02 Plumbing Systems PDF

Table of Contents i
American Society of Plumbing Engineers
Data Book
A Plumbing Engineer's Guide to System Design and Specifications
Volume 2
Plumbing Systems

3617 E. Thousand Oaks Blvd., Suite 210
Westlake Village, CA 91362
ii ASPE Data Book — Volume 1
The ASPE Data Book is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information for the design and specification of plumbing
systems. The publisher makes no guarantees or warranties, expressed or implied, regarding the data and information contained in
this publication. All data and information are provided with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering legal,
consulting, engineering, or other professional services. If legal, consulting, or engineering advice or other expert assistance is re-
quired, the services of a competent professional should be engaged.

3617 E. Thousand Oaks Blvd., Suite 210
Westlake Village, CA 91362
(805) 495-7120 Fax: (805) 495-4861
E-mail: aspehq@aol.com Internet: www.aspe.org
Copyright © 2000 by American Society of Plumbing Engineers
All rights reserved, including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by any means, including the making of copies by any
photographic process, or by any electronic or mechanical device, printed or written or oral, or recording for sound or visual reproduc-
tion, or for use in any knowledge or retrieval system or device, unless permission in writing is obtained from the publisher.
ISBN 1–891255–12–6
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Table of Contents iii
Data Book
Volume 2
Plumbing Systems
Data Book Chairperson: Anthony W. Stutes, P.E., CIPE
ASPE Vice-President, Technical: David Chin, P.E., CIPE
Editorial Review: ASPE Technical and Research Committee
Technical and Research Committee
Chairperson: Norman T. Heinig, CIPE
CONTRIBUTORS
Chapter 1 Chapter 7
Michael Granata, P.E. Joseph J. Barbera, P.E., CIPE
Timothy Smith, CIPE John P. Callahan, CIPE
Patrick L. Whitworth, CIPE Paul D. Finnerty, CIPE
Ronald W. Howie, CIPE
Chapter 2 Robert L. Love, P.E., CIPE
Notman T. Heinig, CIPE Steven T. Mayer, CIPE, CET
Saum K. Nour, Ph.D., P.E., CIPE Jon G. Moore
Rand J. Refrigeri, P.E.
Chapter 3
Michael Granata, P.E. Chapter 8
Timothy Smith, CIPE A. R. Rubin, Professor of Biological and
Patrick L. Whitworth, CIPE Agricultural Engineering,
North Carolina State University
Chapter 4 Patrick L. Whitworth, CIPE
Patrick L. Whitworth, CIPE
Chapter 9
Chapter 5 National Ground Water Association (NGWA),
Michael Granata, P.E. Westerville, OH
Stephen E. Howe, P.E., CIPE Patrick L. Whitworth, CIPE
Donald L. Sampler, Sr., P.E., CIPE
Chapter 10
Chapter 6 Clarke L. Marshall
Anthony W. Stutes, P.E., CIPE
Chapter 11
Michael Frankel, CIPE
Warren W. Serles
Chapter 12
Michael Frankel, CIPE
iv ASPE Data Book — Volume 1
ABOUT ASPE
The American Society of Plumbing Engineers (ASPE) is the international organization for professionals skilled in
the design and specification of plumbing systems. ASPE is dedicated to the advancement of the science of plumb-
ing engineering, to the professional growth and advancement of its members, and to the health, welfare, and
safety of the public.
The Society disseminates technical data and information, sponsors activities that facilitate interaction with
fellow professionals, and, through research and education programs, expands the base of knowledge of the plumb-
ing engineering industry. ASPE members are leaders in innovative plumbing design, effective materials and
energy use, and the application of advanced techniques from around the world.
WORLDWIDE MEMBERSHIP — ASPE was founded in 1964 and currently has 7,100 members. Spanning the globe,
members are located in the United States, Canada, Asia, Mexico, South America, the South Pacific, Australia,
and Europe. They represent an extensive network of experienced engineers, designers, contractors, educators,
code officials, and manufacturers interested in furthering their careers, their profession, and the industry. ASPE
is at the forefront of technology. In addition, ASPE represents members and promotes the profession among all
segments of the construction industry.
ASPE MEMBERSHIP COMMUNICATION — All members belong to ASPE worldwide and have the opportunity to
belong and participate in one of the 57 state, provincial or local chapters throughout the U.S. and Canada. ASPE
chapters provide the major communication links and the first line of services and programs for the individual
member. Communications with the membership is enhanced through the Society’s bimonthly newsletter, the
ASPE Report, and the monthly magazine, Plumbing Engineer.
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS — The Society maintains a comprehensive publishing program, spearheaded by the
profession’s basic reference text, the ASPE Data Book. The Data Book, encompassing forty-five chapters in four
volumes, provides comprehensive details of the accepted practices and design criteria used in the field of plumbing
engineering. New additions that will shortly join ASPE’s published library of professional technical manuals and
handbooks include: High-Technology Pharmaceutical Facilities Design Manual, High-Technology Electronic Facilities
Design Manual, Health Care Facilities and Hospitals Design Manual, and Water Reuse Design Manual.
CONVENTION AND TECHNICAL SYMPOSIUM — The Society hosts biennial Conventions in even-numbered years and
Technical Symposia in odd-numbered years to allow professional plumbing engineers and designers to improve their
skills, learn original concepts, and make important networking contacts to help them stay abreast of current trends
and technologies. In conjunction with each Convention there is an Engineered Plumbing Exposition, the greatest,
largest gathering of plumbing engineering and design products, equipment, and services. Everything from pipes to
pumps to fixtures, from compressors to computers to consulting services is on display, giving engineers and specifiers
the opportunity to view the newest and most innovative materials and equipment available to them.
CERTIFIED IN PLUMBING ENGINEERING — ASPE sponsors a national certification program for engineers and
designers of plumbing systems, which carries the designation “Certified in Plumbing Engineering” or CIPE. The
certification program provides the profession, the plumbing industry, and the general public with a single, com-
prehensive qualification of professional competence for engineers and designers of plumbing systems. The CIPE,
designed exclusively by and for plumbing engineers, tests hundreds of engineers and designers at centers throughout
the United States biennially. Created to provide a single, uniform national credential in the field of engineered
plumbing systems, the CIPE program is not in any way connected to state-regulated Professional Engineer (P.E.)
registration.
ASPE RESEARCH FOUNDATION — The ASPE Research Foundation, established in 1976, is the only indepen-
dent, impartial organization involved in plumbing engineering and design research. The science of plumbing
engineering affects everything . . . from the quality of our drinking water to the conservation of our water resources
to the building codes for plumbing systems. Our lives are impacted daily by the advances made in plumbing
engineering technology through the Foundation’s research and development.
Table of Contents v

Data Book
(4 Volumes 45 Chapters)
Volume 1 Fundamentals of Plumbing Engineering (Revised 1999)

Chapter 1 Plumbing Formulae, Symbols, and Terminology
2 Standard Plumbing Materials and Equipment
3 Plumbing Specifications
4 Plumbing Cost Estimation
5 Job Preparation, Plumbing Drawing, and Field Checklists
6 Plumbing for Physically Challenged Individuals
7 Energy Conservation in Plumbing Systems
8 Corrosion
9 Seismic Protection of Plumbing Equipment
10 Acoustics in Plumbing Systems
Volume 3 Special Plumbing Systems (Estimated date: 2000)

Chapter 1 Fire Protection Systems (Chapter 7, looseleaf format)
2 Plumbing Design for Health Care Facilities (Chapter 32, looseleaf format)
3 Treatment of Industrial Waste (Chapter 23, looseleaf format)
4 Irrigation Systems (Chapter 29, looseleaf format)
5 Reflecting Pools and Fountains (Chapter 30, looseleaf format)
6 Public Swimming Pools (Chapter 31, looseleaf format)
7 Gasoline and Diesel Oil Systems (Chapter 33, looseleaf format)
8 Steam and Condensate Piping (Chapter 38, looseleaf format)
9 Compressed Air Systems (Chapter 39, looseleaf format)
10 Solar Energy (Chapter 20, looseleaf format)
11 Site Utility Systems
Volume 4 Plumbing Components and Equipment (Estimated revision date: 2002)

