Arab J Geosci (2016) 9: 278
DOI 10.1007/s12517-015-2298-1
ORIGINAL PAPER
Hydrogeochemical investigation and quality assessment of mine
water resources in the Korba coalfield, India
Abhay Kumar Singh 1 & Nitin P. Varma 1 & Guatum Chandra Mondal 1
Received: 27 June 2015 / Accepted: 28 December 2015 / Published online: 28 March 2016
# Saudi Society for Geosciences 2016
Abstract Hydrogeochemical investigation of water
discharged from the mines of Korba coalfield was carried
out to assess mine water geochemistry, solute acquisition pro-
cesses, and its suitability for domestic, irrigation, and indus-
trial uses. A total of 44 mine water samples were collected
from coal mines of Korba coalfield and analyzed for pH, elec-
trical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), major
cations (Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+), major anions (HCO3−, Cl−,
SO42−, NO3−), dissolved silica (H4SiO4), and trace metals.
pH of the analyzed mine water samples varied from 6.7 to
8.5, indicating mildly acidic to alkaline nature of water.
Concentration of total dissolved solids ranged from 97 to
785 mg L−1, and spatial differences in TDS values reflect
variation in lithology, surface activities, and hydrological re-
gime prevailing in the mining region. HCO3− and SO42− were
the dominant anions in mine water of the area, while Ca2+ and
Mg2+ dominated in cation chemistry. Higher contribution of
SO 4 2− to the total anions (TZ − ) may be attributed to
weathering of pyrites associated with the coal strata. High
concentrations of Ca2+, Mg2+, HCO3−, and SO42− and the
average HCO 3 −/(HCO 3 − + SO 4 2− ) ratio of 0.58 suggest
coupled reactions involving both sulfuric acid– and carbonic
acid–aided weathering which largely controls the solute ac-
quisition processes. The factor and cluster analyses of
hydrochemical data also suggest the reaction paths expected
from solution interacting with carbonate and silicate rocks
attacked by H2CO3 and/or H2SO4. Ca-Mg-SO4-Cl and Ca-
* Abhay Kumar Singh
singhak.cimfr@gmail.com
1
CSIR - Central Institute of Mining and Fuel Research (Council of
Scientific & Industrial Research), Barwa Road, Dhanbad 826 015,
India
Mg-HCO3 were the dominant water types in mine water of
the Korba coalfield. The computed saturation indices demon-
strate oversaturation condition with respect to calcite, dolo-
mite, and aragonite and undersaturation with respect to gyp-
sum, anhydrite, and halite. The quality assessment for drink-
ing uses indicates that TDS, total hardness, and concentration
of some trace metals (Fe, Mn, Ni, Al) exceeded the acceptable
levels in a number of mine water samples and need treatment
before its utilization. In general, the mine waters of the Korba
coalfield are of good to permissible quality and can be used for
livestock and irrigation in most cases. Higher salinity and
magnesium hazard values at some sites limit its suitability
for irrigation uses.
Keywords Korba coalfield . Mine water chemistry . Water
quality . Trace metals . Factor analysis . Cluster analysis
Introduction
Mining and associated activities have both quantitative and
qualitative impacts on the water regime in and around the
mining complexes. Mining operations affect water resources,
both surface water and groundwater at various stages of the
life cycle of the mine or even after its closure. The mining
process itself, mineral processing operations, mine
dewatering, flooding of mine workings, and discharge of un-
treated water are some important processes with related mine
water problems (Younger et al. 2002). The potential impacts
of mining activities on the water environment include disrup-
tion of hydrological pathways, seepage of contaminated
leachates into aquifers, disposal of saline mine water, and
depression of the water table around the dewatered zone.
The impacts of mining arising from the disruption of hydro-
logical pathways and seepage of contaminated leachates into
278 Page 2 of 20
aquifers tend to be relatively localized as compared to disposal
of mine water (Younger et al. 2002). Coal mining has a serious
threat to surface and groundwater resources, and it exacerbates
the crisis of potable water availability in mining areas.
Underground and opencast coal mining generates large vol-
umes of water which is often contaminated by underground
and surface processes associated with mining activities
(Johnson 2003; Singh et al. 2012). A large quantity of mine
water and waste rock leaching water were directly or indirect-
ly discharged into natural drainage without any purification
during the coal mining operations. Water pollution from the
disposal of wastewater is one of the several problematic envi-
ronmental issues associated with Indian coal mining industries
(Choubey 1991; Gupta 1999; Tiwary 2001; Singh 1987;
Equeenuddin et al. 2010).
The mining effects on water resources depend on the loca-
tion of mine, hydrology, and climate of an area and physical
and chemical properties of coal, associated strata, and reject
materials (Thompson 1980). The dissolution of CO2 and ox-
idation of sulphides are two major reactions which provide
bulk of the protons to chemically weather carbonates, sili-
cates, and aluminosilicate minerals in the coal mining areas
(Hounslow 1995; Singh et al. 2007). The coal seams and
associated sediments often contain group of minerals includ-
ing metallic sulphides, i.e., pyrites, arsenopyrites, marcasite,
etc., which can easily create sulphuric acid (acid mine) when
in contact with the released aquifer water. Acid mine drainage
(AMD) is one of the major sources of water pollution in and
around active and abandoned coal mines and hence regarded
as a worldwide problem (Younger 1995). The detrimental ef-
fect of such water is associated with its acidity and heavy
metal contaminations (Singh 1987; Sullivan and Yelton
1988; Equeenuddin et al. 2010; Gray 1997; Laroeque and
Rasmussen 1998; Rosner 1998). Higher concentrations of dis-
solved ions and metals in mine water make it unsuitable for
direct discharge into river systems and can also limit other
potential downstream uses (Rose and Cravotta 1998; Kirby
and Cravotta 2005).
Some coal mines generate water qualities associated with
Ca, Mg, Na, SO4, CO3, and HCO3 with near-neutral or alka-
line pH depending on the geology of the area. Such mine
water may act as a renewable water resource in the mining
areas for miscellaneous needs including industrial and agricul-
tural and can be made even potable by suitable water recla-
mation techniques (Singh 1994). The impact assessment of
mining activities on water regime and management of mine
water resources for its potential utilization required a long-
term hydrological data and regular monitoring of the water
quality parameters. Although some information on the aspects
of water quality and impacts of mining and allied activities on
water regimes is available for some Indian coalfields like
Jharia (Choubey 1991; Tiwary 2001; Sarkar et al. 2007;
Singh et al. 2007, 2012), Raniganj (Ghose and Sinha 1990;
Arab J Geosci (2016) 9: 278
1995; Singh et al. 2010), West Bokaro (Mondal et al. 2013;
Singh et al. 2009), Pench Valley (Gupta 1999), Umaria
(Pathak and Banerjee 1992), Singrauli (Dhar et al. 1986;
Jamal et al. 1991; Khan et al. 2013), Makum (Equeenuddin
et al. 2010), and Neyveli (Khan et al. 2005; Jayaprakash et al.
2008; Prasanna et al. 2011; Chidambaram et al. 2013), similar
information is lacking for many other Indian coalfields includ-
ing Korba. Except for some preliminary investigation of en-
vironmental components as a part of EIA/EMP study of par-
ticular mine to fulfill the statuary requirement for environment
clearance, no detailed study on the mine water quality and its
potential utilization has been carried out in the Korba coal-
field. The present hydrochemical study in the Korba coalfield
area aimed to investigate major and trace element chemistry of
coal mine water for the assessment of hydrogeochemical pro-
cesses controlling the fate of relevant chemical components
and mine water quality in relation to domestic, irrigation, and
industrial uses.
Korba coalfield
Korba coalfield derives its name from the Korba town and
located in the Korba district of Chattisgarh state in Central
India (Fig. 1). This coalfield is located between latitudes 22°
15′ N to 22° 30′ N and longitudes 82° 15′ E to 82° 55′ E and
covers an area of about 530 km2 (Raja Rao 1983). The coal-
field is situated in the lower Hasdeo valley around Korba and
elongated in the east to west direction. The Korba coalfield is
characterized by a gently undulating terrain with elevation
ranging from 275 to 335 m. The drainage pattern in the study
area is dendritic in nature and mainly controlled by the Hasdeo
River. The southerly flowing Hasdeo River divides the coal-
field in two unequal parts. Surakachhar, Banki, Balgi,
Rajgamar, Pavan, Manikpur, Dilwadih, Singhali, Bagdeva,
Kusumunda, Laxman, Gevra, and Dipka are the major work-
ing coalmines of Korba coalfield.
The Korba coalfield is a part of the Gondwana Supergroup.
The Gondwana rocks of the Korba coalfield are surrounded on
all sides except in the east by Archean rocks and comprise of
Talchirs, Barakars, and Kamthi Formations (Fig. 1). The coal
seams are confined to the Lower and Upper members of the
Barakar Formation, which are separated by a barren zone of
Middle Barakar. The southern boundary of this coalfield is
faulted; as a result of which, the Upper Barakar comes in
contact with the basement directly. The northern boundary is
unfaulted and the sedimentaries rest unconformably over the
basement. The Barakar Formation in the east is overlain by the
Kamthi Formation, probably with a disconfirmity. In the west-
ern part of the Korba coalfield, the undulating nature of the
basement is manifested in the form of a prominent inlier of
Talchir and basement within the Barakars. Korba is known as
the power capital of India, and thermal power plants of
National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) and
Arab J Geosci (2016) 9: 278 Page 3 of 20 278

