Once the candy has reached 290F-300F, remove from heat and gently stir in the vanilla
extract.
7.Carefully pour the mixture over the chopped pecans.
8.Let the candy sit for a few minutes, undisturbed, before sprinkling the chocolate chips over
the top.
9.Cover the baking dish with foil and let sit for 5 minutes or until the chocolate has softened.

49
10.Remove the foil and gently spread the softened chocolate into an even layer. An offset
spatula works best for this.
11.Place the candy in the refrigerator and let cool completely. Give it at least 2 hours.
12.Lift the parchment out of the baking dish and place the toffee on a cutting board or solid
surface.
13.Use a knife to gently break it into smaller pieces.
14.Store in an airtight container in a cool place.
 PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS
1. Separation - The Most Common Toffee Pitfall: Toffee sometimes separates during cooking
or when spread onto the pan, leaving a buttery layer on the surface and a thicker mixture
underneath. This is caused when the liquid in the mixture evaporating too quickly, or stirring
the mixture too fast leading to the liquid and fat separating.
Salt in the recipe seems to stabilize the mixture. Use salted butter, or if you use unsalted
butter add ¼ teaspoon of salt per stick of butter.
Be patient because candy takes a long time to cook. Don't rush the process by turning up the
heat. Stir slowly and gently during the final stages of cooking.
If the butter toffee does separate:

A. Continue to stir the mixture. The toffee may remix on its own. Lower the heat, slowly stir,
so not to splash yourself with "really hot butter" until it comes back together.
B. If gentle stirring doesn't work, add hot water, a tablespoon at a time, while the mixture
cooks. Add no more than a total ¼ cup (4 tablespoons) to recipe calling for 1 cup (2 sticks) of
butter. Add water slowly and carefully as the water can cause the hot candy mixture to
splatter. Adding the hot water lowers the temperature of the toffee mixture; therefore,
continue to stir and cook the toffee until it reaches the correct temperature.
2. Burning Toffee: The colour of butter toffee should be a rich golden amber colour. The
toffee continues to change colour and becomes darker as the temperature rises. If toffee cooks
to too high a temperature and the toffee is dark in colour, unfortunately, there is no way to
save this batch of toffee.
Ways to prevent this from happening include:
If you use a Candy Thermometer test it for accuracy.
Use medium heat.
Use correct size of heavy-gauge saucepan.
3. Crystallization: One of the greatest frustrations in toffee making comes when a smooth
syrup turns quickly into a grainy mass. This is caused by sugar crystals that have formed on
the sides of the pan in the process of being stirred down into the syrup.
Here are several ways to prevent crystallization:

Dissolve sugar completely before mixture boils.

50
If you notice any crystals on the side of the pan, brush them down into the syrup with a pastry
brush dipped into hot water or tightly cover the saucepan and let the mixture cook for about 3
minutes. This causes steam, thereby melting the sugar crystals that may have adhered to the
sides of the pan.
Avoid stirring syrup once it begins to boil unless the recipe instructs otherwise.
Link :- Many more recipes to make various toffees.

51
Unit (27-28)
Fondant: fudge/creamy: ingredients, methods, Productivity. lozenges: Definition recipe,
Method of Manufacture, Compositions, factors affecting quality, Industrial production,
checklist of faults and remedy.
 Fudge
Fudge is a type of sugar candy that is made by mixing sugar, butter and milk, heating it to the
soft-ball stage at 240 °F (116 °C), and then beating the mixture while it cools so that it
acquires a smooth, creamy consistency. In texture, this crystalline candy falls in between
fondants and hard caramels.
Fruits, nuts, chocolate, caramel, candies, sweets and other flavours are sometimes added
either inside or on top. A recent trend has been to create novel flavours of fudge, giving
vibrant visual appeal at the same time. Fudge is often bought as a gift from a gift shop in
tourist areas and attractions.
HOT FUDGE :-
Hot fudge in the United States and Canada is usually considered to be a chocolate
product often used as a topping for ice cream in a heated form, particularly sundaes and
parfaits. It may also occasionally be used as a topping for smokes. It is a thick, chocolate-
flavoured syrup (flavoured with natural or artificial flavourings) similar in flavour and texture
to chocolate fudge, except melted so that it can be poured.
 Fudge, creamy candy made with butter, sugar, milk, and usually chocolate, cooked
together and beaten to
a soft, smooth texture. Fudge may be thought of as having a consistency harder than that of
fondant (q.v.) and softer than that of hard chocolate. According to most recipes, the
ingredients of fudge are cooked to what is termed in kitchen parlance the soft ball stage, that
point between 234° and 240° F (112° and 115° C) at which a small ball of the candy dropped
in ice water neither disintegrates nor flattens when picked up with the fingers. Butter and
vanilla are added as the candy cools, then the mass is beaten until creamy, poured into a pan,
and cut into squares. Often sour cream is substituted for milk and butter, and nut meats or
raisins may be stirred into the fudge.
Creamy Fudge Recipe & Method :-

Fudge is a delicious, traditional sweet treat that is often paired with chocolate, fruit
and nuts, as well as many other types of flavours. If you require a more creamy type of fudge,
then this recipe & method is ideal to produce a line that normally has a long shelf-life.
Feel free to adjust the ingredients to the size of the batch of fudge you require.
Ingredients:
10 Parts – White or mixed white & brown sugar = 100%
7.5 Parts – Glucose syrup =75%
4.5 Parts – Sweetened skimmed condensed milk =45%
3.25 Parts – Shredded H.P.K.O= 32.5 %

52
0.75 Parts – Dairy butter or margarine =7.5%

0.05 parts – Lecithin = 0.5%
Sufficient salt to taste
Add water as required.
Method
1. Dissolve all of the ingredients listed above together, using only sufficient heat to dissolve
the fat and sugar grains. In the meantime ensure that you are stirring the batch constantly,
and vigorously, for around 5-10 minutes, before proceeding to actually cook.
2. After thoroughly pre-mixing your batch, continue stirring and cook the batch to 119-
121°C, according to the final firmness you desire.
3. Once you have finished cooking, turn out the syrup batch into a cool hand pan and allow
the syrup to cool to approximately 99°C.
4. Slowly, but thoroughly, stir-in 7.5 parts basic fondant and in the meantime, add any
flavour as required.
5. Turn out the batch onto paper-lined boards or trays and level off by tapping down, or
passing a roller or straight edge across its surface.
PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS :-

1. Fudge is too hard and crumbly
Was cooked beyond 240 degrees F and/or kneaded too much
There's not much you can do if the fudge is overcooked or over kneaded.
2. Fudge is too soft

Not cooked hot enough and/or was no kneaded enough
If cooked to the proper temperature, but not kneaded enough, will firm-up, but will be sticky.
Cut-in chunks and dip into tempered chocolate and use as a centre for a candy. If not properly
cooked, there's nothing you can do to fix it. Warm it up and use it as fudge sauce.
3. Fudge is grainy
Kneaded too soon
Wait until fudge is 110 degrees F which is comfortably warm to the touch.
Lozenges: Definition recipe, Method of Manufacture, Compositions, factors affecting

quality, Industrial production, checklist of faults and remedy.
A throat lozenge (also known as a cough drop, troche, cachou, or cough sweet) is a
small, typically medicated tablet intended to be dissolved slowly in the mouth to temporarily
stop coughs and lubricate and soothe irritated tissues of the throat (usually due to a sore
throat), possibly from the common cold or influenza. Cough tablets have taken the name
lozenge, based on their original shape, a diamond.