Chapter 1 Plumbing Fixtures (Chapter 8, looseleaf format)
2 Piping Systems (Chapter 10, looseleaf format)
3 Valves (Chapter 9, looseleaf format)
4 Pumps (Chapter 11, looseleaf format)
5 Piping Insulation (Chapter 12, looseleaf format)
6 Hangers and Supports (Chapter 13, looseleaf format)
7 Vibration Isolation (Chapter 14, looseleaf format)
8 Grease Interceptors (Chapter 35, looseleaf format)
9 Cross Connection Control (Chapter 24, looseleaf format)
10 Water Conditioning (Chapter 28, looseleaf format)
11 Thermal Expansion and Contractions (Chapter 5, looseleaf format)
12 Potable Water Coolers and Central Water Systems (Chapter 27, looseleaf format)
(The chapters and subjects listed for these volume are subject to modification, adjustment and change.
The contents shown for each volume are proposed and may not represent the final contents of the volume.
A final listing of included chapters for each volume will appear in the actual publication.)
vi ASPE Data Book — Volume 1
Table of Contents vii
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1 Sanitary Drainage Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Flow in Stacks, Building Drains, and Fixture Drains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Flow in Stacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Flow in Building Drains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Flow in Fixture Drains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Pneumatic Pressures in a Sanitary Drainage System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Fixture Discharge Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Drainage Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Stack Capacities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Capacities of Sloping Drains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Steady, Uniform Flow Conditions in Sloping Drains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Hazen and Williams Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Darcy-Weisbach Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Manning Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Slope of Horizontal Drainage Piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Load or Drainage Piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Components of Sanitary Drainage Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Sumps and Ejectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Cleanouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Floor Drains and Floor Sinks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Grates/Strainers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Flashing Ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Sediment Bucket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Backwater Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Oil Interceptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Grease Interceptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Trap Primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Noise Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Building Sewer Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Sanitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Kitchen Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Waterproofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Floor Leveling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
viii ASPE Data Book — Volume 2
Joining Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Thermal Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Protection from Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Sovent Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
CHAPTER 2 Gray-Water Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Codes and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
System Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
System Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Design Criteria for Gray-Water Supply and Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Design Estimates for Commercial Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Gray-Water Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Gray-Water Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Design Estimates for Residential Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Design Estimates for Irrigation Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Treatment Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Economic Analysis — An Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Public Concerns/Acceptance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
CHAPTER 3 Vents and Venting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Section I — Vents and Venting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Purposes of Venting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Vent Stack Terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Traps and Trap Seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Factors Affecting Trap Seal Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Suds Venting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Fixture Vents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Venting as a Means of Reducing Trap Seal Losses from Induced Siphonage . . . 39
Design of Vents to Control Induced Siphonage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Drainage Fixture Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Vent Sizes and Lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
End Venting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Common Vent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Stack Venting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Wet Venting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Circuit and Loop Venting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Relief Vents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Table of Contents ix
Offset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Vent Headers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Combination Waste and Vent Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Section II — Several Venting Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Philadelphia System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Sovent System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Stack Venting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Wet Venting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Reduced-Size Venting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Section III — Sizing of Several Venting Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Reduced-Size Venting Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
General Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Sizing Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Sovent Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Aerator Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Deaerator Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Sizing Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
CHAPTER 4 Storm-Drainage Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

General Design Considerations for Buildings and Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Part One: Building Drainage System Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Design Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Pipe Sizing and Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Rainfall Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Rainfall Rate Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Secondary Drainage Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Roof Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Coordination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Drain Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Roof Drain Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Piping Coordination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Locating Vertical Leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Horizontal Pipe Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Controlled-Flow Storm Drainage System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Part Two: Site Drainage System Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
General Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
x ASPE Data Book — Volume 2
Site Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
The Rational Method of System Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Exterior Piping and Inlets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Subsurface Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Source of Subsurface Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Site Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Drainage Pipe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Trenching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Selecting Pipe Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Disposal of Ground Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Storm-Water Detention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Standard Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Form 4-1 Storm-Drainage Calculations for Roof Drains and
Vertical Leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Form 4-2 Storm-Drainage System Sizing Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Form 4-3 Storm-Water Drainage Worksheet 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
CHAPTER 5 Cold-Water Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Domestic Cold-Water Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Meter Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Sizing the Water Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Sizing the Water Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Hazen-Williams Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Factors Affecting Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Velocity Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Water Hammer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Shock Intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
System Protection and Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Air Chambers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Water Hammer Arresters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Backflow Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Types of Cross-Connection Control Device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Assessment of Hazard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Premise Isolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Table of Contents xi
Installation Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

Inadequate Water Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Hydropneumatic-Tank System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Gravity-Tank System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Booster-Pump System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Excess Water Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Pressure-Regulating Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Types of Pressure-Regulating Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Sizing, Selection, and Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Testing, Cleaning, and Disinfection of Domestic, Water-Supply Systems . . . . . . . 154
Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Cleaning and Disinfecting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
CHAPTER 6 Domestic Water-Heating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Basic Formulae and Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Heat Recovery — Electric Water Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Hot-Water Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Mixed-Water Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Water Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Stratification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Hot-Water Temperature Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Hot-Water Circulation Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Self-Regulating Heat-Trace Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Relief Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Sizing Pressure and Temperature-Relief Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Temperature Relief Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Pressure Relief Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Thermal Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Thermal Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Safety and Health Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Legionella Pneumophila (Legionnaires’ Disease) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Scalding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Codes and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
xii ASPE Data Book — Volume 2
CHAPTER 7 Fuel-Gas Piping Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

Low and Medium-Pressure Natural Gas Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Laboratory Gas .................................. . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Gas Train Vents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Appliances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Gas Boosters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Gas Boosters for Natural or Liquefied Petroleum Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Materials of Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Gas Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Sizing a Gas Booster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Pipe Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Liguefied Petroleum Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Plastic Pipe and Tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Pipe Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Tubing Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Flexible Gas Hose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Indoor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Outdoor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Warning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Leak Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Appendix A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Appendix B — Values of Fuel Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
CHAPTER 8 Private Sewage-Disposal Systems ............ . . . . . . . . . . 217

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............. . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Primary Collection and Treatment Systems . . . . . ............. . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Soil-Absorption Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............. . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Guide for Estimating Soil Absorption Potential ............ . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Soil Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............. . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Clues to Absorption Capacity . . . . . . . . . . ............. . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Procedure for Percolation Tests . . . . . . . . ............. . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Soil-Absorption System Selection . . . . . . . . . ............. . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Leaching Trenches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............. . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Table of Contents xiii
Construction Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

Serial Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Seepage Beds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Seepage Pits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Mound Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Collection and Treatment Alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Alternatives to Gravity Collection and Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Alternatives to Conventional Primary-and-Secondary Treatment . . . . . . . . . . 227
Septic Tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Functions of the Septic Tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Biological Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Solids Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Septic Tank Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Invert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Tank Proportions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Storage above Liquid Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Use of Compartments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
General Information on Septic Tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Grease Interceptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Distribution Boxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Septic Tank/Soil-Absorption Systems for Institutions and Recreational and
Other Establishments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Water Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Special Fixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Alternative Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Special Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Individual Aerobic Waste-Water Treatment Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Estimating Sewage Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
CHAPTER 9 Private Water Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Sources of Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
xiv ASPE Data Book — Volume 2
Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Dug Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Bored Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Driven Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Jetted Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Hydraulics of Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Protection of Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Water Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Softening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Scale and Corrosion Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Taste and Odor Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Prophylaxis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Disinfection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
System Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Well Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Storage Tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Suction Piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Pressure Regulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Supply Piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Pipe Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Thrust Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Depth of Bury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Corrosion Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Initial Operation and Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Additional Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
CHAPTER 10 Vacuum Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Pressure Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Units of Measurement and Reference Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Standard Reference Points and Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Flow-Rate Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Converting scfm to acfm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
General Vacuum Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Adjusting Vacuum-Pump Rating for Altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Time for Pump to Reach Rated Vacuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Adjusting Pressure Drop for Different Vacuum Pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Table of Contents xv
Simplified Method of Calculating Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258

Vacuum Work Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Vacuum Source and Source Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Vacuum Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Gas-Transfer Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Seal Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Vacuum-Pressure Gauges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Bourdon Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Diaphragm Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Ancillary Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Laboratory and Vacuum Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Codes and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Vacuum Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Distribution Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Pipe Material and Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Sizing Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Vacuum-Cleaning Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Types of System and Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
System Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Vacuum Producer (Exhauster) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Separators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Silencers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Inlets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Control and Check Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Air-Bleed Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Pipe and Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Detailed System Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Inlet Location and Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Determining the Number of Simultaneous Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Inlet-Valve, Tool, and Hose Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Locating the Vacuum-Producer Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Sizing the Piping Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Piping-System Friction Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Vacuum-Producer (Exhauster) Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Separator Selection and Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
General Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
xvi ASPE Data Book — Volume 2
CHAPTER 11 Water Treatment, Conditioning, and Purification . . . . . . . . . 279

