MCTD Mannual

METAL CUTTING AND TOOL DESIGN LAB
EXPERIMENT NO. 1
AIM: To measure shear plane angle by performing shaping operation.
APPARATUS: Shaping machine, aluminium work piece, 5 cutting tools having different
rake angle.
THEORY: As shown in figure 1.1, during metal cutting a wedge shaped tool is made to
move relative to work piece. As the tool makes contact with metal edge of wedge cuts into
metal under the action of applied force. Due to the action of this applied force, the layer of
metal in front of the tool face is compressed severely.
Figure 1.1: Orthogonal cuttingoperation
The compressed element of metal will shear off due to rupture or slippage of
crystalline grain structure. The tool moving forward under the action of applied force will
continue to compress, shear off and displace the elements which then form chip.This chip
flows forward along with the face of tool. The process is repetitive and continuous chip is
formed having highly compressed and burnished underside.The plane along which shear
stress is maximum and the material shears off to form the chip is known as shear plane.The
angle made by shear plane with the cutting speed vector is called as shear plane angle and it
is denoted by ‘ϕ’.
SHEAR PLANE ANGLE MEASUREMENT:

To determine the shear angle experimentally, we have to stop the cutting process and study
the zone with the help of microscope or a photograph. Alternatively, we can also derive
relationship from the geometry of the chip formation as shown in figure 1.2.
SVNIT- SURAT, DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Page 1

Figure 1.2: Schematic of orthogonal cutting
From figure 1.2,
𝑡 = 𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜑
𝑡𝑐 = 𝐴𝐵 cos(𝜑 − 𝛼)
The chip thickness ratio r, which is also termed as cutting ratio, would be
𝑡 𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑
𝑟= = =
𝑡𝑐 𝐴𝐵 cos(𝜑−𝛼) cos⁡(𝜑−𝛼) Where,
1
∴𝑟= ϕ = shear plane angle
𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
α = rake angle
1 − 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = 𝑡
𝑟 r = chip thickness ratio =
𝑡𝑐
𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
∴ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑 =
1 − 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 t = uncut chip thickness
∴ 𝜑 = tan−1 tc= chip thickness
DETERMINATION OF CHIP THICKNESS RATIO:
Chip thickness ratio in case of metal cutting can be obtained in different ways.
 In terms of chip thickness:

𝑡 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑢𝑡⁡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑝⁡𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
⁡𝑟 = =
𝑡𝑐 𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑝⁡𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
 In terms of velocity:
𝑣𝑐 𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑝⁡𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑟= =
𝑣 𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔⁡𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

 In terms of length:
𝑙𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑝
𝑟= =
𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑢𝑡⁡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑝⁡𝑜𝑟⁡𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒⁡
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚⁡𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ⁡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑝⁡𝑖𝑠⁡𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑
SIGNIFICANCE OF SHEAR ANGLE:
If all other factors remain the same, a higher shear angle results in a smaller shear
plane area. Since, shear strength is applied across this area, the shear force required to form
the chip will decrease when shear plane area is decreased. This tends to make machining
easier to perform. Also cutting energy and cutting temperatures will be lower.
The force required is given by,
𝐹𝑠 = 𝜏 × 𝐴𝑠
So as area will decrease then force requirement will decrease. And we know the area As is
given by,
𝐴 𝑡×𝑤
𝐴𝑠 = =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑
So with increase in angle ϕ the value of sinϕ will also increase and from the above equation it
is clear that area As will decrease. As area is decreasing, force requirement will be less and
machining will be easier.
PROCEDURE:
1. Take suitable work piece and note down its dimensions.
2. Fix the work piece in vice of shaping machine.
3. Take the single point cutting tool with zero rake angle and fix the tool in such a way
that it will perform the same operation shown in figure 1.3 below
4. Collect the chips coming out and also note down the working conditions (feed and
cutting speed).
5. For the same tool perform the operation on speed of 72 stroke/min and again collect
the chips and note down the working conditions.
6. Take the next tools with different rake angle value and perform the step no 4, 5 and 6.
7. Find out the chip lengths for particular set of collected chips with the help of thread
and find out the average chip length.
8. After getting the all values for average chip length, value of shear plane angle can be
found out with the help of formulae given.

Figure 1.3: Tool and work piece arrangement for shaping machine
FORMULAE:
AVERAGE LENGTH OF CHIP ( LF):
𝑙1 + 𝑙2 + 𝑙3 + 𝑙4
𝑙𝑓 =
4
CHIP THICKNESS RATIO:
𝑡 𝑙𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑝
𝑟= =⁡ =
𝑡𝑐 𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑢𝑡⁡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑝⁡𝑜𝑟⁡𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒⁡
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚⁡𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ⁡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑝⁡𝑖𝑠⁡𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑
SHEAR PLANE ANGLE:

𝜑 = tan−1
STANDARD DATA:
WORK PIECE:
Material: Aluminium Dimensions: 36mm X 5mm (c/s area)
TOOL:
Back rake End relief

Tool no.
Angle(degree) Angle(degree)
1 0 6
2 5 6
3 10 6
4 15 6
5 20 6
SHAPING MACHINE:

H.P. of motor:
Speed range: 12-72 strokes/min
Feed range: 0.02-0.5 mm
OBSERVATION TABLE:
TABLE A
L = Stroke length = mm
N = Ram speed = strokes/min
Rake Length of
Sr Depth of Average length of chip (mm) Chip thickness
angle uncut
no cut (mm) ratio
(degree) l1 l2 l3 l4 lf chip(mm)
1 0 0.3
2 5 0.3
3 10 0.3
4 15 0.3
5 20 0.3
TABLE B
N = Ram speed = strokes/min
Rake Length of
Sr Depth of Average length of chip (mm) Chip thickness
angle uncut
no cut (mm) ratio
(degree) l1 l2 l3 l4 lf chip(mm)
1 0 0.3 36
2 5 0.3 36
3 10 0.3 36
4 15 0.3 36
5 20 0.3 36
SAMPLE CALCULATIONS:

RESULT TABLE:
Shear Plane Angle (degree) For
Sr no Rake angle (degree)
N= strokes/min N= strokes/min
1 0
2 5
3 10
4 15
5 20
GRAPH:
Shear plane angle Vs Rake angle for different cutting speeds.
CONCLUSION:
REFERENCE:
1. Posinasetti Nageswara Rao, Manufacturing Technology: Metal Cutting and Machine
Tools,Tatamcgrawhill, Edition 2nd, 2008.
2. G. Boothroyd and W. A. Knight, Fundamentals of machining and machine tools, Taylor

and Francis, 3rd Edition, 2006.
3. Ghosh and A. K. Malik, Manufacturing Science, Affiliated East West Press Pvt. Ltd.,
New Delhi, 2008.
4. M. C. Shaw, Metal Cutting Principles, Oxford University Press, 2nd edition, 2008.
5. Serope Kalpakjian, Steven R SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology

4thEdition Pearson, 2002.
6. M.E. Merchant, Basis mechanics of the metal-cutting process, ASME J.Appl. Mech.
11 (1944) A168–A175.
7. Dr. Gyula Varga, Examination of shear angle in metal cutting, Journal of Production
Processes and Systems, vol. 6. (2012) No.1, pp. 71-78
EXPERIMENT NO: 2
AIM: -Measurement of cutting forces in orthogonal cutting.
APPARATUS: - Lathe Tool Dynamometer, Lathe machine tool, Single point cutting tool,
mild steel (work piece)
THEORY:-In orthogonal cutting the cutting edge of the tool remains at right angle to the
direction of the cutting velocity or work feed. This type of cutting is also known as two
dimensional cutting. In oblique cutting, the cutting edge of the tool is inclined at an angle
with the direction of the tool feed or work feed, the chip being disposed of at a certain angle.
This type of cutting is also called three dimensional cutting.
1. Orthogonal Cutting 2. Oblique Cutting
Fig 1
Note:-An interesting feature to note here will be that most of the metal cutting is carried out
in workshops is through oblique cutting method but our further discussions on metal cutting
will be in the context of orthogonal cutting because of its simplicity.
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE VARIATION OF CUTTING FORCES:-

Work piece material:-The cutting forces vary to a great extent depending upon the physical
and mechanical properties of the material. Tangential force can be determined by multiplying
the chip cross-section with the specific cutting resistance offered by the work material, which
is found to be decreasing with increasing chip thickness and increases with increase in tensile
strength and hardness of the material.
Cutting Tool Material:-In metal-cutting, High Speed steel and Carbide are two major tool
materials widely used. Ceramic tools and CBN (Cubic Boron Nitride) are the other tool
materials used for machining very tough and hard materials. A tool’s hardness, strength, wear
resistance, and thermal stability are the characteristics that decide how fast the tool can cut
efficiently on a job.

Cutting Speed:-The tangential force varies with increases with cutting speed. It will be noted
that the cutting forces first increases in speed and on further increment reaches a maximum
value and start decreasing and become fairly stabilized at higher speed range. The initial rise
in cutting forces is due to effect of built-up edge which does not occur at high speed because
of high temperature involved which tends to make the material plastic.
Feed:- The tangential component of cutting forces is greatly influenced by the feed rate. It
has been observed that cutting force changes linearly with feed at higher speed, but at lower
speed the change is exponential.
Depth of cut:-The tangential component increases in the same proportion as the depth of cut,
if the ratio of depth and feed is more than 4.
Rake Angle:- It is the angle formed between the face of the tool and plane parallel to its base.
These rake angle guide the chips away from the cutting edge. It is important to note that an
increased rake angle will reduce the strength of the cutting edge. These rake angle determines
the chip pressure on the face thereby increasing the keenness of the tool, so that the less
power is required for cutting.
Shear Plane Angle:- If all the other factors remain the same, a higher shear angle results in
shear plane area. Since the shear strength is applied across this area, the shear force required
to form the chip will decrease, when the shear plane is decreased. This tends to make
machining easier to perform and also lower cutting energy and cutting temperature.
1.) If shear rake angle increases, shear angle increases.
2.) If friction decreases, shear angle increases.
Approach angle:- The chip size is dependent upon the approach angle. The tangential
component is more or less constant within the range 550 to 900 and increases slightly for
approach angle less than 550.Axial component is maximum for approach angle of 900and
decrease with decrease in approach angle. Radial component is minimum for approach angle
of 900and increases with decreases in approach angle.
Flank wear:- The various component of forces increases with increases considerably with
increase with flank wear.
As mentioned previously, there are two schools of thought regarding the plastic deformation
that takes place at cutting zone. It seems that the thin zone model is likely to be the most
useful because it is simple for analysis purpose.
The current analysis is based on Merchant’s thin shear plane model considering the minimum
energy principle. This model is applicable at very high speeds, which are generally practised
in production.