82°20'E 82°30'E 82°40'E 82°50'E

CHHATTISGARH STATE
GEOLOGY
Korba Coal Field,

guj a
Kor

iya
Chhattisgarh State, India

S ur

ur
Jashp
Bilaspur
or
K
ba

Raigarh
a
rdh
wa

Janjgir-
Ka

Champa
Raipur

22°30'N
D ur g
n
nd gao

a mun d
22°30'N

M ah as
D ha
Raj Na

m ta

r
nke
ri

Ka
Bas
t ar

Dan
Dilwadih
Dondro Kesla
tew

Hasdeo River
ada

Rajgamar
Banki
Surkachar

22°20'N
22°20'N

Pali
Kusmunda
Dipka Gevra Belhai Manikpur
ur
sp
ila
B
To LEGEND

Cha
To a
Kamthi Fault

mp
Barakar Coal Seam
Talchir Strike & Dip
Metamorphics River/Stream
Coal Seam Road

22°10'N
22°10'N

Major River 0 2.5 5 10

km

82°20'E 82°30'E 82°40'E 82°50'E

Fig. 1 Location and geological map of Korba coalfield

Chattisgarh State Electricity Board (CSEB) are installed near- sampling sites, bottles were again washed with the sampled
by the Korba town. Korba is also the site of an aluminum water before collecting the samples. One-hundred-milliliter
factory operated by Bharat Aluminium Company (BALCO). mine water samples were filtered and acidified with HNO3
Korba falls under the hot temperate climate zone and ex- and preserved separately for analysis of trace metals. The
periences very hot and dry climate. Summer season starts from mine water samples were analyzed for pH, electrical conduc-
April and continue up to mid June. The maximum temperature tivity (EC), major cations (Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, and K+), major
of the coalfield rises up to 45 °C during May–June, while it anions (Cl−, HCO3−, SO42−, NO3−), dissolved silica (H4SiO4),
dips to 4 to 6 °C in December–January months. The average and trace metals following the standard analytical methods
annual rainfall in the Korba district is 1506 mm with a normal (APHA. 1998). Electrical conductivity (EC) and pH values
rainfall of 1287 mm. The rainfall mostly (80 %) occurs in the were measured in the field using a portable conductivity and
period of monsoon during June to September. The rainfall pH meter. Acid titration method was used to determine the
occasionally occurs during winter due to western concentration of bicarbonate (HCO3−) in unfiltered water
disturbances. samples. The water samples were filtered through 0.45-μm
Millipore membrane filters to separate suspended sediments.
Sampling and analysis Chloride (Cl−) concentration was determined by AgNO3 titra-
tion method. The molybdosilicate and turbidimetric methods
A total of 44 mine water samples were collected from different were used to measure the concentration of dissolved silica and
coal mines of the Korba coalfield during the post-monsoon sulphate, respectively (APHA. 1998). Nitrate (NO3−) concen-
and pre-monsoon seasons for present geochemical analysis. tration was measured by colorimetry method with UV-visible
The mine water samples were collected from both under- spectrophotometer. Concentration of major cations (Ca2+,
ground (underground sump and surface water discharge) and Mg2+, Na+, and K+) was measured by atomic absorption spec-
opencast (mine pit and settling pond) mines in 1-L narrow- trophotometer (Varian 280 FS) in flame mode. The analytical
mouthed pre-washed high-density polyethylene bottles. At the precision was maintained by running a known standard after
278 Page 4 of 20
every 15 samples. Concentration of trace metals in mine water
samples were determined by ICP-MS (Perkin Elmer). The
accuracy of the analysis was checked by analyzing NIST
1640 water reference standard. The precision obtained in most
cases was better than 5 % with comparable accuracy.
Hydrochemical results of all samples were statistically ana-
lyzed by using a commercial statistical software package
(SPSS, v.17).
Results and discussion
The results of geochemical analysis of 44 mine water samples
collected from different mines of Korba coalfield are given in
Table 1.
Major ion chemistry
The pH of the analyzed mine water samples varied from 6.7 to
8.5 with an average of 7.6, indicating mildly acidic to alkaline
nature of water. The electrical conductivity (EC) and total
dissolved solid (TDS) concentration ranged from 130 to
1051 μS cm−1 and 97 to 785 mg L−1, respectively, with an
average value of 489 μS cm−1 and 345 mg L−1. A large spatial
variation in the TDS and ionic concentrations was observed in
the mine water discharges from different mines of Korba coal-
field. Relatively higher TDS values were observed for the
Bagdeva, Surakachar (3/4 incline), Kusmunda, and Dipka
mine water and lower values for the Dilwadih, Singhali,
Banki, and Manikpur mine water discharges (Table 1). In
general, pre-monsoon water samples had relatively higher
concentrations of TDS and major dissolved ions as compared
to the post-monsoon samples. The differences in TDS values
and spatial variability in ionic concentrations may be attribut-
ed to variation in nature of coal seams and associated geolog-
ical formations and prevailing mining and hydrological con-
ditions in the region.
Bicarbonate, sulphate, calcium, sodium, and chloride were
the dominant dissolved ions in the Korba coal mine water,
constituting 38, 21, 8.9, 8.3, and 7.9 % of the total dissolved
solids, respectively, along with the secondary contribution
from silica (4.9 %), magnesium (4.5 %), potassium (3.7 %),
and nitrate (2.8 %). The anion chemistry of mine water is
dominated by HCO3− and SO42− with secondary contribution
from Cl− and NO3−. The concentration of bicarbonate varied
from 32 to 272 mg L−1 (average 122 mg L−1), and it consti-
tuted 47 % (22–90 %) of the total anions (TZ−) in equivalent
unit. HCO3− is mainly derived from the soil zone CO2 and
dissolution of carbonates and reaction of silicates with carbon-
ic acid (Appelo and Postma 1993). Concentration of sulphate
in the mine water ranged from 6.1 to 225.7 mg L−1 with an
average value of 77.3 mg L−1. Contribution of SO42− toward
the total anions (TZ−) varied from 6.6 to 50 % (average 33 %)
Arab J Geosci (2016) 9: 278
in an equivalent basis. Spatial variation of sulphate concentra-
tion showed relatively higher values for the mine water of
Bagdewa and Surakachar (3/4 incline) mines (Table 1).
Sulphate is one of the major anions occurring in natural wa-
ters. Sulphates in the mine water are usually derived from the
oxidative weathering of sulphide bearing minerals like pyrite
(FeS2), gypsum (CaSO4·2H2O), and anhydrite (CaSO4).
Gondwana coals of Indian coalfields are poor in sulphur con-
tent and usually contain <1 % sulphur. However, mineral py-
rite (FeS2) occurred as a secondary mineral in these coals and
associated sediments and higher contribution of SO42− to-
wards the total anionic budget (TZ−) in the analyzed coal mine
water may be attributed to weathering of pyrites (Raja Rao
1983; Lowson et al. 1993).
Chloride concentration in the Korba coal mine water varied
between 2.0 and 128.0 mg L −1 with a mean value of
31.1 mg L−1. On an average, chloride accounted for 17 % of
the total anionic charge balance (TZ−). The spatial distribution
of Cl− concentration showed a relatively higher values for the
Bagdewa, Surakachar (3/4 incline), Balgi (3/4 incline),
Kusmunda, and Dipka mine water. Chloride is present in low-
er concentration in common rock types, and bulks of the chlo-
ride in water are primarily derived from halite, sea spray,
brines, and hot springs. Abnormal concentration of chloride
may also result from anthropogenic sources including agricul-
tural runoff, domestic and industrial wastes, and leaching of
saline residues in the soil. The enhanced Cl− concentration in
some mine water samples indicates local recharge and con-
tamination by untreated industrial and mining waste effluents.
Concentration of NO3− ranged from <1 to 65 mg L−1 (average
10.4 mg L −1) and accounted for 3 % the total anions.
Biological fixation, atmospheric precipitation, application of
fertilizers, and industrial sewage are the chief sources of ni-
trate in the water (Appelo and Postma 1993). The use of ex-
plosive in the mining areas may also be one possible source of
nitrate in the mine water.
Calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) were the dominant
cations in the mine water of the Korba coalfield with average
cationic concentration trend of Ca 2+ > Mg2+ > Na+ > K +.
Weathering of rock-forming minerals and ion exchange pro-
cesses normally control the levels of these cations in the mine
water (Younger et al. 2002). Concentration of Ca2+ in the mine
water varied from a minimum value of 6.9 mg L−1 to maxi-
mum of 107.8 mg L−1 with an average of 33.3 mg L−1 and
accounted for 35 % of the total cations (TZ+). Weathering of
calcium carbonate (limestone and dolomite) and calc-silicate
minerals (amphiboles, pyroxenes, plagioclase) are the most
common source of calcium ions in the water. Concentration
of Mg2+ was reported in the minimum range of 3.3 mg L−1 to
maximum of 50.2 mg L−1 (average 16.0 mg L−1). On an
average, Mg2+ accounted for 30 % (11–42 %) of the total
cations (TZ+) in equivalent unit, and it exceeded Ca2+ concen-
tration at many sites. The principle source of Mg2+ in natural
Table 1 Physico-chemical characteristics of coal mine water of Korba coalfield

Samp. no Mining area Mine name Sample pH EC TDS Cl− HCO3− SO42 NO3− Silica Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+ K+ TH SAR RSC %Na PI MH
−
char.