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Basic Water Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Water Impurities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Suspended Matter (Particulates), Turbidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Dissolved Minerals and Organics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Dissolved Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Water Analysis and Impurity Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
pH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Specific Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Specific Conductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Total Suspended Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Total Organic Carbon (TOC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Silt Density Index (SDI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Deposits and Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Scale and Sludge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Biological Fouling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Predicting Scale Formation and Corrosion Tendencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
pH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Langelier Saturation Index (LSI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Ryzner Stability Index (RI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Aggressiveness Index (AI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Treatment Methodologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Aeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Clarification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Deaeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Dealkalizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Decarbonation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Single-Stage Distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Vapor-Compression Distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Multi-Effect Distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Deep-Bed Sand Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Cross-Flow and Tangential-Flow Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Activated Carbon Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Table of Contents xvii
Ion Exchange and Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300

Regenerable Ion Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Resins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Regeneration Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Service Deionization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Continuous Deionization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Water Softening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Ion-Exchange System Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Membrane Filtration and Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Reverse Osmosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Membrane Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Cross-Flow Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Microbial Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Ultraviolet Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Ozone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Water Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Utility Water Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Initial Filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Clarification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Biological Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Water Softening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Boiler Feed-Water Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Cooling-Water Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Biological Fouling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Potable Water Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Water Purification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Laboratory Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Pharmaceutical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Feed Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Purification System Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Pretreatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Central Purification Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Piping Distribution Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
System Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
xviii ASPE Data Book — Volume 2
CHAPTER 12 Special-Waste Drainage Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
System Approval Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Pipe Material and Joint Selection Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Pipe Sizing Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
pH Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
General System Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Acid-Waste Drainage and Vent Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Health and Safety Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Common Types of Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Sulfuric Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Phosphoric Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Hydrochloric Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Nitric Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Hydrobromic Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Perchloric Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Selection of Laboratory Waste Piping and Joint Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
System Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Acid Waste Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Radioactive Waste Drainage and Vent System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
The Nature of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Radiation Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Units of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Allowable Radiation Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Shielding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Radioactive Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
System Design Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
The Approval Process and Application Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
General Design Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Pipe Material Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
General Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
Infectious and Biological-Waste Drainage Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Biological Safety Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Liquid-Waste Decontamination System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
System Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
System Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Chemical-Waste Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Table of Contents xix
Codes and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 345

Pipe Material and Joint Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 345
System Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 346
Fire-Suppression Water Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 346
System Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 346
Flammable and Volatile Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 347
Oil in Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 347
Methods of Separation and Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 347
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 350
ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure 1-1 Procedure for Sizing an Offset Stack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Figure 1-2 Basic Floor-Drain Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Figure 1-3 Pattern Draft for Floor Gratings: (a) Sharp Edge,
(b) Reverse Pattern. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Figure 1-4 Types of Floor Drain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Figure 1-5 Various Types of Backwater Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Figure 1-6 Combination Floor Drain and Indirect Waste Receptor . . . . . . . . . 17
Figure 1-7 Inside-Caulk Drain Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Figure 1-8 Spigot-Outlet Drain Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Figure 1-9 No-Hub-Outlet Drain Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Figure 1-10 IPS or Threaded-Outlet Drain Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Figure 1-11 (A) Traditional Two-Pipe System, (B) Typical Sovent Single-Stack
Plumbing System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Figure 2-1 Plumbing System Flow Charts: (A) Conventional Plumbing
System; (B) Recycled-Water System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Figure 2-2 Riser Diagrams: (A) Gray-Water Plumbing System; (B) Recycled-
Water-Waste System with System Treatment Plant (STP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Figure 2-3 Water Treatment Systems: (A) Types of Gray-Water Treatment
System; (B) Types of Black-Water Treatment System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Figure 2-4 System Design Flow Chart Example (250-Room Hotel) . . . . . . . . . 30
Figure 2-5 Nomograph for Overview of Preliminary Feasibility of
Gray-Water Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Figure 3-1 Suds-Pressure-Zone Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Figure 3-2 Suds Venting/Suds Pressure Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Figure 3-3 Loop Vent, with Horizontal Branch Located (a) at Back Below
Water Closets, (b) Directly Under Water Closets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Figure 3-4 Circuit Vent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Figure 3-5 Relief Vent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Figure 3-6 Offset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Figure 3-7 Combination Waste-and-Vent System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Figure 3-8 Philadelphia System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Figure 3-9 Wet Venting and Stack Venting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Figure 3-10 Pipe Layout Drawing — Two-Story Residential Building, Freezing
xx ASPE Data Book — Volume 2
Climate, Schedule 40 Plastic Vents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Figure 3-11 (A) Traditional Two-Pipe Plumbing System; (B) Typical Sovent
Single-Stack Plumbing System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Figure 3-12 Typical Sovent System Aerator Fitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Figure 3-13 Typical Sovent System Deaerator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Figure 3-14 Sovent System Branches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Figure 3-15 Soil and Waste Branches Connected into a Horizontal Stack
Offset. Waste Branches Connected into the Pressure-Relief Line . . . . . . . . 59
Figure 3-16 Soil and Waste Branches Connected below a
Deaerator Fitting at the Bottom of the Stack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Figure 3-17 Deaerator Fitting Located
above Floor Level of Building Drain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Figure 3-18 Sovent Fitting: (A) Single-Side Entry (Without Waste Inlets);
(B) Double-Side Entry (with Waste Inlets) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Figure 3-19 Two Alternative Design Layouts for Typical Back-to-Back
Bathroom Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Figure 4-1 Piping Layout for Typical Building Elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Figure 4-2 Piping Layout for Typical Building Site Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Figure 4-3 Typical Roof Drain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Figure 4-4 Typical Roof-Drain Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Figure 4-5 4-In. (101-mm) Roof Drain Flow Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Figure 4-6 Clear-Water Waste Branches for Connection to Storm System . . . 84
Figure 4-7 Typical Expansion Joint or Horizontal Offset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Figure 4-8 Typical Roof Drain and Roof Leader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Figure 4-9 Example of a Controlled-Flow Storm-Drainage System . . . . . . . . . 94
Figure 4-10 Overland Flow Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Figure 4-11 Typical Intensity-Duration-Frequency Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Figure 4-12 Sources of Subsurface Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Figure 4-13 Borings Revealing the Nature of the Ground, Water Table
Elevations, and Rock Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Figure 4-14 Cross Section Illustrating the Concept of the K Factor . . . . . . . 101
Figure 4-15 Open Joint Pipe Surrounded by Filter Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Figure 4-16 Perforated Pipe in Trench . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Figure 4-17 Pipe and Footing Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Figure 4-18 Pipe in Trench with Dimensions of Filter Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Figure 4-19 Sump-Pump Discharge to the Storm-Drainage System . . . . . . . 106
Figure 5-1 Friction Loss of Head Chart, Coefficient of Flow (C) = 140 . . . . . . 118
Figure 5-1 (M) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Figure 5-2 Conversion of Fixture Units, fu, to gpm (L/s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Figure 5-3 Conversion of Fixture Units, fu, to gpm (L/s),
Design Load vs. Fixture Units, Mixed System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Figure 5-4 Typical Friction Losses for Disk-Type Water Meters . . . . . . . . . . 127
Figure 5-5 Establishing the Governing Fixture or Appliance . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Figure 5-6 Determining Pressure Available for Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Table of Contents xxi
Figure 5-7 Pipe Sizing Data, Smooth Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

