Ii' CT{APTER 8

ii

iii..
:;l

:1,
EXTERNAL WAI,L COI\STRUCTION
tili

i:.

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itr'.:r

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i:'.

,al
ill,lt
.',, 8.1-. General
:.t'; .
':-a;t.,

i;iu.. A building envelope serves the functions of weather and pollution

.!l_,

i:iir,, exclusion, thermal and sound insulation. It also provides adequate

irir;, strength, stability, durability, flre resistance, aesthetics appeal, etc.
1,ii. (Figure 8.1).
i:'::':t:
The external walls of traditional buildings are mainly made of masonry
il
,::t;i.l'
llli,ii
i:':t1',:1,,' l^- *^:^C^-^^A rIaL ^11-- C.^:^L^A *^^A^-
'ri'",
i,-
^^A
andlor reinforced ^^^^--^+^:
concrete. They are usually
J
with cement
finished ---l+L ^^+ render

uir', and painted or finished with various cladding materials.

ii'rl,'," Cladding materials ranged from small tiles/mosaics fixed to the
substrate by adhesion, to lar8_e metal/stor: panels by ancTr-rt-. methods.
ifl".
They form the covering or dressing for the substrate/wall behind them"
ilii
$ill,,, Tiles of various modular sizes are either hand-laid or incorporated into
i the surface during the prefabricating process. Details on the design and
flIi.
iililfiirit'' , , I . . rir rrtl n tt1 -- I---^.J
fl['[,. construction of tiling works are given in t1]. The use of tiles based on
!ri- adhesives, e.g. ceramic tiles and mosaics on external walls of^ tall buildings
+iflflE.. < <a a .r r.

l#'6us lost its popularity due to cases of adhesive failures. The main causes
ffi for
i,?.i.::tilrrll,/r

ttrt'tita;:,:a
,., rr 11. /\,.1 rr ,1l r^r
the falling of tiles are as follows [2]:
l'

r , . Deformation of the adhesive (or mortar) onto which the tiles have
liirrii,l

ri,rriililiiri

wl... 1been 1laid due

il1.lirilrrr 1 , 1
to shrinkage etc.
,

ffi' o Differential movements between the tile, adhesive and the immediate
ai.:r.: t.j.tr
i:,

i
U,rl
'.t",.:
substrates, due to heat, moisture or other effects.
ii,,ffiI' o The strength of the original rendering (substrate) is inadequate.
[r' e Structural movements, vibrations or settlement problems.
o
i* Irnproper surface preparation such as inadequate cleaning, no
iii', provision of proper keys.
iii'i,,:
,'..;::
. aa-,
JJJ
1:1,r,,i11

:irli,,,l;r,
i",'#,,i,
ii!;:i:,,'.
i;liiiii-:

Iirl!r: ,'
ilili i,:
334 Construction kchnolo1y "for Tall Buildings

o Improper design and selection of materials.

o Improper sequence of work"
With the advancement of prefabrication,Iarge panel curtain walls have
become popular especially for tall commercial buildings. A curtain wall
may be defined as a thin wall, supported by the strucfural steel or concrete
frame of the building, independent of the wall below, and is designed to
envelop the building and act as a barrier to elements of nature.

Thermal insulation Weather exclusion

&t't Sound insulation

Provide adequate
strength, durability,
water-tightness,
air-tightness and
fire resistance

Provide access
and egress

Figure 8.tr. Functions of the building envelope.