1 Dilwadih Dilwadih U/G 7.0 281 188 18.0 62 40.3 7.47 16.4 11.3 8.8 15.1 8.5 65 0.82 −0.27 40.4 86 56.2
2 (U/G Mine) Dilwadih D/W 7.2 265 181 13.0 72 32.8 7.12 15.8 11.0 8.2 12.9 7.9 61 0.72 −0.04 38.4 92 55.0
3a Dilwadih D/W 8.3 310 213 21.4 78 43.3 1.37 18.3 14.5 9.4 17.4 8.8 75 0.87 −0.22 39.6 84 51.8
4 Bagdewa U/G 8.0 889 557 74.0 112 170.5 0.87 10.7 72.5 19.0 79.2 18.4 260 2.14 −3.35 43.0 56 30.2
Arab J Geosci (2016) 9: 278

5 Bagdewa D/W 8.2 829 525 70.4 104 164.4 2.77 12.4 66.8 17.6 70.9 15.6 239 2.00 −3.07 42.2 56 30.2
6a Bagdewa D/W 8.5 1051 666 86.2 167 179.9 1.05 13.3 64.0 28.4 87.6 38.9 276 2.29 −2.79 46.5 59 42.2
7 Singhali U/G 7.2 210 162 8.0 73 29.7 1.46 12.6 11.0 8.4 11.0 7.0 62 0.61 −0.04 34.7 92 55.6
8 Singhali D/W 6.8 184 136 8.7 53 12.7 2.12 9.8 9.4 6.5 8.4 5.2 50 0.52 −0.13 33.2 95 53.3
9a Singhali D/W 7.8 265 207 7.4 101 31.5 0.94 19.9 12.8 9.3 15.9 8.0 70 0.82 0.25 38.9 94 54.6
10 Surakachar Banki (4 Incline) U/G 7.1 137 110 4.0 32 22.8 8.50 17.5 6.9 4.8 5.8 7.8 37 0.41 −0.21 37.9 99 53.6
11 (U/G Mine) Banki (4 Incline) D/W 7.3 211 154 8.0 55 39.2 5.19 13.6 10.3 7.5 8.3 7.1 56 0.48 −0.22 32.5 88 54.5
12a Banki (4 Incline) D/W 7.7 261 193 6.2 78 43.6 1.84 19.6 15.8 9.1 11.5 7.5 77 0.57 −0.26 31.0 80 48.8
13 Banki (5/6 Incline) D/W 6.8 427 314 6.0 116 97.9 0.32 14.1 37.9 16.4 18.5 6.5 162 0.63 −1.34 23.1 54 41.7
14 Surakachar Main U/G 7.2 246 165 2.0 106 6.1 0.29 11.3 15.2 8.3 8.2 7.5 72 0.42 0.29 27.4 93 47.5
15 Surakachar Main D/W 7.4 334 238 8.0 116 40.7 0.45 9.0 23.3 8.8 22.7 9.1 94 1.01 0.02 39.3 82 38.4
16a Surakachar Main D/W 8.0 557 380 24.1 128 117.7 0.67 18.4 32.5 19.8 29.5 9.0 163 1.00 −1.15 31.7 60 50.1
17 Surakachar (3/4 Incline) U/G 7.1 685 470 45.0 131 144.0 1.44 16.2 58.3 19.7 46.2 8.2 227 1.34 −2.38 32.9 53 35.8
18a Surakachar (3/4 Incline) U/G 7.1 687 484 42.3 167 145.3 0.98 12.3 35.5 33.0 41.4 6.8 224 1.20 −1.75 30.5 55 60.5
19 Surakachar (3/4 Incline) D/W 7.9 673 448 45.0 135 130.9 1.04 9.6 53.9 19.5 45.1 8.2 215 1.34 −2.08 33.6 55 37.3
20a Surakachar (3/4 Incline) D/W 7.3 979 785 43.6 272 225.7 1.02 10.9 107.8 47.8 63.9 11.8 466 1.29 −4.85 24.9 40 42.2
21 Balgi (1/2 Incline) U/G 7.3 374 240 22.0 116 23.8 1.15 14.7 23.6 10.0 23.4 5.1 100 1.02 −0.10 36.5 79 41.2
22a Balgi (1/2 Incline) D/W 6.9 830 550 34.2 176 159.4 2.12 18.9 94.3 11.5 42.8 11.2 283 1.11 −2.76 27.5 47 16.7
23 Balgi (3/4 Incline) U/G 7.4 302 211 42.0 47 22.4 21.68 18.9 7.4 4.5 39.1 8.0 37 2.80 0.03 72.1 106 49.8
24 Balgi (3/4 Incline) D/W 7.5 399 255 40.0 70 49.7 13.03 15.8 18.9 7.0 34.0 6.6 76 1.70 −0.37 52.0 85 38.0
25a Balgi (3/4 Incline) D/W 7.8 771 536 72.3 97 178.8 3.03 15.9 92.6 10.9 54.9 10.9 276 1.44 −3.93 32.6 46 16.3
26 Rajgamar Pavan (1/2 Incline) D/W 6.7 258 188 6.0 75 56.5 0.30 7.3 17.0 11.0 3.9 10.4 88 0.18 −0.53 19.9 66 51.6
27a (U/G Mine) Pavan (1/2 Incline) D/W 7.7 271 194 3.8 93 44.9 0.34 6.7 11.9 11.1 7.7 14.6 75 0.39 0.02 32.0 85 60.7
28 Rajgamar (6/7 Incline) U/G 6.9 278 189 5.8 70 50.5 0.23 16.5 14.2 9.7 13.6 8.3 75 0.68 −0.36 34.8 79 53.0
29 Rajgamar (6/7 Incline) D/W 7.0 288 197 5.4 74 57.4 0.45 17.3 15.5 8.7 11.5 6.7 75 0.58 −0.28 31.1 81 48.1
30 Manikpur Manikpur M/W 7.4 242 185 12.0 93 22.4 3.40 7.0 13.9 5.2 21.2 7.3 56 1.23 0.41 49.8 106 38.2
31 (O/C Mine) Manikpur S/W 7.2 130 97 6.0 36 25.7 0.80 5.4 10.1 3.3 4.7 2.1 46 0.30 −0.33 21.6 86 29.5
32a Manikpur M/W 7.8 302 223 15.2 113 24.5 2.12 8.7 15.2 7.4 29.1 10.5 63 1.59 0.59 54.9 104 48.4
33 Kusmunda Kusmunda M/W 7.8 677 468 62.0 135 78.2 65.07 7.4 40.5 20.7 35.4 23.7 186 1.13 −1.51 36.6 58 45.7
34 (O/C Mine) Kusmunda S/W 7.9 623 407 34.5 104 93.0 56.38 9.5 38.9 20.8 26.0 23.6 183 0.84 −1.95 32.2 51 46.8
35a Kusmunda S/W 8.1 736 544 76.4 143 113.9 65.1 10.1 43.9 33.8 36.6 20.9 249 1.01 −2.63 30.0 48 55.9
36 Laxman M/W 7.7 421 311 28.0 131 49.4 16.53 10.5 26.3 15.4 24.0 10.0 129 0.92 −0.43 33.5 69 49.0
37 Laxman S/W 7.8 417 313 26.0 127 57.4 16.93 11.2 25.2 15.3 23.7 10.0 126 0.92 −0.44 33.8 70 50.1
38a Laxman S/W 8.4 582 447 38.6 195 79.1 13.5 12.0 31.1 25.5 39.8 12.7 182 1.28 −0.45 36.0 65 57.5
39 Gevra Gevra Project S/W 7.6 576 399 12.1 218 61.7 1.78 12.8 27.8 19.8 29.6 15.6 151 1.05 0.56 35.9 74 54.0
Page 5 of 20 278

(O/C Mine)
278 Page 6 of 20 Arab J Geosci (2016) 9: 278

MH

TDS total dissolved solids, TH total hardness, SAR sodium adsorption ratio, RSC residual sodium carbonate, PI permeability index, MH magnesium hazard, U/G underground Mine, U/W underground sump
47.7

43.7
59.6
52.6

44.8
water is ferromagnesian minerals (olivine, augite, diopside
biotite, hornblend) in igneous and metamorphic rocks and

65

52
49
69

70
PI
magnesium carbonate (dolomite) in sedimentary rocks
(Hounslow 1995; Pawar et al. 2008). The combination of high
%Na

35.3

29.8
34.8
34.6

34.0
concentrations of Ca2+, Mg2+, HCO3−, and SO42− and wide
variation in the HCO3−/(HCO3− + SO42−) ratio, i.e., 0.30–0.93
−0.75

−1.67
−3.22
0.42

0.33
RSC

(average 0.58), in the Korba coal mine water suggest coupled

reactions involving both sulphide oxidation and carbonate
SAR

1.54
1.04

1.05
1.14

1.22

dissolution which provide protons for chemical weathering

and largely control the solute acquisition processes
346
TH

173
159
166
297

(Hounslow 1995; Singh et al. 2007).

The sources of Ca2+ and Mg2+ in the water can be deter-
32.7
17.9
11.6
14.3
16.2
K+

mined from the (Ca2+ + Mg2+)/HCO3− ratio. (Ca2+ + Mg2+)/

HCO3− ratio marks the upper limit of bicarbonate input from
Na+

65.8
32.9

48.5
31.6

31.0

the weathering of carbonate rocks (Stallard and Edmond

Mg2+

1983). The data plot of the majority of samples falls well

50.2
18.4

31.6
22.2

18.1

above the 1:1 equilibrium line on (Ca2+ + Mg2+) versus

HCO3− variation diagram, suggesting that carbonate would
56.1
33.3

67.1
32.9

36.8
Ca2+

not be the only source of Ca and Mg in the Korba coal mine

water (Fig. 2a). The excess of (Ca2+ + Mg2+) over HCO3−
Silica

5.2

8.7
10.9
11.6

9.7

suggests additional non-carbonate source and neutralization

of extra positive charge by other anions like SO42− and/or
NO3−

8.21

48.96
2.13

16.56

Cl−. The (Ca2+ + Mg2+) versus (HCO3− + SO42−) variation plot

52.1

water, D/W pump water discharges at surface, OCP opencast project, M/W mine pit water, S/W settling pond water

(Fig. 2b) shows much better correlation throughout the data

SO42

70.5

120.9
124.7
73.5

45.9

range, although most plotted points tend to fall below the 1:1
equiline and requiring a portion of the (HCO3− + SO42−) to be
−

balanced by alkali cations (Na+ + K+). This indicates that

HCO3−

weathering of sulphate rocks is also an important factor in

148

261
226
237

223

addition to carbonate dissolution for controlling chemical

43.2

62.0
128.0
16.7

34.0

composition of mine water of the area. Coal mining operations

Cl−

Unit: mg L−1 except pH, EC (μS cm−1 ), RSC (meq L−1 ), %Na, MH (%), SAR, and PI

disturbed the coal strata and accelerate dissolution of associ-

TDS

ated sulphide minerals resulting from the exposure of these

371

665
746
429
445

minerals to both oxygen and water by sequence of reactions:

505

880
988
539
663
EC

4FeS2 þ 15O2 þ 14H2 O → 4 FeðOHÞ3 þ 16Hþ þ 8SO4 2–

pH

8.1

7.5
8.4
7.8
7.8

Pyrite
Sample

The above reaction results in the decreasing of pH and the

M/W
M/W
char.

