Engineering - Wikipedia PDF

11/3/2019 Engineering - Wikipedia
Engineering
Engineering is the use of scientific principles to design and build
machines, structures, and other items, including bridges, tunnels, roads,
vehicles, and buildings.[1] The discipline of engineering encompasses a
broad range of more specialized fields of engineering, each with a more
specific emphasis on particular areas of applied mathematics, applied
science, and types of application. See glossary of engineering.
The term engineering is derived from the Latin ingenium, meaning

"cleverness" and ingeniare, meaning "to contrive, devise".[2]
The InSight lander with solar panels
deployed in a cleanroom
Contents
Definition
History
Ancient era
Middle Ages
Modern era
Main branches of engineering
Chemical engineering
Civil engineering
Electrical engineering
Mechanical engineering
The steam engine, the major driver in the
Software engineering
Industrial Revolution, underscores the
Interdisciplinary engineering
importance of engineering in modern
Other branches of engineering history. This beam engine is on display in
Aerospace engineering the Technical University of Madrid.
Marine engineering
Practice
Methodology
Problem solving
Computer use
Social context
Code of ethics
Relationships with other disciplines
Science
Medicine and biology
Art
Business
Other fields
See also
References
Further reading
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering 1/21
Definition
The American Engineers' Council for Professional Development (ECPD, the predecessor of ABET)[3] has defined
"engineering" as:
The creative application of scientific principles to design or develop structures, machines, apparatus, or
manufacturing processes, or works utilizing them singly or in combination; or to construct or operate the
same with full cognizance of their design; or to forecast their behavior under specific operating conditions;
all as respects an intended function, economics of operation and safety to life and property.[4][5]
History
Engineering has existed since ancient times, when humans devised inventions
such as the wedge, lever, wheel and pulley, etc.
The term engineering is derived from the word engineer, which itself dates
back to 1390 when an engine'er (literally, one who builds or operates a siege
engine) referred to "a constructor of military engines."[6] In this context, now
obsolete, an "engine" referred to a military machine, i.e., a mechanical
contraption used in war (for example, a catapult). Notable examples of the
obsolete usage which have survived to the present day are military engineering
corps, e.g., the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Relief map of the Citadel of Lille,
designed in 1668 by Vauban, the
The word "engine" itself is of even older origin, ultimately deriving from the foremost military engineer of his
Latin ingenium (c. 1250), meaning "innate quality, especially mental power, age.
hence a clever invention."[7]
Later, as the design of civilian structures, such as bridges and buildings, matured as a technical discipline, the term civil
engineering[5] entered the lexicon as a way to distinguish between those specializing in the construction of such non-
military projects and those involved in the discipline of military engineering.
Ancient era
The pyramids in ancient Egypt, ziggurats of Mesopotamia, the Acropolis and
Parthenon in Greece, the Roman aqueducts, Via Appia and Colosseum,
Teotihuacán, and the Brihadeeswarar Temple of Thanjavur, among many
others, stand as a testament to the ingenuity and skill of ancient civil and
military engineers. Other monuments, no longer standing, such as the Hanging
The Ancient Romans built
Gardens of Babylon and the Pharos of Alexandria, were important engineering
aqueducts to bring a steady supply
achievements of their time and were considered among the Seven Wonders of of clean and fresh water to cities
the Ancient World. and towns in the empire.
The six classic simple machines were known in the ancient Near East. The
wedge and the inclined plane (ramp) were known since prehistoric times.[8] The wheel, along with the wheel and axle
mechanism, was invented in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) during the 5th millennium BC.[9] The lever mechanism first
appeared around 5,000 years ago in the Near East, where it was used in a simple balance scale,[10] and to move large
objects in ancient Egyptian technology.[11] The lever was also used in the shadoof water-lifting device, the first crane
machine, which appeared in Mesopotamia circa 3000 BC,[10] and then in ancient Egyptian technology circa 2000 BC.[12]
The earliest evidence of pulleys date back to Mesopotamia in the early 2nd millennium BC,[13] and ancient Egypt during
the Twelfth Dynasty (1991-1802 BC).[14] The screw, the last of the simple machines to be invented,[15] first appeared in
Mesopotamia during the Neo-Assyrian period (911-609) BC.[16] The Egyptian pyramids were built using three of the six
simple machines, the inclined plane, the wedge, and the lever, to create structures like the Great Pyramid of Giza.[17]
The earliest civil engineer known by name is Imhotep.[5] As one of the officials of the Pharaoh, Djosèr, he probably
designed and supervised the construction of the Pyramid of Djoser (the Step Pyramid) at Saqqara in Egypt around 2630–