 External Wall Construction 335

Consideratibns to be given to the design,

construction and maintenance
of external walls include:
Yisual
o Panel shape and size.
o Joint locations, joint sizes.
o Daylighting, nightlighting.
o Blinds, shades.
o Materials, colours, finishes.
' Integration with interior design, e.g. cabling behind
partitions.
Intesritv
o Air and water tightness
- fatigue., drainage, indoor air
sealing qualify.
o Loading static, dynamic,
r -
Movements load, thermal, moisfure.
o Exceptional -loads blast, intrusion, impact.
3 Fire resistance, -reaction, spread vertically and horizon tally.
-
o Heat transfer.
o Lighring.
' sound transmission noise from street, next room.
o Ventilation. -
o Moisfure rainwater, humidity, condensation, degradation,
-
growth
mould

Buildabiliqt
o Tolerance.
o Pre-assembly stick, unitised, panelised.
o Qualify -
QA, factory work, site work.
-
Maintenance
o Access cleanirg, inspection, repair, repracement.
t - component
Life cycle rife, inspection cycle, repair
-
o Servic,eability
cycle.
cleaning, repairability, replaceability.
-
. Masonry Brickwall
common Upes of external walls for residential buildings are
brickwalls, cast in situ reinforced concrete (RC) walls and
336 Construction Technology,for Tall Buildings

precast concrete walls. Among the three, rnasonry brickwalls

ate most
inferior in terms of water-tightness and air-tightness. In a survey of
10,000 private residential units conducted by tscA in 2003, water
seepage through external walls was identifled as a common defect
faced by homeowners. The use of single layer brickwall was
found

to be the most common cause and with 90% of the water seepage

occulred through cracks in the plastered brickwalls.

Water seepage usually occurs through srasks within and
between

bricks. Another common area of weakness is at the interface

between
of which due to the
bricks and other materials/elements e.g. concrete,
induces
significant difference in their moisture and thermal behaviors,
differential moisfure and thermal movements which lead to cracks' The
units to be laid
small modul ar sLZe of each brick requires that many brick
of joints. The
together onsite to form a wall, resulting in a large number
quality of an external brickwall is hence highly workmanship dependent'
This is particularly true for single layer brickwalls, which are usually
rendered, and finished with an external plastering and skim coat to

enhance water-tightness and air-tightness [3].

To stiffen the joints against stresses induced by differential thermal
and moisture movements, as well as vibration and
other loadings, mesh
reinforcement should be provided at every 4th course
of brickwork' A
layer of mesh reinforcement should also be provided
to minlmrze cracks

E interfaces between brick and RC elements

il around door and window frames
E around steel lintels
E around openings for electrical services
penetration by M&E services is another weak point for water-tightness
and air-tightness. Services that penetrate the external walls
should be
grout'
housed in trunking boxes and the gaps sealed with non-shrink

8.3. Cast in sitw RC \ilalls

Cast in situ reinforced concrete (RC) walls ate constructed

as

described in section 7 .g.3. RC walls when compared

with masonry
 ,, External Wall Construction 337

brickwalls perfonns better in terms of water-tightness and air-

tightness. This is due to the nature of the material, construction
method, as well as the comparatively lower number of joints. The
weak points are usually at joints and interfaces. Waterstops should
be provided when joining one RC member to another. In addition, one
should:
o Roughen the surface of the poured concrete before it is fully set
using tools e.g. wire brush
e Remove laitance at the joint surface
o Rectifii honeycombed areas with pressure grouting using approved
materials
o Apply a thin slury coat of bonding agent at the joint surface.
Tie holes after the wall formwork is stripped, shall be adequately
sealed with non-shrink grout. The same applies to al| holes and
penetrations t3]" It is common to finish a cast in situ RC walls with
an external plastering and skim coat, consisting:

rendering coats
E An undercoat (scratched)
r A second coat
E A finishing coat

8.4. Precast Concrete Fanel

This is a common form of precast cladding and is used for both

loadbe arrng and non-loadbearirrg pu{poses. The main advantages of
using precast as opposed to in situ cladding are (a) speed of erection,
(b) freedom from shuttering on site and (c) better quality. Cranes
are used to hoist the concrete panels into position and bolted andlar
welded onto anchorages (Figure 8.2, see also Section 7.5). Figure 8.3
shows the various types of precast concrete panel for external walls of
a typical residential building.
Although dimensional inaccuracies in manufacturing are small
(t3 mm), those arising during assembly due to the deviations in the
frame and erection deviations on the panels (possibly +25 mm) and
338 Construction Technology for Tall Buildings

movement deviations (usually in the order of 1 mm per 3 m) necessitate

the allowance of tolerance in the method of fixing and in the clearance
between the panels and the structure. This is particularly important
for
tall buildings where these deviations are repeated on each story and the

accumulation can become significant at higher stories.

