6 Chapter 6

Detailing of reinforcement

 Preliminary note:
The following prescriptions are taken from EN 1992-1-1:2004 – Sections 8 and
9. The prescriptions apply to ribbed reinforcement (bar and mesh) subjected to
static loading. They may not be sufficient for:
- dynamic loading caused by seismic effects, machine vibration, impact
loading, etc.;
- painted and epoxy or zinc coated bars.

6.1 Reinforcement in one cross-section

6.1.1 Minimum and maximum reinforcement areas

Reference: EN 1992-1-1:2004; 9.2.1.1

▬ The area of longitudinal tension reinforcement should not be less than:

• the minimum reinforcement to control cracking (see chapter 5 in these
course notes - SLS);
• the value of As,min, defined by the formula:

but not less than 0,0013.bt.d (6.1.1-1)

with
bt = the mean width of the tension zone; for a T-beam with the flange in
compression, only the width of the web is taken into account in
calculating the value of bt;
fctm = should be determined with respect to the relevant strength class of the
concrete.

 Note:
Sections containing less reinforcement than As,min should be
considered as unreinforced.

▬ The cross-sectional area of tension or compression reinforcement should not

exceed As,max = 0,04.Ac, outside lap locations.

6-1
6.1.2 Choice of bar diameter and number of bars
The calculated reinforcement area As (or As1 and As2) in mm2, has to be translated into a
number of bars. To this end, one can use table 4.2.5-1 (As in function of diameter and
number of bars, presented in chapter 4). In general, it is recommended to limit the
number of different diameters in one project!
Yet, other factors have also to be taken into account when bar diameters have to be
selected; indeed, the design of the reinforcement should also take account of factors
such as optimization of the production and assembly and cost. The cost of the
reinforcement is mainly determined by:
• the cost of the steel (50 %);
• the wages of the people necessary for the design calculations and the realization
of the construction drawings (10 %);
• the handling and treatment of the steel in precast factory or on site: cutting,
bending, bundling, transport and assembly (40 %).
The cost for handling and treatment is also determined by the bar diameter.
The choice of a large diameter has some advantages:
- reduction of the number of bars to cut, to bend and to put in the formwork;
- easy casting and compaction process.
However, disadvantages become important with diameters larger than 25 mm:
- more difficult transport;
- more heavy equipment is needed for the bending process;
- larger mandrel diameters have to be adopted in order to avoid bending cracks
in the bar. But on the other hand, this may be limited by the available
dimensions of the reinforcement cage;
- large diameters ask for large cover thickness and may lead to problems for
crack width control.
It is clear that rational design of reinforcement leads to economic solutions.
WALRAVEN (1995) formulated the problem in this way: it is recommended to choose
large diameters, but not too large.

6.1.3 Spacing of bars

Reference: EN 1992-1-1:2004; 8.2

For technological reasons, it is necessary to adopt minimum distances between bars; this
helps avoiding the reinforcement to act as a sieve when casting takes place, with bad
quality concrete in the neighbourhood of the bars as a consequence. Moreover, a
sufficient quantity of concrete surrounding each bar, is needed to ensure bond quality.
The following prescriptions are recommended:
• the clear distance (horizontal and vertical) between individual parallel bars or
horizontal layers of parallel bars should not be less than (see figure 6.1.3-1):
- The maximum bar diameter;
- dg + 5mm, with dg = the maximum size of aggregate;
- 20 mm.
• where bars are positioned in separate horizontal layers, the bars in each layer
should be located vertically above each other. There should be sufficient space

6-2
 between the resulting vertical columns of bars to allow access for vibrators and
good compaction of the concrete: see figure 6.1.3-2.
• lapped bars may touch one another within the lap length (lapped joints: see
further in this chapter).

Figure 6.1.3-1
Detailing concerning the spacing between individual bars

Figure 6.1.3-2
Sufficient space between the vertical columns of bars to allow access for vibrators

 Note:
One may observe that the requirements regarding spacing between bars
are not very severe. For practical reasons, larger spacing is recommended
on construction site: in general 50 mm is adopted as a minimum value.

