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Quality Assessment of the Permian Coals from Dighipara Basin, Bangladesh

Based On Proximate, Ultimate and Microscopic Analyses

Article  in  Journal of Bangladesh Academy of Sciences · December 2015

DOI: 10.3329/jbas.v39i2.25951

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J. Bangladesh Acad. Sci., Vol. 39, No. 2, 177-194, 2015

QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF THE PERMIAN COALS FROM DIGHIPARA

BASIN, BANGLADESH BASED ON PROXIMATE, ULTIMATE AND
MICROSCOPIC ANALYSES

MD. FARHADUZZAMAN*, WAN HASIAH ABDULLAH, MD. AMINUL ISLAM1

AND SAY GEE SIA

Department of Geology, University of Malaya, Malaysia

ABSTRACT
Assessment of coal quality based on proximate (volatile matter, fixed carbon, ash,
moisture), ultimate (C, H, N, S, O) and microscopic (macerals, microlithotypes, coal
facies) analyses of the Permian coals from the Dighipara basin, Bangladesh was carried
out. A total of 11 coal core samples collected from two bore holes of Dighipara basin
were analyzed. ASTM standards were followed for proximate and ultimate analyses.
ICCP systems were used for the microscopic study. Thermal maturity, physical
characteristics of the coal seams, gross calorific value and atomic ratios of H/C and O/C
were also considered.

Key words: Proximate, Ultimate, Microscopic analysis, Quality, Dighipara coal

INTRODUCTION

The study area is located in the north-western part of Bangladesh between longitudes
89º02'E-89º07'E and latitudes 25º23'N-25º30'N. The area consists of a number of
Gondwana basins at shallow depths of the sedimentary succession. Among these
Gondwana basins, five basins are discovered with commercially important Permian coal
resource or deposit namely, Jamalganj (1962), Barapukuria (1985), Khalaspir (1989),
Dighipara (1995) and Phulbari (1997). Approximately three billion tons of Permian
Gondwana coal resources (70 TCF gas equivalents) have been estimated in these five
coal basins discovered so far in Bangladesh. All of the recognized coal basins have been
identified in the Platform unit of the Bengal basin, north-west of Bangladesh (Fig. 1). The
estimated coal resources include 1053 million tons (Mt) in Jamalganj, 390 Mt in
Barapukuria, 685 Mt in Khalaspir, 600 Mt in Dighipara, and 572 Mt in Phulbari coal
basin (Imam 2013, Farhaduzzaman 2013).
The overall primary energy is based mostly (91.41%) on local natural gas and
imported oil in Bangladesh (BPDB 2014). Nonetheless, the proved natural gas is not

*
Corresponding author: <farhadgeo@gmail.com>
1
Department of Petroleum Geoscience, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei.
178 FARHADUZZAMAN et al.

sufficient to meet up the national demand and in fact, the authority (Petrobangla) is
struggling to provide the required gas supply. Coal fuels more than 40% for electricity
generation and 70% for steel production in the current world (World Coal Association
2014) whereby only 2.45% power is generated from the coal in Bangladesh. At present,
realizing the importance, the policy makers and relevant experts of Bangladesh are
emphasizing more on the usage of coals in order to meet up the tremendous demand of
the energy-starved country.

Fig. 1. The study area, drill hole location and major tectonic elements of the Bengal basin,
Bangladesh (modified after Khan 2006, Farhaduzzaman et al. 2012a, b and 2013b).
QUALITY OF PERMIAN COALS OF DIGHIPARA, BANGLADESH 179

There are very few coal-quality based research (considering Permian coals) available
in the scientific community. Podder and Hossain (1996) published an article on
carbonization of coking coals of Barapukuria and Khalaspir basins, Bangladesh. Podder
and Majumder (2001) worked on thermal and electrical characterization of Barapukuria
coal, Bangladesh. Imam et al. (2002) published a paper on coal bed methane (CBM)
prospect of the Permian coal of the Jamalganj basin. Islam and Hayashi (2008) discussed
on geology and CBM resource potential of the Barapukuria coal basin. The proximate
and ultimate analyses are the first criteria to be considered for evaluating the quality of
any kind of coals (ASTM 1990). But there is no work published on the coal quality
assessment of the Dighipara half-graben coal basin, Bangladesh. Therefore, the principal
objective of the current research was to assess the overall quality of Permian coals of the
Dighipara basin, Bangladesh based on standard proximate analysis, ultimate analysis and
microscopic observation. Furthermore, this study helps us to understand its best usage of
the Permian coals of the Dighipara, Bangladesh.

Table 1. Stratigraphic succession of the Dighipara coal basin (Modified after Hasan and
Islam 2003, Farhaduzzaman et al. 2013a).