walls"
Figure g.2. The installation of precast concrete panels as external

s\i-s
tliq

ffiwffi{:HHBXW
ri:##.:*$$H
i s- :; : *a.Erel
ffisu,,ffieffi
panel'
Figure 8.3. Different types of precastlprefabricated fagade
 , External Wall Construction 339

8.4.tr". Glqss Reinforced polyester (GRp)

Sometimes referred as FRP (fibre reinforced polyester), this

is
a composite material with resin and glass fibre treatments. It
is
characterised by its high strength, lightweight, and low modulus of
elasticy. GRP exhibits good colrosion and weather resistance
making
it suitable for external use (Figure B.a@\. Gen erally, a panel is
flxed rigidly to one length while the other attachment points allow
movements to occur. There must also be tolerance and provisions
for the fixings to move to accommodate any inaccuracies during the
assembly.

8.4.2. Glass Reinforced Concrete (GRC)

This is a composite material consisting of ordinary Portland cement,

silica
sand and water mixed with alkali-resistant glass fibres. The inclusion
of
glass flbres in the mix increases the compressive and tensile
strengths as
well as durability. The composite is non-combustible, with low thermal
and moisture movements and has a higher strength to weight ratio
(Figure
B'4(b)). Thinner panels are hence possible with smaller concrete covers
compared with nornal reinforced concrete. Fixing of GRC panels
using
angle cleats and dowels are similar to those used for precast concrete
panels. Allowance for movement is imperative as GRC panels
exhibit
movements approximately double those of precast concrete. It is therefore
usual to find that panels are supported at the base and restrained at
the

F'igure 8.4(a). The use of GRp for external cladding.

340 Construction kchnology for Tall Buildings

panel (left) and the use of GRC for external

Figure g.4(b). various types of GRC cladding
cladding (middle and right)'

fristionless washers or
top by slotting them into oversized holes with
neoprene bearing Pads.

E.5. Curtain Walling

of buildings composed
curtain walls are non-loadbearing external walls
its dead weight and wind
of repetitive factory assembled elements, with
through anchorage points'
loading transferred to the structural frame
common materials for curtain walling of
talI commercial buildings
glass.
include natural stone, metal sheeting and
development of curtain
colomban 14) reviewed the history of the
walling by classifying it into three generations'
1

8.5.L . First Generution (1500-1960) ::

mullions to which horizontal

Generally based on the fixing of vertical
are attached as shown in
rails or transoms, frames and insulated panels
transoms or more commonly
Figure g.5. This system with mullions and
g.5.4) has been found to have the
called the stick system (Section
following limitations :
of
It involves mainly in situ works which requires high standard
workmanshiP and qualitY control'
due to temperature,
It provides insuff,cient allowance for movements
(see Figure 8'6)'
moisture, creep and differential settlement
342 Construction Tbchnology.for Tall Buildings

Water resistance relies solely on gaskets and sealants.

Lack of floor-to-floor flashing which makes it almost impossible
to locate q leak caused by water entry at mullion sleeves (see
Figure 8.7).

F igure 8.7 . Moisture movements from floor to floor without flashing (courtesy:
Permasteelisa).

Air barrier
Water barrier

Equalized Pressure
Pi = lnside Pressure Chamber

Figure 8.8. Pressure equalisation system (courtesy: Permasteelisa).

 External Wall Construction 343

8.5.2. Second Generotion (Igd|-IgSL)

The second generation is characterised by:

(a) pressure equalisation system which no longer relies totally on

the closure of all holes but rathq on the equalising pressure in
the cavity between external and internal skin. The principle of
pressure equalisation system is through eliminating"'the pressure
difference.at the level of the external joint as shown in Figure 8.8.
The external wall is not sealed to create an inner chamb er thathas
equal pres:sure as the outside. The inner wall is sealed to prevent
both air and water penetration. Thus the concept employs:

o A rainscreen* to stop the initial flow of water.

o An inner chamber where the pressure is similar or equal to the
outside.
. An inner seal.