6.2 Longitudinal reinforcement in beams: identification of the

principal problems

6.2.1 Statically determined beams

The main reinforcement in beams (definition: span l ≥ 3.h) is positioned in function of
the evolution of the bending moment: see figure 6.2.1-1. The most unfavourable
moment distribution is considered. The reinforcement area is first determined in the

6-3
cross-section with the highest load; yet, is not necessary to have the same reinforcement
area everywhere along the beam, which means that reinforcement has to be curtailed. A
complementary problem to the cutting of bars, is the determination of the anchorage
length at the ends of the bar.

Figure 6.2.1-1
Schematic representation of the main reinforcement in a simply supported beam loaded
in simple bending by uniformly distributed load

 Note: technological reinforcement

« Technological reinforcement » is provided in the zones where reinforcement is
not needed for strength reasons (for example in the compression zone of a
symply supported beam). The area of the technological reinforcement is in
principle not calculated, but is determined by « technological rules ». This
reinforcement, which is in general rather light, is provided for several reasons:
- limitation of crack development due to shrinkage ;
- improvement of the resistance against unforeseen small impact loads ;
- easy fixation of links (or stirrups – shear reinforcement !) and practical
usefulness for the realization of a reinforcement cage.

6.2.2 Continuous beams

The position of the reinforcement is function of the sign of the bending moment: see
figure 6.2.2-1.

6-4
 Figure 6.2.2-1
Schematic representation of the main reinforcement in a continuous beam subjected to
bending loads

6.2.3 Long beams

Beams with large spans need long reinforcement bars. Yet, the practical length of bars is
limited in general to 12 m, because of the increased weight, difficulties in manipulation
of the bars (picking up with crane), length of lorry platforms, etc. Bars have thus to be
connected. Special connectors (in high quality steel) can be used, but this solution has
disadvantages:
- the presence of these thick pieces of steel may hamper the easy realization of the
reinforcement cage (bars can not slide easily, etc.) ;
- high cost, because of the high quality of the connectors with machined
cylindrical holes in which the ends of the bars can be screwed; the ends of the
bars have thus to be machined in order to create the necessary screw thread.
In general, the solution of lapping is used: the connection between two individual bars is
realized by means of a lap with a certain length (very similar to an adhesive bond
between two metal substrates). Particular rules are available to determine the
appropriate lap length; see figure 6.2.3-1.

6-5
 Figure 6.2.3-1
Long bars are realized by means of lapping of bars

6.3 Anchorage of longitudinal reinforcement

6.3.1 Parametric analysis of the anchorage problem

6.3.1.1 Introduction
At first sight, a simple solution for the anchorage of longitudinal reinforcement might
be the provision of anchor blocs at the ends of the bars: see figure 6.3.1-1. Such a
solution is however costly and is not used in practice. In general, bars are anchored by
means of an anchorage length in the in the anchor zone.

Figure 6.3.1-1
A theoretical solution for the anchorage of bars by means of anchor blocs at the ends of
the bars

6.3.1.2 Working principle of an anchorage

The working principle of an anchorage at the end of a bar, is shown in figure 6.3.1-2.
The force in the steel bar is transferred to the concrete by means of radial struts of

6-6
compressed concrete, which are inclined with respect to the axis of the steel bar. Figure
6.3.1-2(b) shows that in order to realize equilibrium of forces in each node at the surface
of the steel bar, tensile forces have to be introduced, perpendicular to the steel bar.
These tensile forces can be resisted by the concrete tensile strength when a sufficiently
thick cover layer is present.

Figure 6.3.1-2
Anchorage of the end of a straight bar;
(a) scheme of the force transmission; (b) equilibrium of forces

The calculation of the required anchorage length takes into consideration the notion of
bond stress, which is in fact due to the horizontal component of the diagonal
compression forces shown in figure 6.3.1-2. The distribution of the bond stress along
the steel reinforcement depends on strain situation in the concrete cover:
- when concrete strains are in the elastic domain, the bond stress is most important
in the location where the force is introduced (see theory of bonded joints): figure
6.3.1-3;
- when the stiffness of the material is gradually reduced due to the accumulation of
microscopic cracks, a redistribution of stresses takes place; this leads to the
appearance of the important bond stresses at the end of the bar.
In practice, the evolution of the bond stress is also influenced by creep and the eventual
cyclic nature of the loads.
Because of the many uncertainty factors, and in order to avoid too elaborated
calculations, a constant bond stress τ is adopted along the whole anchorage length.