53
Ingredients:-
Lozenges may contain benzocaine, an anaesthetic, or eucalyptus oil. Non-menthol
throat lozenges generally use either zinc gluconate glycine or pectin as an oral demulcent.
Several brands of throat lozenges contain dextromethorphan.
Still other varieties, such as Halls, contain menthol, peppermint oil and/or spearmint as their
active ingredient(s). Honey lozenges are also available.
History :-
Candies to soothe the throat date back to 1000 BC in Egypt's Twentieth Dynasty,
when they were made from honey flavoured with citrus, herbs, and spices[citation needed]. In
the 19th century, physicians discovered morphine and heroin, which suppress coughing at its
source—the brain. Popular formulations of that era included Smith Brothers Cough Drops,
first advertised in 1852, and Luden's, created in 1879. Concern over the risk of opioid
dependence led to the development of alternative medications.[1]
Lozenges in pharma industry as a confectionery product: -

If you have a sore throat, you want real relief. However, some of the supposed
‘cough lozenges’ out there are little better than (expensive) hard boiled lollies. How can you
tell the difference between a genuine sore throat remedy and a jumped up jube?
With little or no active ingredients or therapeutic benefits, ‘confectionery’ items are

classed as a food, not a medicine and they’re not required to be listed on the Australian
Therapeutic Goods Register (ARTG). Medicines which are accepted as therapeutic goods for
sale in Australia are required to show an “Aust L” or “Aust R” number on the packet. It can
be anywhere on the packet but it’s usually on the front of the packaging – the type font can be
quite small, so keep your eyes peeled.
Bosisto’s Eucalyptus Sugar-free Drops are a good example of an Aust L listed medicinal
lozenge (Aust L products are able to be freely sold over the counter). You can see the AUST
L number listed under the "50g Net" on the bottom right of the packaging.
What’s in lozenges & do the ingredients really work?

The action of sucking a lozenge itself does do some of the work in helping a sore
throat, helping increase saliva production which reduces dryness, and coating the throat
helping to ease the cough reflex. However, medicated lozenges have extra ingredients to help
the symptoms of sore throats and coughs. They generally fall into two categories – synthetic
pharmaceuticals, and naturally derived.
Pharmaceuticals:
- Local anasthetics, NSAID painkillers: Found in some of the ‘heavy duty’ throat lozenges,
there’s no doubt these work to numb the throat, however they may not be suitable (or
desirable) for everyone, including elderly and children, those on certain medications and
those who find the bitter taste unacceptable.
- Antibacterials: Help fight bacteria, however sore throats are mostly caused by viruses not
bacteria so in lozenges, they are largely useless. (Lemsip even acknowledges this on the

54
packet of their Lemsip MAX Sore Throat Anaesthetic Antibacterial Lozenges: “The presence
of the antibacterial agent in this product has not been shown to have beneficial effect on the
severity or duration of a sore throat.”)
- Antitussives: Cough suppressants designed to ease a dry cough. A Cochrane review of
trials testing Antitussives found they appeared no more effective than placebo for treating
coughs in most cases – and a much higher concentration was used in the trials than is present
in most cough lozenges.
What about natural ingredients?

The following ingredients are found in Bosisto’s Eucalyptus Sugar-free Drops.
- Menthol: Derived from mint oils. It’s the component of peppermint oil thought to be
responsible for its therapeutic benefits. Menthol provides a noticeable ‘cooling’ and soothing
sensation due to its ability to chemically trigger cold-sensitive receptors.
- Eucalyptus: Naturally sourced from eucalypt leaves, this oil has centuries of use as a nasal
decongestant to help temporarily relieve cold symptoms and to freshen breath.
- Honey: Honey coats the throat, helping reduce persistent coughing – some clinical studies
have found it as effective as cough suppressant medications.
- Lemon: adds a delicious tang and a long-lasting natural flavour which balances and
complements the other ingredients.

55
Unit (29-30)
Tablets: Definitions, recipe, composition, wet granulation, Slugging, Manufacture of
Tablet, and Checklist of tablet faults. Marshmallow and. Nougat: Definition,
composition, recipe, and method of manufacture. Nougat
Tablets: - Scottish Tablet is not as it sounds—something to write on. It is a sweet Scottish,

fudge-like, extremely sugary candy. Scottish tablet contains sugar, butter, and condensed
milk and as you can see in this recipe, is easy to make.
Ingredients
1 pint/500 millilitres milk
8 ounces/225 grams butter (chopped into pieces)
4 pounds/1.8 kilograms sugar (superfine/caster)
1 pound/450 grams condensed milk
Optional: flavourings as desired*
Steps to Make It
1. Gather ingredients.
2. Butter a 12-by-4-inch or 7-inch square tin.
3. In a large, deep pan saucepan (4-pint minimum but preferably larger), heat the milk to a
low simmer then add the butter. Stir until melted.
4. Add the sugar and stir until all the sugar has dissolved. Raise the heat to high and bring
the sugar to a hard boil for 5 minutes, stirring all the time to prevent the sugar from
sticking and burning. If you have a thermometer take the temperature to 250 F (also
known as hard ball stage in candy and toffee making).
5. Slowly add the condensed milk. Be careful; the sugar is at a high temperature and may
splatter. Stir well, then lower the heat and simmer for 20 minutes. The mixture will
bubble and resemble a moon crater; keep cooking. The mixture will also start to slightly
darken.
6. Once the mixture is visibly thickened, remove the pan from the stove and beat the mixture
vigorously for 5 to 10 minutes; you could use an electric mixer here as it will save your
arm from aching.
7. Add any optional flavourings.
8. Pour into the greased pan.
9. When the tablet is cool, but still soft, cut into 1-inch squares; you can even put the pan in
the freezer to make sure it is completely cold.
10. Wrap in greaseproof paper and store in an airtight tin.
Dry Granulation And Wet Granulation :- The process is same in both pharmaceutics
and confectionery.
The main difference between dry and wet granulation is that dry granulation is the
formation of granules without using any liquid solution whereas wet granulation is the
formation of granules by adding a granulating liquid.
What is Dry Granulation

56
Dry granulation is a process where no liquid component is used in the granule formation.
This is done for compounds that are extremely sensitive to moisture and heat. Since no liquid
is used, the process requires compacting and densifying the finely powdered compound to
convert it into granules.
In dry granulation, granules are formed under a high pressure. The powder of the
compound is aggregated using a high pressure. Dry granulation is done with a tablet press
(swaying/high shear mixer-granulators) or roll compactors. The dry granulation can be done
in two different ways:
1.Formation of a large tablet
2.Formation of a continuous sheet
Large tablets are made via dry granulation, using a heavy duty tableting press.
Continuous sheets are produced using roll compactors, by squeezing the powder through two
rollers. However, the tablet press may not give tablets with uniform density; this is because
the powder has doesn’t have sufficient natural flow since there is no solvent. But in
producing continuous sheets, the roller compactors use specific systems that can consistently
feed the powder through two rollers. This gives a uniform sheet. When the sheet is compact
enough, it can be used for tablet compression after going through proper milling and final
blending.
What is Wet Granulation