Assumptions:-
1.) The tool should be perfectly sharp and should have no contact along the clearance face.
2.) The surface where shear occurs is a plane.
3) The cutting edge should bea straight line extending perpendicular to the direction of
motion and generates a plane surface as the work moves past it.
4.) The chip should not flow to either side or no side spread.
5.) Uncut chip thickness should be constant.
6.) Width of the tool should be greater than width of the work.
7.) A continuous chip should be produced without any BUE.
8.) Work should move with a uniform velocity.
9.) The stresses on the shear plane are uniformly distributed.
ANALYSIS OF FORCES DURING TURNING:-

The resultant forces can be conveniently resolved in the direction of the shear plane, along
the primary tool motion and along the rake face. In order to achieve the requisite deformation
the tool would be exerting a cutting force. FH along the primary cutting motion direction as
shown in the fig 2.
Fig 2:- Cutting forces in orthogonal cutting
Where,
FV = Force perpendicular to the primary tool motion (thrust force).
FS = Force along the shear plane.

NS = Force normal to the shear plane.
F = Frictional force along the tool rake face.
N = Normal force perpendicular to the rake face.
When the chip is isolated as a free body, we need to consider only two forces:-
1.) The forces between the tool face and the chip(R)
2.) The forces between the work piece and the chip along the shear plane (R’).
For equilibrium
R=R’ (refer fig.3)
Fig 3:- Forces acting on the chip
Fig 4:- Merchant’s Circle Diagram

It is possible to represent all the forces be acting at the tool point in place of their actual point
of action. By doing so,it is possible to construct a cutting force circle, which is often called
Merchant’s circle.
FS= FH cosΦ - FV sin Φ (1)
NS= FV cos Φ + FH sinΦ
=FS tan (Φ+ß-α) (2)
We can also write
F= FH sinα + FV cosα (3)
N= FH cosα - FV sinα (4)
If µ is the co-efficient of friction along the tool rake face then:-
µ= tan ß= F/N= (FV + FH tanα)/(FH – FV tanα) (5)
where ß=friction angle
Φ=shear angle.
Now the area of the shear plane AS = b*t/sin Φ (6)
The shear force is given by FS =*AS = *b*t/sin Φ (7)
Where  is the mean stress in the shear plane.
b= width of cut
t=uncut chip thickness
=NS/AS (8)
NS= *b*t/sin Φ (9)
Where  is the mean normal stress in the shear plane
We can show that by resolving
FH = FS cos Φ + NS sin Φ (10)
FV = NS cos Φ – FS sin Φ (11)

Substituting eqn (1) and eqn (2),we get
FH = FS[cos Φ + sin Φ*tan(Φ+ß-α)] (12)
FV = FS[cos Φ*tan(Φ+ß-α)- sin Φ] (13)
Re-arranging we get,
FH = FS[cos (α-ß)/cos (Φ+ß-α)] (14)
FH = *b*t*cos (ß-α)/sin Φ*cos (Φ+ß-α) (15)
FV = *b*t*sin (ß-α)/sin Φ*cos (Φ+ß-α) (16)
To determine Φ, Merchant assumed that the minimum energy principle is applied in metal
cutting so that the deformation process adjusts itself to a minimum energy condition.
dFH/dΦ = *b*t*cos (ß-α)*cos (2Φ+b-α)/sin2Φ cos2 (Φ+ß-α) (17)
cos (2Φ+b-α) = 0 (18)
Φ = /4-1/2*(ß-α) (19)
Accordingly,
FH = 2**B*t*cot Φ (20)
FV = *b*t*(cot2Φ-1) (21)
Procedure:- The determination of forces while turning is one of the very simple process with
the use of lathe tool dynamometer. The cutting forces are mainly measured with the help of
strain gauge connected to the dynamometer and thus accordingly we can note the reading of
FX, FY, and FZ.
This is a strain gauge type dynamometer designed to measure the forces on tool while
orthogonal cutting process. With this, student can study the change in the forces by varying
speed, depth of cut and feed.
In this experiment three parameters are taken into consideration while cutting:-speed, depth
of cut and feed. Every time keeping two of the parameters constant, the third is varied and the
variation of forces are noted down. At least four readings for each of the forces has to be
noted down under each heading.
Note:- 1.) Do not change the speed or depth of cut while cutting is in progress.
2.) Firmly attach the work piece in chuck.
3.) Maximum depth of cut could be 5 mm.

4.) The initial reading on the lathe tool dynamometer has to be considered (when no
turning is carried out) while the graph is plotted for different forces.
5.) The reading should be taken such that the maximum value of the cutting force
should be noted down between the start and end of the turning operation.
OBSERVATION TABLE:-
Variation of forces with speed:-
Feed:- Depth of Cut:-
Serial Number Speed(R.P.M.) Forces(N)

FX FY FZ
Variation of forces with feed:-
Speed:- Depth of Cut:-
Serial Number Feed(mm per revolution) Forces(N)

FX FY FZ
Variation of forces with depth of cut:-
Speed:- Feed:-
Serial Number Depth of cut(mm) Forces(N)

FX FY FZ

GRAPHS: -In order to study the behaviour of forces under varying cutting parameters,the
following graphs are plotted.
a.) Speed vs. Force b.)Depth of cut vs. Force c.)Feed vs. Force
CONCLUSION:-
Reference:-
1) Manufacturing Technology(Metal cutting and Machine tools) by P.N.Rao
2) Workshop TechnologybyW.A.J. Chapman
3) A Course in Workshop Technology by B.S.Raghuwanshi
4) Metal Cutting Principles by Milton C.Shaw
5) Theory of Metal Cutting by M.C.Soni
6) Lathe Tool Dynamometer by Sharp Techno System
7) Prediction of Cutting Forces in Metal CuttingbyMortem F.Villumsen (Department Of

Production, Aalborg university).
8) Analysis of Orthogonal Metal Cutting Process by T. Tyan and Wei H. Yang

(Department of Mechanical Engineering and Applied Mechanics, The University of
Michigan).

EXPERIMENT 3
AIM: Measurement of cutting forces in oblique cutting.
APPARATUS: Lathe Tool Dynamometer, Lathe, Single Point Cutting Tool, Work piece
(mild steel).
THEORY: Cutting is a process of extensive stresses and plastic deformations[5]. The high
compressive and frictional contact stresses on the tool face result in a substantial cutting
force. Metals are cut primarily to produce surface finish depending upon their use.
The knowledge of cutting forces generated in the various machining processes is of great
importance to the designer-manufacturer of machine tools as well as to user. Furthermore,
their prediction helps in the analysis of optimization problems in machining economics, in
adaptive control applications, in the formulation of simulation models used in cutting
databases. In this regard, cutting forces being a substantial dependent variable of the
machining system has been investigated by many researchers in various cutting processes
through formulation of appropriate models for their estimation. It is very difficult to predict
accurately the cutting forces encountered in metal cutting operation due to large number of
variable involved.
Fig.1: Total Cutting Force F and Reaction Force F` in Orthogonal Cutting
Two force components act against the tool:

Cutting force FC: This force is in the direction of primary motion. Cutting force constitutes
about 70~80 % of the total force F and is used to calculate the power P required to perform
the machining operation,
P = VFC (1)
Thrust force FD: This force is in direction of feed motion in orthogonal cutting. The thrust
force is used to calculate the power of feed motion. In three-dimensional oblique cutting, one
more force component appears along the third axis. The thrust force FD is further resolved
into two more components, one in the direction of feed motion called feed force Ff, and the

other perpendicular to it and to the cutting force FC called back force Fp, which is in the
direction of the cutting tool axis.
Fig.2: Force components in three dimensional oblique cutting
Factors Influencing Estimation of Cutting Force:

The cutting forces in metal cutting depend upon several factors. The influence of each factor
is discussed below in brief.
Work material-The cutting forces vary to a great extent depending upon the physical and
mechanical properties of the material. The tangential force is multiplication of the chip cross-
section with the specific cutting resistance offered by the work material, which is found to be
decreasing with increasing chip thickness and increases with increase in tensile strength and
hardness of the material being cut.
Cutting Tool Coating- It reduces friction and cutting force. It has good wear resistance
characteristics.
Cutting speed- The tangential force Pz varies cutting speed. Thecutting forces first increase
with increase in cutting speed and on further increase in speed reach a maximum value and
start decreasing and become fairly stabilized at higher speed ranges. The initial rise in cutting
force is due to the effect of built-up edge while at high speeds it decreases because of high
temperature involved which tends to make the material plastic.
Feed-The tangential component of cutting force is greatly influenced by the feed rate. The
cutting force changes linearly with feed at higher speeds, but exponentially at slower speeds.

Depth of cut- The tangential component Pz increases in the same proportion as the depth of
cut, if the ratio of depth and feed is more than four.
Tool approach angle- The chip size is dependent upon the approach angle. The tangential
component Pz is more or less constant within the range 90° to 55° and increases slightly for
approach angles less than 55°. Axial component Px is maximum for approach angle of 90°
and decreases with decrease in approach angle. Radial component Py is minimum for
approach angle of 90° and increases with decrease in approach angle.
Side rake angle-All the three components of cutting forces decreases as side rake angle
changes from –ve value to +ve value ; the tangential component alone being predominant for
+ve side rake angles and other two being negligible. However for higher –ve values, both Pz
and Px are considerable and thus result in vibrations. For negative side rake angle component
Pz increases due to higher plastic deformation of chips and increased friction in the tool-chip
interface. This type of variation is not so marked at higher speeds as at lower speeds.
Back rake angle- It controls the direction of chip flow either away from or towards the work
piece depending upon whether it is +ve or –ve. The vertical component increases slightly as
the back rake angle increases from –ve value to +ve value.
Nose Radius- If the radius is made of sharp angle, the cutting forces will be more and tool
life will be short.
Flank wear- The cutting forces increase considerably with increase in flank wear.
Cutting Fluid- The cutting forces decrease as use of proper cutting fluid. It also helps to
reduce friction and to flow away chips.
Force Analysis:
In orthogonal cutting, the chip flows along the orthogonal plane, πo and all the forces are
situated in πo and contained in the Merchant’s Circle Diagram(MCD). But in oblique cutting
the chip flow is deviated from the orthogonal plane and a force develops along the cutting
edge and hence MCD (drawn in πo) is not applicable. However, since it is a single point tool,
only one force will really develop which will have one component along the cutting edge in
oblique cutting.
Fig. 3 shows how the only cutting force, R can be resolved into either, PX, PY and PZ; which
are useful for the purpose of measurement of force or, Pl, Pm and Pn; which are useful for the
purpose of design and stress analysis of the tool and determination of chip-tool interaction in
oblique cutting when the chip does not flow along πo.