S/W

S/W
S/W

increment of sulfate concentration in water. The H+ ions lib-

erated from pyrite oxidation further reacted with calcite, dolo-
mite, and silicates to neutralize the generated acidity and re-
lease associated cations, bicarbonate, and silica by the follow-
Dipka Project
Dipka Project

Dipka Project
Dipka Project
Gevra Project
Mine name

ing reactions:

CaCO3 þ Hþ ¼ Ca2þ þ HCO3 −

Calcite
Pre-monsoon sample (May)

CaMgðCO3 Þ2 þ 2Hþ ¼ Ca2þ þ Mg2þ þ 2HCO3 −

Mining area
Table 1 (continued)

Dolomite
CaAl2 Si2 O8 þ 2Hþ þ H2 O ¼ Ca2þ þ Al2 Si2 O5 ðOHÞ4
Anorthite Kaolinite
Samp. no

2NaAlSi3 O8 þ 2Hþ þ 9H2 O ¼ 2Naþ þ 4H4 SiO4 þ Al2 Si2 O5 ðOHÞ4

40a

44a

Albite Kaolinite
41
42
43

a
Arab J Geosci (2016) 9: 278 Page 7 of 20 278

Fig. 2 Variation diagram a b

between a Ca2+ + Mg2+ versus 10 10
Pre-monsoon
HCO3−, b Ca2+ + Mg2+ versus
Post-monsoon
HCO3− + SO42−, c Na+ versus
8 8
Cl−, and d Na+ + K+ versus total

Ca2+ + Mg2+ (meq/l)

Ca2+ + Mg2+ (meq/l)

cations (TZ+)
6 6

4 4

2 2

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
HCO3- (meq/l) HCO3-+SO42- (meq/l)

c d
4 15

12
3

Na+ + K+ (meq/l)
Na+ (meq/l)

9
2
6
+
Z
1 4T
3 + )=0.
+ +K
(Na
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 0 3 6 9 12 15
Cl- (meq/l) TZ+ (meq/l)

The dissolution of carbonate rocks proceeds more rapidly
than silicate breakdown and was the likely mechanism of sol-
ute acquisition in aquatic systems (Sarin et al. 1989). Calcite is
the common mineral which frequently occurs in veins or as
cleat infillings in the coals and as a cementing matrix in sand-
stones. Dolomite and siderite are the other carbonate minerals
associated with the coal seams and occur as spheroidal nod-
ules or in the form of idiomorphic crystals. Besides, calcite/
dolomite veins are also occurring as isolated bands and veins
of varying dimensions in the granitic rocks of the area.
Amphiboles, pyroxenes, biotite, and feldspar are the common
silicate minerals associated with the sandstones, granitic
gneiss, and intrusive rocks of the area (Raja Rao 1983).
Sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) together contributed
36 % to the total cationic mass (TZ+) balance in the Korba
coal mine water. Concentration of sodium ranged from 3.9 to
87.6 mg L−1 (average 30.2 mg L−1) and accounted for 28 %
(8–64 %) of the total cation (TZ+). Potassium was found to be
the least dominant cation in the mine water of the area.
Concentration of K+ varied between 2.1 and 38.9 mg L−1 with
an average value of 11.8 mg L−1. The sodium concentrations
in the analyzed mine water samples are significantly in excess
over chloride, and higher Na+/Cl−, i.e., 2.04, and (Na+ + K+)/
TZ+, i.e., 0.35, ratios suggest that much of the alkali originate
from source other than halite dissolution and probably from
the weathering of silicates like albite, anorthite, and orthoclase
(Fig. 2c, d).
Multivariate statistical analysis
Multivariate statistical methods have been widely applied to
investigate environmental phenomena and interpret the hydro-
geochemical data. The combined use of correlation matrix,
principal component analysis (PCA), and cluster analysis
(CA) is an effective means of manipulating, interpreting, and
representing geochemical data concerning water pollutants
and geochemistry (Gular et al. 2002; Singh et al. 2005;
Kumar and Riyzuddin 2008). A correlation analysis is a bi-
variate method, which simply exhibits how well one variable
predicts the other. The correlation matrices for 13 variables of
44 analyzed mine water samples were prepared by using SPSS
software (Table 2). EC and TDS show a high positive corre-
lation with Cl−, SO42−, HCO3−, Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, total hard-
ness (TH), and moderate correlation with K+. It suggest that to
a large extent, HCO3−, SO42−, and Cl− along with correspond-
ing cations Ca2+, Mg2+, and Na+ are responsible for the con-
ductivity of the mine water. K+ is the least dominant cation in
the analyzed water samples. The good correlation between
278 Page 8 of 20 Arab J Geosci (2016) 9: 278

Table 2 Correlation matrix of measured parameters in Korba coal mine water (n = 44)

pH EC TDS Cl− HCO3− SO42− NO3− Silica Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+ K+ TH

pH 1.00
EC 0.49 1.00
TDS 0.48 0.99 1.00
Cl− 0.60 0.84 0.83 1.00
HCO3− 0.36 0.74 0.80 0.47 1.00
SO42− 0.30 0.90 0.88 0.69 0.54 1.00
NO3− 0.33 0.34 0.38 0.54 0.26 0.10 1.00
Silica −0.14 −0.10 −0.14 −0.13 −0.25 0.01 −0.27 1.00
Ca2+ 0.26 0.90 0.89 0.68 0.62 0.93 0.15 −0.05 1.00
Mg2+ 0.42 0.82 0.88 0.71 0.81 0.70 0.45 −0.23 0.64 1.00
Na+ 0.55 0.92 0.88 0.87 0.56 0.84 0.19 −0.05 0.81 0.66 1.00
K+ 0.63 0.71 0.68 0.73 0.50 0.47 0.55 −0.24 0.44 0.64 0.64 1.00
TH 0.36 0.95 0.97 0.76 0.76 0.92 0.30 −0.13 0.94 0.86 0.82 0.57 1.00

Bold faced values are significant at 0.01 level

Ca2+-Na+ (0.81), HCO3−-Mg2+ (0.81), and Mg2+-Na+ (0.66),
and moderate correlation of Ca2+-Mg2+ (0.64) and Ca2+-
HCO3− (0.62) suggest that significant fractions of Ca2+,
Mg2+, and Na+ are derived from weathering of silicate rocks.
High positive correlation of SO42− with Ca2+ (0.93), Na+
(0.84), and Mg2+ (0.70) is signifying the role of sulphide ox-
idation in solute acquisition processes and controlling the
chemical composition of mine water in the study area. Good
correlations were also observed between Na+-Cl− (0.87), K+-
Cl− (0.73), Ca2+-TH (0.94), and Mg2+-TH (0.86) indicating sim-
ilar source and geochemical behavior during ionic mobilization.
Factor analysis offers a powerful means of detecting simi-
larities among the variables or samples. The purpose of factor
analysis of the hydrogeochemical data is to explain the ob-
served relationship in simple terms expressed as a new set of
variables called factors. The factor analysis model is assumed
to represent an overall variance of the data set and structure
expressed in the pattern of variance and covariance between
the variables and the similarities between the observations
(Davis 1986). Contribution of a factor is said to be significant
when the corresponding eigenvalue is greater than unity (Briz-
Kishore and Murali 1992). In the present case, the data matrix
of 13 variables (pH, EC, TDS, Cl−, NO3−, SO42−, HCO3−,
Silica, Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, and TH) and 44 observations
have been used for factor analysis by SPSS software. Three
factors with eigenvalues >1 have been extracted from the
principal factor matrix after varimax rotation. Factor loading,
communalities for each variables, eigenvalues, percentage of
variance, and cumulative percent for three extracted factors
are given in Table 3. The communalities of all the variables
except for NO3− and pH are greater than 0.75. Factor-I ac-
counts for 64.3 % of the total variance and has strong positive
loading (>0.75) of EC, TDS, SO42−, Ca2+, TH, Na+, and Mg2+
and moderate to weak positive loading of Cl−, HCO3−, and
K+. Factor-I may be treated as a major lithogenic factor, sug-
gesting influx of these ions by the dissolution of rock-forming
minerals associated with the granitic gneisses, sandstones,
shales, and coal seams. The high loading of Ca2+, Mg2+, and
Na+ along with SO42− and moderate loading of HCO3− in
factor-I suggests the reaction paths expected from solution
interacting with carbonate and silicate rocks attached either
by H2CO3 (released from dissolution of atmospheric or soil
CO2) or H2SO4 (from oxidation of sulphides associated with
the coal seams). Factor-II accounts for 12.4 % variance in the
data matrix and shows positive loading of pH, K+, Cl−, and
NO3−. Factor-II may be attributed to anthropogenic sources
including the application of fertilizers to agricultural lands and
input from domestic and industrial discharge in the area. The
pH value depends on the CO2-CO3-HCO3 equilibrium, and
the pH of the water indicates the form in which CO2 is present.
The presence of carbonic acid is indicated when pH is less
than 4.5, bicarbonate is present when the pH is in the range of
4.5 to 8.2, and carbonate exist at pH >8.2. The pH range (6.7–
8.2) of the analyzed mine water samples indicates the influ-
ence of bicarbonate. Factor-III is less significant, accounts for
7.9 % of the total variance, and is mainly represented by weak
positive loading of HCO3−, NO3−, and negative loading of
dissolved silica. These three factors taken together explains
84.6 % of the total variance in the data matrix and indicate that
the determined variables, which control the mine water chem-
istry of the area, are mainly derived from rock weathering with
minor contribution from anthropogenic sources.
Cluster analysis comprises a series of multivariate methods
which are used to find true groups of data or stations.
Hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) is a powerful tool for
analyzing geochemical data, and this technique has been suc-
cessfully used to classify the water samples and formulate
geochemical models (Alberto et al. 2001; Meng and
Arab J Geosci (2016) 9: 278 Page 9 of 20 278