2611 BC.[18] The earliest practical water-powered machines, the water wheel and watermill, first appeared in the Persian
Empire, in what are now Iraq and Iran, by the early 4th century BC.[19]
Ancient Greece developed machines in both civilian and military domains. The Antikythera mechanism, an early known
mechanical analog computer,[20][21] and the mechanical inventions of Archimedes, are examples of Greek mechanical
engineering. Some of Archimedes' inventions as well as the Antikythera mechanism required sophisticated knowledge of
differential gearing or epicyclic gearing, two key principles in machine theory that helped design the gear trains of the
Industrial Revolution, and are still widely used today in diverse fields such as robotics and automotive engineering.[22]
Ancient Chinese, Greek, Roman and Hunnic armies employed military machines and inventions such as artillery which
was developed by the Greeks around the 4th century BC,[23] the trireme, the ballista and the catapult. In the Middle Ages,
the trebuchet was developed.
Middle Ages
The earliest practical wind-powered machines, the windmill and wind pump, first appeared in the Muslim world during
the Islamic Golden Age, in what are now Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan, by the 9th century AD.[24][25][26][27] The earliest
practical steam-powered machine was a steam jack driven by a steam turbine, described in 1551 by Taqi al-Din
Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf in Ottoman Egypt.[28][29]
The cotton gin was invented in India by the 6th century AD,[30] and the spinning wheel was invented in the Islamic world
by the early 11th century,[31] both of which were fundamental to the growth of the cotton industry. The spinning wheel was
also a precursor to the spinning jenny, which was a key development during the early Industrial Revolution in the 18th
century.[32] The crankshaft and camshaft were invented by Al-Jazari in Northern Mesopotamia circa 1206,[33][34][35] and
they later became central to modern machinery such as the steam engine, internal combustion engine and automatic
controls.[36]
The earliest programmable machines were developed in the Muslim world. A music sequencer, a programmable musical
instrument, was the earliest type of programmable machine. The first music sequencer was an automated flute player
invented by the Banu Musa brothers, described in their Book of Ingenious Devices, in the 9th century.[37][38] In 1206, Al-
Jazari invented programmable automata/robots. He described four automaton musicians, including drummers operated
by a programmable drum machine, where they could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns.[39]
The castle clock, a hydropowered mechanical astronomical clock invented by Al-Jazari, was the first programmable analog
computer.[40][41][42]
Before the development of modern engineering, mathematics was used by artisans and craftsmen, such as millwrights,
clockmakers, instrument makers and surveyors. Aside from these professions, universities were not believed to have had
much practical significance to technology.[43]:32
A standard reference for the state of mechanical arts during the Renaissance is given in
the mining engineering treatise De re metallica (1556), which also contains sections on
geology, mining and chemistry. De re metallica was the standard chemistry reference
for the next 180 years.[43]
Modern era
The science of classical mechanics,
sometimes called Newtonian
mechanics, formed the scientific basis
of much of modern engineering.[43]
With the rise of engineering as a
profession in the 18th century, the
term became more narrowly applied
to fields in which mathematics and
A water-powered mine hoist
science were applied to these ends. used for raising ore, ca.
Similarly, in addition to military and 1556
The application of the steam engine
civil engineering, the fields then
allowed coke to be substituted for
charcoal in iron making, lowering the cost known as the mechanic arts became
of iron, which provided engineers with a incorporated into engineering.
new material for building bridges. This
bridge was made of cast iron, which was Canal building was an important engineering work during the early
soon displaced by less brittle wrought iron phases of the Industrial Revolution.[44]
as a structural material
John Smeaton was the first self-proclaimed civil engineer and is often
regarded as the "father" of civil engineering. He was an English civil
engineer responsible for the design of bridges, canals, harbours, and lighthouses. He was also a capable mechanical
engineer and an eminent physicist. Using a model water wheel, Smeaton conducted experiments for seven years,
determining ways to increase efficiency.[45]:127 Smeaton introduced iron axles and gears to water wheels.[43]:69 Smeaton
also made mechanical improvements to the Newcomen steam engine. Smeaton designed the third Eddystone Lighthouse
(1755–59) where he pioneered the use of 'hydraulic lime' (a form of mortar which will set under water) and developed a
technique involving dovetailed blocks of granite in the building of the lighthouse. He is important in the history,
rediscovery of, and development of modern cement, because he identified the compositional requirements needed to
