1.

Explain what is meant by:

(a) active instruments
(b) passive instruments.
Give examples of each and discuss the relative merits of these two classes of instruments.

Active instrument – The instrument type in which quantity to be measured modulates or adapts to
magnitude of external power input, which in turn produces the measurement.
Passive instrument – The instrument type in which output entirely depends on quantity being
measured. In passive instrument, there are no other energy inputs to the system.
Active instrument Passive Instrument
Liquid Level indicator Pressure gauge
Flow indicator Voltmeter
Lux Meter using LDR Ammeter
Thermocouple Slide-wire resistor
Photovoltaic cell Resistance strain gauge
Moving coil generator Differential transformer
Thermocouple Capacitor

2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of null and deflection types of measuring instrument.
What are null types of instrument mainly used for and why?

Null type instruments – Are those instruments in which a zero or null indication leads to the
determination of magnitude of the quantity being measured. These device attempts to maintain
deflection at zero by suitable application of a known effect opposing the generated by the measured
quantity.
Advantage Disadvantage
Very much Accurate Due to addition of different weights involved
Readily used for measuring this method become little difficult.

Deflection type instruments – Are those instruments in which the quantity being measured
produces some effect due to which pointer deflects. The measured quantity produced some
physical effects that engenders a similar but opposing effect in some part of the instrument, the
opposing effect increases until a balance is achieved, at which point of deflection is measured.
Advantage Disadvantage
Due to their convenient use these instruments They are less accurate.
are readily used for calibration

3. Briefly define and explain all the static characteristics of measuring instruments.
Static characteristics of measuring refers to that characteristics of instruments which measure
quantities which do not vary with time.
They are:
Accuracy Sensitivity (Disturbance/Measureent)
Reproducibility Resolution
Static error Tolerance
Precision Dead space
Linearity Threshold
Range or Span Hysteresis

1. Accuracy – is the degree of closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the
true value of the quantity being measured. The accuracy of a measurement indicates the
nearness to the actual/ true value of the quantity.
2. Sensitivity – is the ratio of change in output of an instrument to the change in input or
variable measured. The ratio of magnitude of the measured quantity to the magnitude of
the response.
3. Reproducibility – the degree of closeness by which a given value can be repeatedly
measured, specified for a period of time.\
4. Precision – is a measure of the reproducibility of a measurement that is given a fixed value
of variable. It is a measure of the degree to which successive measurements differ from
other.
5. Static Error – the deviation from the true value of the measured variable
6. Dead space – the largest changes of input quantity for which there is no output.
7. Threshold – is the smallest measurable input, below which no output change can be
identified.
8. Linearity – a measure of the maximum deviation of the calibration points from the ideal
straight line/actual reading.
9. Resolution – a particular output reading, there is a lower limit on the magnitude of the
change in the input measured quantity that produces an observable change in the instrument
output.
10. Range or span – the minimum and maximum values of a quantity for which an instrument
is designed to measure.
11. Tolerance – the maximum allowable error that is specified in terms of certain value while
measuring. This specifies the maximum allowable deviation of a manufactured device from
a measured value.
12. Hysteresis – a phenomenon which depicts different output effects while loading and
unloading forces in reaction to internal friction or hysteric damping.
Hysteresis take place due to the fact that all the energy put into stress parts when loading
is not recoverable while unloading.
4. Explain the difference between accuracy and precision in an instrument.
Accuracy is the range of closeness which an instrument reading approaches the true value of the
measured quantity while Precision is the measure of the reproducibility of the instrument to
reproduce a certain set of readings within accepted reading output bracket.
5. A tungsten/5% rhenium–tungsten/26% rhenium thermocouple has an output e.m.f. as shown in
the following table when its hot (measuring) junction is at the temperatures shown. Determine the
sensitivity of measurement for the thermocouple in mV/°C.

6. Define sensitivity drift and zero drift. What factors can cause sensitivity drift and zero drift in
instrument characteristics?
Sensitivity Drift – is the amount by which an instrument sensitivity measurement varies as ambient
conditions change.
Zero Drift – is the deviation of the output from its zero value, when the variable to be measured is
constant.
Instrument characteristic’s output is influenced by the environment where it is subjected. That is
why it is usually performed under some controlled conditions of pressure, temperature etc.

Zero drift or bias describes the effect where the zero reading of an instrument is modified by a
change in ambient conditions. This causes a constant error that exists over the full range of
measurement of the instrument. The mechanical form of bathroom scale is a common example of
an instrument that is prone to bias. It is quite usual to find that there is a reading of perhaps 1 kg
with no one stood on the scale. If someone
of known weight 70 kg were to get on the scale, the reading would be 71 kg, and if someone of
known weight 100 kg were to get on the scale, the reading would be 101 kg. Zero drift is normally
removable by calibration. In the case of the bathroom scale just described, a thumbwheel is usually
provided that can be turned until the reading is zero with the scales unloaded, thus removing the
bias. Zero drift is also commonly found in instruments like voltmeters that are affected by ambient
temperature changes. Typical units by which such zero drift is measured are volts/°C. This is often
called the zero-drift coefficient related to temperature changes. If the characteristic of an
instrument is sensitive to several environmental parameters, then it will have several zero drift
coefficients, one for each environmental parameter. Sensitivity drift (also known as scale factor
drift) defines the amount by which an instrument’s sensitivity of measurement varies as ambient
conditions change. It is quantified by sensitivity drift coefficients that define how much drift there
is for a unit change in each environmental parameter that the instrument characteristics are
sensitive to. Many components within an instrument are affected by environmental fluctuations,
such as temperature changes: for instance, the modulus of elasticity of a spring is temperature
dependent.