Figure 6.3.1-3
Evolution of the bond stress τ along the anchorage length; solid line = bond stress
distribution for elastic strains in the concrete cover; dashed line = bond stress

6-7
 distribution at failure; dash-dot line = simplified model adopted for the bond stress
distribution

6.3.1.3 Principle determination of the anchorage length

A formula for the calculation of the anchorage length lb can be developed on the basis of
figure 6.3.1-4. An equilibrium of forces equation is written: the anchorage force (which
is distributed over the whole length of the anchorage lb) = the force As.σs which is
transferred by the steel bar to the concrete:

And thus:

(6.3.1-1)

Figure 6.3.1-4
Auxiliary figure for the determination of the anchorage length lb

6.3.1.4 Parameters affecting the bond strength

Experimental analysis by means of “pull out" tests (WALRAVEN, 1995) has shown
that the bond strength
- increases with better concrete quality and with higher concrete cover thickness,
but
- decreases with large diameter bars or bundles (WALRAVEN, 1995).

Another important parameter is the position of the reinforcement in the structural

element: indeed, the quality of the concrete as well as the bond strength varies in
function of the considered position. This is related to the compaction process.
Compaction (due to vibration) causes a volumetric contraction and leads to the setting
of the concrete: figure 6.3.1-5. The plastic concrete paste flows around the bar, but the
bar itself does not move (because it is fixed in the formwork); this may lead to
weakened zones under the bar, which are filled with water and fine particles. The
quality of the concrete just under the bars is low and this affects the bond strength. The
setting phenomenon does not appear

6-8
 - at the level of the lower bars in the cross-section, close to the bottom of the
formwork;
- along inclined bars, because the liquid fraction will move upwards along the
inclined bar during compaction.
The standard takes account of this phenomenon by considering zones in a reinforced
concrete element with “good or poor bond conditions” (see further).

Figure 6.3.1-5
Influence of the position of bars in the cross-section, on the bond quality

6.3.1.5 Other methods of anchorage

Figure 6.3.1-6 shows the support area of a simply supported beam. An inclined shear
crack (see chapter 7 in these course notes) starts from the lower side of the beam at the
edge of the support. In principle, the main reinforcement, which is needed to help in
supporting the shear load (see chapter 7), should be well anchored to the left. It is clear
that it is not possible to have the whole anchorage length for a straight bar on the left of
the support, unless the beam gets a cantilever part, which is sometimes not possible or
not practical anyway. This example shows that it may be necessary to shorten the
anchorage length.

Figure 6.3.1-6
The anchorage length of the straight bar should be positioned to the left of the shear
crack. This asks for a cantilever solution or for a method to reduce the anchorage length

6-9
Several methods are available to reduce the anchorage length:
• by increasing the reinforcement area; formula (6.3.1-1) shows that a smaller value
of σs leads to a smaller value of lb;
• by bending the end of the bar into a “standard bend’, a hook or loop;
• by welding transverse bars to the main reinforcement: figure 6.3.1-7.

Figure 6.3.1-7
Reduction of the anchorage length by means of transverse welded bars;
(a) top view; (b) side view

6.3.2 Prescriptions concerning the anchorage of longitudinal reinforcement

Reference: EN 1992-1-1:2004; 8.4 (confirmed by ANB)

6.3.2.1 Methods of anchorage

Next to the anchorage by straight bars, the EC2 distinguishes four alternative types for
the anchorage for bars in tension (see figure 6.3.2-1):
- the standard bend (NL: elleboog; FR: coude),
- the standard hook (NL: haak; FR: crochet),
- the standard loop (NL: lus; FR: boucle), and
- the anchorage by means of welded transverse bars.
Attention: bends and hooks do not contribute to compression anchorages.