obtain "hydraulicity" in lime; work which led ultimately to the invention of Portland cement.
Applied science lead to the development of the steam engine. The sequence of events began with the invention the
barometer and the measurement of atmospheric pressure by Evangelista Torricelli in 1643, demonstration of the force of
atmospheric pressure by Otto von Guericke using the Magdeburg hemispheres in 1656, laboratory experiments by Denis
Papin, who built experimental model steam engines and demonstrated the use of a piston, which he published in 1707.
Edward Somerset, 2nd Marquess of Worcester published a book of 100 inventions containing a method for raising waters
similar to a coffee percolator. Samuel Morland, a mathematician and inventor who worked on pumps, left notes at the
Vauxhall Ordinance Office on a steam pump design that Thomas Savery read. In 1698 Savery built a steam pump called
“The Miner’s Friend.” It employed both vacuum and pressure.[46] Iron merchant Thomas Newcomen, who built the first
commercial piston steam engine in 1712, was not known to have any scientific training.[45]:32
The application of steam powered cast iron blowing cylinders for providing pressurized air for blast furnaces lead to a
large increase in iron production in the late 18th century. The higher furnace temperatures made possible with steam
powered blast allowed for the use of more lime in blast furnaces, which enabled the transition from charcoal to coke.[47]
These innovations lowered the cost of iron, making horse railways and
iron bridges practical. The puddling process, patented by Henry Cort in
1784 produced large scale quantities of wrought iron. Hot blast, patented
by James Beaumont Neilson in 1828, greatly lowered the amount of fuel
needed to smelt iron. With the development of the high pressure steam
engine, the power to weight ratio of steam engines made practical
steamboats and locomotives possible.[48] New steel making processes,
such as the Bessemer process and the open hearth furnace, ushered in an
area of heavy engineering in the late 19th century.
Jumbo Jet
One of the most famous engineers of the mid 19th century was Isambard
Kingdom Brunel, who built railroads, dockyards and steamships.
The Industrial Revolution created a demand for machinery with metal parts, which led
to the development of several machine tools. Boring cast iron cylinders with precision
was not possible until John Wilkinson invented his boring machine, which is
considered the first machine tool.[49] Other machine tools included the screw cutting
lathe, milling machine, turret lathe and the metal planer. Precision machining
techniques were developed in the first half of the 19th century. These included the use
of gigs to guide the machining tool over the work and fixtures to hold the work in the
proper position. Machine tools and machining techniques capable of producing
interchangeable parts lead to large scale factory production by the late 19th century.[50]
The United States census of 1850 listed the occupation of "engineer" for the first time
with a count of 2,000.[51] There were fewer than 50 engineering graduates in the U.S.
before 1865. In 1870 there were a dozen U.S. mechanical engineering graduates, with Offshore platform, Gulf of
that number increasing to 43 per year in 1875. In 1890, there were 6,000 engineers in Mexico
civil, mining, mechanical and electrical.[52]
There was no chair of applied mechanism and applied mechanics at Cambridge until 1875, and no chair of engineering at
Oxford until 1907. Germany established technical universities earlier.[53]
The foundations of electrical engineering in the 1800s included the experiments of Alessandro Volta, Michael Faraday,
Georg Ohm and others and the invention of the electric telegraph in 1816 and the electric motor in 1872. The theoretical
work of James Maxwell (see: Maxwell's equations) and Heinrich Hertz in the late 19th century gave rise to the field of
electronics. The later inventions of the vacuum tube and the transistor further accelerated the development of electronics
to such an extent that electrical and electronics engineers currently outnumber their colleagues of any other engineering
specialty.[5] Chemical engineering developed in the late nineteenth century.[5] Industrial scale manufacturing demanded
new materials and new processes and by 1880 the need for large scale production of chemicals was such that a new
industry was created, dedicated to the development and large scale manufacturing of chemicals in new industrial plants.[5]
The role of the chemical engineer was the design of these chemical plants and processes.[5]
Aeronautical engineering deals with aircraft design process design while aerospace engineering is a more modern term
that expands the reach of the discipline by including spacecraft design. Its origins can be traced back to the aviation
pioneers around the start of the 20th century although the work of Sir George Cayley has recently been dated as being
from the last decade of the 18th century. Early knowledge of aeronautical engineering was largely empirical with some
concepts and skills imported from other branches of engineering.[54]
The first PhD in engineering (technically, applied science and