Age Group Formation Simplified lithology Max. Depositional

thickness (m) environment
Holocene Alluvium Silt, clay, sand, soft and 1 Fluvial-alluvial and
rootlets rapidly prograding
delta
Plio-pleistocene Barind Reddish brown silty sticky 8
clay clay
Unconformity
Late pliocene Dupity tila Yellowish brown fine to coarse poorly 320 Fluvial and
consoliadted sands and pebbles with prograding delta-
occasional claystone bands shelf
Early pliocene Lower Grey to bluish gery plastic clayey sand
to late miocene dupi tila Bottom part soft and white kaolimitic
clays
Unconformity
Permian Gondwana Gondwana Feldspathic sandstone, 289 Fluvial to delta
carbonaceous sandstone and plain, coal swamps
shale, conglomerate with
coal beds
Unconformity
Archaean Pre- Basement Gneissic and schistose 41 Stable Gondwana
cambrian complex metamorphic and continent
metaigneous rocks with
weathered top

Stratigraphy of the Dighipara coal basin has not been well established and it is still
under exploration. The Geological Survey of Bangladesh (GSB) have drilled four holes
(as of December 2011) in the Dighipara and found coal in all holes. On the basis of
lithological logging and data collection while sampling and during drilling, the following
description has been prepared. Dighipara coal basin is located within the southern slope
of the Platform unit (Fig. 1). The Dighipara basin is a north-south elongated oval-shaped
180 FARHADUZZAMAN et al.

and fault bounded basin. The eastern side of the basin might be fault bounded, as
evidenced from the Bouger gravity anomaly map.

Fig. 2. Lithostratigraphic columns (partly) of the studied drill hole GDH60 and GDH62 of the
Dighipara coal basin, Bangladesh. The sampling positions are also shown.

The northeast-southwest trending fault may be the northern limit of the basin. The
basin might have formed by faulting in the crystalline basement during Permo-
Carboniferous time. Later on, these basins were reshaped and basin marginal adjustments
took place from time to time due to the Himalayan upheavals. Subsequently the Tertiary
and Quaternary sediments were deposited over the crystalline basement within the half-
graben basin.
QUALITY OF PERMIAN COALS OF DIGHIPARA, BANGLADESH 181

Table 2. Thickness and depth (in meter) of coal seams found in four defferent drill holes of
Dighipara basin (after Hasan and Islam 2003, Alam 2010, Farhaduzzaman 2013).

Seam GDH49 GDH58 GDH60 GDH60

no.
Depth (m) Thicknes Depth (m) Thickness Depth (m) Thickness Depth (m) Thickness
s
Seam A 327.96-34503 17.07 383.53-400.51 16.98 355.09-365.00 9.91 323.09-342.90 19.81
Seam B 348.39-382.22 33.83 403.62-438.91 35.29 368.81-402.71 33.90 348.08-384.66 36.58
Seam C 384.66-391.67 7.01 441.35-442.57 1.22 707.52-408.04 0.52 388.32-395.02 6.70
Seam D 395.94-398.37 2.43 44.79-455.07 10.28 416.36-419.25 2.89 397.31-400.66 3.35
Seam E 400.43 402.03 1.60 - - - 407.97-408.89 0.92
Seam G - - - - - - 414.83-417.73 2.90
Cumulative thickness 62.25 63.77 47.22 71.07

The probable basin area is about 15 km2 and the estimated resource is 600 million
tons at Dighipara (Farhaduzzaman 2013). The lithological descriptions and their
corresponding stratigraphic positions of the geological formations are similar in
comparison to those of the nearby Barapukuria basin (Hasan and Islam 2003). The
geological formations of the Dighipara basin include (from bottom upward) Basement
Complex, Gondwana Group, Dupi Tila, Barind Clay and Alluvium. The simplified
lithostratigraphic description of the Dighipara basin is stated in Table 1 (Fig. 2).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 11 coal core samples were collected from GSB’s core laboratory at Bogra,
Bangladesh. Eight samples were chosen from bore hole GDH62 and three samples from
GDH60. All the samples were taken from top seams namely, Seam A, Seam B and Seam
C of two bore holes at Dighipara. The study area, borehole location, sampling position
and a simplified lithostratigraphic succession of the representative bore holes GDH60 and
GDH62 (in part) of the Dighipara are shown in Figs 1 and 2. Standard classification of
coals by rank prescribed by The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM
1990) has been used to assess the quality of the Permian coals from the Dighipara basin,
Bangladesh. Proximate analysis, ultimate analysis and gross calorific value (GCV)
measurements are carried out at the accredited coal quality testing laboratory of the
Minerals and Geoscience Department (JMG) Malaysia.

The proximate analysis of coal can be reported on the basis of four ways such as:
(a) as received (ar)- includes total moisture, (b) air dried (ad)- includes inherent moisture
only, (c) dry basis (db)- excludes all moisture and (d) dry ash free (daf) or dry and
mineral matter free (dmmf)- excludes all moisture and ash. The proximate analysis
comprised of the measurements of moisture content, volatile matter and ash using in-
house test methods followed by ASTM standards and the fixed carbon is determined by
the difference.
182 FARHADUZZAMAN et al.

Ultimate analysis in the studied coal comprised of the determination of carbon and
hydrogen in the material as found in the gaseous products of its complete combustion, the
determination of sulfur, nitrogen and ash in the material as a whole, and the calculation of
oxygen by difference (ASTM 1989). Gross calorific value (GCV) is also determined
using the ASTM standard test methods for the ASTM coal rank classification system.