 Note:
The concrete at the inner side of a bend, hook or loop is vulnerable for crushing
or splitting. Moreover, as already pointed out earlier, bending cracks in the
reinforcement bars have to be avoided. That is the reason why EN 1992-1-

6-10
 1:2004; 8.3 recommends values for permissible mandrel diameters for bent bars
(in function of the bar diameter).

Figure 6.3.2-1
Methods of anchorage other than by straight bar: (a) standard bend; (b) standard hook;
(c) standard loop; (d) anchorage by means of welded transverse bars

6.3.2.2 Ultimate bond stress

The design value of the ultimate bond stress fbd (NL: grenskleefspanning; FR: contrainte
limite d'adhérence) for ribbed bars, is given by the formula:

fbd = 2,25 . η1 . η2 . fctd (6.3.2-1)

with
fctd = the design value of concrete tensile strength, for which the value of fctk,0,05 (see
table 3.4.3-1) can be used. Due to the increasing brittleness of higher strength
concrete, fctd should be limited to the value of fctk,0,05 for concrete class C60/75.
Table 6.3.2-1 presents an overview of the values of fctd to be used for the
different concrete classes.
η1 = coefficient related to the quality of the bond condition and the position of the bar
in the cross-section: see figure 6.3.2-2. The bond quality is indeed not only
dependent on the nature of the surface of the bar, but also on the dimensions of
the structural element, the position of the bar in the cross-section and the
inclination of the bar during the casting phase. Two values are recommended for
the coefficient η1:
η1 = 1 for “good” bond conditions;
η1 = 0,7 for all other cases (= called "poor" bond conditions).

6-11
η2 = coefficient related to the bar diameter. Large bar diameters (which may transfer
large tensile forces) may lead to increased loading of the bond and thus to an
increased risk for the quality of the bond. The following values are
recommended for the coefficient η2:
η2 = 1 for bars with φ ≤ 32 mm;
η2 = (132 - φ)/100 for bars with φ > 32 mm.

Table 6.3.2-1
Recommended values for the concrete tensile stress to be used in formula (6.3.2-1) for
the calculation of the bond stress fbd

Concrete classes
fck
12 16 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 70 80 90
(MPa)
fck,cube
15 20 25 30 37 45 50 55 60 67 75 85 95 105
(MPa)
fctk,0.05
1,1 1,3 1,5 1,8 2,0 2,2 2,5 2,7 2,9 3,0 3,0 3,2 3,4 3,5
(MPa)
fctd
1,1 1,3 1,5 1,8 2,0 2,2 2,5 2,7 2,9 3,0 3,0 3,0 3,0 3,0
(MPa)

Figure 6.3.2-2
Overview of bond conditions: unhatched zone = good bond conditions; hatched zone =
poor bond conditions (figure 8.2 in EN 1992-1-1:2004)

6.3.2.3 The basic required anchorage length lb,rqd

The basic required anchorage length lb,rqd (NL: vereiste basis verankeringslengte; FR:
longueur d’ancrage de base requise) is determined on the basis of expression (6.3.1-1);
lb,rqd is necessary for anchoring the force As.σsd in a straight bar, assuming constant bond

6-12
stress equal to fbd. Expression (6.3.1-1) then leads to:

(6.3.2-2)

with
σsd = design stress of the bar at the position from where the anchorage is measured;
fbd = ultimate bond stress.

6.3.2.4 Design anchorage length lbd

The design anchorage length lbd is determined from the following expression:

lbd = α1 . α2 . α3 . α4 . α5 . lb,rqd ≥ lb,min (6.3.2-3)

with
αi a series of coefficients which take account of various factors that influence the
bond characteristics (discussion of these coefficients: see further):
α1 effect of the form or shape of the bar;
α2 effect of the thickness of the concrete cover;
α3 effect of confinement by the presence of non-welded transverse
reinforcement;
α4 influence of welded transverse bars along the design anchorage length;
α5 effect of the pressure transverse to the plane of splitting along the design
anchorage length.
with the product (α2 . α3 . α5) ≥ 0,7

lb,min is the minimum anchorage length, determined by:

- for anchorages in tension: lb,min > max (0,3.lb,rqd ; 10.φ ; 100 mm);
- for anchorages in compression: lb,min > max (0,6.lb,rqd ; 10.φ ; 100 mm);

Important: the design anchorage length lbd is measured along the centreline of the bar:
see figure 6.3.2-3.