Fig. 3: Resolving the Cutting Force in Oblique Cutting
For convenience of analysis, the set of force components are shown again in Fig. 4 where the
cutting force R is resolved into two components RC and Rr as
— — —
(2)
R= RC + Rr
Where, RC is taken in cutting plane, πC and Rr in reference plane, πR.
From Fig. 4, the forces in πC are related as,

Pn = PZcosλ - Phsinλ (3)
Pl = PZsinλ + Phcosλ (4)
Where, Pn is acting normal to the cutting edge and Pl is acting along the cutting edge. Ph is an
imaginary component along Yo axis.
Similarly the forces on πR in Fig. 4 are related as,
Pm = PXsinφ + PYcosφ (5)
and Ph = - PXcosφ + PYsinφ (6)
From equations 3 to 6, the following three expressions are attained.

Pl = −PX cosφ cos λ + PY sinφ cos λ + PZ sin λ (7)
Pm = PX sinφ + PY cosφ (8)
and Pn = PX cosφ sinλ −PY sinφ sinλ +PZ cosλ (9)
Fig. 4: Resolved Components of the Cutting Force in Oblique Cutting

The equations 7, 8 and 9 may be combined and arranged in matrix form as
Pl −cosφ cos λ sinφ cos λ sin λ PX

Pm = sinφ cosφ 0 PY
Pn cosφ sinλ sinφ sinλ cosλ PZ
(10)
The equation 10 is very important and useful for evaluating the force components Pl, Pm and
Pn from the measured or known force components PX, PY and PZ in case of oblique cutting.
By inversion of the equation 10, another similar matrix form can be developed which will
enable evaluation of PX, PY and PZ, if required, from Pl, Pm and Pn if known other way.
Under oblique cutting, the coefficient of friction, μa is to be determined from
; ρc = chip flow deviation angle = λ

Where, F′ and N′ are to be determined from the values of Pn and Pm as,
F ′ = Pn sinγn +Pm cosγn (11)
And N′ = Pn cosγn −Pm sinγn (12)
Therefore, under oblique cutting,
Pn tanγn +Pm
μa = (13)
cosλ(Pn −Pm tanγn )
Procedure:
Nowadays there are many methods to measure cutting forces but one of the simplest and easy
ways to determine cutting forces is by use of lathe tool dynamometer. The cutting forces are
mainly measured with the help of strain gauge connected to work piece holder which convert
displacement in some electric form calibrated in terms of force and reading taken from LCD
number display connected to the dynamometer and thus accordingly we can note the reading
of FX,FY,FZ.
This is a strain gauge type dynamometer designed to measure the forces on tool while oblique
cutting process. With this, student can study the change in the forces by varying speed, depth
of cut and feed.
In this experiment three parameters are taken into consideration while cutting:-speed, depth
of cut and feed. Every time keeping two of the parameters constant, the third is varied and the
variation of forces are noted down. At least four readings for each of the forces has to be
noted down under each heading.

Note:- 1.) Do not change the speed or depth of cut while cutting is in progress.
2.) Firmly attach the work piece in chuck.
3.) Maximum depth of cut could be 5 mm.
Observation Table:
Variation of forces with speed:
Feed: - Depth of Cut:-
Serial Number Speed(r.p.m.) Forces(N)

FX FY FZ
Variation of forces with feed:

Speed:- Depth of Cut:-
Serial Number Feed(mm per revolution) Forces(N)

FX FY FZ
Variation of forces with depth of cut:

Speed:- Feed:-
Serial Number Depth of cut(mm) Forces(N)

FX FY FZ

Graphs:
To determine relationship between force and affecting paramaters , we can plot graph as
below
a.) Speed vs Force b.)Depth of cut vs Force c.)Feed vs Force
Conclusion:
References:
1. http://nptel.iitm.ac.in, Module 2, Lesson 9, Version 2 ME IIT, Kharagpur.

2. http://nptel.iitm.ac.in, Module 2, Lesson 8, Version 2 ME IIT, Kharagpur.
3. Dr R. R. Malagi, Rajesh. B. C , International Journal of Engineering and Innovative

Technology (IJEIT) Volume 2, Issue 1, July 2012, ISSN: 2277-3754 ISO 9001:2008
Certified.
4. Production Technology by R K Jain, Khanna Publishers, 2001.
5. Valery Marinov, Manufacturing Technology, Chapter-5, Kendall Hunt Publishing

Company, 2010.
6. H.Z. Li, W.B. Zhang, X.P. Li, Department of Mechanical and Production Engineering, The
National University of Singapore, 10 Kent Ridge Crescent, Singapore 119260, Singapore,
Received 1 March 2000; received in revised form 9 February2001.
7. A. Moufki, D. Dudzinski, A. Molinari, M. Rausch, Laboratoire de Physique et Me&

canique des Mate& riaux, UMR CNRS No. 7554, ISGMP, Universite& de Metz, Ile du
Saulcy, 57045 Metz, Cedex, France, Received 29 June 1998; received in revised form 2
March 1999.
8. A. Moufki , A. Devillez, D. Dudzinski, A. Molinari, Laboratoire de Physique et

Me´canique des Mate´riaux, URA CNRS No. 7554, ISGMP, Universite´ de Metz, Ile du
Saulcy, 57045 Metz, France, Received 1 August 2003; accepted 14 January 2004.
9. G.P.Zoua, I.Yellowleya, R.J.Seethalerb, a. Department

ofMechanicalEngineering,TheUniversityofBritisColumbia,Vancouver,Canada, b. Faculty
ofAppliedScience,TheUniversityofBritishColumbiaatOkanagan,Kelowna,Canada,
Received15October2008, Receivedinrevisedform11March2009, Accepted17March2009.
10. Hasan Gökkaya, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Karabuk University, Turkey,

received in 14 july 2009.
11. Binglin Li, Yujin Hu, Xuelin Wang, Chenggang Li& Xingxing Li, School of Mechanical
Science and Engineering, Huazhong Universityof Science and Technology , Wuhan , China.
Published online: 03 Nov 2011.

EXPERIMENT NO. 4
AIM: Study of surface condition during grinding process
APPARATUS REQUIRED: Mild Steel Work Piece, Surface Grinder with Aluminium
Oxide Wheel and Roughness Tester For Measuring Ra Value.
THEORY: Grinding is a material removal process in which abrasive particles are contained
in a bonded grinding wheel that operates at high surface speed. The grinding wheel is usually
disc shape and is precisely balanced for high rotational speed. Abrasive machining can be
likened to the other machining process with multiple cutting tool. Each abrasive grains act as
a small cutting tool with underlined geometry but usually with ahigh negative rake angle.
Fig 1: Grinding Operation
Although depth of cut is very small but material removal rate is high due to simultaneous
working of large number of cutting tool this is the reason why grinding process consumes a
large specific energy as compare to other cutting process.
MECHANICS OF GRINDING:
In the analysis of the grinding process, all grains are assumed to be identical. To explain the
mechanics we consider two different types of operations simultaneously.
1. Plunge grinding
2. Surface grinding

Fig (2): Plunge grinding operation
Plunge grinding operation where a job of rectangular cross section is being fed racially at a
rate of (mm/min).the active grains are assumed to be uniformly distributed. the uncut chip
thickness per unit grift (t1)can be expressed as
T=f/ZN mm ..................................................................... (1)
Parameters:
Z=numbers of active grains per revolutions in one line
N=RPM per wheel
D=diameter of wheel
b’=average width of cut
C=surface density of active grains.
The number of grains per revolutions per line,
Z=𝝅DCb’................................................................................(2)
The uncut section have approximately triangular cross ssection
Rg=b’/t1 it lies between 10-20
Since b’ can be written as
b’=rg t1............................................................................................................... (3)
√𝒇
t1=𝝅𝑫𝑵𝑪𝒓𝒈................................................................................(4)
once t1 is estimated ,value of sp. energy Vc can be determined and the power
requirement comes out as ,

W=AfVc/60.......................................................................... (5)
A=c/s area of job (mm2)
Force per single drift work out as,
Fc=6000W/𝜋𝐷𝐴𝐶𝑁 newton
=1000fVc/𝜋𝐷𝐶𝑁 newton
SURFACE CONDITION:
The surface condition during the grinding process depends on different factors which are
given below, for very high degree of accuracy and fine finish requirement small size grain
should be used.
Grain size– Due to larger size of grains the MRR increases but surface finish being worse.
Thus the grain size is determined primarily by the surface quality requirement.
Structure -In grinding wheel very large number of teeth randomly oriented, it needed enough
voids to allow space for chips. Too small voids cause insufficient cutting because chips block
the wheel. If the voids are too large, again the cutting action is insufficient since there will be
low cutting edge.
If the work material is ductile, the chip production will be more, in this case open structure is
used.
If the material is brittle and harder, the chip generation is less hence close structure is used.
Grade-In hard work material, sharpness of cutting edge is quickly lost due to wear of grains
.This is known as glazing of wheel. It makes the process insufficient because of more rubbing
action .The condition of the work piece will be rough in nature, to avoid this problems soft
wheels should be used. So that the grains that lose the sharpness get easily dislodged, thus the
layer of new grains exposed, maintaining the sharpness of wheels.
Wheel speed and work speed –Wheel speed and work speed these are most predominant
factors most of complaints can be improved by proper selection of work and wheel speed.
Ex.-If one get burnt, then the speed of the wheel may be reduce. If there is an excess wheel
wear it indicates that either wheel is running too slow or work is too fast.
Thermal aspect-The ground surface finish could be affected to a depth of about 0.2 mm by
thermal and mechanical effect. As a consequence, large residual tensile stress may be
developed which, if sufficiently high, may results in cracks. When the grinding surface
temperature is too high microstructure change may also take place due to heating and rapid
cooling. In case of steel, the surface layer may be heated so that it becomes austenite and due
to a quick quenching by cutting fluid, may be transfer into martensite.