Wet granulation is the process in which formation of granules is done by adding a
granulating liquid. Here, a granulating fluid is used for the massing of powder particles.
However, the fluid used here is essentially volatile and non-toxic. It should be volatile
because only a volatile fluid can easily be removed by drying the final product. It should be
non-toxic because this granulation is used in the production of tablets that are used to treat
certain diseases.
The liquids that are often used as granulating fluid include water, ethanol, and
isopropanol. Sometimes these solutions are used in combination as well. When water is used
in this process, water can be mixed with the powder, forming bonds between powder particles.
But if the granule falls apart when dried, water is not a suitable granulation fluid. Therefore, a
bonder is also used along with water.
In the traditional method, the wet mass is forced through a sieve to produce granules
which are then dried. When water-sensitive drugs are produced, an organic solvent is used in
the place of water. Wet granulation is preferred than direct compression into tablets since
direct compression can cause the destruction of active components in the powder.
Marshmallow and Nougat: Definition, composition, recipe, and method of manufacture.

Nougat
Marshmallow:-
Marshmallows are a type of confectionery which is typically made from sugar, water and
gelatin whipped to a squishy consistency, molded into small cylindrical pieces, and coated
with corn starch. Some marshmallow recipes call for eggs. This is the modern version of a
medicinal confection made from Althaea officinal is, the marshmallow plant.[1]

57
Marshmallows consist of four ingredients: sugar, water, air, and a whipping

agent/aerator (usually a protein). The type of sugar and whipping agent varies depending on
desired characteristics. Each brand of marshmallow has its own specific formula for how to
produce the 'perfect' marshmallow. No matter how they are made each ingredient plays a
specific role in the final product.
The marshmallow is a foam, consisting of an aqueous continuous phase and a gaseous
dispersed phase (in other words, a liquid with gas bubbles spread throughout). In addition to
being a foam, this also makes marshmallows an "aerated" confection because it is made up of
50% air. The goal of an aerated confection like marshmallow is to incorporate gas into a
sugar mixture, and stabilize the aerated product before the gas can escape. When the gas is
introduced into the system, tiny air bubbles are created. This is what contributes to the unique
textural properties, and mouth-feel of this product.[10]
Protein :- In marshmallows, proteins are the main surface-active agents responsible for the
formation, and stabilization of the dispersed air. Due to their structure, surface-active
molecules gather at the surface area of a portion of (water-based) liquid. A portion of each
protein molecule is hydrophilic, with a polar charge, and another portion is hydrophobic and
non-polar. The non-polar section has little or no affinity for water, and so this section orients
as far away from the water as possible. However, the polar section is attracted to the water
and has little or no affinity for the air. Therefore, the molecule orients with the polar section
in the water, with the non-polar section in the air. Two primary proteins that are commonly
used as aerators in marshmallows are albumen (egg whites) and gelatin.[11]
Albumen (egg whites) :- Albumen is a mixture of proteins found in egg whites, and is
utilized for its capacity to create foams. In a commercialized setting, dried albumen is used as
opposed to fresh egg whites. In addition to convenience, the advantages of using dried
albumen are an increase in food safety, and the reduction of water content in the
marshmallow. Fresh egg whites carry a higher risk of Salmonella, and are approximately 90
percent water. This is undesirable for the shelf life and firmness of the product. For artisan-
type marshmallows, prepared by a candy maker, fresh egg whites are usually used. Albumen
is rarely used on its own when incorporated into modern marshmallows, and instead is used
in conjunction with gelatin.[12]
Gelatin :- Gelatin is the aerator most often used in the production of marshmallows. It is
made up of collagen, a structural protein derived from animal skin, connective tissue, and
bones. Not only can it stabilize foams, like albumen, but when combined with water it forms
a thermally-reversible gel. This means that gelatin can melt, then reset due to its sensitivity to
temperature. The melting point of gelatin gel is around 95 °F (35 °C), which is just below
normal body temperature (around 97 °F (36 °C)). This is what contributes to the "melt-in-
your-mouth" sensation when a marshmallow is consumed—it actually starts to melt when it
touches the tongue.[11]
During preparation, the temperature needs to be just above the melting point of the
gelatin, so that as soon as it is formed it cools quickly, and the gelatin will set, retaining the
desired shape. If the marshmallow rope mixture exiting the extruder during processing is too

58
warm, the marshmallow starts to flow before the gelatin sets. Instead of a round marshmallow,
it will take a more oval form. Excessive heat can also degrade, or break down, the gelatin
itself. Therefore, when marshmallows are being produced at home or by artisan candy makers,
the gelatin is added after the syrup has been heated and cooled down.
In commercial operations, the gelatin is simply cooked with the sugar syrup, rather than
being added later after the syrup has cooled. In this case, kinetics play an important role, with
both time and temperature factoring in. If the gelatin was added at the beginning of a batch
that was then cooked to 112–116 °C in 20–30 minutes, a significant amount of gelatin would
break down. The marshmallow would have reduced springiness from that loss of gelatin. But
since the time the syrup spends at elevated temperature in modern cookers is so short, there is
little to no degradation of the gelatin.[6]
In terms of texture, and mouth-feel, gelatin makes marshmallows chewy by forming a
tangled 3-D network of polymer chains. Once gelatin is dissolved in warm water (dubbed the
"blooming stage"), it forms a dispersion, which results in a cross-linking of its helix-shaped
chains. The linkages in the gelatin protein network, trap air in the marshmallow mixture, and
immobilize the water molecules in the network. The result is the well-known spongy
structure of marshmallows. This is why the omission of gelatin from a marshmallow recipe
will result in marshmallow crème, since there is no gelatin network to trap the water and a
bubbles.[11]
Sugars :- Marshmallows are an amorphous solid because of how the sugars crystallize. This
is because the crystals formed are not grained, and very fine in size, as opposed to its
crystalline counterpart where the crystals are grainy, and larger in size. This is why
temperature plays such an important role in the production of marshmallows. To make an
amorphous solid like marshmallow, the sugar syrup solution (sucrose, corn syrup, and invert
sugar) is heated at a high temperature. It is then cooled so rapidly that no crystals have time
to form. The quick cooling of the liquid in open air does not allow the sucrose molecules to
form crystals, so glass (amorphous) crystals are created instead.[13] In most confections, a
combination of different sugars is used, each of which influence the solubility concentration
of one another. The presence of invert sugar and/or corn syrup causes a substantial decrease
in sucrose solubility due to the competition among the sugar molecules for water.[14]
A traditional marshmallow might contain about 60% corn syrup, 30% sugar, and 1% to
2% gelatin. The corn syrup/sugar ratio will provide only about 35% to 40% solids to prevent
crystallization. Crystallization can be further avoided with proper selection of the corn syrup
type. A higher conversion corn syrup will contribute more invert sugar to the formula, which
inhibits crystallization. If a grainy-textured marshmallow is desired, you simply increase the
sugar ratio to the point where it will crystallize about 60% to 65%, then whip it, and add a
little powdered sugar. As it cools, the sugar crystallizes out to form the grained
marshmallow.[15]
Sucrose :- Sucrose is another ingredient utilized in most aerated confections. It is a

disaccharide that consists of one glucose and fructose molecule. This sugar provides
sweetness and bulk to the marshmallow, while simultaneously setting the foam to a firm
consistency as it cools.[15] Sucrose, and sugars in general, impair the ability of a foam to