engineering) awarded in the United States went to Josiah Willard Gibbs
at Yale University in 1863; it was also the second PhD awarded in
science in the U.S.[55]
Only a decade after the successful flights by the Wright brothers, there
was extensive development of aeronautical engineering through
The solar furnace at Odeillo in the
development of military aircraft that were used in World War I. Pyrénées-Orientales in France can reach
Meanwhile, research to provide fundamental background science temperatures up to 3,500 °C (6,330 °F)
continued by combining theoretical physics with experiments.
Main branches of engineering

Engineering is a broad discipline which is often broken down into several
sub-disciplines. Although an engineer will usually be trained in a specific
discipline, he or she may become multi-disciplined through experience.
Engineering is often characterized as having four main
branches:[56][57][58] chemical engineering, civil engineering, electrical
engineering, and mechanical engineering.
Chemical engineering
Chemical engineering is the application of physics, chemistry, biology,
and engineering principles in order to carry out chemical processes on a Hoover Dam
commercial scale, such as the manufacture of commodity chemicals,

specialty chemicals, petroleum refining, microfabrication, fermentation,
and biomolecule production.
Civil engineering
Civil engineering is the design and construction of public and private works, such as infrastructure (airports, roads,
railways, water supply, and treatment etc.), bridges, tunnels, dams, and buildings.[59][60] Civil engineering is traditionally
broken into a number of sub-disciplines, including structural engineering, environmental engineering, and surveying. It is
traditionally considered to be separate from military engineering.[61]
Electrical engineering
Electrical engineering is the design, study, and manufacture of various electrical and electronic systems, such as Broadcast
engineering, electrical circuits, generators, motors, electromagnetic/electromechanical devices, electronic devices,
electronic circuits, optical fibers, optoelectronic devices, computer systems, telecommunications, instrumentation,
controls, and electronics.
Mechanical engineering
Mechanical engineering is the design and manufacture of physical or mechanical systems, such as power and energy
systems, aerospace/aircraft products, weapon systems, transportation products, engines, compressors, powertrains,
kinematic chains, vacuum technology, vibration isolation equipment, manufacturing, robotics, turbines, audio
equipments, and mechatronics.
Software engineering
Software engineering is the about the design, construction, validation and
maintenance of software systems. It is essential for building today's
transportation systems, financial systems, e-commerce systems, etc. It is the
engineering discipline behind the information revolution.
Electric motor
Interdisciplinary engineering
Interdisciplinary engineering draws from more than one of the principle
branches of the practice. Historically, naval engineering and mining engineering were major branches. Other engineering
fields are manufacturing engineering, acoustical engineering, corrosion engineering, instrumentation and control,
aerospace, automotive, computer, electronic, information engineering, petroleum, environmental, systems, audio,
software, architectural, agricultural, biosystems, biomedical,[62] geological, textile, industrial, materials,[63] and nuclear
engineering.[64] These and other branches of engineering are represented in the 36 licensed member institutions of the
UK Engineering Council.
New specialties sometimes combine with the traditional fields and form new branches – for example, Earth systems
engineering and management involves a wide range of subject areas including engineering studies, environmental science,
engineering ethics and philosophy of engineering.
Other branches of engineering
Aerospace engineering
Like the name suggests, aerospace engineering study, design, manufacture aircraft, satellites, rockets, helicopters, and so
on. It closely studies the pressure difference and aerodynamics of a vehicle to ensure safety and efficiency. Since most of
the studies are related to fluids, it is applied to any moving vehicles such as cars.
Marine engineering
Marine engineering is associated with anything on or near the ocean. Examples are, but not limited to, ships, submarines,
oil rigs, structure, watercraft propulsion, on-board design and development, plants, harbors, and so on. It requires a
combined knowledge in mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, civil engineering,and some programming abilities.
Practice
One who practices engineering is called an engineer, and those licensed to do so may have more formal designations such
as Professional Engineer, Chartered Engineer, Incorporated Engineer, Ingenieur, European Engineer, or Designated
Engineering Representative.
Methodology
In the engineering design process, engineers apply mathematics and sciences such as
physics to find novel solutions to problems or to improve existing solutions. More than
ever, engineers are now required to have a proficient knowledge of relevant sciences for
their design projects. As a result, many engineers continue to learn new material
throughout their career.
If multiple solutions exist, engineers weigh each design choice based on their merit and
choose the solution that best matches the requirements. The crucial and unique task of
the engineer is to identify, understand, and interpret the constraints on a design in
order to yield a successful result. It is generally insufficient to build a technically
successful product, rather, it must also meet further requirements.
Design of a turbine requires
Constraints may include available resources, physical, imaginative or technical collaboration of engineers
limitations, flexibility for future modifications and additions, and other factors, such as from many fields, as the
system involves
requirements for cost, safety, marketability, productivity, and serviceability. By
mechanical, electro-
understanding the constraints, engineers derive specifications for the limits within
magnetic and chemical
which a viable object or system may be produced and operated. processes. The blades,
rotor and stator as well as
the steam cycle all need to
Problem solving be carefully designed and
Engineers use their knowledge optimized.
of science, mathematics, logic,