All the samples are microscopically examined at the Geology Department,

University of Malaya. The procedure, description and analysis published by ICCP (1963)
and ICCP System 1994 (1998 and 2001) have been followed for the purpose of
microscopic study. The samples are prepared by mounting whole rock fragments in resin
blocks and polished to a highly reflecting surface using progressively finer alumina
suspension (1, 0.3 and 0.05 μm). Microscopic observation is carried out under oil
immersion in plane polarised reflected white light, using a LEICA DM6000M
microscope and CTR6000 photometry system equipped with fluorescence illuminators.
Random vitrinite reflectance (% Ro) measurements in oil immersion are made in reflected
white light using Diskus Fossil software equipped with a Basler digital camera.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The number of coal seams varied from three to seven whereby the top seams, namely
Seam A, Seam B and Seam C constitute the lion’s share of the resource at the Dighipara
coal basin. The coal was found at depths of 323 - 455 m, which indicates the resource
identified here is comparatively deeper than the Barapukuria basin which is located north
to the basin. The cumulative thickness of coal seams at Dighipara ranges from 47.22 to
71.07 m, whilst the average thickness is 61 meters (Hasan and Islam 2003, Alam 2010,
Farhaduzzaman 2013). The thickness and depth of coal seams found in four different drill
holes of the basin can be showed in Table 2.

The Permian coals of Dighipara are mainly banded dull to dull in nature as followed
by the JORC Code (2004). The banded bright and bright banded coals are not uncommon
in the studied coal seams of the Dighipara basin. The coal is highly cleated. The cleats are
generally irregular to planar and pyritic infill is common along the joint planes and cleats.

Proximate analysis was used to establish the rank of coals and show the ratio of
combustible to incombustible constituents. It provides the basis for buying and selling
and evaluate for beneficiation or for other purposes (ASTM 1989). The parameters
obtained from the proximate analysis of the Permian coals from the Dighipara basin are
shown in Table 3.
 QUALITY OF PERMIAN COALS OF DIGHIPARA, BANGLADESH 183

Table 3. Proximate and ultimate analysis results (air dried, ad-basis; in wt.%) of the Dighipara coal samples using ASTM D2013-07
method (Geoscience Malaysia Laboratory). Gross calorific value GCV (moist and mineral matter free, mmmf-basis; Btu/lb), vitrinite
reflectance (%Ro) and calculated H/C and O/C atomic ratios (dry and mineral matter free, dmmf-basis) are also shown.
Proximate analysis Ultimate analysis Atomic ratios GCV Vitrinite
Sample Borehole Depth Coal Moisture Volatiles Fixed C Ash S N O C H H/C O/C (Btu/lb) reflectance
no. no. (m) seam (wt.%) (wt.%) (wt.%) (wt.%) (wt.%) (wt.%) (wt.%) (wt.%) (wt.%) (dmmf) (dmmf) (mmmf) (%Ro)

DPCL30 GDH60 358.14 Seam A 3.00 32.30 59.00 5.70 0.61 1.67 16.30 77.00 4.40 0.69 0.16 13329 0.70
DPCL31 GDH60 363.02 Seam A 3.00 30.10 60.80 6.10 0.49 1.68 16.60 77.00 4.22 0.66 0.16 13458 0.80
DPCL32 GDH60 368.81 Seam B 3.20 33.50 56.00 7.30 0.88 1.65 18.97 73.90 4.57 0.74 0.19 13520 0.73
DPCL34 GDH62 368.80 Seam A 2.70 33.00 51.10 13.20 0.74 1.61 24.60 68.70 4.33 0.76 0.27 13635 0.71
DPCL35 GDH62 396.85 Seam B 2.90 30.10 59.20 7.80 1.14 1.83 19.32 73.60 4.07 0.66 0.20 13287 0.79

DPCL36 GDH62 402.64 Seam B 2.60 32.10 58.60 6.70 0.58 1.67 18.03 75.30 4.41 0.70 0.18 13725 0.76

DPCL37 GDH62 403.56 Seam B 2.00 23.80 47.70 26.50 0.41 0.91 45.72 49.70 3.25 0.78 0.69 12333 0.71

DPCL38 GDH62 431.54 Seam C 2.30 22.40 46.50 28.80 0.32 1.21 38.75 56.40 3.31 0.70 0.52 13207 0.71
DPCL39 GDH62 436.78 Seam C 4.60 26.10 56.30 13.00 0.63 1.74 25.07 68.70 3.83 0.67 0.27 12942 0.72
DPCL40 GDH62 453.12 Seam C 3.20 26.70 48.60 21.50 0.83 1.41 31.97 61.90 3.86 0.75 0.39 13635 0.78
DPCL44 GDH62 469.15 Seam C 2.00 22.60 48.20 27.20 0.61 0.99 45.45 49.80 3.13 0.75 0.68 12128 0.73
-- 358.14 - -- 2.00 - 22.40 - 47.70 - 5.70 - 0.32 - 0.91 - 16.30 - 49.80 - 3.13 - 0.66 - 0.16 - 12128 - 0.70 -
Range
469.15 4.60 33.50 60.58 28.80 1.14 1.83 45.72 77.00 4.57 0.78 0.69 13725 0.80
Mean -- -- -- 3 28 54 15 0.66 1.49 27.34 66.55 3.94 0.72 0.34 13200 0.74