59
form, but improve foam stability. Therefore, sucrose is used in conjunction with a protein like
gelatin. The protein can absorb, unfold, and form a stable network, while the sugar can
increase the viscosity.[16] Liquid drainage of the continuous phase must be minimized as
well. Thick liquids drain more slowly than thin ones, and so increasing the viscosity of the
continuous phase will reduce drainage. A high viscosity is essential if a stable foam is to be
produced. Therefore, sucrose is a main component of marshmallow. But sucrose is seldom
used on its own, because of its tendency to crystallize.
Corn syrup :-
Corn syrup, sometimes known as glucose syrup, is a syrup containing dextrin, maltose, and
dextrose. Partial hydrolysis of cornstarch obtains it.[17] Corn syrup is important in the
production of marshmallow because it prevents the crystallization of other sugars (like
sucrose). It may also contribute body, reduce sweetness, and alter flavour release, depending
on the Dextrose Equivalent (DE) of the glucose syrup used.
The DE is the measure of the amount of reducing sugars present in a sugar product in relation
to glucose. Lower-DE glucose syrups will provide a chewier texture, while higher-DE syrups
will make the product more tender.[15] In addition, depending on the type of DE used, can
alter the sweetness, hygroscopicity, and browning of the marshmallow. Corn syrup is
flavourless and cheap to produce which is why candy companies love using this product.
Invert sugar :- Invert sugar is produced when sucrose breaks down due to the addition of
water, also known as hydrolysis. This molecule exhibits all the characteristics of honey
except the flavour because it is the primary sugar found in honey. This means that invert
sugar has the ability to prevent crystallization, and produce a tender marshmallow. It is also
an effective humectant, which allows it to trap water, and prevent the marshmallow from
drying out. For some candies, this is not a good trait to have, but for marshmallows, it is an
advantage since it has a high moisture content.[6]
Additional ingredients
Flavors: - Unless a variation of the standard marshmallow is being made, vanilla is always
used as the flavouring. The vanilla can either be added in extract form, or by infusing the
vanilla beans in the sugar syrup during cooking. This[clarification needed] is the best
technique to get an even distribution of flavour throughout the marshmallow.[12]
Acids: - Acids, such as cream of tartar or lemon juice, may also be used to increase foam
stability. Addition of acid decreases the pH. This reduces the charge on the protein molecules,
and brings them closer to their isoelectric point. This results in a stronger, more stable inter-
facial film. When added to egg whites, acid prevents excessive aggregation at the interface.
However, acid delays foam formation. It may therefore be added toward the end of the
whipping process after a stable foam has been created.[10]
Manufacturing process :-
1) Commercial process :-

60
In commercial marshmallow manufacture, the entire process is streamlined and fully

automated.
Gelatin is cooked with sugar and syrup. After the gelatin-containing syrup is cooked, it
is allowed to cool slightly before air is incorporated. Whipping is generally accomplished in a
rotor-stator type device. Compressed air is injected into the warm syrup, held at a temperature
just above the melting point of gelatin. In a marshmallow aerator, pins on a rotating cylinder
(rotor) intermesh with stationary pins on the wall (stator) provide the shear forces necessary
to break the large injected air bubbles into numerous tiny bubbles that provide the smooth,
fine-grained texture of the marshmallow. A continuous stream of light, fluffy marshmallow
exits the aerator enrooted to the forming step.
The marshmallow confection is typically formed in one of three ways. First, it can be
extruded in the desired shape and cut into pieces, as done for Jet-Puffed marshmallows.
Second, it can be deposited onto a belt, as done for Peeps. Third, it can be deposited into a
starch-based meld in a mogul to make various shapes.[6]
2) Home making process :-

The home process for making marshmallow differs from commercial processes. A
mixture of corn syrup and sugar is boiled to about 227 °F (108 °C) to give a moisture content
of approximately 20%. In a separate step, gelatin is hydrated with enough warm water to
make a thick solution. Once the sugar syrup has cooled to about 100 °F (38 °C), the gelatin
solution is blended in along with desired flavouring, and whipped in a Kitchen Aid or Hobart-
type mixer to reach the final density. The marshmallow is then scooped out of the bowl,
scabbed on a table, and cut into pieces.[12]
Recipe:-
Marshmallows are incredibly cool — not only do they taste good, but by lighting them you
can create a great source of light in a dark campsite!
Technically, marshmallows are a confection — a candy. They've been around in the form we
know them since the mid-1800s.
They are called "marshmallows" because part of the early recipe called for sap from the root
of the marshmallow plant. According to Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, a
marshmallow is :- a pink-flowered European perennial herb (Althaea officinal is) of the
mallow family that is naturalized in the eastern U.S. and has a mucilaginous root sometimes
used in confectionery and in medicine; 2: a confection made from the root of the
marshmallow or from corn syrup, sugar, albumen, and gelatin beaten to a light spongy
consistency
That word "mucilaginous" means "jelly-like." Later, the root was replaced by gelatin, and
that is how modern marshmallows are made.
There is a very cool cookbook called "Better Than Store Bought" that is now out of print but
still available in used bookstores and libraries. It contains the following recipe for making
your own marshmallows:

61
 1/4 cup cornstarch

 1/3 cup confectioners’ sugar
 1 envelope unflavoured gelatin
 1/3 cup water
 2/3 cup granulated sugar
 1/2 cup light corn syrup
 Pinch of salt
 1 teaspoon vanilla extract
1. Sift the cornstarch and confectioners’ sugar into a bowl. Lightly grease an 8x8-inch
square baking pan and sprinkle 1 tablespoon of the cornstarch-and-sugar mixture into it.
Tilt the pan to coat the sides and the bottom. Leave any excess in the pan.
2. Sprinkle the gelatin into the water in a small saucepan and let soak for five minutes. Add
the granulated sugar and stir over low heat until the gelatin and sugar dissolve.
3. In the large bowl of an electric mixer, combine the gelatin mixture, corn syrup, salt and
vanilla and beat for 15 minutes on high speed, until peaks form.
4. Spread the fluffy mixture in the prepared pan and smooth the top. Leave for two hours or
until set.
5. With a wet knife, cut the marshmallow mixture into quarters and loosen around the edges.
Sprinkle the remaining cornstarch-and-sugar mixture on a baking sheet and invert the
marshmallow blocks onto it. Cut each quarter into nine pieces and roll each one in the
starch and sugar.
6. Place the marshmallows on a cake rack covered with paper towels and let them stand
overnight to dry the surface slightly. Store airtight; the marshmallows will keep for a
month.
Naugat:-
Nougat, aerated confection made by mixing nuts and sometimes fruit pieces in a sugar
paste whose composition is varied to give either a chewy or a brittle consistency. Nougat
originated in Mediterranean countries, where honey, together with almonds or other nuts, was
beaten into egg whites and then sun-dried.
In the modern preparation of nougat, honey or sugar and egg albumen are cooked at a
temperature below which the albumen coagulates. The resulting mass is then stiffened to the
desired degree under heat and combined with hard-cooked sugar and corn syrup. Vegetable
fats such as coconut oil are often added to facilitate cutting and biting.
Nougat is traditionally flavoured with almonds or pistachio nuts. Crystallized fruit
pieces are sometimes incorporated.
Nougats is a traditional sugar candy not all that different from marshmallow, and
divinity; they all belong to the same crystalline candy family and all three are very, very close
in terms of texture, flavour and technique. Made in Province since the end of the 17th century,
when almond trees were introduced to Southern France, nougat as we know it replaced a

62
similar walnut confection as the local delicacy. The first commercial nougat factory in
Montelimar opened in 1770, and a few of the town's existing factories have been in operation
since the end of the 19th century.
There are two standard varieties of nougat and many variations in between: soft nougat
(tendre), which is chewy but substantial, and hard nougat (dur), which is initially crunchy but
dissolves grudgingly as you chew. A spreadable version called creme de nougat has the
slightly malted taste of processed milk and can be used to fill tarts and Breton-style
buckwheat crepes or eaten straight from the jar with a spoon.
Nougat is made by preparing a meringue or whipping a solution of egg whites or gelatin

or both and then streaming hot concentrated boiled sugar syrup (Hard-Ball Stage) into it
while continuing to beat. It can either be soft and chewy or hard and crunchy depending on
the degree to which the sugar syrup is cooked and the proportion of sugar syrup to egg white.
Vegetable fats are added to give chewiness, and it is often studded with toasted almonds and
pistachios. Fruits or honey may also be added. You can find nougat flavoured with coffee,
lavender flowers or chunks of candied orange peel and in all the colors and flavours
imaginable. You can buy nougat in tins, in bags of bite-size squares and in chocolate-covered
bars.
Recipe:-
1) Assemble Your Ingredients :-This basic nougat recipe produces a chewy, sweet
confection studded with three kinds of crunchy nuts and delicately scented with extracts and
orange blossom water. This recipe requires careful timing, so be sure to have read the
instructions carefully and have all of your ingredients prepared before beginning. It is best to
make nougat on a clear day with low humidity. For easily printable instructions, please refer
to the Almond Honey Nougat recipe. To begin, assemble your ingredients and supplies:
3/4 cup whole hazelnuts, toasted
3/4 cup whole almonds, toasted
3/4 cup whole pistachios, toasted
2 cups granulated sugar
1 cup light corn syrup
1/2 cup honey
1/4 tsp salt
1/4 cup water
2 egg whites, room temperature
2 tsp vanilla extract
1 tsp almond extract
1/4 cup (1/2 stick) softened butter
1 tsp orange blossom water* (see note)
edible rice paper* (see note)
candy thermometer
9x13 pan
Large stand mixer with whisk attachment

63
A note on ingredients: Orange blossom water can be found in Middle Eastern markets and in
some large grocery or specialty stores. If you can’t find orange blossom water, it can be
omitted, but the flavour will not be quite the same.
This recipe also calls for edible rice paper, also known as wafer paper. The rice paper helps
prevent the nougat from sticking to everything and makes it easier to cut, serve, and store the
candy. It can often be found in Asian food markets and in some gourmet stores, or purchased
online. Sugar craft carries rice paper, and I have had good luck buying it on ebay for a low
cost. (Note that edible rice paper is not the same as thin rice paper wrappers intended for
spring rolls). If you cannot find any, line your pan with parchment paper or foil and spray it
thoroughly with non-stick cooking spray.
2) Boil the Sugar Syrup :- Place the sugar, corn syrup, honey and water in a large heavy
saucepan over medium heat. Stir constantly until the sugar dissolves, then use a wet pastry
brush to wipe down the sides of the saucepan to prevent sugar crystals from forming. Insert a
candy thermometer and continue to cook the syrup, without stirring, until the candy
thermometer reads 252 degrees.
3) Wipe the egg white :- When the sugar syrup is nearing the proper temperature, begin to
beat the egg whites until they are opaque with firm, stiff peaks. Try to time the beating so that
the stiff peaks stage coincides with the proper temperature of the syrup. If the egg whites are
ready before the syrup, stop the mixer so that they are not overbeaten and crumbly.
4) Pour some of the syrup into the white :- Once the sugar syrup is at 252, carefully
remove 1/4 cup of syrup and keep the rest of the syrup on the heat. With the mixer running,
slowly pour the hot 1/4 cup of syrup in a thin, steady stream into the egg whites. Beat the
whites at high speed for five minutes until they hold firm peaks.
5) Boil the syrup to 315 degrees :- While the egg whites are being beaten, continue to cook
the rest of the sugar syrup until the thermometer reads 315 degrees. Monitor the syrup
carefully, as it can quickly overheat and burn near the end of the cooking process.
6) Pour rest of syrup into egg white :-

1.Once the syrup reaches 315 degrees, remove the pan from the heat. If you have a large heat-
safe measuring cup with a spout, pour the sugar syrup into the cup to make it easier to pour
into the mixer. If not, be sure to be very cautious when working with such hot liquids. With
the mixer running, pour the hot syrup slowly into the egg whites.
2.Beat the whites on high for an additional five minutes, or until they hold the mixture is
glossy and a thick ribbon forms when the whisk is lifted from the bowl.
7) Add flavouring and nuts :-

1.Stop the mixer and add the vanilla extract, almond extract, orange blossom water, salt, and
butter. Turn the mixer back on for an additional five minutes or until a thick ribbon forms
when the whisk is lifted from the bowl.

64
2.Remove the bowl from the mixer and stir in the nuts by hand.
8) Scrape the Nougat into the pan :-

1. Prepare your 9x13 pan by spraying it with non-stick cooking spray and lining the bottom
with rice paper. If you don't have rice paper, line the pan with parchment paper or foil and
spray it thoroughly with non-stick cooking spray.
2.Scrape the nougat into the prepared pan. It will be stiff! Use a rubber spatula to scrape the
candy from the sides of the bowl. Spray your hands with non-stick cooking spray and press
the candy into a thin, even layer.
3.Place an additional layer of rice paper on top of the nougat to cover it entirely. If you do not
have rice paper, skip steps 3 and 4.
4.If your nougat is covered with rice paper, you can weigh it down to compress the nougat
evenly. Place a second 9x13 pan on top of your nougat, and place a large book or other heavy
object in the pan to weigh it down and provide even compression. Allow the nougat to set
overnight.
9) Cut the nougat :- When you are ready to cut the nougat, spray a knife with non-stick
cooking spray and run it along the edges of the pan to loosen the candy. Turn the nougat out
onto a cutting board. Using a knife sprayed with non-stick cooking spray, cut the nougat into
small squares or rectangles
10) Nougat is Ready :-Your nougat is now ready to eat! If you will not be serving it
immediately, it is a good idea to wrap the pieces in waxed paper so that they do not spread
and stick together. Store the nougat in an airtight container at room temperature for up to a
week.

