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substrate to target distance plays a major role in determining the quality of the deposited
film. The substrate holder is mounted with a substrate heater and can be used at the time
of deposition. On incident of the laser beam on the target material, a plume is generated
which expands towards the substrate. The material is in vaporized form in the plume and
condenses quickly in contact with the substrate and gets deposited layer by layer. The
whole deposition is carried out in the desired ambiance. A partial pressure of desired gasses
or vacuum can be created at the time of deposition. Multiple targets can be used in the
system which enables the user to deposit multi-layer films without breaking the vacuum.

2.2 Characterization Techniques

Characterization techniques are means to study various optical, mechanical, electrical,
thermal properties of the materials [16-17]. Optical and electrical characterizations give
important parameters for the solar cells. Optical characterizations provide the information
of spectral range covered by the solar cell, and electrical characterizations help to calculate
the power conversion efficiencies. Some of the major optical characterizations discussed
in this thesis are as follows:

2.2.1 UV-Visible spectroscopy

Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption, reflection, and transmission of an
incident light from the material under study. Fig. 2.2 shows the schematic of UV-visible
spectrometer [18]. The light source generates visible, near ultraviolet and near infrared
light to an incidence on the material. A deuterium arc lamp is used for consistent intensity
in UV range (190 – 380 nm) and a tungsten-halogen lamp is used for uniform intensity in
visible spectra (380 - 800 nm) [19]. The source light is focused on a dispersion device to
disperse the source wavelengths at different angles. Exit slit incident a particular
wavelength on the sample. The transmitted light is collected by the detector.

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Figure 2.2 Schematic of UV-Vis Spectrometer

Absorbance of material increases with its attenuations as expressed by Brags-Lambert law:

𝐼𝑜
𝐴 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 = 𝜀𝑏𝑐 , (2.1)
𝐼

where Io is incident radiation, I is transmitted radiation, ε is the absorptivity, c is the

concentration and b is the optical path or thickness of the material [20].

2.2.2 Photoluminescence
Photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy is measure of light emission from a material after
absorbance of an incident light. Fig. 2.3 shows the schematics of a photospectrometer [21].
An excitation wavelength is selected by a monochromator and is incident on the sample.
Luminescence is recorded by detector through emission monochromator. It is placed 90⁰
from the source so as to avoid the scattered light. Detector finally collects the light recorded
by monochromator.

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Figure 2.3 Schematic of Photospectrometer

Samples are illuminated by an incident light; it excites its electrons into high energy states
as shown in Fig. 2.4 [22]. After some relaxation period, electrons emit photons and goes
back to their ground states. PL is also used to study the defects in films. Electronic
transition classifies the intrinsic PL into a) band-to-band luminescence and b) Exciton
luminescence. Band-to-band luminescence refers to the recombination of conduction band
electrons to holes of valance band electrons. It is mainly observed in silicon, germanium,
GaAs, etc. On the other hand, Excitonic luminescence refers to the movement of excitons
which release energy owning to recombination of holes and electrons. Extrinsic
luminescence is mainly caused by the addition of some impurity in the host lattice.

Figure 2.4 Energy diagram of photoluminescence

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2.2.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy

Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) is a microscopy technique which uses a focused
beam of electrons to reveal the external morphology of materials. SEM can focus a large
area at a time and produces high-resolution two-dimensional images. SEM uses
electromagnets for magnification instead of the lens which help it to achieve high
resolutions. Fig. 2.5 shows the schematics of SEM machine [23].

Figure 2.5 Schematic of scanning electron microscopy

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An electron gun is fitted with tungsten filament cathode which thermionically emits a beam
of electrons. The Strong force causes the electron beam to accelerate towards anode so as
to project it on the specimen. A magnetic lens controls the amount of electrons reaching
the sample. Incident beam strikes the sample and generates secondary electrons which are
collected by a detector. An additional detector collects the backscattered electrons. Data
gathered by the detectors are used to obtain high-resolution two-dimensional images. X-
rays are also emitted on an incidence of an electron beam as shown in Fig. 2.6 [24]. The
X-ray detector can also be integrated with SEM to study the elemental composition of the
sample. This technique is known as Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDAX).

Figure 2.6 Different emissions on incidence of an electron beam

2.2.4 X-ray Diffraction

X-rays are of the order of 1 Ȧ and are positioned between ultraviolet and gamma waves in
electromagnetic spectrum. When x-rays are incident on a sample, they are scattered by the
atomic planes of crystal. The scattered light interferes with one another while leaving the
material. This phenomenon is called x-ray diffraction (XRD). XRD is used to study crystal
structure, lattice parameters, stress, strain, and dislocation density.

X-ray diffractometer consists of a sample holder, x-ray tube, and x-ray detector. X-
ray tube and X-ray detector are placed in such a way that detector makes twice angle with
the sample to what x-ray tube makes with it as shown in Fig. 2.7(a) [26]. X-rays are

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generated inside the x-ray tube by heating a filament, generally consists of copper, iron,
molybdenum or chromium. Electrons start accelerating towards the target by applying a
voltage. Sample and detector are rotated continuously, and intensity of diffracted x-rays is
recorded. High energy electrons dislocate the inner shell electrons, and characteristic X-
rays are obtained. Diffracted rays may undergo constructive or destructive interferences.
This phenomenon is determined by Bragg’s law [25]. According to Bragg’s law if the
atoms of a lattice are arranged periodically and the distance between the atoms is of the
order of the wavelength of X-rays, then the X-rays diffracted from them will interfere
constructively as shown in Fig. 2.7(b). Bragg’s diffraction condition is given by

𝑛𝜆 = 2𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 , (2.2)

where λ is the wavelength of the incident light, d is the distance between atomic planes and
θ is the diffraction angle (⁰).

Figure 2.7 (a) Schematics of X-ray diffractometer and (b) fundamental principle of XRD

When the condition of Bragg’s law is satisfied, constructive interference gives rise to a
high-intensity peak. These intensity peaks are the signature of a particular material and
help to identify various parameters associated with it.

2.3 Theoretical Techniques

Rapidly growing computer capabilities are motivating different simulation techniques to
optimize the desired structures without fabricating them. It is not only economical but time-
saving as well. In novel research area like Plasmonics, simulations are very useful.
However, Plasmonics involves structural studies in nanometers range which complicates

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