PROCESS PARAMETERS
Grinding process are depends mainly on variation in size, shape, surface roughness, force
deflections and temperature. Variations occur owing to varying wheel condition including
wheel wear wheel shape, vibrations, and roughness.
Variation due to wheel areas
Variations in size ,roundness and roughness all increases as the number of parts increases
.initially size remains contest within a 8⁡µ𝑚 error band and than size increases steadily . the
overall error band approaches 38µ𝑚there are two causes of size variations first as the wheel
wear ,its gets smaller .second the sharpness charges so that forces either increases or reduces.
Size variations due to dresser wear
Each time the wheel in dressed, the wheel size is reduced. this a means the adjustment is
required to the grinding depth of cut to allow for the reduced wheel size after dressing .the
adjustment can be made by applying ‘positional offset’ equal to dressing depth after each
dressing part.
PROCESS STABILISATION
Force should be optimised during grinding while batches are repeated. Process stabilisation
may mean that the volume removed can be doubled before it is necessary to reduce the
grinding wheel.
Three ways of the life include-
a) Adjusting dressing condition

b) Increasing wheel speed
c) Using size gauge and error compensation
Wheel contact effects
Wheel behaves very differently depending upon the size of abrasive grains. with close
spacing and small grains the surface roughness produced is low but grinding forces increased
with wide spacing and large grains the reverse is true.
Shape conformity
Shape conformity between the wheel and work piece surface affects the grinding behaviour.
Contact conformity is imperfect for correct selections of abrasive .close shape conformity
increases the grinding force and makes the wheel act harder.

Grain spacing and distribution
The cutting edge is distributed normally as shown in fig (3).
Fig (3): Grain spacing
The number of active cutting edge in contact with work piece increases with depth of grain
penetration into the work surface measured at the outmost surface there is only are cutting
edge .It is the same when grinding wheel is moved down onto a work piece and continuous
grinding.
Active cutting edge in contact c=1/L B
This says that on average there is one active grain in area LB. The average spacing of the grit
in shown as L along line of measurement .Average lateral spacing between the cutting edge is
B.
Wheel flexibility
The number of grains actively engaged in grinding also increases as the wheel is flattened
against the work piece .Flattening is mainly due to wheel flexibility. The effect of wheel
flexibility is to increase the number of grains in contact with work piece.
Fig (4): Wheel Flexibility

Wheel flat
As the wheel got blunt the grinding power will increase . Flats are developed where the tip of
abrasive grains rub against the work piece.
Fig (5): Wheel Flat
As the flat rub against work piece surface under high pressure considerable energy is
dissipated in frictional heating. The energy consumed is directly proportional to true area of
contact under the wear flats .Typically there flat may built up to 8 % of wheel surface area.
Fig (6): Increase in grinding power with percentage wheel flat.
Re-sharpening-
The built up of wear flat on grinding wheel tends to be self-limiting with self-sharpening
wheel and often reverse during the period of constant in feed due to re-sharpening .

As grain penetration built up during in feed ,force increase until a maximum is reached. With
further in feed, the force an abrasive grains cause fracture and re-sharpening.
GRAIN WEAR:
Fig (7): Different types of grain wear
Rubbing wear: Occurs when stress is imposed on a grain are low.
Band fracture: Occurs when high stresses are applied to a grain and also when bad retention
of grain is weak.
Grain micro fracture: Grain fracture is favourite types of wear that maintains a sharp grain
with slow rate of wear under condition at high shear.
MATERIAL OF GRINDING WHEEL &WORK PIECE

The following abrasives commonly used in grinding process are
a) Aluminum oxide (Al2O3)

b) Silicon carbide(Sic)
c) Cubic boron nitrite
d) Diamond
A) Aluminium oxide (Al2O3)
Obtained by fusing bauxite, iron filling and coke, Aluminium oxides are divided into two
groups –fused and un-fused. Fused aluminium oxides are categorized as dark (less friable),
white (very friable) and mono-crystalline. Un-fused Alumina (ceramic aluminium oxide)can
be harder than fused alumina, the purest form of which is seeded gel.

B) Silicon carbide
Made with silica sand ,petroleum coke and small amount of sodium chloride(table
salt),silicon carbide are divided into black (less fragile)and green (more fragile)and generally
have higher fragility than aluminium oxides they have greater tendency to remain sharp.
C) Cubic boron nitrate
The second highest known substance has special application .It does not exist in nature ; it
was first made synthetically in 1970s ,by meant of techniques similar to that used in making
synthetic diamond.
D) Diamond
It is hardest material known,it is brittle and begins to decompose in air about temperature
7000 c .it resists higher temperature.
IMPORTANCE OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS

Surface roughness could have some advantage in some aspects. It determines the interaction
of real object to its environment. It may form nucleation sites for cracks and corrosion. It
promotes the adhesion between components due to friction.
On the other hand it has some limitations in manufacturing. In the manufacturing of

automobile components, aircraft, and medical aspects, as well as design consideration, good
surface finish is required. Decreasing the roughness will exponentially increasing the
manufacturing costs.
Surface finishing in machining
Ideal roughness: This is the result of the geometry of the tool and the feed. it is a geometric
phenomenon and it is the minimum possible magnitude of the uneven which results from the
machining process. Ideal roughness indicates the best possible finish that can be obtained by
a given operation.
Figure Shows the surface geometry of a turned surface when a tool without nad with more
radius is employed. It can be easily shown that the maximum height of unevenness .
𝑓
Hmax=tanᶌ+cosy ..................................................................(6)
When ᶌ and Y are the side cutting edge angle and end cutting edge angle , f= feed rate .
When the tool nose radius r is used ,the maximum height of unevenness is given by,
𝑓2
Hmax = 8𝑟 .......................................................................(7)

From equation (6),Hmax𝛼 f
From equation (7) ,Hmax𝛼 f2
Normal Roughness: In a practical situation, they are various factors other than tool geometry
and feed. e.g. built up edge formation and vibration which adversely affect the finish such a
roughness may be turned as natural roughness.
TECHNIQUES FOR SURFACE FINISH MEASUREMENT:
Figure (8) -Roughness of surface
Average roughness value (Ra) /Centre line average (CLA) value :

Ra is the most widely used parameter, because it provides an arithmetic
average of surface irregularities measured from a mean line that lies
somewhere between the highest and lowest points on a given cut-off length.
Limitation of Ra:
Surfaces with different profiles can have the same Ra value, and these
differences might be critical in certain applications. The surface shown in the
middle trace, if used in a relative-motion application such as a rotating shaft,
might score bearing surfaces and cause bearing failure. Clearly, different
roughness parameters are required to ensure that the finish is appropriate to the
application.
Root mean square roughness (Rrms) :

A slightly more sophisticated variant Rrms, uses a root mean square calculation
to find geometric average roughness - an averaged average
∑𝐻2
=
𝑁
=1.1 Ra

Maximum peak to valley height (Rt) :

Rt= H3-H4
Average over definite ordinates/Ten point method (Rz) :
Form factor/Degree of fullness (K) :
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑚
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡= =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐿 𝑋 𝑅𝑡
If K=1
Then, perfectly flat and smooth surface, No irregularities are present on
surface.
If K˂1
(k=0.8 to1), Indicate Surface finish is very good
K˂0.8, Indicate poor surface finish
Am is measured by planimeter
DIFFERENT METHODS FOR ROUGHNESS MEASUREMENT:

Following methods are used for measuring the surface roughness, these are
1. Atomic Force Microscopy

2. Skid type/ averaging system
3. Profilometer stylus
We selected three measures of surface roughness and used three instruments to measure
them.
Ra=arithmetic average roughness
Rg =root mean square roughness

Rt =maximum peak to valley height
Atomic Force Microscopy
In this system there is a cantilever type spring which is connected to a probing tip. When a
force is experienced between the tip and sample, the cantilever is deflected. Relative to the
probing tip the images is taken by scanning the sample and digitizing the deflection of the
lower or z-movement of of the piezo as a function of lateral position x, .typical spring
constant are between 0.001 to100 n/m and motions from microns to 0.1 a are measured by
deflections sensor .Typical focus between tip and sample ranges from 10 to 10 N.
Fig (8): Basic Principle of AFM
There are two modes- contact and noncontact.
Noncontact type -Tip sample separation of 10 to 100 nm forces such as Vander–vaals,

electrostatic, magnetic and capillary forces can be sensed and give information about surface
topography.
Contact type- At smaller separation of orders of, the probing tip is in contact with sample. In
this made, ionic reputation forces allow the surface topographing to be traced with high
revolution .under best condition atomic revolution is achieve.
Skid type / averaging system-
Skid gauges having hinged probe assembly, with a probe riding next to a relatively broad skid
that also contact the work piece. The skid tends to filter out waviness, so that probe measures
only short wavelength variations. A skid gauge has a dial or LCD read out to display the
measurement as a single numerical value.

Fig (9)- Skid type system for measuring roughness
Profilometer Stylus-
Several commercial available instruments, called surface profilometer are used to measure
and record surface roughness.
The most commonly used instruments are diamond stylus which travels along the straight
line over surface.
Fig (9): A typical diamond stylus
In order to highlight the roughness, profilometer traces are recorder as an exaggerated vertical
scale. the magnitude of scale is called gain on the recording instruments thus the recorded
profile is significantly distorted and surface to be much rougher than actual surface because
of finite radius of diamond stylus tip. the bath of stylus is less rough than the actual surface.
ACTUAL PROCEDURE
First of all grinding operation is done on the mild steel work piece of size (60x40). The
grinding operation is performed on the surface grinder machine. In surface grinding
machine there is a magnetic vice where we clamp the work piece tightly. Then we grind
the surface by the means of Aluminium oxide wheel of diameter 150 mm rotating about
3000 R.P.M and varying infeed with constant transverse feed.
As grinding process completed, we check the Ra(roughness) value of surface by
roughness tester. Roughness tester is an apparatus, has a sensitive probe of 0.8 mm cut
off length. The probe moves 4 mm on surface by dividing 5 sectors and measures the
average Ra value of the 5 sectors.