Figure 6.3.2-3
The design anchorage length lbd is measured along the centreline of the bar

6-13
6.3.2.5 Discussion of the coefficients αi in the formula (6.3.2-3) for the calculation of
the design anchorage length lbd
α1
- coefficient to take account of the influencing factor: shape of the bar;
- for a straight anchorage:
- in compression: α1 = 1,0
- in tension: α1 = 1,0
- for anchorages other than straight (bend, hook, loop):
- in compression: α1 = 1,0
- in tension: α1 = 0,7 if cd > 3.φ, otherwise α1 = 1,0. The value of cd is taken
from figure 6.3.2-4; cd gives an indication if the bar is sufficiently covered
by concrete (in order to make a good bond possible).

Figure 6.3.2-4
Auxiliary figure for the determination of the factor cd, which indicates if the
bar is sufficiently covered by concrete (figure 8.3 in EN 1992-1-1:2004)

α2
- coefficient to take account of the influencing factor: thickness of the concrete
cover;
- for a straight anchorage:
- in compression: α2 = 1,0
- in tension: α2 = 1 - 0,15.(cd – φ) / φ with the conditions α2 ≥ 0,7 and
α2 ≤ 1,0 ; the value of cd is taken from figure 6.3.2-4.
- for anchorages other than straight (bend, hook, loop):
- in compression: α2 = 1,0
- in tension: α2 = 1 - 0,15.(cd – 3φ) / φ with the conditions α2 ≥ 0,7 and
α2 ≤ 1,0; the value of cd is taken from figure 6.3.2-4.

α3
- coefficient to take account of the influencing factor: confinement by transverse
reinforcement not welded to main reinforcement;
- for all types of anchorages (straight and non-straight):
- in compression: α3 = 1,0
- in tension: α3 = 1 - K.λ with the conditions α3 ≥ 0,7 and α3 ≤ 1,0;
the factor λ is defined by λ = (∑Ast - ∑Ast,min) / As
with
∑Ast cross-sectional area of the transverse reinforcement along
the design anchorage length lbd;

6-14
 ∑Ast,min cross-sectional area of the minimum transverse
reinforcement, which always has to be provided with
anchorages (in tension and in compression). ∑Ast,min =
0,25.As for beams and 0 for slabs;
As area of a single anchored bar with maximum bar diameter.
The factor K is taken from figure 6.3.2-5.

Figure 6.3.2-5
Auxiliary figure for the determination of factor K, necessary for the
calculation of the coefficient α3, for beams and slabs
(figure 8.4 in EN 1992-1-1:2004)

α4
- coefficient to take account of the influencing factor: confinement by welded
transverse reinforcement along the anchorage length (see scheme in figure 6.3.2-
1);
- for all types of anchorages (straight and non-straight):
- in compression: α4 = 0,7;
- in tension: α4 = 0,7.

α5
- coefficient to take account of the influencing factor: confinement by transverse
pressure to the plane of splitting along the anchorage length;
- for all types of anchorages (straight and non-straight):
- in compression : α5 = 1,0;
- in tension: α5 = 1 - 0,04.p with the conditions α5 ≥ 0,7 and α5 ≤ 1,0 ; p is the
value of the transverse pressure (in MPa) at ULS along lbd.