Figure 5-8 Pipe Sizing Data, Fairly Smooth Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Figure 5-9 Pipe Sizing Data, Fairly Rough Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Figure 5-10 Pipe Sizing Data, Rough Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Figure 5-11 Air Chambers: (a, b) Plain Air Chambers, (c) Standpipe
Air Chamber, (d) Rechargeable Air Chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Figure 5-12 Hydropneumatic Pressure System Layout that Determines the
Minimum Tank Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Figure 5-13 Typical Hydropneumatic Supply System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Figure 5-14 Piping Connections for a Gravity Water-Storage Tank
with Reserve Capacity for Firefighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Figure 7-1 Variations of a Basic Simplex Booster System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Figure 7-3 Pipe Sizing, Low Pressure System with an Initial Pressure
Up to 1 psi (6.9 kPa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Figure 7-4 Pipe Sizing, Any System with an Initial Pressure
Between 1 and 20 psi (6.9 and 137.8 kPa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Figure 7-5 Typical Diversity Curves for Gas Supply to
High-Rise Apartments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Figure 7-6 Diversity Percentage for Multifamily Buildings (Average) . . . . . . . 195
Figure 8-1 Three Legs of Disposal Field Fed from Cross Fitting Laid
on Its Side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Figure 8-2 Disposal Lines Connected by Headers to Circumvent Stoppages . 221
Figure 8-3 Transverse and Lineal Sections of Drain Field Showing Rock and
Earth Backfill around Drain Tile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Figure 8-4 Graph Showing Relation Between Percolation Rate and Allowable
Rate at Sewage Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Figure 9-1 Well under (A) Static and (B) Pumping Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Figure 9-2 Typical Gravel Filter Well with a Vertical Turbine Pump . . . . . . . 246
Figure 9-3 Graph Indicating Minimum Storage-Tank Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Figure 9-4 Storage-Tank Suction Piping Detail: (A) Sump Suction Alternate,
(B) Anti-Vortex Alternate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Figure 10-1 Conversion of Vacuum-Pressure Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Figure 10-2 Schematic Detail of a Typical Laboratory Vacuum-Pump
Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Figure 10-3 Typical Process Vacuum-Pump Duplex Arrangement . . . . . . . . 261
Figure 10-4 Direct Reading Chart Showing Diversity for
Laboratory Vacuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Figure 10-5 Acceptable Leakage in Vacuum Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Figure 10-6 Vacuum-Cleaning Piping Friction Loss Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Figure 10-7 Schematic of a Typical Wet-Vacuum Cleaning Pump Assembly . 276
Figure 11-1 Typical Water Analysis Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Figure 11-2 pH of Saturation for Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Figure 11-3 Detail of Vapor Compression Still . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Figure 11-4 Detail of Multi-Effect Still . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Figure 11-5 Schematic Detail of Large-Scale, Granular-Activated
xxii ASPE Data Book — Volume 2
Carbon Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301

Figure 11-6 Typical Single-Bed Ion Exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Figure 11-7 Typical Dual-Bed Ion Exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Figure 11-8 Typical Mixed-Bed Ion Exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Figure 11-9 Schematic Operation of a Continuous Deionization Unit . . . . . . 306
Figure 11-10 Hollow-Fiber Reverse-Osmosis Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Figure 11-11 Spiral-Wound Reverse-Osmosis Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Figure 11-12 Tubular Reverse Osmosis Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Figure 11-13 Plate-and-Frame Reverse-Osmosis Configuration . . . . . . . . . . 310
Figure 11-14 UV Wavelength Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Figure 11-15 Principle of Corona-Discharge Ozone Generator . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Figure 11-16 Typical Pharmaceutical Water-Flow Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Figure 12-1 Typical Acid-Resistant Manhole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Figure 12-2 Typical Large Acid-Neutralizing Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Figure 12-3 Typical Continuous Acid-Waste Treatment System . . . . . . . . . . 338
Figure 12-4 Typical Oil Interceptor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Figure 12-5 Typical Gravity Draw-Off Installation (A) Plan and (B) Isometric . 349
TABLES
Table 1-1 Residential Fixture-Unit Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Table 1-2 Capacities of Stacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Table 1-3 Horizontal Fixture Branches and Stacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Table 1-4 Values of R, R2/3, AF, and AH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Table 1-5 Approximate Discharge Rates and Velocities in Sloping Drains,
n = 0.015 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Table 1-6 Building Drains and Sewers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Table 1-7 Recommended Grate Open Areas for Various Outlet Pipe Sizes . . . . 10
Table 1-8 Relative Properties of Selected Plumbing Materials for
Drainage Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Table 2-1 The National Sanitation Foundation’s Standard 41 . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Table 2-2 Design Criteria of Six Typical Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Table 2-2 (M) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Table 2-3 Location of the Gray-Water System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Table 2-4 Subsurface Drip Design Criteria of Six Typical Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Table 2-5 Gray-Water Treatment Processes for Normal Process Efficiency . . . 28
Table 2-6 Comparison of Gray-Water System Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Table 2-7 Life-Cycle Economic Comparison: Gray-Water Systems
for 250-Room Hotel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Table 3-1 Suds Pressure-Relief Vents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Table 3-2 Maximum Length of Trap Arm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Table 3-3 Maximum Distance of Fixture Trap from Vent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Table 3-4 Drainage-Fixture-Unit Values for Various Plumbing Fixtures . . . . . 41
Table 3-5 Size and Length of Vents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Table of Contents xxiii
Table 3-6 Size of Vent Stacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Table 3-7 Fixture Unit Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Table 3-8 Fixture Vents and Stack Vents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Table 3-9 Confluent Vents Serving Three Fixture or Stack Vents . . . . . . . . . . 51
Table 3-10 Confluent Vents Serving Four or More Fixture or Stack Vents,
Schedule 40 Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Table 3-11 Confluent Vents Serving Four or More Fixture or Stack Vents,
Copper Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Table 3-12 Flow Areas of Pipe and Tube, in2 (103 mm2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Table 3-13 Arterial Vents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Table 3-14 Fixture Unit Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Table 3-15 Maximum Fixture Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Table 3-16 Size Rules for Connecting Fixtures into the Sovent Single-Stack
Drainage Plumbing System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Table 3-17 Minimum Size of Equalizing Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Table 3-18 Maximum Sovent Stack Loadings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Table 3-19 Loadings for Building Drains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Table 4-1 Maximum Rates of Rainfall for Various US Cities, in./h (mm/h) . . 71
Table 4-2 Sizes of Roof Drains and Vertical Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Table 4-3 Sizes of Semicircular and Equivalent Rectangular Gutters . . . . . . . 86
Table 4-4 Pipe Sizing Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Table 4-5 Sizes of Scuppers for Secondary Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Table 4-6 Some Values of the Rational Coefficient C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Table 4-7 Size Ranges for Filter Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Table 5-1 Displacement-Type Meters Meeting AWWA Specifications—
Flow-Pressure Loss Averages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Table 5-2 Compound-Type Meters Meeting AWWA Specifications—
Table 5-3 Turbine-Type Meters Meeting AWWA Specifications—
Table 5-4 Surface Roughness Coefficient (C) Values for
Various Types of Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Table 5-5 Demand Weight of Fixtures, in Fixture Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Table 5-6 Conversions—Gallons per Minute (Liters per Second) to
Fixture Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Table 5-7 Allowance for Friction Loss in Valves and Threaded Fittings . . . . . 128
Table 5-7 (M) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Table 5-8 Flow and Pressure Required for Various Fixtures during Flow . . . 129
Table 5-9 Water Pipe Sizing—Fixture Units vs. psi/100 ft (kPa/100 m),
Type L Copper Tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Table 5-10 Water Pipe Sizing Fixture Units versus psi/100 ft. (kPa/100 m),
Galvanized Fairly Rough Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Table 5-11 Required Air Chambers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Table 5-12 Sizing and Selection of Water-Hammer Arresters . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
xxiv ASPE Data Book — Volume 2
Table 5-13 Guide to the Assessment of Hazard and Application

of Devices—Isolation at the Fixture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Table 5-14 Guide to the Assessment of Facility Hazard and Application
of Devices—Containment of Premise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Table 5-15 Minimum Flow Rates and Size of Minimum Area of RPBD . . . . . 148
Table 6-1 Typical Hot-Water Temperatures for Plumbing Fixtures
and Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Table 6-2 Hot-Water Multiplier, P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Table 6-2 (M) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Table 6-3 Thermal Properties of Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Table 6-4 Time/Water Temperature Combinations Producing Skin Damage . 170
Table 7-1 Approximate Gas Demand for Common Appliances . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Table 7-2 Equivalent Lengths for Various Valve and Fitting Sizes . . . . . . . . 184
Table 7-3 Natural Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressure < 1.5 psi . . . . . . . 186
Table 7-3(M) Natural Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressure < 10.3 kPa . . . 187
Table 7-4 Natural Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressure < 1.5 psi . . . . . . . 188
Table 7-4(M) Natural Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressure < 10.3 kPa . . . 189
Table 7-5 Natural Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressure > 1 psi . . . . . . . . . 190
Table 7-5(M) Natural Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressure > 6.895 kPa . . 191
Table 7-A1 Natural Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressure > 1 psi . . . . . . . 198
Table 7-A1(M) Natural Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressure > 6.895 kPa . 199
Table 7-A7 Natural Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressure < 1 psi . . . . . . . 210
Table 7-A7(M) Natural Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressure < 6.9 kPa . . . 211
Table 7-B1 Typical Heating Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Table 7-B2 Typical Working Pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Table 7-B3 Conversion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Table 7-B4 Specific Gravity Multipliers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Table 8-1 Minimum Absorption Area for Private Dwellings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Table 8-2 Recommended Distances Between Soil-Absorption System
and Site Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Table 8-3 Liquid Capacity of Tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Table 8-4 Allowable Sludge Accumulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Table 8-5 Average Waste-Water Flows from Residential Sources . . . . . . . . . 233
Table of Contents xxv
Table 8-6 Typical Waste-Water Flows from Commercial Sources . . . . . . . . . 234