Water that enters the chamber being heavier than air will fall and
exit the chamber through weep holes. Positive drain age should be
designed to control the water within the confines of each horizontal
atea.
(b) panel or unitised system (see Figure 8.9 and Section 8.5.5) which
is completely finished at the factory with consistent quality
control.
(c) water barrier between floors (see Figure 8.10).

8.5.3. Third Generution (1950+)

The third generation is characterised by an improvement of the techniques

and by diversification of their use. The wide use of structural sealants and
adhesives was observed especially on gla zed curtain walls where glass is
bonded to the frame.

*A
rainscreen is the outer skin or surface of a wall or wall element the partthat is
-
exposed to the weather. The rainscreen principle prescribes how penetration of this screen
by rainwater may be prevented. Rainscreens contrast directly wiifr face-sealed systems in
that they are constructed with open joints instead. The rainscreen design assumes that the
joints admit water.
 V/ith the escalating energy cost in recent years, more fagades with
active walls designed and fitted with devices such as photocells, fluids,
fans, exhausts, etc. to accommodate changes in thermal, air quality,
lighting, etc. have emerged (Figure 8.11).

Solar fins on fagades

Figure 8.1tr. Fagade equipped with ,.ll'orc to accommodate changes in heat, light etc.

8.5.4. Stick System

Stick curtain walling system is an on-site operation with vertical

mullions attached to the anchors followed by installations of
hortzontal transoms (Figure 8.5). The horizontal and vertical framing
members (sticks) arg usually extruded anodized aluminium frames cut
to length and machined in the factory delivered and assembled on
site. Vertical mullions are firstly erected by connecting to the anchors,
which were embedded either in the beam; slab or column during their
construction. This is then followed by horizontal transoffiS, which ate
346 Construction Technology for Tall Buildings

fixed in-between mullions. Mullions are fypically spaced between 1.0

and 1.8 metres centre. The framework is then fitted with infill units
which could comprise of a mixture of fixed and openable spandrel
panels, and mixture of materials including metal, glazing and natural
stones" These units are fypically sealed with gaskets and retained
with a pressure plate. The sequence of construction of a stick system
curtain walling may follow one or a combination of the methods
shown in Figure 8.12.

Mullions installed then transoms

(Method 1)

Mullions and transoms installed sequentially

(Method 2)

GaA;iiiA pnes insta led then inte rmed ate transoms

t i

(Method 3)

Figure 8.L2. Sequence of construction of stick system.

 External Watt Construction 347
,,

system is as follows:
The installation procedure of a typical stick

(1) Set out main marking'

(2) Cast'anchoruge angle plate to floor'
(3) Fix fasteners.
(4) Install vertical mullion'
(5) Install horizontal transom'
(6) Install sPandrel Panel'
(1) Install window unit'
(B) Install f,re stop and insulation'
(9) Insert cover Plate'
(10) Install gypsum board or partition'
(t 1) Cleaning.
with the slab construction' A
The anchor age angle plates are cast-in
anchorage angle plate to provide
hook shape metal rod is welded to the
bonding with the concrete floor slab.
Figure 8.13(a) shows the fastening
detail at the end of a vertical mullion.
A ccr." piece is slid into the tubular
fastening detail at the mid-span of
a
mullion. Figure g.13(b) shows the ccT))
piece. Figure 8.14 shows the cross
vertical mullion welded to the
of vertical
sectionat view of a vertical mullion. After the installation
between them' Figure 8'15 shows
mullions, hor tzontal transoms are flxed
and horizontal transom meet'
the junction where vertical mullion
are loaded to position and
Spandrel paners and window units
Figure 8.16 shows the handling
screwed to the mullions and transoms.