Table 3 Principal and varimax

rotated factor loading of measured Variables Principal factor matrix Communality Varimax rotated factor matrix
variables in Korba coal mine
water Factor-I Factor-II Factor-III Factor-I Factor-II Factor-III

pH 0.554 −0.440 0.446 0.699 0.202 0.810 −0.040

EC 0.985 0.110 0.023 0.983 0.904 0.404 0.058
TDS 0.992 0.084 −0.060 0.994 0.911 0.379 0.141
Cl− 0.875 −0.177 0.276 0.874 0.632 0.689 −0.003
HCO3− 0.763 −0.013 −0.390 0.734 0.723 0.156 0.433
SO42− 0.869 0.408 0.013 0.922 0.943 0.139 −0.117
NO3− 0.422 −0.691 0.025 0.656 0.041 0.687 0.426
Silica −0.178 0.543 0.647 0.746 −0.012 −0.099 −0.858
Ca2+ 0.865 0.391 −0.083 0.908 0.948 0.096 −0.030
Mg2+ 0.873 −0.107 −0.222 0.822 0.746 0.365 0.363
Na+ 0.900 0.151 0.224 0.883 0.815 0.447 −0.141
K+ 0.744 −0.443 0.204 0.792 0.407 0.769 0.186
TH 0.955 0.207 −0.156 0.980 0.953 0.225 0.145
Eigenvalue 8.36 1.61 1.02
Variance % 64.30 12.40 7.90
Cumulative % 64.30 76.70 84.60

Maynard 2001; Singh et al. 2005). The main aim of the HCA
is to group objects into statistically distinct groups or clusters,
so that objects within a cluster are similar to each other but
different from those in other cluster. The hydrogeochemical
parameters of 44 mine water samples were used in the hierar-
chical cluster analysis (HCA) by Ward’s linkage method
(Ward 1963) after standardizing the data set to Z-scale.
Standardization tends to increase the influence of variables
whose variance is small and reduces the influence of variables
whose variance is large. This will also eliminate the influence
of different units of measurement and renders the data dimen-
sionless. The dendrogram of the location pattern resulting
from the cluster analysis (CA) of measured data is presented
in Fig. 3a. The dendrogram consists of several groups, and
each group consists of several sub-groups and singletons.
However, for the sake of interpretation, it could be grouped
into two major clusters. Cluster-I is composed of 23 members,
mainly comprising the mine water samples collected from
Laxman, Manikpur, Pavan, Balgi, Singhali, Rajgmar,
Dilwadih, and Banki mines. All the mine water groupings
with cluster-I have similar features and were affected by sim-
ilar sources and correspondence to unpolluted mining areas
(Fig. 3a). This group constitutes 52 % of the total analyzed
water samples and is characterized by relatively low EC
(<500 μS cm−1) and concentrations of TDS, SO42−, Cl−,
NO3−, and Ca2+. Cluster-II comprises of 21members mainly
consisting of the coal mine water samples collected from
Bagdewa, Surakachar (3/4 incline), Balgi, Kusmunda,
Gevra, and Dipka Project mines. This group constitutes
47 % of the total analyzed samples and is characterized by
relatively higher EC (>500 μS cm−1), TDS, SO42−, and NO3−
concentrations. The higher TDS, SO42−, and NO3− concentra-
tions in the analyzed samples 4, 5, 6, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 25,
43, and 44 suggest mining and anthropogenic influences on
water quality. Cluster analysis was performed on variables to
identify the groups of variables that behave similarly and/or
have similar origin. The variable dendrogram shows three
major clusters (Fig. 3b). Cluster-I comprises of EC, TDS,
TH, SO42−, Ca2+, Cl−, Na+, HCO3−, and Mg2+. Cluster-II in-
cludes pH, K+, and NO3−. Cluster-III comprises of only dis-
solved silica which behaves differently as compared to the
other dissolved ions in the water. The grouping pattern of
variables predicted by cluster analysis is consistent with the
factor loading pattern predicted by factor analysis. Grouping
of pH, K+, and NO3− in cluster-II are also supporting the
agricultural and anthropogenic sources of these ions.
Hydrochemical facies
Piper diagram (Piper 1944) is one of the most commonly used
graphical methods to evaluate hydrochemical facies and to
identify geochemical nature and relationship between dis-
solved ions in water. Patterns on Piper diagram reflect the
geological environment and associated physical, chemical,
and microbiological processes that determine both the chem-
ical character of water and the influences of human activities.
The data plots of majority of the samples fall into no dominant
class in the triangular cationic fields of Piper diagram, whereas
in anionic triangle, 54 % samples fall into no dominant field
and 36 % into bicarbonate field (Fig. 4). Plot of geochemical
278 Page 10 of 20 Arab J Geosci (2016) 9: 278

Fig. 3 Dendrogram showing a

clustering of a sampling sites and
b hydrogeochemical variables

Cluster -I

Cluster -II

Cluster -I

Cluster -II

Cluster -III
Arab J Geosci (2016) 9: 278
Fig. 4 Piper trilinear diagram showing hydrogeochemical character and hydrochemical facies in mine water of Korba coalfield
data on central diamond-shaped field, which relates the cation
and anion triangles, reveals that most of the plotted points fall
in the regions 1, 3, 4, 5, and 9. The plotted points of 91 % of
mine water samples fall in the region 1 which suggests dom-
inance of alkaline earths (Ca2+ + Mg2+) over alkalies (Na+ +
K+). Alkalies exceed alkaline earths in only three mine water
samples. In majority of the samples (64 %), strong acids (SO42
−
+ Cl−) exceed weak acid (HCO3−) and plotted points fall in
region 4. HCO3− exceeds (SO42− + Cl−) in 36 % of mine water
samples and plotted points fall in zone 3. Plotted points of
61 % water samples fall in the field 9, which indicates a mixed
(Ca-Mg-SO4-Cl) chemical character of mine water and none
of the cation–anion pair exceeds 50 %. In 32 % water samples,
carbonate hardness (secondary alkalinity) exceeds 50 % and
plotted points fall in the zone 5. The trilinear data plot reveals
that mine waters of the Korba coalfield essentially belong to
Ca-Mg-SO4-Cl and Ca-Mg-HCO3 hydrochemical facies.
Trace element chemistry
Concentration of 17 trace metals analyzed in 25 mine water
samples collected from different mines of Korba coalfield
during pre-monsoon season is given in Table 4.
Concentrations of Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Al were above the
acceptable limit specified by the Bureau of Indian Standards
(BIS 2012) for drinking water at some sites. The amount of Fe
ranged from 90 to 4508 μg L−1 (average 913 μg L−1), and it
Page 11 of 20 278
1 9
4
5 7
2 3 9
Sub-division Characteristics/Nature of water
1 Alkaline earths (Ca+Mg) exceed alkalies (Na+K)
2 Alkalies exceeds alkaline earths
3 Weak acids (CO3+HCO3) exceed strong acids (SO4+Cl)
4 Strong acids exceed weak acid
5 Carbonate hardness (secondary alkalinity) exceed 50%
6 Non-carbonate hardness (secondary salinity) exceed 50%
7 Non carbonate alkali (primary salinity) exceed 50%
8 Carbonate alkali (primary alkalinity) exceed 50%
9 None of the cation or anion pairs exceed 50%
exceeded drinking water acceptable level (300 μg L−1) in
76 % of analyzed mine water samples and maximum permis-
sible limit of 1000 μg L−1 in seven samples (28 %). The higher
concentration of Fe in water is associated with imparting
brownish to laundered clothing and causes staining of bath-
room fittings and encrusting in water modes. The observed
higher values of Fe in the mine water may be attributed to
geogenic origin from water–rock interaction and weathering
of iron-bearing minerals like pyrite, siderite, and marcasite.
Concentration of Mn varied between 7.7 and 1531 μg L−1
(average 244 μg L−1) and exceeded maximum permissible
limit (300 μg L−1) of drinking water in five mine water sam-
ples (20 %). Concentration of Zn ranged between 2.5 and
374 μg L−1, well within the prescribed limit of drinking uses.
The amount of Pb was detected in the range of <1.0 to
17.8 μg L−1, and it exceeded acceptable drinking water level
(10 μg L−1) in only two mine water samples. Concentration of
Ni exceeded the acceptable limit of 20 μg L−1 in three mine
water samples. Concentrations of other measured toxic metals
like As, Se, Cd, Cr, and Co were found well within the spec-
ified limit of Indian drinking water standards (BIS 2012).
Saturation index and mineral equilibrium
Mineral equilibrium calculations are useful in predicting the
presence of reactive minerals in the aqueous systems and es-
timating mineral reactivity (Garrels and Christ 1965; Stumm
278 Page 12 of 20 Arab J Geosci (2016) 9: 278