Table 5. Quality (air dried: ad-basis) of the Dighipara coals compared to the Permian coals of the Jamalganj, Barapukuria, Phulbari and
Khalshpir coal basins, Bangladesh (after Farhaduzzaman et al. 2008, Alam 2010, Imam 2013, Farhaduzzaman 2013)[ (Note: * denotes
the result obtained from current work).
Ash (wt.%) Fixed Carbon (wt.%) Volatile matter (wt.%) Moisture (wt.%) Total sulfur (wt.%) GCV (Btu/lb)
Coal Cummul.
Coal basin Coal rank
depth (m) thick(m) Range Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range Mean

Dighipara* 323 - 455 61 5.7 - 28.8 15 47.7 - 60.6 54 22.4-33.5 28 2.0 - 4.6 3.0 0.32 - 1.14 0.66 8666 - 13146 11426 Bituminous
Jamalganj 640 - 1158 64 10.0 - 60.0 21 33.0 - 54.0 45 30.0 - 40.0 30 - 3.6 0.54 - 0.65 0.55 7388 - 13000 12100 Bituminous
Barapukuria* 130 - 507 51 6.7 - 25.2 15 44.7 - 58.7 53 27.4 - 31.8 28 3.3 - 4.6 4.0 0.43 - 0.80 0.63 9839 - 12658 11364 Bituminous
Phulbari 165 - 270 38 11.6 - 24.6 15 44.2 - 56.7 51 29.4 - 33.7 31 2.4 - 2.8 2.6 0.75 - 0.80 0.77 12474 - 13320 12897 Bituminous
Khalaspir 257 - 483 50 7.6 - 27.3 20 48.6 - 60.4 54 17.4 - 40.4 23 1.2 - 4.1 3.2 0.51 - 0.96 0.77 10436 - 11580 11264 Bituminous
184 FARHADUZZAMAN et al.

Moisture is an important property of coal since all coals are mined wet. Physically
and chemically bound water can contribute to total moisture. Groundwater and other
extraneous moisture is known as adventitious moisture and is readily evaporated.
Moisture held within the coal itself is known as inherent moisture (IM) and is analyzed
quantitatively. The moisture content decreases with maturity and ranking of coal due to
the decrease of porosity (Stach et al. 1982). The moisture percent (air-dry basis) of the
analyzed Dighipara coals ranges from 2% to 4.6% while the arithmetic mean is 3%
(Table 3) and it is fairly low because of its high rank.

Volatile matters in coal refer to gaseous products in coal (except for moisture vapor)
which are liberated at high temperature in the absence of air. This is usually a mixture of
short and long chain hydrocarbons, aromatic hydrocarbons and some sulfur. Along with
ranks, volatile matter is frequently used to assess the coke yield on carbonization and
burning characteristics. Measured volatile matter (ad-basis) in the studied Permian coals
varies from 22.40 to 33.50% (Table 3). It is fairly high in the investigated coals which
indicate high volatile bituminous coal (Stach et al. 1982).

Ash is the non-combustible residue remaining after burning the coal. Ash obtained
differs from in composition from the inorganic constituents present in the original coal.
Incineration causes an expulsion of all water, the loss of carbon dioxide from carbonates,
the conversion of iron pyrites into ferric oxide and other chemical reactions (ASTM
1989). The ash content (ad-basis) determined from the studied Dighipara coals is 5.70 -
28.80% and its arithmetic mean is 15%. There are a few processes involved with the
presence of ash. It actually corresponds to the minerals in coal which might have washed
or blown into the accumulating peat resource by epiclastic or pyroclastic processes.
However the minerals can also be formed by the accumulation of skeletal fragments and
biogenic components into the coal deposit. The syngenetic and epigenetic precipitation of
biogenic minerals through crystallization processes in peat system can also contribute to
the development of minerals in coal (Farhaduzzaman 2013). The ash content found in the
studied coals is fairly low. Ash yield in seam A was low compared to Seam B and Seam
C. Hence a few different options could be considered for the contribution of mineral
formation in the studied coals: (a) doming process of accumulated peat deposit, (b)
leaching of minerals from previously deposited peat resource and (c) deposition of peat
on an exposed condition while there was no active inorganic sedimentation. The
coalification process itself might contribute for the formation of minerals in coal, but this
is unlikely to have occurred for the current case. In addition, the doming of accumulated
peat resource can restrict the introduction of detrital minerals and sulfur-rich waters into
the resource as previously reported by Cohen and Stack (1996).
QUALITY OF PERMIAN COALS OF DIGHIPARA, BANGLADESH 185

The fixed carbon in coal is the solid residue (other than ash) which is obtained by
destructive distillation (e.g. after volatiles are driven off). It is made up principally of carbon,
but may contain appreciable amounts of sulfur, hydrogen and oxygen (ASTM 1989). This
differs from the ultimate carbon content of the coal because some carbon is lost in
hydrocarbons with the volatiles. Fixed carbon is used as an estimate of the amount of coke
that will be yielded from a sample of coal. The high content of fixed carbon 47.70-60.58%
found in the presently analyzed coals indicates that these coals can partly be used to produce
coke. This byproduct (coke) is an important fuel for the steel industries. Based on Permian
coals from the Phulbari basin (which is close to the current studied basin) Farhaduzzaman
(2008) discusses that the Permian coals can provide 25% as coke for the steel industry. This
study supports that the analyzed coals from Dighipara can contribute in metallurgy after
proper processing for coke preparation. Following the coal rank interpretation made by Stach
et al. (1982), the observed fixed carbon percentages correspond to mainly ‘high volatile A
bituminous coal’ together with some ‘medium volatile bituminous coal’.