welded
igure 8.13(b). A vertical mullion
Figure 8.13(a). Fastening of a vertical
F

to a "T" Plate.
mullion to the concrete slab'
348 Construction kchnolo4y for Tall Buildings

Figure 8.L4. Cross-section of a mullion. Figure 8.X.5. Jointing of a transom to

vertical mullion"

Figure 8.17. Gap between panels and

Figure 8.16. Positioning of a panel. slab filled with insulators.

and positioning of a panel for fixing using suction pads. Rockwool or

similar insulation materials are installed behind the panel and the gap
between the panel and the slab for thermal insulation and fire protection
(Figure 8.L7). The gap between the panel and the slab must be sealed as
part of fire protection to prevent f,re and smoke from spreading from one
floor to another.
 ,, External Wall Construction 349

Various fasteners can be used to catff for movements in various

directions caused by wind (x-axis), weight (z-axis), thermal/moisture
(y-axis), etc. Figure 8.18 shows a fastener allowing movement along the
x-axis"

Figure 8.tr-8. Allowance for rnovements using fasteners.

8.5.5. Uvtitised/Psrnelised System

A unitized curtain wall system made up of units which are

is
prefabricated off-site and set into place, interlocked together as
the fagade of a building. Each unit, fypically one floor tall by one
window wide, is completed off-site with all the structural components
and accessories, finished with the selected skin such as glass, metal
or stone. The units are then shipped to the construction site for site
installation. Mechanical handling is required to position, align and fix
units onto pre-positioned brackets attached to the concrete floor slab
or structural frame (Figure 8.19). With less site-sealed joints, this
system requires fewer site staff and reduces air and water leakages
resulting from poor installation.
A panelised curtain walling system is similar to unitized system
except that it comprises a large fabncated panel of bay width and storey
height" They are connected to the primary structural columns or to the
floor slabs close to the primary structure. The size and weight of panels is
limited by the practicalities of manufacture, handling, storage, transport
and erection.
350 Construction Technology -for Tall Buildings

Figure 8.L9. Brackets on beams and/or slab pre-assembled during their construction.

The installation procedure of a typtcat unitised system is as follows:

(1) A monorail system which is a small crate mounted on rails is

fixed along the beam or slab edge of a building (Figure 8.20(a)).
A typical monorail crane can usually cover up to 10 floors of
installation before it has to be re-sited.
(2) A crane is used to hoist up the curtain walling panels whish are
usually packaged in crates, to the respective loading dock.
(3) Other common methods of handling panels are the use of a gear
and cog track pulley system, manual crane, etc. (Figure 8.20(b)).
(4) Panels are then transferred to their respective locations by
monorails or other methods"
(5) The alignment is checked before installation"
(6) A panel is slid into its neighbour to ensure weather-tightness
(Figur e 8 .21).

8.6. Water Penetration

The action of rainwater on a building fagade depends on the rate of

rainfall, the effects of wind, the building's shape and size, the surface
 configuration, and the moisture storage capaclfy of the surface materials.
The action of rainwater on buildings with traditional fagades such as
cement rendering, masonry, etc. would be quite different from claddings
made up of highly impervious materials, e"g. glass, metal etc. In the
former case, rainwater will be absorbed, forming a film of saturation on

Unitised curtain wall

panelto floor height

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F igure 8.20(a). A typical monorail system.
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 U*ternal Wall Construction 353
,,

the wall surface. After the rain stops striking the wall, this fllm of water
starts to dissipate and the absorbed water evaporates. In the latter case,
as there is little or no absorption, a substanttalfilm of water flows across
the outer face. Depending on the rate of rainfall, the effects of wind, etc.,
this film of water under the combined effiects of gravity and wind action
will concentrate at places of irregularities such as joints (Figure 8.22).
Wind causes a Lateral migration of the water film, which concentrates the
downw ard flow along the lines of vertical protrusions and depressions
15-71. This explains the extensive staining problem found even on
relatively new fagades.

fl11
\-*.
'*-
\r
\

Figure 8.22. Concentration of rainwater flow onjoints.