Observation Table:
Grinding wheel speed: 3000 rpm
Work piece Material: mild steel
Work piece Dimensions: 60x40
Grinding wheel details: aluminium oxide wheel of dia. 150mm
S.no Infeed Ra value Ra value Ra value Average

1 2 3 ra
1 0.06 0.488 0.472 0.475 0.478
2 0.12 0.508 0.483 0.495 0.495
3 0.18 0.534 0.530 0.697 0.587
4 0.24 0.605 0.551 0.810 0.655
Graph:
Plot graph of Ra value V/s in feed depth
Conclusion: The result shows that as value of infeed increases the roughness value
increases.
REFFERENCES:
(1)-Kalpakjain and Schmid (Manufacturing Engineering and Technology)
(2) Ghosh A & A K Mallik (Manufacturing Science)
(3) R.K. Jain (Production Technology)
(4) www.sciencedirect.com ,
(5) P.N Rao (Manufacturing Technology)
(6) www.qudev.phys.ethz.ch E. Meyer (Institute of Physics, University of Basel,

Switzerland)
(7) W. Brian Rowe (Principle of modern grinding Technology

EXPERIMENT NO. 5
AIM: - Calculation of tool life during machining process.
THEORY: - During machining process, the cutting tool is worn out gradually and it does
not perform satisfactory as time is elapsed. At this stage it is said that the tool has lost its
effect so, it must be reground or replaced by a new tool. The period during which a cutting
tool cuts satisfactorily is known as tool life. It is the most widely used criterion for evaluation
of machinability owing to its direct bearing on the cost of machining.
Various methods to measure the tool life are:

1. Machining time
2. Actual cutting time
3. Average length of cut per tool edge
4. Average number of identical components machined per tool edge.
5. Average volume of metal removed per cutting edge.
6. Cutting speed.
F. W. Taylor developed the empirical relationship between tool life and cutting speed based
upon his experimental work. This classical Taylor’s equation is expressed as
VTn = C ----------------- (1)
Where V = cutting speed of tool in m/min.
T = tool life in min.
C = machining constant.
n = an exponent.
In the above equation, when the cutting speed in meter per minute and tool life in minutes are
plotted on a log-log graph gives a straight line.

Value of exponent ‘n’
n = 0.1 to 0.15 for HSS tools

n = 0.2 to 0.4 for carbide tools
n = 0.4 to 0.6 for ceramic tools
The tool life also depends upon the depth of cut and feed rate. Hence the most
commnly empolyed tool life equation given by number of researchers as
𝑉𝑇 𝑛 𝑓 𝑝 𝑑 𝑞 = 𝐶 ----------------- (2)
Where f = feed in mm
d = depth in mm and n, p & q are exponents.
Taylors extended equation is

𝐶
V= 𝑛3 ----------------- (3)
𝑇 𝑛 𝑓 𝑛1 𝑑𝑛2 (𝐵𝐻𝑁⁄ 2000)
Where n1,n2,n3 are an exponents
BHN is brinel hardness number
Tool life equation formula was extended by number of researchers to reduce the deficiency as
given below:
T𝜃 𝐵 = 𝐶 ----------------- (4)
0.5−2𝑥 1
𝑐𝑇 𝐻 0.5
𝑉𝑇 1−2𝑥 = ⁡ [𝐶𝑢 ]1−2𝑥 ------------ (5)
𝑠 𝐴𝑥
Where H = specific heat×thermal conductivity

𝜃 = tool tempreture
A = area of cut
us = specific cutting energy/unit cutting force
C and x are constants.
FACTORS INFLUENCING TOOL LIFE: -

The various variables effecting tool life are:
1. Process variable – speed, feed and depth of cut
2. Nature of cut
3. Tool geometry
4. Tool material
5. Workpiece material
6. Cutting fluids
PROCESS VARIABLES: - Speed, feed and depth of cut play an important role since they
control the rate of metal removal and the production rate.

𝑉𝑇 𝑛 𝑓 𝑝 𝑑 𝑞 = 𝐶
1
𝑐 ⁄𝑛 𝐾
T= 1
𝑞 𝑝 = 𝑉 1/𝑛𝑓1/𝑛1 𝑑1/𝑛2
𝑉 ⁄𝑛 𝑑𝑛 𝑓 𝑛
The value of exponents 1/n , 1/n1, 1/n2 and constant(K) will depend upon the tool failure
criterion. (It is found that 1/n > 1/n1> 1/n2) .
2. NATURE OF CUT: - The life of tool is much better in case of continuous cut than in
intermittent cutting. The intermittent cutting gives regular impact on the cutting edge which
leads to quick failure of tool.
3.TOOL GEOMETRY: - The tool life is greatly affected by tool geometry. Effect of three
important tool geometry elements- Rake angle, Relief angle & End cutting edge angle on tool
life is summarized below.
Rake angle – The larger positive rake angle results into reduced cutting forces and less heat
generation with consequent improvement in tool life. However there is always a limit is there
as at higher rake angles tool tip is weakened & tool life get reduced beyond an optimum rake
angle.
Relief angle – In case of tools with large relief angle, the rubbing between the tool and
workpiece decreases which results in increasing tool life.
End cutting edge angle – With small end cutting edge angle considersable rubbing between
the tool and work takes place consequently, the tool life is reduced.
FIG 1 tool life v/s rake angle FIG 2 tool life v/s relief angle

FIG 3 cutting speed v/s end cutting edge angle
4.TOOL MATERIAL: - The major requirements of tool materials are hot hardness, impact
toughness & wear and abrasion tempreture
5.WORK MATERIAL: - As the hardness of the work material increases, cutting forces the
power consumption and tempreture increases. This increases tool wear resulting in shorter
tool life.
6.CUTTING FLUID: - The function of a cutting fluid is to reduce the friction and interface
temperature which are having adverse effects on tool life. So, tool life can be increased by the
effective use of a cutting fluid.
TYPE OF TOOL FAILURE: -

The tool life of a tool is said to be over if the tool has failed due to any of the following
reasons: -
1. Flank wear
2. Crater wear
3. Nose wear
4. Thermal cracking
5. Chipping of tool
TOOL LIFE PLOTS: -

The tool life plot can be used for two things: -
1. To determine the value of exponent ‘n’.
2. To determine the value of constant ‘C’. in tool life equation suggested by Taylor.
 The tool life line is obtained by performing the cutting tests at higher cutting speeds.
 The corresponding time of tool failure for each cutting speed is recorded.

 These points are plotted on log-log graph, when plot will be straight line.
 The cutting speed for 1 min life is equal to ‘C’.
 The slop of tool life plots remains constant for particular combination of tool work
material pair.
As VTn = C, Taking Logarithm on both sides
Log V + n logT = log C

Taking antilog on both sides
V1T1n = C ---(1)
V2T2n = C ---(2)
Comparing both the equations i.e. equ 1 & equ 2
V1T1n = V2T2n
nlog(T1 /T2) = log(V2/V1)
log(V2/V1)
n = log(T1⁡/T2) -------------------- (1)
Putting values of n in any equation

V1T1n = V2T2n = C --------------- (2)
EXAMPLE:
1) THE FOLLOWING “V” AND “T” OBSERVATION HAVE BEEN NOTED:
V,m/min 25 35
T,min 90 20
CALCULATE
I. n and c
II. The cutting speed for a derived tool life of 60 min.
Calculation
i. VTn=C
25x(90)n=C & 35x20n=C
25x(90)n=35x20n
(90/20)n=(35/25)=1.4
n=0.225
C=25x900.225=68.8
ii. Vx600.225=68.8
V=(68.8/2.512)
V=27.39 m/min

EXPERIMENT NO. 6
AIM: Measurement of tool chip interface temperature.
APPARATUS: Drilling machine, Drill chuck, Chuck sleeve, HSS drill, Calorimeter setup,
approx. 2.5 𝑐𝑚3 work piece (Mild Steel), Measuring flask, Verniercaliper, Thermometer.
THEORY: Temperature at tool-chip interface during metal cutting is very important

parameter. The surface of tool, if proper precautions are not taken, may be overheated at
isolated points and localized phase transformation can occur. This may result in the softening
of the surface of the tool and frequently very small cracks will be formed as a result of the
intense residual stress system that accompanies surface transformation.
HEAT GENERATION IN MAIN REGION DURING METAL CUTTING:

Because of the very large amount of plastic strains involved in metal cutting, approx. 1 %
of the work done is stored as elastic energy however the remaining 99 % is converted into the
heat. This heat is dissipated through chips, the tool and the work. There are three typical
zones where the heat is generated: (1) At the shear plane which accounts for a majority of the
heat of the order of 60-70% of total heat generated. (2) The friction at the chip tool interface
which contributes heat up to 15-25 %. (3) The friction at the tool work interface which
contributes up to 10%.
THEORETICAL ASPECT:
The temperature generated in the region of tool point during metal cutting control the
rate of tool wear, the practical cutting speed and the metal removal rate. Almost all the work
done in deforming the material to form the chip and to move the freshly cut work surface
over the tool is converted in to heat.
The total heat generated can be given by equation.

𝑄 = (𝐹 × 𝑉)⁄𝐸 Joules
Where, 𝑄 = Amount of heat generated in cutting.
𝐹 × 𝑉 = Work done in cutting.
𝐸 = Mechanical equivalent of heat.
Heat balance in metal cutting can be expressed by equation,
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + Q4.
Where, Q = Total heat generated
Q1 = Amount of heat carried away in the chip
Q2 = Amount of heat remaining in the cutting tool
Q3 = Amount of heat passing in to the work piece
Q4 = Amount of heat radiated to the surrounding air

FACTOR AFFECTING TEMPERATURE:

 Work piece and tool material
 Cutting conditions
 Cutting fluid
 Tool geometry.
METHOD TO MEASURE THE CHIP TOOL TEMPERATURE:

 Radiation pyrometers
 Embedded thermocouples
 Temperature sensitive paints
 Indirect Calorimetric Set-up Method technique
 Tool work thermocouple
CALORIMETRIC SETUP
Calorimetric setup was introduced by Prof. Sawwin of Leningrad Polytechnic, in
1912. He used a calorimeter and a dynamometer on the Lathe for investigating the effect of
cutting fluid on metal machining.
Fig. 6.1 Calorimetric Set-up Method
Later on A.O.Schmidt developed suitable calorimeter for drilling and milling tests.
Using calorimeter he evaluated machinability of several alloys of aluminium and magnesium.
The simplest type of calorimeter (Fig 6.1) is for a drilling set-up in which the
container of the calorimeter is made from an insulating material (plastic/wood) which itself
is jacketed with a proper insulation. The average tool-chip interface temperature can be
determined by the procedure of thermal balance discussed as below.