6.3.2.6 Simplified alternative to the prescriptions in paragraph 6.3.2.4

Paragraph 6.3.2.4 presents recommendations to determine the design anchorage length
lbd which is measured along the centreline of the bar: see figure 6.3.2-3. A simplified
alternative may be applied to the tension anchorage, by means of the “equivalent
anchorage length" lb,eq which is defined in figure 6.3.2-6. lb,eq may be taken as:
- bend, hook and loop: lb,eq = α1 . lb,rqd;
- welded transverse bars: lb,eq = α4 . lb,rqd;

6-15
 Figure 6.3.2-6
Simplified alternative for tension anchorage, by application of the « equivalent
anchorage length" lb,eq, for different types of anchorages:
(a) bend; (b) hook; (c) loop; (d) anchorage by means of welded transverse bars
(figure 8.1 in EN 1992-1-1:2004)

6.3.2.7 Anchorage by means of welded bars

It appears from the paragraphs discussed before that the use of welded transverse bars
leads to an increase of the anchorage capacity.
EN 1992-1-1:2004; 8.6 proposes a model for the calculation of the positive effect of a
welded bar and the translation of this effect into a reduction of the anchorage length lbd,
which may even become smaller than lb,min.

6.3.3 Complementary prescriptions for the anchorage of the main reinforcement –

particular rules for beams
6.3.3.1 Anchorage of bottom reinforcement at an end support
Reference: EN 1992-1-1:2004; 9.2.1.4 (confirmed by ANB)

- At simple supports (supports with little or no end fixity assumed in design), the
area of bottom reinforcement should be at least 25 % of the area of steel provided
in the span;
- the anchorage of the main reinforcement at the end support should be able to resist
the following tensile force:

(6.3.3-1)

6-16
 with:
NEd = design value of eventual axial force;
VEd = design value of the shear force at the end support;
ai = z (cotg θ – cotg α)/2
The justification of this formula is presented in chapter 7 of these course notes,
with the discussion of the « shift rule ».
- the anchorage length lbd (defined in paragraph 6.3.2.4) is measured from the line
of contact between beam and support: see figure 6.3.3-1.

Figure 6.3.3-1
Anchorage of bottom reinforcement at an end support:
(a) direct support: beam supported by wall or column;
(b) indirect support: beam intersection another supporting beam
(figure 9.3 in EN 1992-1-1:2004)

6.3.3.2 Anchorage of bottom reinforcement at intermediate supports

Reference: EN 1992-1-1:2004; 9.2.1.5 (confirmed by ANB)

- At intermediate supports, the area of bottom reinforcement should be at least 25 %

of the area of steel provided in the span;
- the anchorage length should not be less than 10.φ (for straight bars) or not less
than (see figure 6.3.3-2):
- the diameter of the mandrel for hooks and bends with bar diameters at least
equal to 16 mm;
- twice the diameter of the mandrel for hooks and bends where the bar
diameter is less than 16 mm.
- the reinforcement required to resist possible positive moments at the intermediate
supports (tension at the bottom side) due to settlement of the support, explosion,
etc., should be continuous ; this may be achieved by means of lapped bars; see
figure 6.3.3-2.

6-17
 Figure 6.3.3-2
Anchorage of bottom reinforcement at intermediate supports; dm = diameter of the
mandrel (figure 9.4 in EN 1992-1-1:2004)

6.4 Connection of bars

6.4.1 Introduction
The commercial length of reinforcement bars is limited in general to 12 m; longer bars
are realized by connecting individual bars. Forces are transmitted from one bar to
another by:
- welding;
- mechanical devices, such as couplers with threaded cylindrical holes in which the
ends of bars can be screwed;
- lapping of bars, with or without bends or hooks (lapping = NL: overlapping; FR:
recouvrement).
The last method is discussed in the following.

6.4.2 Parametric analysis of laps

Figure 6.4.2-1 shows a connection loaded in tension. When the distance between the
two bar ends is small (similarity with adhesive bonded joints), a series of compressed
diagonal struts appear, which show an inclination of about 45° (in a simplified way)
with respect to the bar axis. The compressed struts may be separated by cracks. In order
to get equilibrium of forces, it is necessary to introduce tensile forces which are
perpendicular to the bar axis and which equilibrate the longitudinal force in the bars and
the diagonal forces in the struts. When the tensile forces are not too large, the tensile
strength of the concrete surrounding the bars, may be sufficient to assure the
equilibrium.
Figure 6.4.2-1 also remembers that the transmission of forces in a lapped joint, takes
essentially place at the ends of the lap (see also theoretical aspects of adhesive bonded
joints).