Table 8-7 Typical Waste-Water Flows from Institutional Sources . . . . . . . . . 234
Table 8-8 Typical Waste-Water Flows from Recreational Sources . . . . . . . . . 235
Table 8-9 Quantities of Sewage Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Table 8-10 Estimated Distribution of Sewage Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Table 8-11 Allowable Rate of Sewage Application to a
Soil-Absorption System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Table 9-1 Curve Radii for Cast-Iron Pipe, ft (m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Table 9-2 Thrust Block Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Table 9-3 Area of Bearing Face of Concrete Thrust Blocks, ft2 (m2) . . . . . . . 251
Table 9-4 Coefficients of Expansion, in/in/°F (mm/mm/°C) . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Table 10-1 Basic Vacuum-Pressure Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Table 10-2 Conversions from Torr to Various Vacuum-Pressure Units . . . . . 254
Table 10-3 IP and SI Pressure Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Table 10-4 Expanded Air Ratio, 29.92/P, as a Function of Pressure,
P (in. Hg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Table 10-5 Direct Ratio for Converting scfm to acfm (nL/s to aL/s) . . . . . . . 257
Table 10-6 Barometric Pressure Corresponding to Altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Table 10-7 Factor for Flow Rate Reduction Due to Altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Table 10-8 Constant, C, for Finding Mean Air Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Table 10-9 Diversity Factor for Laboratory Vacuum Air Systems . . . . . . . . . 263
Table 10-10 Vacuum-Pump Exhaust Pipe Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Table 10-11 Pressure Loss Data for Sizing Vacuum Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Table 10-12 Recommended Sizes of Hand Tools and Hose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Table 10-13 Flow Rate and Friction Loss for Vacuum-Cleaning Tools
and Hoses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Table 10-14 Recommended Velocities for Vacuum-Cleaning Systems . . . . . . 271
Table 10-15 Pipe Size Based on Simultaneous Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Table 10-16 Equivalent Length (ft.) of Vacuum Cleaning Pipe Fittings . . . . . 274
Table 10-17 Classification of Material for Separator Selection . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Table 11-1 Important Elements, Acid Radicals, and Acids in
Water Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Table 11-2 Converting ppm of Impurities to ppm of Calcium Carbonate . . . . 285
Table 11-3 Resistivity and Conductivity Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Table 11-4 Prediction of Water Tendencies by the Langelier Index . . . . . . . . 291
Table 11-5 Numerical Values for Substitution in Equation 11-3 to Find
the pHs of Saturation for Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Table 11-6 Prediction of Water Tendencies by the Ryzner Index . . . . . . . . . . 292
Table 11-7 Typical Cations and Anions Found in Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Table 11-8 Comparison of Reverse-Osmosis Polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Table 11-9 Recommended Boiler Feed-Water Limits and Steam Purity . . . . . 315
Table 11-10 Water-Treatment Technology for Small Potable Water Systems . 318
Table 11-11 CAP and ASTM Reagent-Grade Water Specifications . . . . . . . . . 319
xxvi ASPE Data Book — Volume 2
Table 11-12 NCCLS Reagent-Grade Water Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319

Table 11-13 AAMI/ANSI Water-Quality Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Table 11-14 ASTM Electronics-Grade Water Standarda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Table 11-15 USP XXII Purified-Water and WFI Water-Purity Standards . . . . 321
Table 12-1 Drainage Pipe Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Table 12-1 (M) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Chapter 1 — Sanitary Drainage Systems 1
1
Sanitary
Drainage
Systems
INTRODUCTION of the stack at the level of entry. In any event, as

soon as the water enters the stack, it is rapidly
A sanitary drainage system generally consists of accelerated downward by the force of gravity, and
horizontal branches, vertical stacks, a building before it falls very far, it assumes the form of a
drain inside the building, and a building sewer sheet around the wall of the stack, leaving the
from the building wall to the point of disposal. center of the pipe open for the flow of air.
To economically design a sanitary drainage This sheet of water continues to accelerate
system is to use the smallest pipes that can rap- until the frictional force exerted by the wall of
idly carry away the soiled water from individual the stack on the falling sheet of water equals
fixtures without clogging the pipes, without leav- the force of gravity. From that point on—if the
ing solids in the piping, without generating distance the water falls is great enough and pro-
excessive pneumatic pressures at points where vided that no flow enters the stack at lower levels
the fixture drains connect to the stack (which to interfere with the sheet—the sheet remains
might cause the reduction of trap water seals unchanged in thickness and velocity until it
and force sewer gases back through inhabitable reaches the bottom of the stack. The ultimate
areas), and without creating undue noise. vertical velocity the sheet attains is called the
“terminal velocity,” and the distance the sheet
Since vents and venting systems are de- must fall to attain this terminal velocity is called
scribed in a separate chapter (Chapter 3 of this the “terminal length.” Following are the formu-
volume), the following discussion centers on the lae developed for terminal velocity and terminal
drain and waste systems’ design. length:
Equation 1-1
FLOW IN STACKS, BUILDING
DRAINS, AND FIXTURE DRAINS Q 2/5
VT = 3.0
d
Flow in Stacks LT = 0.052VT2
Flow in the drain empties into the vertical stack where
fitting, which may be a long-turn tee-wye or a VT = Terminal velocity in stack, fps (m/s)
short-turn or sanitary tee. Each of these fittings
permits flow from the drain to enter the stack LT = Terminal length below point of flow
with a component directed vertically downward. entry, ft (m)
Depending on the rate of flow out of the drain Q = Quantity rate of flow, gpm (L/s)
into the stack, the diameter of the stack, the type d = Diameter of stack, in. (mm)
of stack fitting, and the flow down the stack from
higher levels, if any, the discharge from the fix- Terminal velocity is attained at approximately
ture drain may or may not fill the cross section 10 to 15 fps (3.05 to 5.22 m/s), and this velocity
2 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2
is attained within 10 to 15 ft (3.05 to 5.22 m) of Flow in Fixture Drains