Table 4 Trace metal concentration in mine water of Korba coalfield

Sam. Mining area Mine name Sample char. Fe Mn Al Ba Zn Li Cu Pb Cr Ni Co Cd Be As Se V Ag

no

1 Dilwadih Dilwadih U/G 358 23 58 79 5.7 13.0 1.4 3.8 0.5 1.8 0.3 0.02 0.04 0.2 0.7 0.8 0.1
2 (U/G Mine) Dilwadih D/W 1212 64 169 72 6.7 9.8 2.3 6.4 1.5 3.8 1.0 0.20 0.20 0.2 0.7 2.2 1.4
3a Bagdewa U/G 334 11 23 34 10.8 59.5 1.4 3.1 0.5 5.6 0.8 0.05 0.04 0.4 1.4 1.8 0.1
4 Bagdewa D/W 607 9 129 45 59.7 43.3 2.7 2.9 0.8 3.7 0.3 0.08 0.04 0.6 1.9 3.5 3.7
5 Singhali U/G 395 10 53 88 18.9 8.2 1.3 4.6 0.6 8.4 0.6 0.06 0.11 0.2 0.4 1.0 0.1
6a Singhali D/W 812 8 101 90 6.7 6.8 1.0 4.5 1.0 7.4 0.3 0.04 0.14 0.1 0.3 1.0 2.7
7 Surakachar Banki (4 incline) U/G 271 8 12 47 6.8 6.0 0.9 3.4 0.2 2.1 0.2 0.02 0.02 0.1 0.4 0.3 0.1
8 (U/G Mine) Banki (4 Incline) D/W 216 9 11 56 3.7 6.1 1.0 1.6 0.2 1.6 0.2 0.04 0.02 0.1 0.4 0.3 12.4
9a Banki (5/6 Incline) D/W 239 35 15 61 4.8 6.0 1.0 1.3 0.3 7.3 2.7 0.04 0.03 0.2 0.5 0.7 4.4
10 Balgi (3/4 Incline) U/G 90 232 14 90 35.4 8.5 1.1 2.8 0.1 3.8 0.7 0.09 0.39 0.3 0.6 0.6 0.0
11 Balgi (3/4 Incline) D/W 2223 1531 78 57 24.8 15.1 0.9 0.9 1.2 25.0 31.6 0.13 0.52 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.8
12a Balgi (1/2 Incline) U/G 3147 638 540 46 10.9 17.1 4.8 12.8 3.7 9.2 5.4 0.14 0.81 0.5 0.9 3.6 1.7
13 Surakachar Main U/G 1405 378 8 368 19.2 7.1 1.5 2.5 0.4 0.8 0.3 0.02 0.03 0.2 0.6 0.1 0.1
14 Surakachar Main D/W 627 542 107 223 34.8 10.9 11.7 5.7 1.8 9.5 10.0 0.06 0.23 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.3
15 Surakachar (3/4 Incline) U/G 659 36 40 26 320.8 6.6 7.0 3.6 1.1 3.5 0.3 0.43 0.06 0.4 0.7 0.4 17.6
16a Surakachar (3/4 Incline) D/W 1095 1302 28 43 19.7 15.1 2.9 4.5 1.4 6.8 3.8 0.10 0.05 0.3 0.9 0.6 3.3
17 Rajgamar Rajgamar (1/2 Incline) D/W 629 267 81 60 11.3 3.0 3.0 3.1 0.6 10.6 8.3 0.11 0.08 0.5 0.3 0.7 2.6
18a (U/G Mine) Rajgamar (6/7 Incline) U/G 4508 231 250 235 38.6 5.7 3.5 17.8 2.7 52.8 43.2 0.15 1.85 0.3 0.4 2.2 0.8
19 Rajgamar (6/7 Incline) D/W 644 96 48 195 19.0 4.9 1.2 2.3 0.5 30.6 14.7 0.13 0.63 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.7
20a Manikpur (OCP) Manikpur M/W 1105 279 201 74 373.8 2.0 3.2 5.4 2.1 4.3 1.4 0.36 0.11 4.5 0.6 7.0 0.3
21 Kusmunda (OCP) Kusmunda S/W 482 108 175 362 11.4 21.9 5.3 2.5 1.2 11.5 5.9 0.07 0.05 0.7 2.3 2.5 0.2
22a Kusmunda (OCP) Laxman S/W 273 78 34 84 3.0 6.9 1.4 1.3 1.0 4.5 1.2 0.04 0.01 0.5 0.9 1.1 0.3
23 Gevra (OCP) Gevra S/W 245 18 25 235 2.8 17.2 1.4 1.7 0.3 6.1 0.4 0.04 0.02 0.6 1.8 2.2 0.5
24 Dipka M/W 387 44 50 93 2.5 37.6 1.7 2.3 1.5 6.1 2.2 0.03 0.06 1.2 2.5 3.6 0.3
25a Dipka S/W 861 145 72 192 3.2 12.0 3.7 1.8 0.4 2.3 0.6 0.05 0.03 1.4 0.8 2.1 0.4

Unit: μg L−1
U/G underground Mine, U/W underground sump water, D/W pump water discharges at surface, OCP opencast project, M/W mine pit water, S/W settling
pond water
a
Pre-monsoon sample (May)

and Morgan 1996; Nordstrom and Ball 1989). The aqueous
speciation model PHREEQC (Parkhurst and Appelo 1999)
was used to calculate saturation index (SI) of common min-
erals in the mine waters of the Korba coalfield. The saturation
index (SI) is the logarithm of the ion activity product (IAP) of
components of a mineral divided by the equilibrium constant
(SI = log IAP/K). A positive saturation index (SI > 0) indicates
that the water is supersaturated with respect to the particular
mineral phase; therefore, further dissolution of the mineral is
unlikely and precipitation under suitable physico-chemical
conditions may occur. A negative saturation index (SI < 0)
indicates undersaturation conditions and that dissolution of
the mineral phase may occur. Such a value could suggest that
there is insufficient mineral present for significant dissolution
to occur or that contact between water and the mineral in
question is limited. A SI value of 0 indicates that water is in
equilibrium with the particular mineral phase and therefore
that dissolution and precipitation reactions will be equal. The
plot of saturation index (SI) against pH demonstrates that
about 30 % of mine water samples are supersaturated with
respect to carbonate minerals such as calcite, dolomite, and
aragonite which may result in precipitation of calcium as Ca
and/or Ca-Mg carbonates (Fig. 5a–c). Mine water samples are
undersaturated with respect to sulphur-bearing minerals like
gypsum and anhydrite (Fig. 5e, f). The mineral phase halite
which could control Na and Cl in the aquifer is also undersat-
urated (Fig. 5g). Mine water samples are undersaturated with
respect to amorphous silica but oversaturated with respect to
quartz (Fig. 5d, h). Quartz is an abundant constituent of local
rocks, but its slow reactivity suggests that the main source of
silica was either amorphous silica or breakdown of alumino-
silicates (Feth et al. 1964)
Water quality assessment
The data obtained by geochemical analyses of mine water
were evaluated in the terms of its suitability for domestic,
livestock, irrigation, and industrial uses.
Suitability for drinking uses
The hydrochemical parameters of the mine water are com-
pared with the prescribed limits of Bureau of Indian
Standard for drinking water (BIS 2012) to assess its suitability
Arab J Geosci (2016) 9: 278 Page 13 of 20 278

Fig. 5 Plot of pH versus a e

saturation indices of a calcite, b pH pH
dolomite, c aragonite, d quartz, e 5 6 7 8 9 5 6 7 8 9
gypsum, f anhydrite, g halite, and
4 3
h amorphous silica Post-monsoon Post-monsoon
3 Pre-monsoon 2 Pre-monsoon

2 1

SI Gypsum (SIgyp)
SI Calcite (SIcal)
Saturation
1 0
Undersaturation
Saturation
0 -1
Undersaturation
-1 -2

-2 -3

-3 -4

-4 -5

b f
3 3
2 2
1

SI Anhydrite (SIanhy)
Saturation 1
SI Dolomite (SIdol)

0
Undersaturation Saturation
-1 0
Undersaturation
-2 -1
-3 -2
-4
-3
-5
-6 -4

-7 -5

c g
3 4

2 2
Saturation
SI Aragonite (SIarg)

1
0
SI Halite (SIhal)

Saturation Undersaturation
0
Undersaturation -2
-1
-4
-2
-6
-3

-4 -8

-5 -10

d h
3 3

2 2
SI Quartz (SIQtz)

SI Silica (SIsil)

1 1

Saturation Saturation
0 0
Undersaturation Undersaturation
-1 -1

-2 -2

-3 -3

for drinking and public health purposes. Table 5 shows that
the analyzed parameters were within the drinking water ac-
ceptable levels in majority of the mine water samples and it
can be used for drinking purposes after preliminary treatment
and disinfection. Total dissolved solids (TDS), total hardness
(TH), NO3−, Mg2+, Fe, Mn, Al, Ni, and Pb were the major
objectionable parameters in Korba coal mine water. TDS of
the analyzed mine water samples fall in the freshwater cate-
gory with TDS <1000 mg L−1 (Carrol 1962). The concentra-
tion of TDS exceeded the prescribed drinking water
278 Page 14 of 20 Arab J Geosci (2016) 9: 278

Table 5 Statistical summary of measured parameters, compared to Indian standards for drinking water (BIS 2012)

Parameters Minimum Maximum Average Requirement Permissible limit % Exceeded % Exceeded

(acceptable limit) (in the absence alternate source) acceptable limit permissible limit