economics, and appropriate
experience or tacit knowledge to find suitable solutions to a
problem. Creating an appropriate mathematical model of a
problem often allows them to analyze it (sometimes definitively),
A drawing for a booster engine for steam
locomotives. Engineering is applied to design, and to test potential solutions.[65]
with emphasis on function and the utilization of
mathematics and science. Usually, multiple reasonable solutions exist, so engineers must
evaluate the different design choices on their merits and choose the
solution that best meets their requirements. Genrich Altshuller,
after gathering statistics on a large number of patents, suggested that compromises are at the heart of "low-level"
engineering designs, while at a higher level the best design is one which eliminates the core contradiction causing the
problem.[66]
Engineers typically attempt to predict how well their designs will perform to their specifications prior to full-scale
production. They use, among other things: prototypes, scale models, simulations, destructive tests, nondestructive tests,
and stress tests. Testing ensures that products will perform as expected.[67]
Engineers take on the responsibility of producing designs that will perform as well as expected and will not cause
unintended harm to the public at large. Engineers typically include a factor of safety in their designs to reduce the risk of
unexpected failure.
The study of failed products is known as forensic engineering and can help the product designer in evaluating his or her
design in the light of real conditions. The discipline is of greatest value after disasters, such as bridge collapses, when
careful analysis is needed to establish the cause or causes of the failure.[68]
Computer use
As with all modern scientific and technological endeavors, computers and

software play an increasingly important role. As well as the typical business
application software there are a number of computer aided applications
(computer-aided technologies) specifically for engineering. Computers can be
used to generate models of fundamental physical processes, which can be
solved using numerical methods.
A computer simulation of high

velocity air flow around a Space
Shuttle orbiter during re-entry.
Solutions to the flow require
modelling of the combined effects of
fluid flow and the heat equations.
One of the most widely used design tools in the profession is

computer-aided design (CAD) software. It enables engineers to
create 3D models, 2D drawings, and schematics of their designs. Graphic representation of a minute fraction of
CAD together with digital mockup (DMU) and CAE software such the WWW, demonstrating hyperlinks
as finite element method analysis or analytic element method
allows engineers to create models of designs that can be analyzed
without having to make expensive and time-consuming physical prototypes.
These allow products and components to be checked for flaws; assess fit and assembly; study ergonomics; and to analyze
static and dynamic characteristics of systems such as stresses, temperatures, electromagnetic emissions, electrical
currents and voltages, digital logic levels, fluid flows, and kinematics. Access and distribution of all this information is
generally organized with the use of product data management software.[69]
There are also many tools to support specific engineering tasks such as computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) software to
generate CNC machining instructions; manufacturing process management software for production engineering; EDA for
printed circuit board (PCB) and circuit schematics for electronic engineers; MRO applications for maintenance
management; and Architecture, engineering and construction (AEC) software for civil engineering.
In recent years the use of computer software to aid the development of goods has collectively come to be known as product
lifecycle management (PLM).[70]
Social context
The engineering profession engages in a wide range of activities, from large collaboration at the societal level, and also
smaller individual projects. Almost all engineering projects are obligated to some sort of financing agency: a company, a
set of investors, or a government. The few types of engineering that are minimally constrained by such issues are pro bono
engineering and open-design engineering.
By its very nature engineering has interconnections with society, culture and human behavior. Every product or
construction used by modern society is influenced by engineering. The results of engineering activity influence changes to
the environment, society and economies, and its application brings with it a responsibility and public safety.
Engineering projects can be subject to controversy. Examples from different

engineering disciplines include the development of nuclear weapons, the Three
Gorges Dam, the design and use of sport utility vehicles and the extraction of oil.
In response, some western engineering companies have enacted serious corporate
and social responsibility policies.
Engineering is a key driver of innovation and human development. Sub-Saharan

Africa, in particular, has a very small engineering capacity which results in many
African nations being unable to develop crucial infrastructure without outside aid.
The attainment of many of the Millennium Development Goals requires the
achievement of sufficient engineering capacity to develop infrastructure and
sustainable technological development.[71]
All overseas development and

Robotic Kismet can produce a relief NGOs make considerable
range of facial expressions. use of engineers to apply
solutions in disaster and
development scenarios. A number
of charitable organizations aim to use engineering directly for the good of
mankind:
Engineers Without Borders