fall from the point of entry.
Determination of the drain size required is a rela-
At the center of the stack is a core of air that tively simple matter, since the fixture drain must
is dragged along with the water by friction and be adequate only to carry the discharge from the
for which a supply source must be provided if fixture to which it is attached. Because of the
excessive pressures in the stack are to be avoided. problem of self-siphonage, however, it is advis-
The usual means of supplying this air is through able to select the diameter of the drain so that
the stack vent or vent stack. The entrained air the drain flows little more than half full under
in the stack causes a pressure reduction inside the maximum discharge conditions likely to be
the stack, which is caused by the frictional ef- imposed by the fixture.
fect of the falling sheet of water dragging the core
of air along with it. For example, a lavatory drain capable of car-
rying the flow discharged from a lavatory may
If the sheet of water falling down the stack still flow full over part or all of its length. There
passes a stack fitting through which the dis- are several reasons for this. The vertical compo-
charge from a fixture is entering the stack, the nent of the flow out of the trap into the drain
water from the branch mixes with or deflects the tends to make the water attach itself to the up-
rapidly moving sheet of water. An excess pres- per elements of the drain, and a slug of water is
sure in the drain from which the water is entering formed, filling the drain at that point. The result
the stack is required to deflect the sheet of water is that, if there is not sufficient air aspirated
flowing downward or mix the branch water with through the overflow, the pipe will flow full for
it. The result is that a back pressure is created part of its length, the average velocity of flow
in the branch, which increases with the flow rate being less than the normal velocity for the rate
and flow velocity down the stack and with the of flow in the drain at a given slope.
rate of flow out of the drain.
If the fixture considered is a water closet, the
surge of water from the closet will continue al-
Flow in Building Drains
most without change even along a very long drain
When the sheet of water reaches the bend at the until it reaches the stack. Thus, it can be as-
base of the stack, it turns at approximately right sumed, for all practical purposes, that the surge
angles into the building drain. Flow enters the caused by the discharge of a water closet through
horizontal drain at a relatively high velocity com- a fixture drain reaches the stack or horizontal
pared to the velocity of flow in a horizontal drain branch with practically the same velocity it had
under uniform flow conditions. The slope of the when it left the fixture.
building drain is not adequate to maintain the
velocity that existed in the sheet when it reached
the base of the stack. The velocity of the water
PNEUMATIC PRESSURES IN A
flowing along the building drain and sewer de- SANITARY DRAINAGE SYSTEM
creases slowly then increases suddenly as the
depth of flow increases and completely fills the Because of the pressure conditions in a stack
cross section of the drain. This phenomenon is and a building drain, the waste water does not
called a “hydraulic jump.” fill the cross section anywhere, so that the air
can flow freely along with the water. The water
The critical distance at which the hydraulic flowing down the wall of the stack drags air with
jump may occur varies from immediately at the it by friction and carries it through the building
stack fitting to ten times the diameter of the stack drain to the street sewer. The air is then vented
downstream. Less jump occurs if the horizontal throughout the main street sewer system so dan-
drain is larger than the stack. After the hydrau- gerous pressures are not build up.
lic jump occurs and water fills the drain, the pipe
tends to flow full until the friction resistance of If air is to enter the top of the stack to re-
the pipe retards the flow to that of uniform flow place that being carried along with the water,
conditions. there must be a pressure reduction inside the
stack. Because of the head loss necessary to ac-
celerate the air and to provide for the energy loss
at the entrance, however, this pressure reduc-
tion is very small; it amounts to only a small
fraction of an inch (a millimeter) of water. What on the plumbing system was originally proposed
causes appreciable pressure reductions is the in 1923 by Dr. Roy B. Hunter. The fixture-unit
partial or complete blocking of the stack by wa- values were designed for application in conjunc-
ter flowing into the stack from a horizontal tion with the probability of simultaneous use of
branch. fixtures to establish the maximum permissible
drainage loads expressed in fixture units rather
A small increase in pneumatic pressure will
than in gallons per minute (gpm) (L/s) of drain-
occur in the building drain even if there is no
age flow. Table 1-1 gives the recommended
complete blocking of the air flow by a hydraulic
fixture-unit values. The plumbing engineer must
jump or by submergence of the outlet and the
conform to local code requirements.
building sewer. This is due to the decrease in
cross-sectional area available for air flow when
the water flowing in the drain has adapted itself Table 1-1 Residential Fixture-Unit Loads
to the slope and diameter of the drain.
Fixture Fixture Units (fu)
FIXTURE DISCHARGE Bathtub 2

CHARACTERISTICS Clothes washer 3
Dishwasher 2
The discharge characteristic curves—flow rates
Floor drain 3
as a function of time—for most water-closet
bowls have the same general shape, but some Laundry tray 2
show a much lower peak and a longer period of Lavatory 1
discharge. The discharge characteristics for vari- Shower 2
ous types of water-closet bowl, particularly Sink (including dishwasher and
low-flow water closets, have a significant impact garbage disposer) 3
on estimating the capacity of a sanitary drain- Water closet (tank type) 4
age system. Other plumbing fixtures, such as
sinks, lavatories, and bathtubs, may produce
similar surging flows in drainage systems, but A fixture unit (fu) is a quantity in terms of
they do not have as marked an effect as water which the load-producing effects on the plumb-
closets do. ing system of different kinds of plumbing fixtures
are expressed on an arbitrarily chosen scale.
DRAINAGE LOADS Dr. Hunter conceived the idea of assigning a
fixture-unit value to represent the degree to
A single-family dwelling contains certain plumb- which a fixture loads a system when used at the
ing fixtures—one or more bathroom groups, each maximum assumed flow and frequency. The
consisting of a water closet, a lavatory, and a purpose of the fixture-unit concept is to make it
bathtub or shower stall; a kitchen sink, dish- possible to calculate the design load on the sys-
washer, and washing machine; and, possibly, a tem directly when the system is a combination
set of laundry trays. Large buildings also have of different kinds of fixtures, each having a load-
other fixtures, for example, slop sinks and drinking characteristic different than the others.
ing water coolers. The important characteristic Current or recently conducted studies of drain-
of these fixtures is that they are not used con- age loads on drainage systems may change these
tinuously. Rather, they are used with irregular values. These include studies of: (1) reduced flow
frequencies that vary greatly during the day. In from water-saving fixtures; (2) models of stack,
addition, the various fixtures have quite differ- branch, and house drain flows; and (3) actual
ent discharge characteristics, regarding both the fixture use.
average rate of flow per use and the duration of
a single discharge. Consequently, the probabil-
ity of all the fixtures in the building operating STACK CAPACITIES
simultaneously is small.
The criterion of flow capacities in drainage stacks
The assigning of fixture-unit (fu) values to is based on the limitation of the water-occupied
fixtures to represent their load-producing effect cross section to a specified fraction, rs, of the
cross section of the stack where terminal veloc- maximum permissible fixture units to be con-
ity exists, as suggested by earlier investigations. veyed by stacks of various sizes. The table was
obtained by taking into account the probability
Flow capacity can be expressed in terms of
of simultaneous use of fixtures. For example, the
the stack diameter and the water cross section:
500 fu is the maximum loading for a 4-in. (100-
Equation 1-2 mm) stack, thus 147 gpm (9.3 L/s) is equivalent
to 500 fu. This is the total load from all branches.
Q = 27.8 × rs5/3 × D8/3
It should be noted that there is a restriction
where of the amount of flow permitted to enter a stack
Q = Capacity, gpm (L/s) from any branch when the stack is more than
rs = Ratio of cross-sectional area of the three branch intervals. If an attempt is made to
sheet of water to cross-sectional area introduce too large a flow into the stack at any
of the stack one level, the inflow will fill the stack at that
level and will even back up the water above the
D = Diameter of the stack, in. (mm) elevation of inflow, which will cause violent pres-
Values of flow rates based on r = ¼, 7/24, and sure fluctuations in the stack—resulting in the
3 are tabulated in Table 1-2. siphoning of trap seals—and may also cause slug-
gish flow in the horizontal branch. This problem
was solved in a study of stack capacities made
Table 1-2 Capacities of Stacks
by Wyly and Eaton at the National Bureau of
Flow, gpm (L/s)
Standards, for the Housing and Home Finance
Pipe Size, Agency, in 1950.
in. (mm) r = 1 /4 r = 7/24 r = 1 /3
The water flowing out of the branch can en-
2 (50) 18.5 (1.18) 23.5 (1.48) — ter the stack only by mixing with the stream
3 (80) 54 (3.40) 70 (4.41) 85 (5.36)
flowing down the stack or by deflecting it. Such
a deflection of the high-velocity stream coming
4 (100) 112 (7.07) 145 (9.14) 180 (11.35)
down the stack can be accomplished only if there
5 (125) 205 (12.93) 270 (17.03) 324 (20.44) is a large enough hydrostatic pressure in the
6 (150) 330 (20.82) 435 (27.44) 530 (33.43) branch, since a force of some kind is required to
8 (200) 710 (44.8) 920 (58.04) 1145 (72.24) deflect the downward flowing stream and there-
10 (250) 1300 (82.0) 1650 (104.1) 2055 (129.65) fore change its momentum. This hydrostatic
pressure is built up by the backing up of the
12 (300) 2050 (129.3) 2650 (167.2) 3365 (212.3)
water in the branch until the head thus created
suffices to change the momentum of the stream
already in the stack enough to allow the flow
Whether or not Equation 1-2 can be used
from the branch to enter the stack.
safely to predict stack capacities remains to be
confirmed and accepted. However, it provides a The magnitude of the maximum hydrostatic
definite law of variation of stack capacity with pressure that should be permitted in the branch
diameter; and if this law can be shown to hold as a result of the backing up of the spent water
for the lower part of the range of stack diam- is based on the consideration that this backing
eters, it should be valid for the larger diameters. up should not be sufficiently great to cause the
It should be remembered that both F.M. Dawson water to back up into a shower stall or to cause
and Dr. Hunter, in entirely independent investi- sluggish flow. It is half the diameter of the hori-
gations, came to the conclusion that slugs of zontal branch at its connection to the stack. That
water, with their accompanying violent pressure is, it is the head measured at the axis of the pipe
fluctuations, did not occur until the stack flowed that will just cause the branch to flow full near
¼ to 3 full. Most model codes have based their the exit.
stack loading tables on a value of r = ¼ or 7/24.
When a long-turn tee-wye is used to connect
The recommended maximum permissible the branch to the stack, the water has a greater
flow in a stack is 7/24 of the total cross-sectional vertical velocity when it enters the stack than it
area of the stack. Substituting r = 7/24 into Equa- does when a sanitary tee is used, and the back
tion 1-2, the corresponding maximum pressures should be smaller in this case for the
permissible flow for the various sizes of pipe in same flows down the stack and in the branch.
gpm (L/s) can be determined. Table 1-3 lists the
Table 1-3 shows the maximum permissible To illustrate clearly the requirements of a
fu loads for sanitary stacks. The procedure for stack with an offset of more than 45° from the
sizing a multistory stack (greater than three vertical, Figure 1-1 shows the sizing of a stack
floors) is first to size the horizontal branches in a 12-story building where there is one offset
connected to the stack. This is done by totaling between the fifth and sixth floors and another
the fixture units connected to each branch and offset below the street floor.
size in accordance with column 2 in Table 1-3.
Sizing is computed as follows:
Next, total all the fixture units connected to the
stack and determine the size from the same table, Step 1. Compute the fixture units connected to
under column 4. Immediately check the next the stack. In this case, assume there are 1200
column, “Total at One Branch Interval,” and de- fixture units connected to the stack from the
termine that this maximum is not exceeded by street floor through the top floor.
any of the branches. If it is exceeded, the size of
Step 2. Size the portion of the stack above the
the stack as originally determined must be in-
fifth-floor offset. There are 400 fixture units
creased at least one size, or the loading of the
from the top floor down through the sixth
branches must be redesigned so that maximum
floor. According to Table 1-3, column 4, 400
conditions are satisfied. Take, for example, a 4-
fixture units require a 4-in. (100-mm) stack.
in. (100-mm) stack more than three stories in
height: The maximum loading for a 4-in. (100- Step 3. Size the offset on the 5th floor. An offset
mm) branch is 160 fu, as shown in column 2 of is sized and sloped like a building drain.
Table 1-3. This load is limited by column 5 of Step 4. Size the lower portion of the stack from
the same table, which permits only 90 fu to be the fifth floor down through the street floor.
introduced into a 4-in. (100-mm) stack in any The lower portion of the stack must be large
one branch interval. The stack would have to be enough to serve all fixture units connected
increased in size to accommodate any branch to it, from the top floor down, in this case,
load exceeding 90 fu. 1200 fixture units. According to Table 1-3,
1200 fixture units require a 6-in. (150-mm)
Table 1-3 Horizontal Fixture stack.
Branches and Stacks Step 5. Size and slope the offset below the street
floor the same as a building drain.
Maximum Number of Fixture Units
(fu) that May Be Connected to The fixture on the sixth floor should be con-
Stacks with More than nected to the stack at least 2 ft (0.6 m) above the
Any 1 Stack of
Diameter Horizontal 3 or Fewer 3 Branch Intervals offset. If this is not possible, then connect them
of Pipe, Fixture Branch Total Total at 1 separately to the stack at least 2 ft (0.6 m) below
in. (mm) Brancha Intervals for Stack Branch Interval the offset. If this is not possible either, run the
fixture drain down to the fifth or fourth floor and
1½ (40) 3 4 8 2 connect to the stack there.
2 (50) 6 10 24 6
2½ (65) 12 20 42 9 CAPACITIES OF SLOPING DRAINS
3 (80) 20b 48b 72b 20b
4 (100) 160 240 500 90 Capacities of horizontal or sloping drains are
5 (125) 360 540 1100 200 complicated by surging flow.
6 (150) 620 960 1900 350 The concept of flow on which the determina-
8 (200) 1400 2200 3600 600 tion of drain sizes is based is that of a highly
fluctuating or surging condition in the horizon-
10 (250) 2500 3800 5600 1000 tal branches that carry the discharges of fixtures
12 (300) 3900 6000 8400 1500 to the soil or waste stack. After falling down the
15 (380) 7000 vertical stack, the water is assumed to enter the
building drain with the peaks of the surges lev-
aDoes not include branches of the building drain. eled off somewhat but still in a surging condition.
bNo more than 2 water closets or bathroom groups within each
branch interval or more than 6 water closets or bathroom groups In a large building covering considerable
on the stack. ground area there are probably several primary
branches and certainly at least one secondary Steady, Uniform Flow Conditions in
branch. After the water enters the building drain, Sloping Drains
the surge continues to level off, becoming more
and more nearly uniform, particularly after the Although the equations of steady, uniform flow
hydraulic jump has occurred. If the secondary in sloping drains should not be used to deter-
branch is long enough, and if the drain serves a mine the capacities of sloping drains in which
large number of fixtures, the flow may become surging flow exists, flow computations based on
substantially uniform before it reaches the street these formulas afford a rough check on values
sewer. obtained by the more complicated methods that
Figure 1-1 Procedure for Sizing an Offset Stack