The mechanism of water penetration through joints involves the effects

of kinetic ener1y, surface tension, gravity, pressure-assisted capillarity and
wind-induced air-pressure differentials. Anderson and Gill tB] describes
the mechanism as shown in F'igure B .23.
It has been observed long ago that to achieve weather-tightness by
attempting to maintain a completely unbroken impervious membrane at
the outer wall surface was difficult due to continual movements. Other
methods developed which have been shown to be successful include:
t! Internal drainage system/second ary defence system provides
within the wall itself a system of flashing and collection devices,
with ample drainage outlets to the outdoor face of the wall.
354 Construction Technology for Tall Buildings

o Pressure equalis ationhainscreen principle provides a ventilated

air
- in which pressures
outer wall surface, backed by drained spaces
are maintained equal to those outside the wall, with the indoor face
of the wall being sealed against the passage of air (Section 8.5.2).
The successful use of these methods depends on a clear understanding
of the action of wind driven rain, careful detailing and proper installation.
Ample weep holes or drainage slots, strategically located and properly
baffied are important (Figure 8.24).

ffi -.. -@ ljiHEtl

'eq,-oY
"@
ffi

ffi
A" Gravity B. Kinetic energy
,," 1:

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l?l
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i

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\',.:,1.:i.

,r
rr,i

,1ii
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lui
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,,,r..i: iiia

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C" Surface Tension D. Capillary Action i'.,:1

. . ,i.,:
r,ii
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. ,l.r!
'-iit
t ,.ll.ii,l l"i
ii
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ffi
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*+ ,,,,i1il
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Figure 8.23(a). Mechanism of water penetration. ,

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'ffi
356 Construction Technology for Tall Buildings

ff'H
for internal drainage'
Figure g.24. Weep holes strategically located

8.7. .troints
sladding panels: (a) fllled
There are basically three jointing methods for
joint, (b) gasket joint and (c) drained joint" The first two methods
are
joint material functions both as
classifi.ed as one-stage joints where the
other hand, are classifled
a rain and a* barrier. Drained joints, oil the
barriers are separated (see
as two-st agejoints where the rain and air
g.z5 shows the details of a filled joint, gasket
Figure 7.19(c)). Figure
joint and drained joint.
joint, the use of sealant to
In a singre-stage joint, in particular a filled
is the simplest way ofjointing
completely seal off the joint is required. It
and the sealant is usualiy applied flushed
with the surface of the element'
To reduce the effect of direct exposure to
ultraviolet radiation, such joints
providing shade.
may be set back from the face of the element,
:".lt,h.r:i

lLn
.,,t
lrriiii:rt

and rely on pressure

Gaskets, unlike sealants, afe not adhesive
., 'j.\1
,.:;:rit
r"' ':,iii

seal' It is necessary
,

r 'rr:'il:

compressing each other to provide a weathertight

-,.":iJIl

, .i.ilii

for the material to be compressible, impermeable to

r.:.:l\if

moisture, with ,.1',,'..'j..ii

l: ,l:ii.j.lli

:i,itt
;..:,"'ir.i.l..

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 External Wall Construction 357

:::',,:

'.i,
Drawing Not To Scale
rl:

,i.

ilG

(iD

CONTINUITY OF INSULATION

AIRTIGHT BARRIER

FLASHING

(iii)

Figure 8.25. Details of a (i) filled joint, (ii) gasket joint and (iii) drained joint"

high resistance to environmental agents, and high elastic recovery. It is

important to ensure dimensional acc;'Jracy during manufacture and to
obtain the required pressure in-service to ensure effectiveness. Slight
deformation of the panel or unevenness in the joint surface can result in
complete failure of the joint.
356 Construction Technology.for Tall Buildings