65
Unit (31-32)
Panning: Process, types of Panning, soft and hard panning. Quality of confectionery,
Standards and regulations, Packaging requirements of confectionary, economics and
marketing of confectionary goods.
 Panning :-
Sugar panning, or simply panning, is a method for adding a candy "shell" to candy or
nuts.[1]:251 Popular candies that employ this process in their manufacture include dragées,
M&M's, gobstoppers, konpeitō and jelly beans. Jelly beans use soft panning while the other
three are examples of hard panning. The process was initially invented in 17th century France
to make Jordan almonds.
Method :-
Hard and soft panning both are made in a similar fashion, but with different ingredients
and at different speeds. A dragée pan, a spherical or oval pan mounted on an angled spinning
post, is used. The pan is open to the air to allow ingredients to be added and the syrup to dry.
The centres are put in the dragée pan, and syrup is added. The pan spins, and the syrup is
evenly distributed over the centres and dries on as a layer. Soft panned layers can be quite
thick and do not well preserve the shape of the centre. Hard panned layers take longer to dry
and can be as thin as 10-14μm.[1]:248
The choice for centres is wide, but they must be strong enough to not break during the
tumbling. Nuts should be dried and sealed, such as with gum arabic and flour, to prevent oils
from escaping and discolouring the candy shell. Other centres may be percolated for sealing
or to improve the syrup sticking to the centre. Chewing gum is difficult to pan without
percolating.[1]:252
Hard Panning coating:-
A hard panned candy has a smooth surface aspect which is enhanced by a shine. The
external layer is made of crystallized sugar. According to the sugar layer thickness, the candy
offers a lightly or hard crunchy bite.
Base
The cores are of multiple types : nuts (almonds), chocolate, dried fruits, chewy gum... Very
small cores such as a sugar crystal, a liquorice particle can be used.
Ingredients
The layer is prepared with:
 sugar ,
 glucose syrup ,
 water .
 colour, flavour.

66
The glucose syrup quantity is from 0 to a few percents in order to control the crystallization
process. The final dry solid content ranges usually from 67 to 72%.
Process :-
The sequences run as follows:
1. Filling and tumbling of the cores in a rotating pan ,
2. Syrup application +1 - 3% ,
3. Dispersion ,
4. Drying with dry air ,
5. Operation 2 to 3 are repeated until the required thickness is achieved ,
6. Discharge .
It is a batch operation. The drying air must have a low Relative Humidity, circa 55%. The
temperature is 40°C. In case of chocolate, the temperature has to be lower and the RH
reduced, circa 30%. Different layers can be applied: initial gumming, engrossing with a
concentrated syrup, smoothing with a diluted syrup, whitening with a titanium dioxide or rice
starch suspension, colouring and flavouring. The total process time ranges from 1 to 8 hours
depending on the sugar layer thickness compared to the core size.
After coating, the product needs to be stored in a stove at regulated temperature and moisture
during 12 - 24 hours to finalize the crystallization.
Coating system:-
The operation occurs in a coating pan.. The revolution of the pan causes a smooth tumbling
effect. Mixing may be enhances by baffles. Coating pans have ball or cylinder shapes,
offering respectively small 50 - 250 kg, to large 250 - 3000 kg capacities. The syrup
application occurs by dribbling or spraying. Pans differs in shape (ball, cylinder), size (600
mm to 3 m. diameter). A fully automated operation require ancillaries such as automatic
loading, discharge, air blowing and exhaust, syrup preparation and dosing, cleaning in place.
Key features
The key features to take into consideration are :
 core type, shape and dimensions ,
 sugar syrup, concentration,
temperature, crystallization speed ,
 air conditions, temperature, RH, velocity ,
 time sequences ,
 pan type, shape and dimensions.

67
Soft panned:-
Product: - Soft coated dragée results from the coating of a centre with successive layers of a
sugar syrup and sugar powder.
Base: - Cores are typically hard or soft, chewy centres.
Ingredients:-
The sugar syrup is prepared with:
1. sugar,
2. water,
3. glucose syrup.
Glucose brings stickiness, helps in film forming, delays and controls the sugar crystallization.
Process:-
The sequences run as follows:
1. wetting of the centre with the syrup, dispersion
2. application of sugar powder
3. time is left for the powder to disperse; progressively, the moisture reappears on the
surface of the centre
4. 1 or 2 extra additions of powder are made to fully dry the centre
5. operation 1 to 4 is repeated 2 to 5 times depending on the final size and weight increase
required
It is a batch operation.
The centres have to be stored for 12 hours to stabilize the centres and finalize the
crystallization.
Coating system:-
The operation occurs in a rotating pan . The sugar powder consists in fine sugar and icing
sugar.
Key features:-
The soft coating process differs from the hard coating process:
1. the process is quicker - 20 minutes to 1 hour
2. the shell is softer to the bite
3. the residual moisture is either 4 - 5%
4. the surface is rougher
Optionally, the centre can receive a finish:
1. a hard coated layer to offer a different texture
2. a final shine by applying a special glaze.
Quality of confectionery (Standards and Regulations) :-

The confectionery industry has been subject to Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
regulations since before the agency’s official inception. Confectionery manufacturers were a
primary target of the initial federal oversight for food and beverage manufacturing practices.

68
This was done in an effort to impose more stringent standards for products marketed to young
children. Federal authorities reasoned that candy consumables could present a danger if
contaminants or foreign objects wind up in end-products distributed to younger consumers.
In 1906, Congress passed the Food and Drugs Act, which banned using colour additives to
dye candy products that were ruled poisonous or otherwise harmful. This evolved into the
Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act (FD&C Act) of 1938, which was expanded after multiple
incidents of food borne illness among several children occurred after consumption of a candy
containing a potentially harmful colour additive. The FDA continues to enforce strict
obligations for confectionery manufacturers regarding artificial dyes and other ingredients
involved in candy production. Navigating these multiple complex regulations requires a
solution that delivers comprehensive insight into every stage of your production and supply
chains, and allows you to account for every possible legal directive in food and beverage
compliance.
Here are a few ways SWK’s Enterprise Management Food & Beverage bundle, powered by
Sage, enables confectionery manufacturers to meet compliance:
1. Raw Material Processing:-

FDA regulations for confectionery manufacturing raw material processing procedures
enforce strict practices for cleanliness and safety. Candy products and other confectionery
items are produced from foodstuff ingredients that are susceptible to being damaged by
animals, insects, or natural spoilage, as well as by microbial or other infestations.
Confectionery manufacturers must employ proper cleaning techniques to prevent any harm to
consumers, however, these processes can also create their own residue in addition to needing
their effectiveness measured regularly.
Enterprise Management provides manufacturing resource processing functionality that

delivers comprehensive insight into ingredient management. Users can apply this bundled
solution’s features towards managing raw material tasks from procurement to batch
production and gain visibility over the status of ingredients at every stage of the supply chain.
Enterprise Management Food & Beverage allows you to sort through raw materials to better
identify potential contaminants and allergens so that they can be removed before they enter
batch processing.
2. Formula & Recipe Management :-

Confectionery product formulas must also abide by certain obligations concerning
raw material and batch quality as well as the potentially harmful effects of any ingredient
included in the final mixture. Past incidents involving contaminated or otherwise harmful
ingredients in confectionery candy products have prompted regulatory agencies to impose
batch processing standards on food and beverage manufacturers. These practices are aimed at
preventing contaminants from tainting entire product batches as well as allergens from
entering unlabeled packages.