are applicable to surging flow. Hence, three of The quantity of flow is equal to the cross-
the commonly used formulas for flow in pipes sectional area of flow times the velocity of flow
will be considered: (1) Hazen and Williams, (2) obtained from the above three equations. This
Manning, and (3) Darcy-Weisbach. can be expressed as:
Hazen and Williams formula This formula is Equation 1-5a

usually written:
Q = AV
Equation 1-3 where
V = 1.318 × C × R 0.63
×S0.54
Q = Quantity rate of flow, cfs (m3/s)
where A = Cross-sectional area of flow, ft2 (m2)
V = Mean velocity of flow, fps (m/s) V = Velocity of flow, fps (m/s)
C = Hazen and Williams coefficient By substituting the value of V from Manning’s
R = Hydraulic radius of pipe, ft (m) formula, the quantity of flow in variously sized
drains of the same material can be calculated:
S = Slope of pressure gradient
The exponents of R and S in Equation 1-3 have Equation 1-5b
been selected to make the coefficient C as nearly 1.486
constant as possible for different pipe diameters Q = A × × R2/3 × S1/2
n
and for different velocities of flow. Thus, C is ap-
proximately constant for a given pipe roughness. This is the formula used by many plumbing
engineers to deal with sloping drain problems.
Darcy-Weisbach formula In this formula the The significant hydraulic parameters used in the
dimensionless friction coefficient f varies with the above equation are listed in Table 1-4.
diameter of the pipe, the velocity of flow, the ki-
nematic viscosity of the fluid flowing, and the It should be noted that the units in the above
roughness of the walls. It is usually written: equations should be converted to the proper units
whenever utilizing Equations 1-5a or 1-5b.
Equation 1-4
fLV2 Slope of Horizontal Drainage Piping
hf =
D 2g Horizontal drains are designated to flow at half-
where full capacity under uniform flow conditions to
hf = Pressure drop or friction loss, ft (m) minimize the generation of pneumatic pressure
fluctuations. A minimum slope of ¼ in./ft (6.4
f = Friction coefficient mm/m) should be provided for pipe 3 in. (80 mm)
L = Length of pipe, ft (m) and smaller, 8 in./ft (3.2 mm/m) for 4–6-in.
(100–150-mm) pipe, and z in./ft (1.6 mm/m)
D = Diameter of pipe, ft (m)
for pipe 8 in. (200 mm) and larger. (The designer
V = Mean velocity of flow, fps (m/s) must confirm required slopes with the local code
g = Acceleration of gravity, 32.2 fps2 (9.8 authority.) These minimum slopes are required
m/s2) to maintain a velocity of flow greater than 2 fps
for scouring action. Table 1-5 gives the approxi-
Manning formula The Manning formula, which mate velocities for given slopes and diameters of
is similar to the Hazen and Williams formula, is horizontal drains based on the Manning formula
meant for open-channel flow and is usually writ- for ½-full pipe and n = 0.015.
ten:
Equation 1-5 Load or Drainage Piping