ff'J
for internal drainage'
Figure g.24. Weep holes strategically located

8.7. .Ioints
panels: (a) fllled
There are basically three jointing methods for cladding
joint, (b) gasket joint and (c) drained joint. The flrst two methods
are
joint material functions both as
classified as one-st agejoints where the
other hand, are classifled
a rain and aff barrier. Drained joints, on the
barriers are separated (see
as two-stagejoints where the rain and au
g.z5 shows the details of a filled joint, gasket
Figure 7.19(c)). Figure
joint and drained joint.
joint, the use of sealant to
In a single-stage joint, in particular a filled
the simplest way ofjointing
completely seal off the joint is required. It is
and the sealant is usualiy applied flushed
with the surface of the element"
To reduce the effect of direct exposure to
ultraviolet radiation, such joints
providing shade.
rnaybe set back from the face of the element,
and rely on pressure
Gaskets, unlike sealants, are not adhesive
seal. It is neoessary
compressing each other to provide a weathertight
for the material to be compressible, impermeable to
moisture, with
358 Construction Technology for Tall Buildings

A drained joint uses neoprene baffle to divide it into two sections,

with the outer section drainin g away most of the water which enters, and
the air barrier in the inner section providing a second line of defence to
a{ry water by-passing the baffie in the first section. The incorporation
of a wind and air barrier behind the baffie acts to reduce wind pressure
difference across a cladding. The wind pressure differential, which
provides the force required to drive water irrto the panel, is the primary
rnechanism causing water penetration. Hence, the incorporation of an air
chamber whish acts as a pressure equalisation compartment in drained
joints is important in ensuring weathertightness. In addition, the position
of the air barrier away from the face of the joint ensures that it is shielded
from the effects of sunlight. Another advantage of multiple-stage joints
is that it does not require a close dependence on tolerance limits, and the
risk of tross of adhesion of the jointing material is less critical.

E.E. Wixnd Fressures

A significant characteristic of modern building design is lighter cladding,

more flexible structural framing and unusual shape of the building in
order to fulfll the architectural and aesthetic requirements. These features
produce an increased vulnerabilify to large deflection and stresses in the
building frame, as a result glass and cladding become prone to wind
damage.
When adjusted for building shape and height, the wind pressure values
may result in local pressures or suctions on the building two to three times
greater. Wind gusts lasting 3 to 5 seconds can exert forces on a building
in excess of 2500 Pa. Wind loading may be modified by nearby strucfures
which can produce benefl cral, shielding or adverse increase in loading"
Overestimating lead in uneconomical design; underestimating may result
in cladding or window failures.
In the case of a vented cavtty, the variation in wind pressure along
the four walls would cause air to flow inside the cavity as it moves from
a region of positive pressure to one of negative pressure. This in turn
influences how the wall performs under adverse weather conditions.
Figure 8.26(a) shows the plan view of the top floor of an office building.
The dashed line represents the vented cladding, the solid one represents
 External Wall Construction 359

160 km/h Wind

w
160 km/h W ind

+1 000

O
C)
O
N
I

il 'l
t;

-700

(a) CONTINUOUS CAVITY (b) coM PARTMENTALTZED CAVTTY

Figure 8.26. Cavity air flow, pressures and compartmentation [9].

the wall's air barrier. It is assumed that the fan pressurisation account
for the 100 Pa internaLpressure, while the 160 km/h wind is responsible
for the 1000 Pa positive pressure on the windward side. V/ith continuous
cavity all around the building and openings uniformly distributed in all
four walls, -300 Pa negative pressure is assumed. The figure shows that
where the wind is relatively free to circulate within awall cavity, much of
the wind pressure is resisted by the cladding and not by the air barcier. The
flow of air can cause rainwater to circulate and canalso damage insulation
etc. t9l.
This flow of air can be controlled by dividing the cavity into compart-
ments both horizontally and vertically as shown in Figure 8.26(b). The
air pressure acting on the cladding is the same as that acting on the air
barrier, thus eliminating the pressure difference across the cladding. Rain
cannot enter the cavity transported by the air as in non-compartmentalised
cavities.

R.eflerences

tl] "Code of Practice for Wall and Floor Tiling", Singapore Productivity and
Standard Board, 1998