6-18
 Figure 6.4.2-1
Various forces are present in a lapped joint

Figure 6.4.2-2 shows another damage mechanism which may appear with laps in
reinforce concrete. Because of the flexural rigidity of a bar, the concrete cover may be
pushed off (spalling effect) when the lap is situated in a heavily curved zone. This is
accompanied by tensile loading of the concrete in transverse direction at the ends of the
bars, which explains the necessity of transverse reinforcements at the ends of the
longitudinal bars.

Figure 6.4.2-2
Dislocation of the concrete cover (spalling effect) due to the presence of a lapped joint
in a heavily bended zone of a beam

The potential damage mechanisms discussed before, explain why it is not recommended
to have all the laps at the same location along the beam axis. Tensile stress
concentrations can be avoided by an adequate distribution of laps over the length of the
construction element; see figure 6.4.2-3.

6-19
 Figure 6.4.2-3
Distribution of lapped joints along the beam’s axis

From the text before, it is concluded that lapped joints have to be used with precautions.
Yet, a lapped joint is a common and even useful tool in the practical realization of the
reinforcement of a structural element. Figure 6.4.2-4 shows a typical case where the use
of laps has a positive effect. During the manipulation of reinforcement bars (cutting,
bending), dimensional deviations are difficult to avoid. Consequently, a bar which is
slightly too short may present insufficient anchorage lengths, while a too long bar will
lead to insufficient concrete cover at the ends. It is preferred to avoid bars with « exact
dimensions » because it is difficult on the construction site to correct adequately errors
regarding lengths of bars. The use of lapped joints may help to solve this problem, as is
illustrated in figure 6.4.2-4.

Figure 6.4.2-4
The use of lapped joints helps to solve problems with dimensional variations for bars
with “exact length”: the presence of the lap permits to ensure a sufficient concrete cover
at the ends of the beam

6.4.3 Prescriptions regarding lapped joints

Reference: EN 1992-1-1:2004; 8.7 (confirmed by ANB)
6.4.3.1 Arrangement of lapped joints
The following general principles have to be applied:

6-20
- the detailing and arrangement of the laps of several bars in a structural element
should be such that the transmission of forces from one bar to another is assured;
- it is recommended to avoid having all (tensile) laps in the same area;
- tensile laps should not be located in areas of high bending moments;
- laps should be arranged symmetrically in cross-sections, and laps should be
parallel to the concrete surface.

The standard recommends the following prescriptions (see figure 6.4.3-1):

- the clear distance between lapped bars should not be greater than 4.φ or 50 mm,
otherwise the lap length l0 should be increased by the length equal to the clear
space where it exceeds 4.φ or 50 mm;
- the longitudinal distance between two adjacent laps should not be less than 0,3.l0;
- the clear distance between two adjacent lap joints should not be less than 2.φ or 20
mm;
- when the conditions mentioned above are met, the permissible percentage of
lapped bars in tension may be 100 % where the bars are all in one layer. Where
the bars are in several layers, the percentage should be reduced to 50 %;
- all bars in compression and secondary (technological) reinforcement may be
lapped in one section.

Figure 6.4.3-1
Practical arrangements for adjacent laps
(figure 8.7 in EN 1992-1-1:2004)

6.4.3.2 Design lap length l0

The design lap length l0 is determined by means of the following formula:

l0 = α1 . α2 . α3 . α5 . α6 . lb,rqd ≥ l0,min (6.4.3-1)

with
lb,rqd calculated from expression (6.3.2-2)
l0,min > max (0,3.α6.lb,rqd ; 15.φ ; 200 mm);
α1 idem as for anchorage length;
α2 idem as for anchorage length;
α3 idem as for anchorage length, but with one difference:
∑Ast,min = the area of the transverse reinforcement which has

6-21
 always to be provided, is now equal to 1,0.As.(σsd/fyd),
with:
As = area of one lapped bar.
α5 idem as for anchorage length;
α6 = (ρ1/25)0,5 with 1,0 ≤ α6 ≤ 1,5 and with ρ1 = percentage of reinforcement
lapped within 0,65.l0 from the centre of the lap length considered: see figure 6.4.3-
2. Table 6.4.3-1 presents some values for α6.