69
Utilizing Enterprise Management’s formula and recipe management features, users

can apply programmed techniques into mixtures for batch production. Streamlined process
manufacturing functionality allows you to automate mixing procedures to ensure timely
deliverables while removing human error from repetitive tasks such as formula management.
Precise pre-programmed product recipes not only mitigate the potential for allergens and
contaminants to enter production but allow for easier identification of noncompliant batches.
3. Enabling Quality Control :-

Ensuring final product quality and integrity is a critical function within regulatory
mandates for confectionery manufacturers. Defects that go unnoticed during checks in raw
material processing and batch production must be identified and sorted out so as to prevent
tainted final batches from entering the supply chain. FDA regulations dictate minimum levels
of potential contaminants that may be present in product batches and the acceptable practices
that should be implemented to ensure consistent safety compliance.
The Enterprise Management Food & Beverage bundle, powered by Sage, allows you
to maintain quality standards and measurements for raw materials and processing batches.
These standards are programmed into the system to be compared against during checks on the
conditions of a given batch at a designated stage. Checkpoints for enforced inspections enable
consistent examinations of product quality to ensure potentially contaminated packages do
not enter the supply chain and violate compliance.
4. Package & Product Labelling:-

Informative product labelling is a universal standard across all FDA-regulated
industries, but it presents an additional pain point for confectionery manufacturers due to the
relative size of the packaging. As candy products often require smaller coverings, regulatory
agencies have taken into consideration the proper amount of space on confectionery
packaging that should be devoted to listing ingredients. Certain materials can be compiled
under bulk, or “shotgun,” ingredient names, however, there are still stringent requirements for
can or cannot be included within this designation.
By taking advantage of Enterprise Management’s data processing capabilities, your
confectionery manufacturing business can maintain track of all of your ingredients used in
processing tasks. Automated information capturing processes store data from recipe
management that can be applied towards populating ingredient lists for printed labels.
Deploying data mined during processing ensures packaging displays labels that use accurate
and consistent data across each batch produced.
5. Track-and-Trace from Production to Distribution :-

Product recalls can have a devastating effect on any business within the food and beverage
industry, especially for confectionery manufacturers who are attempting to maintain tighter
control of their net profit margins. Regulations require that products found to be
contaminated or mislabelled must be recalled along with all other possibly affected packages.
This can translate to whole lots being pulled out of distribution in order to narrow down the

70
source, which can represent severe financial costs in shipping, fines and lost business the
more extensive the situation becomes.
Sage Enterprise Management provides users with the ability to deploy end-to-end
visibility for supply chain processes that delivers improved insight into product distribution
paths. Noncompliant packages can be traced from final product to lot, to original batch and
raw materials used in processing. Enterprise Management enables both upstream and
downstream tracking of product lots to enable a real-time, comprehensive overview of
product movement in the event of a situation arising, such as a recall. Affected packages can
be identified and removed from distribution before an outbreak spreads further, ensuring
compliance with consumer regulations.
Packaging material used Confectionery and similar products :-

The packaging of chocolate, biscuits and confectionary has a rich history that traces
back to the beginning of the industrial revolution. Packaging now consists of containers made
of card box, metal, plastic or plastic bags. Many times additional wrapping, such as
aluminium foil, is needed to preserve the product. Here are details on the most suitable types
of materials for packaging chocolate, biscuits and confectionery.
Assorted Packaging
One of the most common ways to package sweets is using assorted packaging, made
of cardboard cartons with cell trays. It may come with dividers to create multiple levels that
protect the product. Today this packaging can be performed by high speed artificial vision
guided robots, which can pick up 140 units per minute. A top challenge for using this
technology is to avoid making marks on the chocolate or the chocolate sheets that cover the
inner layers. Another challenge is for the chocolate to maintain a shiny appearance.
New Millennium Sustainability

In the new millennium the chocolate industry is focused on making manufacturing
and packaging as sustainable as possible. Two eco-friendly materials that help the industry
achieve this goal are tinplate and aluminium. Both can be recycled over and over and are
flexible enough to be useful for a variety of purposes. Demand for these materials is
particularly strong in the cosmetics industry.
Tinplate and aluminium both can be customized and shaped to fit endless new ideas
for packaging or labelling. They can also both be mass produced quickly at affordable costs
in ways that now avoid waste. Both materials are easy to bend and fit into imaginative shapes,
regardless of how unconventional they may be. Tinplate comes in various designs such as
seamless tins, screw lid aluminium cans and slip cover aluminium cans.
One of the reasons tinplate is so popular is that it's a highly useful material for containers that
include a reclosable bag with a pluresalablend resalable lid. Tinplate and aluminium also
provide utility in terms of durability and protection. They help protect the product better in

71
the shipping process than plastic bags can, which means these metals also help extend shelf
life.
How Shapes Relate to Sustainability:-

Package shapes play a huge role in the overall product's sustainability image. Liquids
and powders can be packaged in multiple ways compared with solid materials that must be
packaged a certain way to ensure protection of the product. Seamless tins are very useful for
packaging fluids. When packages are cut into specific shapes it can create waste, unless the
scraps are recycled for other products. Flexible packaging materials such as tins can help cut
down on the amount production waste.
Aluminium is often used for cans and other formats, as its lightweight quality
contributes to flexible sustainable packaging. Like tin, aluminium can be recycled over and
over without any loss of quality to the metal. Aluminium can also be used to make huge thin
sheets of tin, which are useful for packaging chocolate, biscuits and confectionary. A key
reason why aluminium is favoured by environmentalists is that it has the highest recycle rate
of any packaging format in the beverage industry.
Consumers are growing increasingly aware of sustainability and want to play a more
active role in protecting the environment. They can tell how minimalism is becoming an
obvious factor in the green revolution. Plastic is not as sustainable due to the fact it degrades
and it's not as air-tight as metal. Packaging that uses multiple layers of foil or plastic simply
is not as efficient.
Concerns for Food Safety :-