General parameters and major ions (mg L−1)

pH 6.7 8.5 7.6 6.5–8.5 – Nil Nil
EC (μS cm−1) 130 1051 489 – – – –
TDS 97 785 345 500 2000 21 % Nil
Total hardness 37 466 149 200 600 27 % Nil
Total Alkalinity 25.6 218 97.6 200 600 5% Nil
Cl− 2.0 128.0 31.1 250 1000 Nil Nil
HCO3− 32 272 122 – – – –
SO42− 6.1 225.7 77.3 200 400 2% Nil
NO3− 0.23 65.1 10.4 45 No relaxation 11 % –
2+
Ca 6.9 107.8 33.3 75 200 7% Nil
Mg2+ 3.3 50.2 16.0 30 100 11 % Nil
Na+ 3.9 87.6 30.2 – – Nil Nil
K+ 2.1 38.9 11.8 – – – –
Trace metals (μg L−1)
Fe 90.1 4508 913 300 No relaxation 76 % –
Mn 7.7 1531 244 100 300 44 % 20 %
Zn 2.5 373.8 42.2 5000 15000 Nil Nil
Pb 0.88 17.8 4.1 10 No relaxation 8% –
Cu 0.86 11.7 2.7 50 1500 Nil Nil
Cr 0.13 3.72 1.01 50 No relaxation Nil –
Ni 0.8 52.8 9.2 20 No relaxation 12 % –
As 0.10 4.49 0.56 10 50 Nil Nil
Se 0.25 2.49 0.84 10 No relaxation Nil –
Co 0.15 43.24 5.45 – – – –
Cd 0.02 0.43 0.10 3 No relaxation Nil –
Al 8.3 539.6 92.8 30 200 68 % 12 %
Ba 26.2 368.3 118.1 700 No relaxation 8% Nil
Ag 0.03 17.6 2.20 100 No relaxation – –

acceptable level of 500 mg L−1 in 21 % of mine water sam-
ples. Water hardness is the property attributed to presence of
alkaline earths in solution. On the basis of hardness, water
can be classified as soft (<75 mg L−1), moderately hard
(75–150 mg L−1), hard (150–300 mg L−1), and very
hard (>300 mg L −1 ) water (Sawyer and McCarty
1967). The total hardness (TH) of the analyzed mine
water samples varied from 37 to 466 mg L−1 (average
149 mg L−1), indicating soft to very hard types of wa-
ter. The data indicate that 27 % of mine water samples
have TH value higher than 200 mg L−1, which is the
acceptable limit for drinking water (BIS 2012).
Although hardness has no known adverse effect on hu-
man health, it can prevent formation of lather with soap
and raise boiling point of the water. High hardness may
cause precipitation of calcium carbonate and encrusta-
tion on water supply distribution systems.
Sodium is the most important cation for human health;
higher sodium intake may cause hypertension, congenial heart
disease, nervous disorder, and kidney problems. The recom-
mended limit for sodium concentration in drinking water is
200 mg L−1. Concentrations of sodium are within the recom-
mended limit in the mine water samples of the Korba area.
Calcium and magnesium are the essential nutrients for plants
and animals and play an important role in the development of
bone, nervous system, and cell. Concentration of Ca2+ and
Mg2+ exceeded the acceptable limits of 75 and 30 mg L−1,
respectively, in three and five mine water samples. However,
concentration of both these ions were well within the maxi-
mum permissible limit of 200 and 100 mg L−1 in the analyzed
mine water samples of the area (BIS 2012). One possible
adverse effect from ingesting high calcium for long periods
of time may be an increased risk of kidney stones.
Concentration of sulphate exceeded the acceptable limit of
Arab J Geosci (2016) 9: 278
200 mg L−1 in one mine water sample of Surakachar mine.
Higher concentration of sulphate in drinking water is associ-
ated with respiratory problems (Subba Rao 1993). High SO42−
concentration may have a laxative effect with excess of Mg2+
in water. Concentration of NO3− exceeded the permissible
limit of 45 mg L−1 in five mine water samples (11 %). The
trace metal analysis shows that concentrations of Fe, Mn, and
Al were present above the drinking water acceptable level in
many mine water samples. Concentration of other trace metals
was found well within the threshold values in most cases. The
water that contained higher metal concentrations would re-
quire treatment before domestic uses.
Suitability for livestock
Mine water discharges in natural drains and other water bodies
serve as drinking water source for livestock at many places in
the coal mining areas of Korba coalfield. The regular livestock
around the mining areas are cow, goat, buffalo, sheep, duck,
chickens, etc. Water for livestock should be of high quality to
prevent livestock diseases, salt imbalance, or poisoning by
toxic constituents. Most of the water quality variables for live-
stock are the same as for human drinking water resources
although the total permissible levels of total suspended solid
and salinity may be higher. The excessive salinity in livestock
drinking water can distress the animal’s water balance and
cause death, and also the higher levels of salinity and specific
ions like Mg in water can cause animal health problems. Water
having salinity <1500 mg L−1 and Mg <250 mg L−1 is con-
sidered suitable for drinking for most livestock (Ayers and
Wascot 1985). The mine water discharged from the coal mines
of Korba meets the prescribed limits and is safe for most
livestock consumption.
Suitability for irrigation uses
Mine water generated and discharged from mines of Korba
coalfield can be utilized for irrigation in nearby areas.
However, mine water for irrigation is valuable only when its
quality satisfies the needs of soil and plants of the area for
normal growth and crop production. The disproportionate
quantity of dissolved ions in irrigation water changes the
physical and chemical properties of soil for plants and agri-
cultural works consequently tumbling the production efficien-
cy. Excess salinity reduces the osmotic activity of plants and
thus interferes with the absorption of water and nutrients from
the soil (Saleh et al. 1999). Electrical conductivity and Na+ are
the important parameters to assess water quality for irrigation
uses. High salt content in irrigation water besides affecting the
growth of plants directly also affects soil structure, permeabil-
ity, and aeration, which indirectly affect the plant growth. To
assess the suitability of mine water for irrigation uses, the
parameters like sodium absorption ratio (SAR), percent
Page 15 of 20 278
sodium (%Na), residual sodium carbonate (RSC), permeabil-
ity index (PI), and magnesium hazard (MH) have been com-
puted by following equations:
. .
Sodium absorption ratio ðSARÞ ¼ Na √Ca þ Mg 2 ð1Þ
.
Percentsodium ðNa%Þ ¼ Na þ K ðCa þ Mg þ Na þ KÞX100
ð2Þ
Residual sodium carbonate ðRSCÞ ¼ ðCO3 þ HCO3 Þ–ðCa þ MgÞ
ð3Þ
 .
Permeabilityindex ðPIÞ ¼ Na þ √HCO3 ðCa þ Mg þ NaÞX100
ð4Þ
.
Magnesiumhazard ðMHÞ ¼ Mg ðCa þ MgÞ X 100
All concentrations are in meq L−1
ð5Þ
A high salt concentration in water leads to formation of
saline soil, while high sodium concentration leads to develop-
ment of alkaline soil. The sodium or alkali hazard is deter-
mined by the absolute and relative concentration of cations
and expressed in terms of sodium adsorption ratio (SAR).
The calculated value of SAR in the mine water of the study
area ranged from 0.18 to 2.80 (average 1.06). The data plot on
US salinity diagram (Salinity Laboratory) 1954) shows that
majority of the water samples fall in the C1S1 and C2S1
categories, indicating low to medium salinity and low alkali
water (Fig. 6). Medium salinity and low sodium (C2S1) water
can be used for irrigation in most soils and crops with little
danger of the development of harmful levels of exchangeable
sodium. Plotted points of 22 % of mine water samples fall in
the C3S1 zone, indicating high salinity and low alkali water.
High-salinity water (C3) cannot be used on soils with restrict-
ed drainage and requires special management of salinity con-
trol. Such water can be used to irrigate salt-tolerant and semi-
tolerant crops under favorable drainage conditions.
Percent sodium (%Na) is widely used for evaluating the
suitability of water quality for irrigation (Wilcox 1955).
High sodium in irrigation water causes exchange of Na+ in
water for Ca2+ and Mg2+ in soil and reduces the permeability
and eventually results in soil with poor internal drainage.
Hence, air and water circulation is restricted during wet con-
ditions and such soil is usually hard when dry (Collins and
Jenkins 1996; Saleh et al. 1999). A maximum sodium percent-
age (%Na) of 60 % is recommended for irrigation water. The
percent sodium in the study area ranged between 19.9 and
72.1% with an average value of 35.7%. The plot of analytical
data on the Wilcox (1955) diagram relating EC and %Na
shows that the majority of the plotted points fall in the excel-
lent to good and good to permissible zones, which suggests
that mine water can be used for irrigation (Fig. 7).
278 Page 16 of 20 Arab J Geosci (2016) 9: 278

32
V. High Post-monsoon calcium and magnesium ions in the soil, resulting in an
S4 Pre-monsoon
increase in the proportion of the sodium ions (Karanth
28 C1S4
1989). RSC was considered to be indicative of the
sodicity hazard of water. Irrigation waters having RSC
High
S3
Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR)

C2S4
24 value greater than 5 meq L−1 are considered harmful to
the growth of plants, while water with RSC values
SODIUM (ALKALI) HAZARD

C3S4
20 C1S3 >2.5 meq L−1 is unsuitable for irrigation. RSC value less
C4S4 than 1.25 meq L−1 is safe for irrigation and value between
1.25 and 2.5 meq L−1 is of marginal quality. RSC value in
C2S3
Medium

16
S2

the analyzed mine water samples was <1.25 meq L−1, and
C3S3
12 C1S2 it can be safely used for irrigation proposes (Table 1).
C2S2 Soil permeability is affected by long-term use of water
C4S3
8
rich in Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+, and HCO3. Doneen (1964) clas-
C3S2
sified irrigation water into three classes based on perme-
Low

C4S2
ability index (PI). Class-I and class-II water types are
S1

C1S1
4 C2S1
C3S1
suitable for irrigation with 75 % or more of maximum
C4S1 permeability, while class-III type of water with 25 % of
0
100 250 750 2250 maximum permeability is unsuitable for irrigation.
C1 C2 C3 C4 Plotting of data on Doneen’s chart indicates that 86 %
Low Medium High V.High
of mine water of the area falls in class-I and class-II,
SALINITY HAZARD
implying that the water is good for irrigation uses with
Fig. 6 US salinity diagram (USSL) for classification of irrigation water
75 % or more of maximum permeability (Domenico and
Schwartz 1990). Only six mine water samples belong to
The quantity of bicarbonate and carbonate in excess of class-III of unsuitable category (Fig. 8).
alkaline earths (Ca2+ + Mg2+) expressed as residual sodi- The magnesium hazard (MH) is the excess amount of mag-
um carbonate (RSC) also influenced the suitability of wa- nesium over calcium and magnesium. The excess of Mg affects
ter for irrigation uses (Eaton 1950). The anions HCO3− the quality of soil, resulting in poor agricultural returns. It is
and CO 3 − in the irrigation water tend to precipitate reported that irrigating crops grown in non-calcareous soils with
waters containing a MH level of more than 50– 65 % can reduce
Electrical Conductivity (EC) S/cm grain yields due to Mg-induced Ca deficiency (Franklin and
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 Olsen 1991). A magnesium hazard value of >50 is considered
100
Unsuitable
25
Doutful to unsuitable Post-monsoon
Pre-monsoon