7.
8.
9.
10. Write down the general differential equation describing the dynamic response of a second order
measuring instrument and state the expressions relating the static sensitivity, undamped natural
frequency and damping ratio to the parameters in this differential equation. Sketch the instrument
response for the cases of heavy damping, critical damping and light damping, and state which of
these is the usual target when a second order instrument is being designed.

References
Mouzam, A. (2015). Measurement and Instrumentation Principles. In A. S. Moris, Measurement and
Instrumentation Principles (p. 9&10). SlideShare.

Chapter 3

1. Explain the difference between systematic and random errors. What are the typical sources of
these two types of error?

Systematic error, are those errors that can develop over a period of time because of wear in the
instrument components. Thus, this is due to the calibration of the instruments while Random errors, are
those errors that is due to mistakes made when making measurement either by reading or positioning of
eye or instrument. Sometimes random errors are also caused by unpredictable environmental or
condition variations.

Sources of Errors:
Systematic Error Random Error
Caused by an incorrect position of the zero Human limitation of sight and touch
point/pointer
An incorrect calibration of the measuring Lack of sensitivity of the instrument: the
instrument instrument fail to respond to the small change.
Consistently improper use of equipment Natural errors such as changes in temperature or
wind, while experiment is in progress.
Wrong technique of measurement

2. In what ways can the act of measurement cause a disturbance in the system being measured?

Disturbance of the measured system by the act of measurement is a common source of systematic error.
a. If we were to start with a beaker of hot water and wished to measure its temperature with a mercury-
in-glass thermometer, then we would take the thermometer, which would initially be at room
temperature, and plunge it into the water. In so doing, we would be introducing a relatively cold mass
(the thermometer) into the hot water and a heat transfer would take place between the water and the
thermometer. This heat transfer would lower the temperature of the water.

b. A particularly important example of this occurs with the orifice plate. This is placed into a fluid-carrying
pipe to measure the flow rate, which is a function of the pressure that is measured either side of the
orifice plate. This measurement procedure causes a permanent pressure loss in the flowing fluid. The
disturbance of the measured system can often be very significant.

c. In case of electric circuit, use of voltmeter can produce loading effect in the circuit which causes
disturbance in measurement.

3. Suppose that the components in the circuit shown in Figure 3.1(a) have the following values:

R1 = 330 Ω; R2 = 1000 Ω; R3 = 1200 Ω; R4 = 220 Ω; R5 = 270 Ω;

If the instrument measuring the output voltage across AB has a resistance of 5000 Ω, what is the
measurement error caused by the loading effect of this instrument?

4. Instruments are normally calibrated and their characteristics defined for particular standard
ambient conditions. What procedures are normally taken to avoid measurement errors when
using instruments that are subjected to changing ambient conditions?

1. Double check all measurements for accuracy. For example, double enter all inputs on two
worksheets and compare them.
2. Double check your formulas are correct.
3. Make sure observers and measurement takers are well trained.
4. Make the measurement with the instrument that has the highest
precision.
5. Take the measurements under controlled conditions.
6. Pilot test your measuring instruments.

5. The voltage across a resistance R5 in the circuit of Figure 3.10 is to be measured by a voltmeter
connected across it.

(a) If the voltmeter has an internal resistance (Rm) of 4750 Ω, what is the measurement error?

(b) What value would the voltmeter internal resistance need to be in order to reduce the
measurement error to 1%?

6. In the circuit shown in Figure 3.11, the current flowing between A and B is measured by an
ammeter whose internal resistance is 100 Ω. What is the measurement error caused by the
resistance of the measuring instrument?

7. What steps can be taken to reduce the effect of environmental inputs in measurement systems?

8. The output of a potentiometer is measured by a voltmeter having a resistance Rm, as shown in

Figure 3.12. Rt is the resistance of the total length Xt of the potentiometer and Ri is the resistance
between the wiper and common point C for a general wiper position Xi. Show that the
measurement error due to the resistance
9. In a survey of 15 owners of a certain model of car, the following figures for average petrol
consumption were reported.
25.5 30 .3 31 .1 29 .6 32 .4 39 .4 28 .9 30 .0 33 .3 31 .4 29 .5 30 .5 31 .7 33 .0 29 .2
Calculate the mean value, the median value and the standard deviation of the data set.