The information obtained by the ultimate analysis (i.e., S, N, H, O) is intended for

the general utilization by applicable industries to provide the basis for evaluation,
beneficiation or for other purposes. The ultimate analysis of the examined Dighipara
coals also helps us to summarize the ash content and the content of organic constituents
in a specific format which ultimately permits cursory valuation of coals for use as a fuel
or in other carbonaceous processes and of cokes (if possible) for metallurgical purposes.

As stated by ASTM standards (1989, 1990), the total sulfur content obtained by this
ultimate analysis is used to serve a number of interests such as: (a) evaluation of coal
preparation, (b) evaluation of potential sulfur emissions from coal combustion or conversion
processes, (c) evaluation of coal quality in relation to contract specification and (d) other
purposes of commercial or scientific interests. The high presence of sulfur in coal can cause
acid rain which is very harmful for the environment and human being. The most commonly
found forms are sulfate sulfur and pyritic sulfur along with minor presence of organic sulfur.
Except for one sample (DPCL35), the sulfur percentage in the studied Permian coals of the
Dighipara basin is very low and it is less than 1, and therefore points to a freshwater
depositional environment. Lower inputs of sulfur containing minerals to the peat depositional
system and the concomitant limited presence of sulfur-reducing organisms are considered for
this low amount of sulfur content in the examined Dighipara coals of Permian age
(Farhaduzzaman 2013). The main source of sulfur minerals is considered the marine water.
Low sulfur content generally indicates the fresh water inputs as consistent with the present
case. The minor presence of syngenetic pyrite (sulfur-bearing mineral) in the examined
Permian coals observed under microscope indicates, however, the influence of marine
contribution although this marine influence is not supported much by other evidence. But the
common presence of epigenetic pyrite found in the cleats of the studied Dighipara coals
186 FARHADUZZAMAN et al.

corresponds to fresh-brackish water environment (Hower and Bland 1989). This kind of
epigenetic sulfur-bearing minerals (pyrite) is also frequently observed physically during the
field examination of the studied Permian coals. The cleat-filling epigenetic pyrites are
believed to have precipitated post-depositionally from solutions percolating through fresh-
brackish water formation underlying and/or overlying the coal seams (Cohen and Stack 1996).
Both pyritic sulfur (as iron sulfide/pyrite) and sulfate sulfur (as carbonates) are observed in the
examined coal samples.

Fig. 3. van Krevelen’s diagram based on atomic ratios of H/C and O/C analyzed for the Permian
coals of the Dighipara basin, Bangladesh (modified after Tissot and Welte 1984). It shows
the examined Dighipara coals are of subbituminous rank.

The total carbon comprises not only the organic carbon (as kerogen or bitumen) but also
the inorganic carbon (as mineral carbonates). The total hydrogen includes the hydrogen
present in the free moisture accompanying the samples as well as hydrogen present as water
of hydration of silicates. The per cent of carbon and hydrogen is used to calculate the amount
of oxygen (air) required in combustion processes and in the calculations of efficiency of
combustion processes. Carbon and hydrogen determinations are considered in material
balances on coal conversion processes. It is also significant in correlations of chemical and
physical properties such as yields of products in liquefaction, reactivity in gasification and the
density and porosity of coal (ASTM 1989). The contents of total carbon and total hydrogen
found in the studied Permian coals of the Dighipara basin are 49.80 - 77.00% and 3.1 - 4.6%,
respectively (Table 3). The high content of total carbon and the favorable content of hydrogen
indicate that the studied coals are potential for coal liquefaction (coal to liquids: CTL) either
by direct or indirect methods (World Coal Institute 2007). However, it requires further study
QUALITY OF PERMIAN COALS OF DIGHIPARA, BANGLADESH 187

for detail interpretation aligned with the clean coal technology aspects CCT or CTL which is
the topmost research arena in the current world.

A X

B Y

C Z

Fig. 4. Photomicrographs for the studied coal samples of the Dighipara basin. (A) Grey color
vitrinite maceral [V] with structured telinite [te] and white inertodetrinite [id] in reflected
white light. (B) White color inertinite maceral fusinite [fs] with dull white color semifusinite
[sf] or structured pyrosemifusinite [psf] in reflected white light. (C) Bright yellow to dull
yellow fluorescent liptinite maceral cutinite [ct] together with lamellar shaped sporinite [sp]
and fluorinite [fl] under ultraviolet light. (X) The dominant microlithotype trimacerite:
clarodurite includes mainly inertinite [I] and liptinite [L] along with vitrinite [V] as minor
constituent. (Y) The second largest group of microlithotype duroclarite: includes mainly
vitrinite and liptinite with inertinite as minor constituent. (Z) Bimacerite microlithotype
vitrinertinite which comprises vitrinite and inertinite only.
188 FARHADUZZAMAN et al.