Engineers Against Poverty
Registered Engineers for Disaster Relief
Engineers for a Sustainable World
Engineering for Change Radar, GPS, lidar, ... are all combined to
Engineering Ministries International[72] provide proper navigation and obstacle
Engineering companies in many established economies are facing avoidance (vehicle developed for 2007
DARPA Urban Challenge)
significant challenges with regard to the number of professional engineers
being trained, compared with the number retiring. This problem is very
prominent in the UK where engineering has a poor image and low status.[73] There are many negative economic and
political issues that this can cause, as well as ethical issues.[74] It is widely agreed that the engineering profession faces an
"image crisis",[75] rather than it being fundamentally an unattractive career. Much work is needed to avoid huge problems
in the UK and other western economies.
Code of ethics
Many engineering societies have established codes of practice and codes of ethics to guide members and inform the public
at large. The National Society of Professional Engineers code of ethics states:
Engineering is an important and learned profession. As members of this profession, engineers are expected
to exhibit the highest standards of honesty and integrity. Engineering has a direct and vital impact on the
quality of life for all people. Accordingly, the services provided by engineers require honesty, impartiality,
fairness, and equity, and must be dedicated to the protection of the public health, safety, and welfare.
Engineers must perform under a standard of professional behavior that requires adherence to the highest
principles of ethical conduct.[76]
In Canada, many engineers wear the Iron Ring as a symbol and reminder of the obligations and ethics associated with
their profession.[77]
Relationships with other disciplines
Science
Scientists study the world as it is; engineers create the world that has never been.
— Theodore von Kármán[78][79][80]
There exists an overlap between the sciences and engineering practice;

in engineering, one applies science. Both areas of endeavor rely on
accurate observation of materials and phenomena. Both use
mathematics and classification criteria to analyze and communicate
observations.
Scientists may also have to complete engineering tasks, such as

designing experimental apparatus or building prototypes. Conversely, in
Engineers, scientists and technicians at the process of developing technology engineers sometimes find
work on target positioner inside National themselves exploring new phenomena, thus becoming, for the moment,
Ignition Facility (NIF) target chamber scientists or more precisely "engineering scientists".
In the book What Engineers Know and How They Know It,[81] Walter
Vincenti asserts that engineering research has a character different from
that of scientific research. First, it often deals with areas in which the
basic physics or chemistry are well understood, but the problems
themselves are too complex to solve in an exact manner.
There is a "real and important" difference between engineering and

physics as similar to any science field has to do with technology.[82][83]
Physics is an exploratory science that seeks knowledge of principles The International Space Station is used to
while engineering uses knowledge for practical applications of conduct science experiments of outer
principles. The former equates an understanding into a mathematical space
principle while the latter measures variables involved and creates
technology.[84][85][86] For technology, physics is an auxiliary and in a
way technology is considered as applied physics.[87] Though physics and engineering are interrelated, it does not mean
that a physicist is trained to do an engineer's job. A physicist would typically require additional and relevant training.[88]
Physicists and engineers engage in different lines of work.[89] But PhD physicists who specialize in sectors of engineering
physics and applied physics are titled as Technology officer, R&D Engineers and System Engineers.[90]
An example of this is the use of numerical approximations to the Navier–Stokes equations to describe aerodynamic flow
over an aircraft, or the use of the Finite element method to calculate the stresses in complex components. Second,
engineering research employs many semi-empirical methods that are foreign to pure scientific research, one example
being the method of parameter variation.
As stated by Fung et al. in the revision to the classic engineering text Foundations of Solid Mechanics:
Engineering is quite different from science. Scientists try to understand nature. Engineers try to make things
that do not exist in nature. Engineers stress innovation and invention. To embody an invention the engineer
must put his idea in concrete terms, and design something that people can use. That something can be a
complex system, device, a gadget, a material, a method, a computing program, an innovative experiment, a
new solution to a problem, or an improvement on what already exists. Since a design has to be realistic and
functional, it must have its geometry, dimensions, and characteristics data defined. In the past engineers
working on new designs found that they did not have all the required information to make design decisions.
Most often, they were limited by insufficient scientific knowledge. Thus they studied mathematics, physics,
chemistry, biology and mechanics. Often they had to add to the sciences relevant to their profession. Thus
engineering sciences were born.[91]
Although engineering solutions make use of scientific principles, engineers must also take into account safety, efficiency,
economy, reliability, and constructability or ease of fabrication as well as the environment, ethical and legal considerations
such as patent infringement or liability in the case of failure of the solution.[92]
Medicine and biology