Figure 6.4.3-2
Percentage of lapped bars in the neighbourhood of one lap
(figure 8.8 in EN 1992-1-1:2004)

Table 6.4.3-1
Values of the coefficient α6 for the calculation of the lap length
(table 8.3 in EN 1992-1-1:2004)
Percentage of lapped bars in the neighbourhood of < 33 % 50 % >
one laps (see figure 6.4.3-2) 25 % 50 %
α6 1 1,15 1,4 1,5
Intermediate values may be determined by interpolation

6.4.3.3 Transverse reinforcement in the lap zone: bars in tension

Transverse reinforcement is required in the lap zone to resist transverse tension forces.
The following recommendations should be applied:
- where the diameter of the lapped bar φ < 20 mm, or the percentage of lapped bars
is less than 25 %, then any transverse reinforcement or links necessary for other
reasons (context of stirrups as shear reinforcement) may be assumed sufficient to
resist to the transverse tensile forces along the lap joint;
- where the diameter of the lapped bar φ ≥ 20 mm, the transverse reinforcement
should have an area ∑Ast (sum of all legs parallel to the layer of the

6-22
 reinforcement with the lap) not less than the area As of one lapped bar: ∑Ast ≥ As.
The transverse bars should be placed:
- perpendicular to the direction of the lapped reinforcement;
- between the lapped bars and the concrete surface;
- concentrated at the ends of the lap, as shown in figure 6.4.3-3 (a);
- if more than 50 % of the reinforcement is lapped at one point and the distance
between adjacent laps is ≤ 10.φ, transverse reinforcement should be formed by
links or U bars anchored into the body of the section.

6.4.3.4 Transverse reinforcement in the lap zone: bars in compression

With a lap joint loaded in compression, there is a risk that a part of the load will be
transferred to the concrete by the end of the bar, which may lead to the splitting of the
concrete. That is the reason why, in addition to the rules for laps in tension, one bar of
the transverse reinforcement should be placed outside each end of the lap length and
within 4.φ of the ends of the lap length: see figure 6.4.3-3 (b).

Figure 6.4.3-3
Arrangement of transverse reinforcement along a lap joint
(figure 8.9 in EN 1992-1-1:2004)

6.4.3.5 Note: links may be used as transverse reinforcement along lap joints
It is already mentioned in paragraph 6.4.3.3 that in certain cases, the existing
reinforcement (parts of links) is sufficient to resist the transverse tensile forces along a
lapped joint.
Figure 6.4.3-4 (a) shows main reinforcement bars in overlap in the horizontal plane; the
horizontal parts of the links (which are present anyway to assure resistance to shear –

6-23
see chapter 7) can be taken into account in the calculation of transverse reinforcement
along the lap joint.
Attention: figure 6.4.3-4 (a) shows that the horizontal leg of the link may be designed
for only one lap. When the main reinforcement bars are in overlap in the vertical plane,
the transverse tensile forces have to be added (figure 6.4.3-4 (b)): the vertical legs of the
link have to resist the total force ∑Ns of the bars in overlap.

Figure 6.4.3-4
The legs of links can be used for the design of the transverse reinforcement along
lapped joints; (a) main reinforcement bars in overlap in the horizontal plane; (b)
main reinforcement bars in overlap in the vertical plane

6.4.3.6 Laps for welded mesh fabrics made of ribbed wires

See EN 1992-1-1:2004; 8.7.5

6.5 Anchorage of and lapping large diameter bars (φ > 32 mm)

The loads that are transmitted may be large; transverse tension and splitting forces are
higher. Additional prescriptions are available for the transverse reinforcement, in
particular for the anchorages (where mechanical devices are recommended). In general,
lap joints are not used with large diameter bars; mechanical connectors should be used.
See EN 1992-1-1:2004; 8.8

6.6 Anchorage of and lapping bundles of bars

See EN 1992-1-1:2004; 8.9

6-24