The determination of total nitrogen is required for evaluating the potential formation
of nitrous oxides which is considered as one of the important pollutants in the
atmosphere. It is also used for the oxygen estimation by difference. The measured total
nitrogen and total oxygen in the studied coals is very low and it varies from 0.91 to
1.83% and from 16.30 to 45.72%, respectively and this is not considered as a hazardous
constituent for the environmental concern.

The atomic ratios of H/C and O/C can be used in van Krevelen’s diagram for the
purpose of coal-quality analysis. This diagram provides the information on kerogen type
as well as the evolutionary paths of the organic matter from different sources (Tissot and
Welte 1984). The kind of hydrocarbon to be generated from the organic matter can also
be determined using the compositional study of the kerogens. The atomic ratios of H/C
and O/C of the analyzed Permian coals of the Dighipara basin range from 0.66 to 0.78
and 0.16 to 0.69, respectively. All the studied coal samples of Dighipara plotted in van
Krevelen’s diagram indicate the subbituminous rank (Fig. 3). However, a few samples
(DPCL37, DPCL38, DPCL40 and DPCL44) are not revealed in the diagram and it
occurred due to their increased atomic O/C ratios influenced probably by the increased
ash contents compared to all other samples. The presence of different minerals might also
affect the oxygen increase which requires further study.

Calorific value is significantly used to compute the total calorific content of the
quantity of coal represented by the sample for payment purposes, provided the buyer and
seller mutually agree upon this. GCV is also important for computing the calorific value
versus sulfur content to determine if the coal meets regulatory requirements for industry
fuels (ASTM 1985). The measured GCV of the Permian coals from the Dighipara basin
varies from 12128 to 13725 Btu/lb (moist and mineral matter free, mmmf-basis). It
corresponds mainly to ‘high volatile B bituminous coal’ ranges up to ‘high volatile C
bituminous coal’ in rank (Stack et al. 1982, ASTM 1990). Seam A and Seam B are
comparatively better in rank considering Seam C. The GCV is supposed to be increased
with depth. But the measured gross calorific value and fixed carbon of Seam C are
slightly lower in amount although it is located at the bottom position compared to Seam
A and Seam B. It is possibly caused due to inferior quality (including higher ash) of
Seam C comparing with Seam A and Seam B.

MICROSCOPIC ANALYSIS

The quantitative and qualitative analyses of macerals and associated minerals

(vol.%) are carried out in the present study. The details of different macerals and mineral
matter of the Dighipara coal basin are summarized in Table 4. The analyzed Permian
coal is rich in inertinite group macerals (32.2 - 55.0 vol.%) followed by vitrinite (18.5 -
38.7 vol.%) and liptinite group (14.0 - 24.4 vol.%).
 QUALITY OF PERMIAN COALS OF DIGHIPARA, BANGLADESH 189