The study of the human body, albeit from different directions and for
different purposes, is an important common link between medicine and
some engineering disciplines. Medicine aims to sustain, repair, enhance
and even replace functions of the human body, if necessary, through the
use of technology.
Modern medicine can replace

several of the body's functions
through the use of artificial
organs and can significantly
A 3 tesla clinical MRI scanner. alter the function of the
human body through artificial
devices such as, for example,
brain implants and pacemakers.[93][94] The fields of bionics and medical
bionics are dedicated to the study of synthetic implants pertaining to natural
systems. Genetically engineered mice
expressing green fluorescent
Conversely, some engineering disciplines view the human body as a biological protein, which glows green under
machine worth studying and are dedicated to emulating many of its functions blue light. The central mouse is wild-
type.
by replacing biology with technology. This has led to fields such as artificial
intelligence, neural networks, fuzzy logic, and robotics. There are also
substantial interdisciplinary interactions between engineering and medicine.[95][96]
Both fields provide solutions to real world problems. This often requires moving forward before phenomena are
completely understood in a more rigorous scientific sense and therefore experimentation and empirical knowledge is an
integral part of both.
Medicine, in part, studies the function of the human body. The human body, as a biological machine, has many functions
that can be modeled using engineering methods.[97]
The heart for example functions much like a pump,[98] the skeleton is like a linked structure with levers,[99] the brain
produces electrical signals etc.[100] These similarities as well as the increasing importance and application of engineering
principles in medicine, led to the development of the field of biomedical engineering that uses concepts developed in both
disciplines.
Newly emerging branches of science, such as systems biology, are adapting analytical tools traditionally used for
engineering, such as systems modeling and computational analysis, to the description of biological systems.[97]
Art
There are connections between engineering and art, for example, architecture,
landscape architecture and industrial design (even to the extent that these disciplines
may sometimes be included in a university's Faculty of Engineering).[102][103][104]
The Art Institute of Chicago, for instance, held an exhibition about the art of NASA's
aerospace design.[105] Robert Maillart's bridge design is perceived by some to have been
deliberately artistic.[106] At the University of South Florida, an engineering professor,
through a grant with the National Science Foundation, has developed a course that
connects art and engineering.[102][107]
Among famous historical figures, Leonardo da Vinci is a well-known Renaissance artist

and engineer, and a prime example of the nexus between art and engineering.[101][108]
Business Leonardo da Vinci, seen

Business Engineering deals with the relationship between professional engineering, IT here in a self-portrait, has
been described as the
systems, business administration and change management. Engineering management
epitome of the
or "Management engineering" is a specialized field of management concerned with
artist/engineer.[101] He is
engineering practice or the engineering industry sector. The demand for management- also known for his studies
focused engineers (or from the opposite perspective, managers with an understanding on human anatomy and
of engineering), has resulted in the development of specialized engineering physiology.
management degrees that develop the knowledge and skills needed for these roles.
During an engineering management course, students will develop industrial
engineering skills, knowledge, and expertise, alongside knowledge of business administration, management techniques,
and strategic thinking. Engineers specializing in change management must have in-depth knowledge of the application of
industrial and organizational psychology principles and methods. Professional engineers often train as certified
management consultants in the very specialized field of management consulting applied to engineering practice or the
engineering sector. This work often deals with large scale complex business transformation or Business process
management initiatives in aerospace and defence, automotive, oil and gas, machinery, pharmaceutical, food and beverage,
electrical & electronics, power distribution & generation, utilities and transportation systems. This combination of
technical engineering practice, management consulting practice, industry sector knowledge, and change management
expertise enables professional engineers who are also qualified as management consultants to lead major business
transformation initiatives. These initiatives are typically sponsored by C-level executives.
Other fields
In political science, the term engineering has been borrowed for the study of the subjects of social engineering and
political engineering, which deal with forming political and social structures using engineering methodology coupled with
political science principles. Financial engineering has similarly borrowed the term.
See also
Lists
Engineering society
List of aerospace engineering topics
List of basic chemical engineering topics
List of electrical engineering topics
List of engineering topics
List of engineers
List of genetic engineering topics
List of mechanical engineering topics
List of nanoengineering topics
List of software engineering topics
Glossaries
Glossary of areas of mathematics

Glossary of biology
Glossary of chemistry
Glossary of engineering
Glossary of physics
Related subjects
Controversies over the term Engineer