Here,
Heat given by chip = heat received by water + heat received by work piece
This will give:
T = 𝑇𝑓 + [(𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑎 ){(𝑚𝑤 × 𝐶𝑝𝑤 ) + (𝑚𝑝 × 𝐶𝑝𝑐 )}⁄(𝑚𝑐 × 𝐶𝑝𝑐 )]
Where,
T = Tool chip interface temperature
𝑇𝑓 = Final temperature of water
𝑇𝑎 = Ambient temperature
𝑚𝑤 = Mass of water
𝜌𝑤 = density of water
𝐶𝑝𝑤 = specific heat of water
𝑚𝑝 = mass of work piece
𝜌𝑝 = density of work piece material
𝐶𝑝𝑝 = specific heat of work piece material
𝑚𝑐 = mass of chip = 𝜌𝑐 × 𝑉𝑐
𝜌𝑐 = density of chip material
𝐶𝑝𝑐 = specific heat of chip material
OBSERVATION:
(1) Work piece
Dimension =______________
Density = 7.83 gm/cc
Mass of work piece mp =________
Specific heat 𝐶𝑝𝑝 = 0.111 Kcal/kg ° C
(2) Tool
Diameter of Drill = _________
Point Angle = ______________
(3)
Machine No = ________
Make and Type = __________
HP of motor = ___________
Speed range = ____________

Feed Range = _______________

Mass of water mw = 100cc
Density of water𝜌𝑤 = 1 gm/cm3
Specific heat of water 𝐶𝑝𝑤 =1 Kcal/kg °C
Volume of conical part of drill hole with ______ drill angle =
{(𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ)/[3tan(drill angle)]}
TABULATION:
Feed = __________
Sr. no Spindle Cutting Initial Final Rise in Mass of T

speed(rpm) speed temp. Temp. temp. Value chip
(m/min) of of water of Of h (mc)
water (𝑇𝑓 ) water (mm)
(Ta) (Ta -
𝑇𝑓 )
1
2
3
4
5
Feed = ___________
Sr. no Spindle Cutting Initial Final Rise in Mass of T

speed(rpm) speed temp. Temp. temp. Value chip
(m/min) of of water of Of h (mc)
water (𝑇𝑓 ) water (mm)
(Ta) (Ta -
𝑇𝑓 )
1
2
3
4
5
GRAPH: Tool chip interface temperature Vs speed
RESULT & CONCLUSION:

EXPERIMENT NO. 7
AIM: Fabrication of single point cutting tool as per given tool signature.
APPARATUS: Tool and Cutter grinder, Tool diamond dresser, Vernier calliper, Fix
spanner, Protector.
INTRODUCTION:
A Single point cutting tool has only one cutting edge and is most widely used in metal
cutting operations. It is designed with sharp edges to minimize rubbing contact between tool
and work piece. Factors like cutting tool life, surface finish & power consumption during
metal cutting operation are heavily affected by tool geometry. Such tools are available in two
forms: (1) Solid tool (2) Tipped tool. The tip is either brazed or mechanically held on an alloy
steel shank.
Fig. 7.1 Tool features of a Single Point Cutting Tool
Shank: It is the body of the tool or that part on which cutting edge is formed . If the
tool is of insertion type then shank is that part in which cutter is inserted.
Nose: Sometimes, it designates the cutting edge but particularly it relates to the top of
the cutting edge which is usually given a radius and seldom it is a sharp point.
Face: It is that part against which chips are beared.
Base: It is the support of tool shank.
Flank: It is the end surface, i.e. adjacent to cutting edge and below it, when the tool is
kept in horizontal position.
Nominal size of tool: It is expressed by width and height of the shank and the tool length.

IMPORTANT TOOL ANGLES:
Fig 7.2 Single Point Tool geometry
In single point cutting tool, there are various angles (Fig. 7.2), each of these are provided with
a specific purpose. They are listed below in order of importance:
 Rake angle
 Clearance angle
 Cutting edge angle
 Lip angle (Metal cutting angle)
RAKE ANGLE:
It is the most important angle of the tool. The nominal Rake Angle is the angle made
by the face of the tool and the plane parallel to the base of the cutting tool. If the rake angle is
measured in the direction of tool shank, it is called Back Rake Angle. And if the rake angle is
measured in the direction perpendicular to the tool shank, it is called Side Rake Angle.
Back and Side rake angles for tools for cutting commonly used work materials are as
follow:
No. Material Back Rake Angle Side Rake Angle

1 Brass 0o 0o
2 Cast Iron 10o 12o
3 Aluminum 14o 12o
4 Hard Steel 5o 9o
5 Roughing cuts in Medium and Soft Steel 8o 14o – 20o
6 Monel metal 6o-8o 15o-18o

Sometimes tools with negative rake angles are used. The purpose of using negative rake
angle is:
i. To increase the strength of the cutting tool,
ii. To give better finish,
iii. To decrease the temperature rise at the tool tip because more amount of heat
flows to chips from tool.
CLEARANCE ANGLE:
It is the angle of the end of the side surfaces which are below the cutting edge. The
effective clearance depends upon the position of tool relative to the job. The purpose of this
angle is to avoid any frictional drag of the tool on the job and prevent the tool from rubbing
on the surface already cut. Here, the magnitude depends upon the shape of the surface being
cut and is kept as small as possible to avoid weakening of the tool.
CUTTING ANGLE:
The true cutting angle is the angle between the face of tool and the line tangent to the
machined surface at the cutting point.
LIP ANGLE:
It is also known as Metal Cutting Angle. It is the angle between the tool face and the
ground end surface of the flank. It is usually between 60o to 80o.
NOSE RADIUS:
Side and end cutting edges can be joined to form a point but that is not desirable as it
leads to high heat generation at a sharp point. Therefore side & end cutting edges are joined
by an arc. Radius of the arc is called Nose Radius. It improves tool life, surface finish and
reduces cutting force.
TOOL ANGLE SPECIFICATION SYSTEM: BRITISH SYSTEM:
Fig. 7.3 British System of Tool Nomenclature

According to this system, the rake angle is specified as the steepest slope of the rake face. It
is equal to the angle between the rake face and the tool base measured in a plane
perpendicular to both the rake face and tool base. It has been suggested that the system could
have been based on the position that the chips flows in the direction at the steepest slope.
AMERICAN SYSTEM:
Fig. 7.4 Tool Nomenclature as per American system
In this system, the geometry of the rake face is expressed in terms of the side rake and
back rake angle. The back rake angle is angle between the rake face and the base of the tool
measured in a plane perpendicular to the base of the tool and parallel to the longitudinal axis
of the tool. Side rake angle is defined as the angle between the rake face and the tool base
measured in a plane normal to that in which the back rake angle is measured.
GERMAN SYSTEM:
Fig. 7.5 German System of Tool Nomenclature

The face is specified by the side rake angle and the back rake angle. The back rake
angle is the angle between the rake face and the base plane measured in a plane, which is
normal to the base plane but parallel to the trace of SCEA in the base plane.
PROCEDURE:
1) Hold the tool in a universal tool holder.
2) Set the cutting tool angle on universal tool holder for Bake Rake angle.
3) Set the angle on a swiveling groove for Side Rake angle.
4) Check the centering at grinding wheel with the help of centering gauge.
5) Now rotate the tool at 90o in clockwise direction and fixed it in universal tool holder for
side relief angle and side cutting edge angle.
6) Grind the surface and prepare the Side Rake Angle and Side Cutting Edge Angle.
7) Rotate the tool anticlockwise at 90o and also rotate the universal tool holder at 90o in
clockwise direction for end relief angle.
8) Set End Cutting Edge Angle on swiveling bar and universal tool holder respectively.
9) Prepare the angles by grinding.
10) Check and verify the angle by protector and find out deviation then record in observation
table.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
1. Cutting tool material: ___________2. Cross section of cutting tool: _____________
Sr Tool Signature Set Obtained Deviation Remarks

No. element value value
1 Back rake angle
2 Side rake angle
3 End relief angle
4 Side relief angle
5 End cutting edge angle
6 Side cutting edge angle

TOOL DRAWING:
Recommended tool geometry of HSS, Brazed and throwaway tools
Work Tool Back rake Side rake End Side Side & end
material material angle (deg) angle (deg) clearance clearance cutting
angle (deg) angle (deg) edge angle
(deg)
HSS 8-10 8-10 5 5 15

Mild Steel Brazed -5-0 6 5 5 15
carbide
Throwaway -5 -5 5 5 15
carbide
HSS 0-5 8-10 5 5 15
Carbon & Brazed 0-5 6 5 5 15
alloy steel carbide
carbide
HSS 0-5 8-10 5 5 15
Brazed -5-0 6 5 5 15
Tool steel carbide
carbide
HSS 0-5 8-10 5 5 15
Stainless Brazed -5-0 6 5 5 15
steel carbide
carbide
HSS 0-5 8-10 5 5 15
Cast iron Brazed -5-0 6 5 5 15
soft carbide

carbide
HSS 5-10 5 5 5 15
Cast iron Brazed -5-0 -5 5 5 15
hard carbide
carbide
HSS 15-20 15 12 10 5
Aluminum Brazed 0-5 15 5 5 15
alloys carbide
Throwaway 0 5 5 5 15
carbide
HSS 5-10 10 8 8 5
Copper Brazed 0-5 8 5 5 15
alloy carbide
carbide
HSS 15-20 15 12 10 5
Magnesium Brazed 0-5 15 5 5 15
alloy carbide
carbide
HSS 0-5 5 5 5 15
Titanium Brazed -5-0 6 5 5 5
alloy carbide

EXPERIMENT NO. 8
AIM: Study of tool wear on different cutting tools.
APPARATUS: Tool makers’ microscope, Centre Lathe, Right hand turning Tool, MS
round bar.
THEORY:
Fig. 8.1 Tool Wear
TYPES OF WEAR OBSERVED IN CUTTING TOOLS

Tool Wear rate is defined as the rate at which the cutting edge of a tool wears out during
machining. Continuous rubbing action between two surfaces of the material results into wear
of the material. Gradual wear occurs at two principal regions on a cutting tool. Accordingly,
two main regions of tool wear can be distinguished as:
1. Crater wear and
2. Flank wear
Some General effects of tool wear include:

 Increased cutting forces
 Increased cutting temperatures
 Poor surface finish
 Decreased accuracy of finished part
 May lead to tool breakage

MAJOR TOOL WEAR MECHANISMS:

Out of various mechanisms of wear, there are three prominent mechanisms of tool wear: (i)
Adhesive wear (ii) Abrasive wear & (iii) Diffusion wear.
1. Adhesive wear
•When softer metal slide over hard metal, parts of soft metal adhere high asperities on the
hard metal due to:
 Friction
 High temperature
 Pressure
•Here, it results into irregular flow of chips over the tool face and build up of more particles
on the tool forming Built-up edges..
•Finally the built up edges will torn from the surface resulting uneven structure on the tool
surface & tool wear.
2. Abrasive wear:
• Softer material sliding over the face of hard material may contain appreciable concentration
of hard particles.
• Hard particles act as small cutting edges.
• Presence of hard particles results into rapid wear of tool material.
• Particles of hard material are intermittently turn out from the surface and dragged along the
surface.
3) Diffusion wear:
•When a metal is in sliding contact with another metal the temperature at the interface is high.
•The high temperature allows the atoms of hard material to diffuse into softer material matrix.
•Hence the strength and abrasiveness of the softer material increases
•Atoms of the softer metal may also diffuse into harder medium, thus weakening the surface
of harder material medium.
•Diffusion phenomenon is strongly dependent on temperature.
MODES OF TOOL WEAR: There are mainly two modes of tool wear.
1) Flank wear
2) Crater wear

1. FLANK WEAR:
It occurs on the tool flank as a result of friction between the machined surface of
the work piece and the tool flank. Flank wear appears in the form of formation of
a wear land and it is measured by the width of this wear land, VB. Flank wear
affects to the great extent the mechanics of cutting. Cutting forces increase
significantly with progressive flank wear. If the amount of flank wear exceed
beyond critical limit (VB > 0.5~0.6 mm), the excessive cutting force may cause
tool failure.
Flank wear
Fig. 8.2 FLANK WEAR
Fig. 8.3 PROGRESSIVE FLANK WEAR V/s CUTTING TIME

REASONS:
1. Abrasion by hard particle
2. Shearing off the micro welds between tool & work material.
3. Abrasion by fragments of built up edge ploughing against the clearance face of
tool.
4. At low speed flank wear dominates because of higher contact time between tool
flank & work piece surface.
5. If MRR increases, flank wear also increases.
2. CRATER WEAR:
Crater wear is more commonly found while machining ductile material consists of a
concave section on the tool face formed by the action of the chip sliding on the
surface. Crater wear affects the mechanics of the process increasing the actual rake
angle of the cutting tool and consequently, making cutting easier. At the same time,
the crater wear weakens the tool wedge and increases the possibility for tool breakage.
In general, crater wear is of a relatively small concern.
Fig. 8.4 CRATER WEAR
REASONS:
i) At very high speed crater wear dominates because at high speed more continuous
chips are in contact with rake face.
ii) For crater wear temperature is main factor.

CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS: Commonly used cutting tool materials are :

1) Diamond tools
2) CBN tools
3) High speed steel
4) Carbide tools
5) Ceramic tools
1. DIAMOND TOOLS
 Diamond is the hardest material found on earth. It has good wear resistance, high
strength & low friction coefficient. Due to low coefficient of friction less heat is
generated which reduces the energy consumption & also decreases wear, cracks in the
material. However, the diamond is brittle tool shape.
 It is used when good surface finish & dimensional accuracy is required. Low rake
angle is provided for strong cutting edge. It is used for light & uninterrupted cuts.
 Tool Wear occurs in forms of chipping, oxidation & graphitization.
2. CUBIC BORON NITRIDE (CBN):
 Second hardest material found after diamond & its wear resistance is very high under
normal condition. But when a CBN tool is used to finish a hardened part, then due to
rapid wear it leads to tool failure.
 At high temperature CBN is chemically inert to iron and nickel & its resistance to
oxidation is high.
 It is suitable for cutting hardened ferrous and high temperature alloys.
3. HIGH SPEED STEEL (HSS):
 It has high toughness and high resistance to fracture.

 It is used for high positive rake angle tools. It was developed to cut at high speed.
 HSS is normally available in wrought, cast and sintered forms. Case hardening is
done on HSS tools to improve their hardness and wear resistance.
 Due to high toughness its wear resistance capacity is too high & it can absorb
excessive shocks.
4. CARBIDE TOOLS:
 These are formed by cold compaction of tungsten carbide powder in a binder such as
cobalt.
 These have high hot hardness, high young modulus & high strength.
 Carbide tools can be utilized for cutting speeds 3 to 6 times higher than that for HSS
tools.

5. CERAMICS:
 These are Alumina based high refractory materials suitable for making tools for high
speed machining.
 These can withstand high temperatures, are chemically more stable & have good
mechanical strength.
 These are also having good oxidation resistance & higher wear resistance then other
tool materials.
 But, these are not used for lower cutting speeds & intermittent cutting as these are
very brittle in nature.
PROCEDURE:
1. Select the tool & work piece material.
2. Setup work piece on the centre lathe to carry out operation.
3. Grind the tool & fix the reference lines for X & Y measurement(initial readings) on
tool maker’s microscope.
4. Carry out the machining operation on work piece as per the given specification.
5. Measure the wear land dimensions for both directions (X & Y) on the tool using tool
maker’s microscope.
6. Record the readings in observation table & plot the graph.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Specifications:
Work piece dimensions: ___________________
Work piece material: ____________________
Tool material: _________________________
Depth of cut: __________________________
Feed: ___________________
Cutting Speed Wear Measurement

Sr. no.
(m/min) X Y
1
2
3
4

CONCLUSION:
REFERENCES
1. KALPAK JAIN & SCHMID (manufacturing engineering)
2. P.N.RAO (manufacturing engineering & technology)
3. R.K.JAIN (production engineering)

EXPERIMENT NO. 9
Aim: To design a stamping die
Objectives:
 To understand different stamping operations
 To understand the different features & components of stamping die
 To design a stamping die for given component & draw strip layout for same
Introduction:
 Different Stamping Operations:
Stamping (also known as pressing) includes a variety of sheet-metal forming manufacturing

processes, such as punching, blanking, embossing, bending, flanging, and coining.
Punching is a metal forming process that uses a punch press to force a tool, called a punch,
through the work piece to create a hole via shearing.
Blanking and piercing are shearing processes in which a punch and die are used to modify
webs.
There are various types of blanking and piercing: lancing, perforating, notching, nibbling,
shaving, cut off, and dinking
Sheet metal embossing is a process for producing raised or sunken designs or relief in sheet
metal.
Bending is a manufacturing process that produces a V-shape, U-shape, or channel shape

along a straight axis in ductile materials, most commonly sheet metal.
Coining is a form of precision stamping in which a work piece is subjected to a sufficiently

high stress to induce plastic flow on the surface of the material.
Drawing is a metalworking process which uses tensile forces to stretch metal. It is broken up
into two types: sheet metal drawing and wire, bar, and tube drawing.
 Different Stamping Dies According to Operation
When evaluated for the influence a die operation exerts on the structure of sheet metal,
diescan be grouped into several categories named after the operations they perform.All the
different types of dies fit loosely into five categories, where they are groupedaccording to the
type of work they produce. These are:
1) Cutting Dies
2) Bending and forming dies
3) Drawing dies
4) Compressing dies
5) Miscellaneous dies

1) Cutting & Trimming Dies: These dies separate pieces of metal from the main blank or
from the strip by the cutting process. They include blanking, piercing, perforating,
notching, lancing, slitting (or cutoff), plunging, trimming, shaving and burnishing
dies, and pinch trimming tools. Cut-off dies chop off the pieces of sheet-metal
material, or that of tubing or wire from the continuous supply. Lancing, as found in
sheet-metal work, is commonly used to produce short tabs, where a single punch cuts
the metal and forms it at the same time. The forming portion of the lancing punch
must have the same radius as any other bending tool. Slitting, or cut-off is another
cutting operation during which the cut is only partial, and the cutout sometimes
remains attached to the strip for further processing.
(a) (b)
Figure 1: Cutting & Trimming Dies: (a) Lancing dies (b) Cutoff and slitting dies
2) Bending and Forming Dies: Bending dies are used to form, fold, or offset parts
without subjecting their material structure to the flow and plastic deformation. Aside
from simple bending dies, this type of tooling includes: curling dies, twisting dies, and
straightening or flattening dies. Forming dies, however, belong into this category only
marginally, as they fit in with the drawing dies as well.
Figure 2: Bending & Curling Dies

Bending dies deform a flat part into an angular shape. The bend line is straight, with no
plastic deformation present. Curling dies from the edge of a part into a circular, hollow ring.
Sometimes a wire can be installed in such a shape. Common representatives of curled parts
are hinges and edges of some containers.
3) Drawing Dies: Drawing dies force the material to flow in conjunction with the
movement of the punch, which causes plastic deformation to its structure. During the
drawing process, the volume amount of flat blank is transformed into a drawn, shell-
like shape. In some cases, thinning of the part’s cross section may be observed. The
category of drawing dies consists of drawing, redrawing, ironing, reducing, and
bulging dies. Ironing dies function on the same principle as drawing dies. The only
difference is the clearance between the drawing punch and the die, which in ironing
dies is smaller. The diminished gap between the tooling forces the drawn shell to
become thinner, while smoothing the shell’s wall surface at the same time.
Figure 3: Drawing, Redrawing & Ironing Dies
4) Compressive Dies: Embossing is a metal stretching and compressing operation,

already described. If an embossing operation is to be included in a progressive die
sequence, it should be placed at one of the beginning stages, since the emboss will
draw the metal needed for its shape from its immediate surroundings, which may
affect the final outline of the part. Coining dies are cold-forming tools which force the
material into a structural cavity by exerting a considerable pressure on it.
Figure 4: Embossing & Extruding Dies