Table 4. The maceral and mineral matter contents (vol. %) based on petrographic results of the studied Dighipara coals, Bangladesh.
Table-4-5++++++++++++
Maceral /
DPCL30 DPCL31 DPCL32 DPCL34 DPCL35 DPCL36 DPCL37 DPCL38 DPCL39 DPCL40 DPCL44 Range Mean
Mineral matter
Telinite 1.0 0.0 0.4 1.9 0.0 0.6 0.3 0.0 0.8 1.4 0.0 0.0-1.9 0.6
Collotelinite 20.9 1.8 36.1 23.6 14.5 22.7 17.5 10.3 26.9 12.6 18.2 1.8-36.1 18.2
Collodetrinite 7.5 12.4 0.8 6.4 11.6 2.9 8.1 6.4 8.2 14.4 7.0 0.8-14.4 7.8
Vitrodetrinite 0.9 9.0 1.4 2.3 3.2 1.1 0.8 5.8 0.9 2.0 2.6 0.9-2.6 2.7
Gelinite 0.7 0.4 0.0 0.6 1.4 0.6 0.9 1.0 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.0-1.4 0.6
Corpogelinite 0.2 0.2 0.0 1.9 0.2 0.6 0.2 0.0 1.1 0.4 0.0 0.0-1.9 0.4
Vitrinite group 31.2 23.8 38.7 36.7 30.9 28.5 27.8 23.5 38.3 31.2 28.2 18.5-38.7 30.3
Sporinite 16.4 11.0 14.5 11.8 15.9 13.1 9.8 16.7 9.5 12.6 16.8 9.5-21.7 13.9
Cutinite 5.3 2.2 5.2 3.5 2.4 4.0 4.1 3.2 2.1 3.2 2.0 2.0-5.3 3.4
Resinite 0.3 0.6 0.4 1.0 0.8 1.2 1.2 1.4 0.5 1.8 1.4 0.3-1.8 1.0
Bituminite 0.9 1.6 1.2 0.6 0.6 1.9 0.8 1.0 0.7 3.2 0.4 0.4-1.9 1.2
Fluorinite 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.3 1.3 0.6 0.1 0.8 0.6 0.1-1.3 0.5
Liptodetrinite 0.5 1.0 0.8 0.4 0.2 0.9 0.4 0.4 0.7 0.6 0.8 0.2-1.0 0.6
Exsudatinite 0.7 0.6 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.4 0.8 0.4 0.4 0.0 0.0-0.8 0.4
Liptinite group 24.4 17.4 22.7 17.9 20.5 22.0 18.0 24.1 14.0 22.6 22.0 14.0-24.4 21.0
Semifusinite 19.0 24.1 6.4 13.6 23.9 12.9 25.8 25.5 19.7 16.4 27.8 6.4-27.8 19.6
Fusinite 10.5 12.4 15.6 12.6 8.4 13.2 4.4 2.8 9.4 10.1 1.2 1.2-15.6 9.1
Inertodetrinite 6.1 13.5 13.4 10.1 5.1 12.5 4.3 3.7 6.1 4.3 1.8 1.8-13.5 7.4
Micrinite 1.5 2.5 0.6 0.9 1.1 4.4 0.2 1.0 1.9 2.1 0.4 0.4-2.5 1.5
Macrinite 0.7 2.1 0.4 0.8 0.5 3.6 0.5 0.2 2.7 1.1 0.6 0.2-2.7 1.2
Secretinite 0.9 0.3 0.0 0.7 0.4 0.3 2.4 0.6 0.7 3.2 0.4 0.0-3.2 0.9
Funginite 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.0-0.2 0.1
Inertinite group 38.8 55.0 36.4 38.8 39.4 46.9 37.8 34.0 40.5 37.4 32.2 32.2-55.0 39.7
Clay minerals 5.1 3.6 1.5 5.1 7.0 2.3 14.1 17.1 6.1 7.5 16.5 1.5-17.1 7.8
Pyrite-Quartz 0.5 0.2 0.7 1.5 2.2 0.3 2.3 1.3 1.1 1.3 1.1 0.2-2.3 1.1
Mineral matter 5.6 3.8 2.2 6.6 9.2 2.6 16.4 18.4 7.2 8.8 17.6 2.2-18.4 8.9
190 FARHADUZZAMAN et al.

Semifusinite, fusinite and inertodetrinite are the main constituents of the inertinite
group. Collotelinite and collodetrinite are the dominant components of vitrinite group.
Sporinite, cutinite and resinite are common macerals of the liptinite group. A few
representative macerals observed under microscope are shown in Figs 4A, B and C.

All the different microlithotypes in the analyzed Permian coal samples from
Dighipara are identified in detail concentration. Trimaceral group members such as
clarodurite (22%) and duroclarite (18%) are found to be the most dominant maceral
associations in the studied Dighipara samples. Durite (14%) is the most dominant
bimaceral group: durite I is present in higher amounts than durite E. Other bimaceral
groups i.e., clarite and vitrinertite are also common in the samples. Figs 4X, Y and Z
exhibit a few of the different microlithotypes found in the studied coal samples under
microscope.

Vitrinite reflectance plays a large role in defining the quality assessment of whole
coal. The physical and chemical properties of vitrinite change with the course of
coalification. Thus the determination of vitrinite reflectance is a fundamental tool in coal
petrology. Random vitrinite reflectance (%Ro) measurements carried out for the analyzed
Permian coals of Dighipara ranges from 0.7 to 0.8. It corresponds to ‘high volatile B
bituminous coal’ and ‘high volatile C bituminous coal’ followed by the rank
classification adopted by Stach et al. (1982) and subsequently used by different others.

QUALITY OF THE DIGHIPARA COALS

The purpose of any classification is to provide a convenient means for the primary
evaluation of a coal product with appropriate internally accepted criteria. The cross-plot
of volatile matter versus fixed carbon (modified after Stach et al. 1982, ASTM 1990)
indicates that the analyzed coals fall into the rank of ‘high volatile bituminous coal’
together with minor presence of ‘medium volatile bituminous coal’. The mostly used van
Krevelen’s diagram, however, shows the subbituminous rank of the studied Permian
coals (Fig. 3). Another cross-plot presented by gross calorific value and vitrinite
reflectance (modified after Stach et al. 1982, ASTM 1990) shows that the examined
Dighipara coals are ‘high volatile B bituminous coal’ and ‘high volatile C bituminous
coal’ in rank. Seam A and Seam B are slightly better in quality and rank compared to
Seam C.

Quality of the Dighipara coals is compared with the Permian coals of the Jamalganj,
Barapukuria, Phulbari and Khalaspir half-graben coal basins, Bangladesh (Table 5). The
proximate and ultimate analysis results of the Permian coals obtained from the discovered
coal deposits show that all the coals are of, in general, similar quality and it is bituminous
QUALITY OF PERMIAN COALS OF DIGHIPARA, BANGLADESH 191

rank. The value of the gross calorific value (air dried: ad-basis) is the highest (12100
Btu/lb) for Jamalganj deposit while it is the lowest (11264 Btu/lb) for Khalaspir deposit.
The fixed carbon content ranges from 45 wt.% (the lowest in Jamalganj) to 54 wt.% (the
highest in Dighipara). The content of sulfur is very low (less than 1 wt.%) in all the
Permian coals studied.