Another dimension of food packaging that's a top priority is food safety. Tinplate and
aluminium are heavily favoured materials because they protect food from spoiling. Desjardin
takes extra precautions to make sure their food is safe for consumers. The company coats
aluminium and tin plates with an EU-approved transparent "food varnish." While plastic can
degrade over time, metals have a more durable quality, which allows for a longer shelf life.
Thin sheets of foil are useful for preserving fresh fruits, vegetables and other foods.
Since foil is flexible it can be shaped to protect food from air, moisture and bacteria. Various
sheet thicknesses can be used for different purposes.
Another appeal of tin cans is its low toxicity and resistance to corrosion. It's important
for food manufacturers to use the most appropriate packaging to make sure the food remains
safe for human consumption. A company is risking its reputation by cutting corners on
materials that do not fully comply with US and EU regulations. Metals such as tin and
aluminium provide maximum protection against microorganisms, temperature and other
environmental elements.
General View of Confectionery Marketing: -

72
The confectionery market is one of the growing sectors globally . Usually, confections
are low in nutrients and high in calorie. Sugar-free confections are gaining popularity in the
recent years due to factors such as increasing obesity rate, increasing number of diabetic
patients, increasing nutritional and health concerns, and changing lifestyle. The confectionery
market can be primarily divided into two broad categories: sugar confectionery and bakers’
confectionery . Sugar confectionery includes sweets, candies, chocolates, and chewing gum.
Bakers’ confectionery includes pastries, cakes, doughnuts, and cookies.
The global confectionery market can be segmented into five categories: chocolate
confectionery, sugar confectionery, gum, cereal bars, and others. Major raw materials used in
chocolates are cocoa and sugar, and raw materials used in gum include latex. Confectionery
products are consumed by people of all age groups.
In terms of geography, Europe dominates the global confectionery market, followed

by North America and Asia Pacific. The U.S. represents the largest confectionery market
globally, followed by China and the U.K. India is the key market in Asia Pacific and the
fastest-growing confectionery market in the world. Rising disposable income, growing retail
market, increasing trend of gifting confectionery items, increasing population , increasing
urbanization, hectic lifestyle, and more women in the workforce are some of the major
driving factors of the confectionery market. Increasing population along with increasing
disposable income in developing countries such as India and China is expected to increase the
growth rate of the confectionery market. Increasing disposable income allow the customer to
spend more.
According to the National Bureau of Statistics China, annual per capita disposable
income of urban households in China increased from USD 2,271.0 in 2008 to USD 3408.5 in
2012. The overall annual disposable income in India median household income increased
from USD 1,366.2 billion in 2010 to USD 1,587.6 billion in 2013. Consumers with hectic
schedule tend be more inclined toward confections, as these items are tasty and consume less
time. Additionally, increasing number of working women is driving the global confectionery
market as it is resulting in higher disposable income for the family .
According to the U.S. Department of Labour in 2013, there were 127.1 million
working women in the U.S. which is expected to grow at 5.4% by 2022. The urban
population is more inclined toward consumption of confectionery compared to its rural
counterparts. According to the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs
(UN DESA), in 2013 the largest urban population growth took place in the Asian countries
such as India and China. By 2050, India is expected to have 404 million urban dwellers while
China is likely to stand at 292 million. Some of the major restraints for the global
confectionery market are rising health issues, increasing government regulations, and
increasing raw material cost.

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1

Food Processing and Technology

ONLY FOR EXAM PURPOSE TUSHAR. K. D.

History; Traditional confectionary goods; Types of confectionary; Classification of

The discovery of sugar – the “health” ingredient :-

The luxury of the Middle Ages :-

Boiled Sweets The automation of the early 19th century. :-

ONLY FOR EXAM PURPOSE TUSHAR. K. D.

As the history of confectionery continues, sugar processing developed and some

What about cocoa? :-

The History of Candy

ONLY FOR EXAM PURPOSE TUSHAR. K. D.

Sugar confectionery includes candies (sweets in British English), candied nuts,

ONLY FOR EXAM PURPOSE TUSHAR. K. D.

1. Chocolates: Bite-sized confectioneries generally made with chocolate, considered

ONLY FOR EXAM PURPOSE TUSHAR. K. D.

ONLY FOR EXAM PURPOSE TUSHAR. K. D.

Raw Materials/ ingredients- sugar, sugar qualities, physical, chemical, optical

 Raw Materials and Ingredients Used in Sugar Confectionery.

ONLY FOR EXAM PURPOSE TUSHAR. K. D.

 Physical, chemical, optical properties of Sugar.

ONLY FOR EXAM PURPOSE TUSHAR. K. D.

ONLY FOR EXAM PURPOSE TUSHAR. K. D.

could be a human treatment for osteoporosis.[4][5] Consumption of sugar alcohols affects

ONLY FOR EXAM PURPOSE TUSHAR. K. D.

ONLY FOR EXAM PURPOSE TUSHAR. K. D.

Starch derivatives, colours used in confectionary. Production of glucose syrup, Acid

1) Enzymes used in confectionery :-

ONLY FOR EXAM PURPOSE TUSHAR. K. D.

2) Gelling ( or Thickening agent ) and Whipping agents used in confectionery :-

ONLY FOR EXAM PURPOSE TUSHAR. K. D.

ONLY FOR EXAM PURPOSE TUSHAR. K. D.

A typical analysis of a gelatin would be

Xanthan gum E415:- A polysaccharide gum produced by Xanthomonas campestris. It

3) Food Colures and Flavours used in confectionery :-

ONLY FOR EXAM PURPOSE TUSHAR. K. D.

lists differ throughout the world.

ONLY FOR EXAM PURPOSE TUSHAR. K. D.

Cochineal (E120):- Cochineal is a traditional natural colour. It is made from a Mexican

ONLY FOR EXAM PURPOSE TUSHAR. K. D.

Annatto[E160(b)] :- Annatto is classified as E160(b). it is extracted from the seeds of a tree

ONLY FOR EXAM PURPOSE TUSHAR. K. D.

ONLY FOR EXAM PURPOSE TUSHAR. K. D.

ONLY FOR EXAM PURPOSE TUSHAR. K. D.

ONLY FOR EXAM PURPOSE TUSHAR. K. D.

Types of release agents :-

ONLY FOR EXAM PURPOSE TUSHAR. K. D.

Acidulents used in confectionery:-

Common acids used in food products include:

Milk and Milk Products used in confectionery :-

ONLY FOR EXAM PURPOSE TUSHAR. K. D.

Milk Powder for Low Moisture Confectionery (Toffee) :-

Emulsifiers used in confectionery :-

Lecithins: First emulsifiers used in commercial baking applications. Phospholipids within

ONLY FOR EXAM PURPOSE TUSHAR. K. D.

Application of starches, modified starches in processed food :-

ONLY FOR EXAM PURPOSE TUSHAR. K. D.

Anil Ltd is a leading manufacturer / supplier of native, modified starches sweeteners

Maltodextrin: - It is white or cream coloured powder with moderate sweetness. It is used

ONLY FOR EXAM PURPOSE TUSHAR. K. D.

High-maltose glucose syrups :- By using β-amylase or fungal α-amylase, glucose syrups

ONLY FOR EXAM PURPOSE TUSHAR. K. D.