80
Permissible to doutful 20
25% of Maximum Permeability

75% Maximum Permeability

Total Concentration meq/l
Percent Sodium

Excellent to good

60
Doutful to unsuitable

15
Good to permissible

Unsuitable

40
10

CLASS - I

20
5
CLASS - II

Post-monsoon
Pre-monsoon CLASS - III
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 120 100 80 60 40 20 0
Total Concentration (meq/l) Permeability Index (PI)
Fig. 7 Wilcox diagram for classification of irrigation water based on EC Fig. 8 Doneen chart for classification of irrigation water based on
and %Na permeability index
Arab J Geosci (2016) 9: 278 Page 17 of 20 278

harmful and unsuitable for irrigation (Szabolcs and Darab 1964;
Sreedevi 2004). The magnesium hazard value in the Korba coal
mine water samples ranged between 16 and 61 with a mean
value of 46. The MH value of 43 % of mine water samples were
found above 50 and categorized as unsuitable for irrigation use
(Table 1). The long-term application of high MH value water
may reduce the crop yields and affect the agricultural produc-
tivity in the area.
Suitability for industrial uses
The water quality requirement for industries varies con-
siderably between areas, kind of industries, and
processes. One useful parameter to assess the quality
for industrial purposes is the saturation index (SI) of
minerals (Rhades and Berstein 1971). The computed
saturation index demonstrates supersaturation condition
with respect to calcite, dolomite, aragonite, and quartz
in some mine water of the area (Fig. 5). The supersat-
uration may cause the precipitation of these minerals
and restricts the safe use of water for industrial purpose
particularly in electrical power stations, industrial boiler
houses, etc. High TDS and total hardness (TH) values
in some mine water samples also make this water un-
safe for textiles, paper, and allied industries. Food in-
dustries such as dairying, brewing, and carbonated

Table 6 Range and average concentrations of major ions and trace metals in the mine water of Korba coalfield and its comparison with Jharia,
Raniganj, and West Bokaro coalfields mine water of Damodar basin

Parameters Korba coalfielda West Bokaro coalfieldb (n = 36) Jharia coalfieldc Raniganj coalfieldd
(n = 44) (n = 97) (n = 51)

Min. Max. Avg. Min. Max. Avg. Min. Max. Avg. Min. Max. Avg.

pH 6.7 8.5 7.6 5.27 8.43 7.64 6.20 8.60 7.67 7.50 9.10 8.21
EC (μS cm−1) 130 1051 489 276 1598 802 559 1653 1073 409 2000 991
TDS (mg L−1) 97 785 345 220 1502 695 459 1568 948 336 1861 895
TH (mg L−1) 37 466 149 109 1118 437 112 960 542 28 863 398
F− (mg L−1) – – – 0.36 1.62 0.96 0.15 3.0 0.77 0.37 2.31 0.91
Cl− (mg L−1) 2.0 128.0 31.1 2.4 38.8 12.1 1.3 260 50.4 10.6 206 54.2
NO3− (mg L−1) 0.23 65.1 10.4 0.1 48.5 6.2 0.00 114.3 13.2 0.3 13.6 5.0
HCO3−(mg L−1) 32 272 122 13.4 505 174.4 33.3 732 301.3 89.2 1232 373.1
SO42− (mg L−1) 6.1 225.7 77.3 4.2 950 331.3 18.0 806 343 0.3 586 213
Ca2+ (mg L−1) 6.9 107.8 33.3 29.2 250 93.5 20.4 182.1 94 6.9 134.8 60.7
Mg2+ (mg L−1) 3.3 50.2 16.0 8.9 119.9 49.4 4.8 157 74.6 2.6 134.7 59.9
Na+ (mg L−1) 3.9 87.6 30.2 4.1 68.9 20.7 14.0 226 44.7 15.7 505 109.2
K+ (mg L−1) 2.1 38.9 11.8 2.3 13.2 6.7 1.6 33.2 8.1 2.0 15.6 5.8
Fe (μg L−1) 90.1 4508 913 69.3 1682 652 143 854 423 71.6 972.7 329
Mn (μg L−1) 7.7 1531 244 23.3 9920 1431 4.5 1200 136 4.04 356 39.4
Cu (μg L−1) 0.86 11.7 2.7 13.0 287 46.0 4.6 819 32.3 6.71 51.9 18.75
Zn (μg L−1) 2.5 373.8 42.2 48.8 918 194 12.8 1294 106.1 17.4 201.7 60.0
Ni (μg L−1) 0.8 52.8 9.2 61.4 621 154 5.6 84.0 17.6 6.5 110.2 45.6
As (μg L−1) 0.10 4.49 0.56 2.88 33.4 7.21 0.2 48.3 3.4 0.75 128.7 10.06
Co (μg L−1) 0.15 43.24 5.45 1.0 382 34.1 0.1 20.1 1.2 0.09 6.2 0.95
Cr (μg L−1) 0.13 3.72 1.01 60.5 178 81.2 4.7 14.7 8.1 5.20 83.4 44.6
Pb (μg L−1) 0.88 17.8 4.1 25.6 47.6 34.3 6.1 35.9 14.9 10.2 61.1 22.6
SAR 0.18 2.80 1.06 0.1 1.5 0.5 0.3 7.7 1.0 0.3 41.6 4.9
%Na 19.87 72.09 35.74 4.5 38.7 13.0 6.3 77.8 17.3 6.6 97.5 38.4
RSC (epm) −4.89 0.59 −0.99 −9.1 2.4 1.5 −5.8 9.5 −0.5 −6.2 19.9 2.1
MH (%) 16.26 60.71 46.34 28.8 63.1 45.3 7.8 81.4 54.8 28.4 90.6 57.5

EC electrical conductivity, TDS total dissolved solids, SAR sodium adsorption ratio, RSC residual sodium carbonate, MH magnesium hazard
a
Present Study
b
Mondal et al. (2013)
c
Singh et al. (2012)
d
Singh et al. (2010)
278 Page 18 of 20
beverage canning can use this water after treatment and
disinfections and complying drinking water standards.
Table 6 summarizes range and average concentration of
major ions and trace metals in mine water of the Korba coal-
field and its comparison with water discharges from the mines
of Jharia, Raniganj, and West Bokaro Coalfields of Damodar
basin. TDS content of the Korba coal mine water is lower than
that of the Jharia, Raniganj, and West Bokaro coalfields.
Concentration of the most dissolved ions and metals except
for iron is lower in the Korba coal mine water as compared to
that in the Jharia, Raniganj, and West Bokaro coalfield mine
water. Like other coal mine water of Damodar basin, Korba
mine water is also alkaline in nature, indicating extent of
mixing with HCO3-rich groundwater and neutralization of
the generated acidity by basic ions during weathering process-
es. The higher contributions of dissolved silica, Na+, and SO42
− Alberto WD, Del PDM, Valeria AM, Fabiana PS, Cecilia HA, De Los
to the TDS may be attributed to weathering of silicates and
sulphides.
Conclusion
The suitability of coal mine water of Korba coalfield has been
evaluated based on different guidelines and established stan-
dards for drinking, livestock, irrigation, and industrial uses
and environmental implications. The mine water of the
Korba coalfield is mildly acidic to alkaline in nature. The mine
water chemistry is dominated by Ca2+ and Mg2+ in cationic
and HCO3− and SO42− in anionic composition. Weathering
and ion exchange processes are the major controlling factors
for determining mine water chemistry. High SO42− contribu-
tion in the anionic composition of Korba coalfield mine water
may be attributed to weathering of pyrites associated with the
coal seams and shales. High concentrations of Ca2+, Mg2+,
HCO3−, and SO42− and the wide variation in the HCO3−/
(HCO3− + SO42−) ratio (average 0.58) suggest coupled reac-
tions involving both sulphide oxidation and carbonate disso-
lution which control the solute acquisition processes. Ca-Mg-
SO4-Cl and Ca-Mg-HCO3 are the dominant water types.
Three extracted factors explain 85 % of the total variance in
the data matrix and indicate that the determined variables,
which control the mine water chemistry of the area, are mainly
derived from weathering of carbonate, silicate, and sulphide
minerals in the aquifer with minor contribution from anthro-
pogenic sources. Mineral saturation indices calculated from
major ions indicate that the mine water is generally supersat-
urated with respect to carbonate (calcite, dolomite, and arago-
nite) and silicate phases (quartz), and undersaturated with re-
spect to sulphate (gypsum and anhydrite) and halite. Higher
concentrations of TDS, TH, NO3−, Fe, Mn, Al, Ni, and Pb in
some mine water samples make it unsafe for direct uses in
domestic purposes. The mine water of the area is safe for
livestock and can be used for drinking after treatment and
Arab J Geosci (2016) 9: 278
disinfection. The chemical parameters and calculated values
of Na%, SAR, PI, and RSC suggest good to excellent quality
of mine water for irrigation activities. High salinity and Mg-
hazard values at some sites restrict the suitability of water for
irrigation uses and demand suitable water treatment and soil
management plan for the area.
Acknowledgments The authors are grateful to Director, Central
Institute of Mining and Fuel Research for his kind support and permission
to publish this paper. Financial support by the Council of Scientific &
Industrial Research (CSIR), New Delhi, under its 11th Five Year Plan
Project (IAP-006) is gratefully acknowledged. We thank Dr. K. B. Singh
and other laboratory colleagues for their support and encouragement.
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