Fig. 5. Modified van Krevelen’s diagram shows the coalification path or kerogen evolutionary path
based on atomic ratios of H/C versus O/C of the studied Dighipara coals (modified after
Tissot and Welte 1984). The analyzed coals are of humic origin sourced from Type III
organic matter (land plants).

Based on the atomic ratios of H/C and O/C, the modified van Krevelen’s diagram
shows that the organic matter of the analyzed Permian coals is of Type III kerogen (Fig.
5). It is also supported by the abundance of Type III representing vitrinite macerals
observed under microscope. Although now it is accepted that coal is capable of
generating hydrocarbon generation and expulsion, but for the last couple of decades there
was a long debate on it. Vitrinite reflectance value is the most reliable tool for assessing
the thermal maturation of the organic matter in sediments. The random vitrinite
reflectance (%Ro) of 0.7 - 0.8 indicates that the organic matter in the studied Dighipara
coals is in peak maturity stage for hydrocarbon generation (Peters and Cassa 1994). Erik
(2011) reported the atomic ratio of H/C less than 0.9 is considered necessary for
192 FARHADUZZAMAN et al.

hydrocarbon generation and expulsion from subbituminous coals. The measured H/C
value 0.66 to 0.78 of the investigated Permian coals from Dighipara indicates that the
organic matter in the coals is capable of generating hydrocarbons which also have
expelled to the related petroleum system.

The liptinite macerals with perhydrous vitrinite in the coals are considered as the most
important constituents for hydrocarbon generation. The exsudatinite within crack network
appears to have developed in these samples and shows the liptinitic materials have already
expelled their liquid hydrocarbon constituents to the carrier bed. The indigenous solid bitumen
and fluorinite found in the analyzed samples also suggests the generation and expulsion of
hydrocarbon from these samples have occurred (Farhaduzzaman et al. 2013b). Micrinite is
considered to be the residue of hydrocarbon generation. The significant presence of micrinite
in the analyzed samples suggests the organic matter has already expelled liquid hydrocarbons
in the associated Gondwana Petroleum System. This interpretation is also agreed with the
study reported early by Frielingsdorf et al. (2008) and Farhaduzzaman et al. (2012a, 2013b)
who have used different methods including organic geochemistry, biomarkers, petrography,
basin modeling etc.

CONCLUSIONS
 Based on the proximate analysis, the studied Permian coals of the Dighipara coal
basin is categorized by high volatile, low ash and low sulfur in contents. The heat
value (GCV) is fairly high (12128-13725 Btu/lb). It seems that as a part of the
clean coal technology (CCT), the examined Permian coal has the potential for
coal liquefaction (coal to liquids: CTL) which is evidenced by the high contents
of total carbon and favorable amount of hydrogen. Nevertheless it requires
additional study on CTL.

 Cross-plots of volatile matter versus fixed carbon and vitrinite reflectance versus
gross calorific value indicate the analyzed coals are of mainly ‘high volatile B
bituminous coal’ ranging up to ‘medium volatile bituminous coal’ as the highest
rank and ‘high volatile C bituminous coal’ as the lowest rank. However, van
Krevelen’s diagram based on the atomic ratios of H/C and O/C corresponds to
‘subbituminous coal’ in rank. Seam A and Seam B are comparatively better in
quality considering Seam A.

 Inertinite is the most dominant maceral group of the analyzed Gondwana coals of
the Dighipara basin followed by vitrinite and liptinite group macerals.
Trimacerite is identified as the dominant microlithotype of the investigated coal
samples. The second largest microlithotypes is bimacerite and then
monomacerite with considerable carbominerites.
QUALITY OF PERMIAN COALS OF DIGHIPARA, BANGLADESH 193

 The vitrinite reflectance value (greater than 0.7 %Ro) and some diagnostic
macerals (e.g., exsudatinite, solid bitumen, fluorinite) suggests the analyzed
Permian coal is mature enough for hydrocarbon generation and expulsion. The
studied coals containing dominantly Type III kerogen representing vitrinite
macerals and some Type II representing liptinite macerals suggest that the coals
are predominantly gas-prone showing some oil generating potential.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are grateful to former DG of GSB for permitting the usage of the
samples and data. They would also like to thank JMG Malaysia for providing the
laboratory facilities. The first author cordially appreciated the cooperation and motivation
provided by Prof. Dr. Khalil R. Chowdhury and his colleagues of JU. The management
and colleagues of Sylhet Gas Fields Ltd., Petrobangla deserves the thanks for the official
support to this Ph.D. research (M.F.). The authors also acknowledge the Bright Sparks
Fellowship BSP-APP-1080-2012 and grants PV100-2011A and RG145-11AFR of
University Malaya for financial supports.

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(Revised manuscript received on 28 June, 2015)

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