5) Miscellaneous Dies: Marking and numbering dies are used for stamping numbers,
characters, and symbolson metal parts. Straightening or flattening dies will bring a
part to size, or a drawn shell within the drawing dimensions by striking it without
allowing for its walls to become thinner.
 Different stamping dies according to sequence of operation and construction:
There are considerable differences in a way dies are built to function. In some, the metal strip
is fed through the die, which produces the desired part in stages. Another die makes a
complete part with a single hit of a single station. According to their construction and
function all dies can be separated into the following four groups:
1) Compound Dies
2) Progressive Dies
3) Steel Rule Dies
4) Miscellaneous Dies
1) Compound Die
Compound dies produce very accurate parts, but their production rate is quite slow. These
dies consist of a single station where the part is most often blanked out and either formed,
embossed, pierced, or otherwise adjusted in a single stroke of the press. No progression of the
strip is involved, as each stroke of the press produces a single, complete part. Some
compound dies are used just for trimming, others are specialized for blanking.
There may be compound dies with interchangeable inserts, which can produce several
different products just by switching between them. And there are dies used for cut off only,
which, just by banking off different stops, can produce cuts of the same configuration onparts
of different lengths.
Several compound dies can be involved in production of a single part, which, during the
manufacturing process, is transferred as in progression from one die to another. There are
many variations of compound dies, all of them having one feature in common: with each
stroke of the press, a minimum of one operation is being performed. Combination dies
combine at least two operations during each stroke of the press.
Figure 5: Compound Die

2) Progressive Die
Progressive dies are a mixture of various single dies operating as different stations and
grouped into the same die shoe. These stations are positioned to follow a sequence of
operations needed to produce the required part. Usually, the die sequence is arranged side by
side, or horizontally. Such dies are called tandem dies, and are used mostly for drawing of
shell types of products.
Gang dies or multiple dies are used where a large amount of simple blanks is required. The
die consists of duplicate punches and dies, which cut as many blanks as there are tools during
each stroke of the press.
Figure 6: Progressive Die
Figure 7: Gang & Tandem Die
3) Steel Rule Dies
Also called metal form dies, steel-rule dies consist of heavy strip steel which serves as the
cutting edge when mounted in a standard die set. Plastic and paper cutting steel-rule dies may
be mounted on a heavy plywood plate instead of die set.
The way the strip steel is attached to the block, its function is the same as that of a cutting
knife. But with its thin profile it has a tendency to swell up and buckle. For that reason, the
strip steel’s compressive force should be twice the amount of the cut material’s shear
coefficient.

Steel-rule dies are usually equipped with neoprene or rubber strippers slightly exceeding the
height of the blades. Punches and dies are standard; they may be used to pierce openings
while the steel rule is used to cut the outline of the part. Tolerances for steel blades and their
mating die sections are the same as those for regular punches and dies.
Figure 8: Steel Rule Die & Steel Rule
4) Miscellaneous Die
Indexing dies are useful for repeated notching or perforating, where the operation is copied
around a circumference of the part. An indexing die usually produces several cuts at a time,
rotates (i.e., transfers) the blank, and pierces again. This procedure can be used for parts of
limited quantities where complicated tooling would be cost-prohibitive.
Figure 9: Indexing Samples

Transfer dies are suited for longer runs of parts, since the die shoe, equipped with a transfer
mechanism, often cannot be easily adapted for another work.
 Major Components of Stamping Dies
1) Punch & Die:
Punches and dies are the most basic components of every die. Their bodies and shapes can be
Electro Discharge Machined (EDM’d) from a block or blank, or from a bar stock or other
materials. The material these tooling elements are made from is of a great importance, not
only for its hardness and ductility, but for its behaviour in production, resistance to galling,
resistance to changes in material structure due to heat, frequency of sharpening, and the like.

Every punch and die, when assembled together, must fit exactly; there is no allowance for a
slight shift here or there. With a small misalignment, great differences in punch and die
clearances can be generated, which, given the time, will certainly exert a detrimental effect
on the whole die, not talking about quantities of less-than-perfect parts such a tool can
produce.
Figure 10: Detail of Punch
Figure 11: Shear on the punch to reduce cutting force
Figure 12: Die relief or Die angular clearance

2) Pilots
In construction, pilots are similar to punches, with the only difference being in their smooth,
radius end. In the die, pilots provide for a guidance of the strip by sliding into at least two
pierced openings, located at the extreme edges of the sheet metal strip, and positioning, or
fine-adjusting the surrounding material around their bodies.

Pilots are always longer than any punches, to assure their contact with the strip prior to the
occurrence of any cutting. Their diameter may be −0.003 in. (−0.08 mm) smaller than the
diameter of the punch used for piercing pilot holes. Mounting of pilots utilizes the same
procedure as that described for mounting of punches. Pilot punches should always be as
sturdy as possible. After all, these are first to engage the advancing sheet-metal strip and
force it, where misfed, to conform to the positioning requirements. Headed, larger diameter
pilots are therefore preferable.
Figure 13: Detail of Pilot
3) Strippers
Stripping of parts off the face of the tooling is a complex problem, influenced by the
thickness of material and its type, by the surface finish of the strip, and by the surface
condition of the tooling as well.
The stripping of parts is further complicated by the prevailing manufacturing procedures,
since all conventional metalworking machinery leaves circumferential grooves in the surface
of a machined part. The sheet-metal material, forced by the pressure of tooling, may
sometimes be coerced into fitting within these grooves in some sensitive sections and thus
may generate a serious stripping problem.
Figure 14: Working of Strippers

4) Guide Pins
The width of coiled material comes within a certain tolerance range. As can be expected, the
tighter this range is, the higher the cost of that coil. Additionally, quite often the material
sedges can be somewhat wavy and uneven. Bowing of the coil can be present as well, along
with other imperfections. These factors have to be borne in mind when designing and making
the stock guides for a progressive die.

Other important parts are stock support, stock lifters, stops, bushings, pressure pads, ejection
systems etc.
 Calculations for Stamping dies
1) Determining Clearance
𝐶 = 0.003⁡𝑡⁡𝜏
Where t= Stock thickness in mm
𝜏 = Shear stress of material N/mm2
2) Determination of punch & die size

1. For Blanking Operation die size = Blank Size and Punch size = die size-2C
2. For Punching Operation Punch size = Blank Size and die size = punch size-2C
3) Determination of Cutting Force

𝐹 = ⁡𝜏⁡𝑝⁡𝑡
Where F = Cutting force in N
𝜏 = Shear Stress of Material in N/mm2
P = Perimeter in mm
T = Stock thickness in mm
4) Determination of Punch Length

𝜋⁡𝑑 𝐸⁡𝑑
𝑙 =⁡ √
8 𝜏⁡𝑡
Where l = length of punch in mm
D = diameter of hole in mm
E = Modules of elasticity of the material in N/mm2
𝜏 = Shear stress of material in N/mm2
T = Stock Thickness in mm
5) Determining Stripping Force

𝐹𝑠 = 0.02⁡𝐿⁡𝑡
Where L = length of cut in mm
T = Stock thickness in mm
6) Determination of stripper plate thickness

1
ℎ = ⁡ ⁡𝑊 + 2𝑡
3
Where h = Min. Striper plate thickness in mm,
W = Stock Width in mm, t = Stock thickness in mm
7) Selection of Pilot according to operation


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METAL CUTTING AND TOOL DESIGN LAB

Figure 1.1: Orthogonal cuttingoperation

SHEAR PLANE ANGLE MEASUREMENT:

SVNIT- SURAT, DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Page 1

Figure 1.2: Schematic of orthogonal cutting

From figure 1.2,

 In terms of chip thickness:

SVNIT- SURAT, DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Page 2

SIGNIFICANCE OF SHEAR ANGLE:

The force required is given by,

SVNIT- SURAT, DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Page 3

SHEAR PLANE ANGLE:

Material: Aluminium Dimensions: 36mm X 5mm (c/s area)

Back rake End relief

SVNIT- SURAT, DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Page 4

Speed range: 12-72 strokes/min

Feed range: 0.02-0.5 mm

N = Ram speed = strokes/min

N = Ram speed = strokes/min

SVNIT- SURAT, DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Page 5

2. G. Boothroyd and W. A. Knight, Fundamentals of machining and machine tools, Taylor

5. Serope Kalpakjian, Steven R SchmidManufacturing Engineering and Technology

AIM: -Measurement of cutting forces in orthogonal cutting.

1. Orthogonal Cutting 2. Oblique Cutting

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE VARIATION OF CUTTING FORCES:-

SVNIT- SURAT, DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Page 7

1.) If shear rake angle increases, shear angle increases.

2.) If friction decreases, shear angle increases.

SVNIT- SURAT, DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Page 8

2.) The surface where shear occurs is a plane.

5.) Uncut chip thickness should be constant.

7.) A continuous chip should be produced without any BUE.

8.) Work should move with a uniform velocity.

9.) The stresses on the shear plane are uniformly distributed.

ANALYSIS OF FORCES DURING TURNING:-

Fig 2:- Cutting forces in orthogonal cutting

FV = Force perpendicular to the primary tool motion (thrust force).

FS = Force along the shear plane.

SVNIT- SURAT, DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Page 9

NS = Force normal to the shear plane.

F = Frictional force along the tool rake face.

N = Normal force perpendicular to the rake face.

R=R’ (refer fig.3)

Fig 3:- Forces acting on the chip

Fig 4:- Merchant’s Circle Diagram

SVNIT- SURAT, DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Page 10

FS= FH cosΦ - FV sin Φ (1)

NS= FV cos Φ + FH sinΦ

=FS tan (Φ+ß-α) (2)

We can also write

F= FH sinα + FV cosα (3)

N= FH cosα - FV sinα (4)

If µ is the co-efficient of friction along the tool rake face then:-

µ= tan ß= F/N= (FV + FH tanα)/(FH – FV tanα) (5)

where ß=friction angle

Now the area of the shear plane AS = b*t/sin Φ (6)

The shear force is given by FS =*AS = *b*t/sin Φ (7)

Where  is the mean stress in the shear plane.

t=uncut chip thickness

NS= *b*t/sin Φ (9)

Where  is the mean normal stress in the shear plane

We can show that by resolving

The shear force is given by FS =AS = b*t/sin Φ (7)

NS= bt/sin Φ (9)

FH = btcos (ß-α)/sin Φcos (Φ+ß-α) (15)

FV = btsin (ß-α)/sin Φcos (Φ+ß-α) (16)

dFH/dΦ = btcos (ß-α)cos (2Φ+b-α)/sin2Φ cos2 (Φ+ß-α) (17)