Design
Earthquake engineering
Engineer
Engineering economics
Engineering education
Engineering education research
Engineers Without Borders
Forensic engineering
Global Engineering Education
Industrial design
Infrastructure
Mathematics
Open-source hardware
Planned obsolescence
Reverse engineering
Science and technology
Structural failure
Sustainable engineering
Women in engineering
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101. Bjerklie, David. "The Art of Renaissance Engineering." MIT's Technology Review Jan./Feb.1998: 54–59. Article
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article: Da Vinci reached the pinnacle of "artist-engineer"-dom, Quote2: "It was Leonardo da Vinci who initiated the
most ambitious expansion in the role of artist-engineer, progressing from astute observer to inventor to theoretician."
(Bjerklie 58)
102. National Science Foundation:The Art of Engineering: Professor uses the fine arts to broaden students' engineering
perspectives (https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=107990&org=NSF)
103. MIT World:The Art of Engineering: Inventor James Dyson on the Art of Engineering: quote: A member of the British
Design Council, James Dyson has been designing products since graduating from the Royal College of Art in 1970.
(http://mitworld.mit.edu/video/362/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20060705232213/http://mitworld.mit.edu/vid
eo/362/) 2006-07-05 at the Wayback Machine
104. University of Texas at Dallas: The Institute for Interactive Arts and Engineering (http://iiae.utdallas.edu/)
105. "Aerospace Design: The Art of Engineering from NASA's Aeronautical Research" (https://web.archive.org/web/20030
815085429/http://www.artic.edu/aic/exhibitions/nasa/overview.html). Archived from the original (http://www.artic.edu/ai
c/exhibitions/nasa/overview.html) on 2003-08-15. Retrieved 2007-03-31.
106. Princeton U: Robert Maillart's Bridges: The Art of Engineering: quote: no doubt that Maillart was fully conscious of the
aesthetic implications ... (http://press.princeton.edu/titles/137.html)
107. quote:..the tools of artists and the perspective of engineers.. (http://www.chiefengineer.org/content/content_display.cf
m/seqnumber_content/2697.htm) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20070927180822/http://www.chiefengineer.or
g/content/content_display.cfm/seqnumber_content/2697.htm) 2007-09-27 at the Wayback Machine
108. Drew U: user website: cites Bjerklie paper (http://www.users.drew.edu/~ejustin/leonardo.htm) Archived (https://web.ar
chive.org/web/20070419194433/http://www.users.drew.edu/~ejustin/leonardo.htm) 2007-04-19 at the Wayback
Machine
Further reading
Blockley, David (2012). Engineering: a very short introduction. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-
957869-6.
Dorf, Richard, ed. (2005). The Engineering Handbook (2 ed.). Boca Raton: CRC. ISBN 978-0-8493-1586-2.
Billington, David P. (1996-06-05). The Innovators: The Engineering Pioneers Who Made America Modern. Wiley; New
Ed edition. ISBN 978-0-471-14026-9.
Madhavan, Guru (2015). Applied Minds: How Engineers Think. W.W. Norton.
Petroski, Henry (1992-03-31). To Engineer is Human: The Role of Failure in Successful Design (https://archive.org/de
tails/toengineerishuma00petr). Vintage. ISBN 978-0-679-73416-1.
Lord, Charles R. (2000-08-15). Guide to Information Sources in Engineering (https://archive.org/details/guidetoinform
ati00lord). Libraries Unlimited. doi:10.1336/1563086999 (https://doi.org/10.1336%2F1563086999). ISBN 978-1-
56308-699-1.
Vincenti, Walter G. (1993-02-01). What Engineers Know and How They Know It: Analytical Studies from Aeronautical
History. The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-4588-8.
The dictionary definition of engineering at Wiktionary Learning materials related to Engineering at Wikiversity
Quotations related to Engineering at Wikiquote
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This page was last edited on 31 October 2019, at 07:37.
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11/3/2019 Engineering - Wikipedia

The term engineering is derived from the Latin ingenium, meaning

civil, mining, mechanical and electrical.[52]

The first PhD in engineering (technically, applied science and

Main branches of engineering

commercial scale, such as the manufacture of commodity chemicals,

equipments, and mechatronics.

Other branches of engineering

of science, mathematics, logic,

As with all modern scientific and technological endeavors, computers and

A computer simulation of high

One of the most widely used design tools in the profession is

Engineering projects can be subject to controversy. Examples from different

Engineering is a key driver of innovation and human development. Sub-Saharan

All overseas development and

Engineers Without Borders

Relationships with other disciplines

— Theodore von Kármán[78][79][80]

There exists an overlap between the sciences and engineering practice;

Scientists may also have to complete engineering tasks, such as

There is a "real and important" difference between engineering and

Medicine and biology

Modern medicine can replace

Among famous historical figures, Leonardo da Vinci is a well-known Renaissance artist

Business Leonardo da Vinci, seen

Glossary of areas of mathematics

Controversies over the term Engineer

40. "Episode 11: Ancient Robots" (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rxjbaQl0ad8), Ancient Discoveries, History

60. "What is Civil Engineering" (https://www.ice.org.uk/careers-and-professional-development/what-is-civil-engineering).

99. Minnesota State University emuseum: Bones act as levers (http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/biology/humananatomy/s

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