1.486 1.486 The recommended design loads for building
V = × R2/3 × S1/2 = × R0.67 × S0.50 drains and sewers are tabulated in Table 1-6.
n n
This table shows the maximum number of fix-
In this formula, n is the Manning coefficient ture units that may be connected to any portion
and varies with the roughness of the pipe and of the building drain or building sewer for given
the pipe diameter.
Table 1-4 Values of R, R2/3, AF, and AH

D AF (Cross-Sectional AH (Cross-Sectional
R =
Pipe Size, 4, R2/3, Area for Full Flow), Area for Half-Full Flow),
in. (mm) ft (mm) ft (mm) ft2 (m2) ft2 (m2)
1½ (40) 0.0335 (1.02) 0.1040 (3.17) 0.01412 (0.0013) 0.00706 (0.0006)
2 (50) 0.0417 (1.27) 0.1200 (3.66) 0.02180 (0.0020) 0.01090 (0.0009)
2½ (65) 0.0521 (1.59) 0.1396 (4.24) 0.03408 (0.0031) 0.01704 (0.0015)
3 (80) 0.0625 (1.90) 0.1570 (4.78) 0.04910 (0.0046) 0.02455 (0.0023)
4 (100) 0.0833 (2.54) 0.1910 (5.82) 0.08730 (0.0081) 0.04365 (0.0040)
5 (125) 0.1040 (3.17) 0.2210 (6.74) 0.13640 (0.0127) 0.06820 (0.0063)
6 (150) 0.1250 (3.81) 0.2500 (7.62) 0.19640 (0.0182) 0.09820 (0.0091)
8 (200) 0.1670 (5.09) 0.3030 (9.23) 0.34920 (0.0324) 0.17460 (0.0162)
10 (250) 0.2080 (6.33) 0.3510 (10.70) 0.54540 (0.0506) 0.27270 (0.0253)
12 (300) 0.2500 (7.62) 0.3970 (12.10) 0.78540 (0.0730) 0.39270 (0.0364)
15 (380) 0.3125 (9.53) 0.4610 (14.05) 1.22700 (0.0379) 0.61350 (0.0570)
Table 1-5 Approximate Discharge Rates and Velocities in Sloping Drains, n = 0.015a
½-Full Flow Discharge Rate and Velocity
Actual Inside
1/16 1/8 1/4 1/2
Diameter in./ft (1.6 mm/m) Slope in./ft (3.2 mm/m) Slope in./ft (6.4 mm/m) Slope in./ft (12.7 mm/m) Slope
of Pipe, Disch., Velocity, Disch., Velocity, Disch., Velocity, Disch. Velocity,
in. (mm) gpm (L/s) fps (mm/s) gpm (L/s) fps (mm/s) gpm (L/s) fps (mm/s) gpm (L/s) fps (mm/s)
14 (31.8) 3.40 (0.21) 1.78 (45.5)

1a (34.9) 3.13 (0.20) 1.34 (0.41) 4.44 (0.28) 1.90 (48.3)
12 (38.9) 3.91 (0.247) 1.42 (0.43) 5.53 (0.35) 2.01 (51.1)
1s (41.28) 4.81 (0.30) 1.50 (0.46) 6.80 (0.38) 2.12 (53.9)
2 (50.8) 8.42 (0.53) 1.72 (0.52) 11.9 (0.75) 2.43 (61.8)
22 (63.5) 10.8 (0.68) 1.41 (0.43) 15.3 (0.97) 1.99 (0.61) 21.6 (1.36) 2.82 (71.7)
3 (76.3) 17.6 (1.11) 1.59 (0.49) 24.8 (1.56) 2.25 (0.69) 35.1 (2.21) 3.19 (81.1)
4 (101.6) 26.70 (1.68) 1.36 (34.6) 37.8 (2.38) 1.93 (0.59) 53.4 (3.37) 2.73 (0.83) 75.5 (4.76) 3.86 (98.2)
5 (127) 48.3 (3.05) 1.58 (40.2) 68.3 (4.30) 2.23 (0.68) 96.6 (6.10) 3.16 (0.96) 137. (8.64) 4.47 (113.7)
6 (152.4) 78.5 (4.83) 1.78 (45.3) 111. (7.00) 2.52 (0.77) 157. (10.) 3.57 (1.09) 222. (14.0) 5.04 (128.2)
8 (203.2) 170. (10.73) 2.17 (55.2) 240. (15.14) 3.07 (0.94) 340. (21.5) 4.34 (1.32) 480. (30.3) 6.13 (155.9)
10 (256) 308. (19.43) 2.52 (64.1) 436. (27.50) 3.56 (1.09) 616. (38.9) 5.04 (1.54) 872. (55.0) 7.12 (181.0)
12 (304.8) 500. (31.55) 2.83 (72.0) 707. (44.60) 4.01 (1.22) 999. (63.0) 5.67 (1.73) 1413. (89.15) 8.02 (204.0)
a n = Manning coefficient, which varies with the roughness of the pipe.

slopes and diameters of pipes. For example, an other will remain in operation and no damage
offset below the lowest branch with 1300 fu at ¼ will be caused by the cessation of system opera-
in./ft (6.4 mm/m) slope requires an 8-in. (200- tion. When a duplex unit is used, each pump
mm) pipe. should be sized for 100% flow, and it is good
practice to have the operation of the pumps al-
For devices that provide continuous or semi-
ternate automatically.
continuous flow into the drainage system, such
as sump pumps, ejectors, and air-conditioning Incoming water is collected in the sump be-
equipment, a value of 2 fu can be assigned for fore it goes down the drain pipe. Heavy-flow
each gpm (L/s) of flow. For example, a sump drains require large sumps to retain greater than
pump that discharges at the rate of 200 gpm usual amounts of water, thereby creating more
(12.6 L/s) is equivalent to 200 × 2 = 400 fu. head pressure on the pipe inlet. Most manufac-
turers make their sumps with bottom, side, or
angle outlets and with inside caulk, no-hub,
COMPONENTS OF SANITARY push-on, spigot, or screwed connections.
DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
Cleanouts
Sumps and Ejectors
The cleanout provides access to horizontal and
Building drains that cannot be discharged to the vertical lines to facilitate inspection and provide
sewer by gravity flow may be discharged into a a means of removing obstructions such as solid
tightly covered and vented sump, from which the objects, greasy wastes, and hair. Cleanouts, in
liquid is lifted and discharged into the building’s general, must be gas and water-tight, provide
gravity drainage system by automatic pump quick and easy plug removal, allow ample space
equipment or by any equally efficient method for the operation of cleansing tools, have a means
approved by the administrative authority. A du- of adjustment to finished surfaces, be attractive
plex pump system should be used, so that, in in appearance, and be designed to support what-
the event of the breakdown of one pump, an- ever traffic is directed over them.
Some cleanouts are designed with a neoprene
seal plug, which prevents “freezing” or binding
Table 1-6 Building Drains and Sewersa to the ferrule. All plugs are machined with a
Maximum Number of Fixture Units that straight or running thread and a flared shoulder
May Be Connected to Any Portion of the for the neoprene gasket, permitting quick and
Building Drain or Building Sewer certain removal when necessary. A maximum
Diameter opening is provided for tool access. Recessed
of Pipe, Slope, in./ft (mm/m)
1/16 1/8 (3.2) 1/4 (6.4) 1/2 (12.7) covers are available to accommodate carpet, tile,
in. (mm) (1.6)
terrazzo and other surface finishes, and are ad-
justable to the exact floor level established by
2 (50) 21 26 the adjustable housing or by the set screws.
2½ (65) 24 31
Waste lines are normally laid beneath the
3 (80) 42b 50b
floor slabs at a distance sufficient to provide ad-
4 (100) 180 216 250 equate backfill over the joints. Cleanouts are then
5 (125) 390 480 575 brought up to floor-level grade by pipe extension
6 (150) 700 840 1,000 pieces. Where the sewer line is at some distance
8 (200) 1400 1600 1,920 2,300 below grade and not easily accessible through
10 (250) 2500 2900 3,500 4,200 extensions, small pits or manholes with access
covers must be installed. When cleanouts are
12 (300) 2900 4600 5,600 6,700
installed in traffic areas, the traffic load must be
15 (380) 7000 8300 10,000 12,000 considered when the materials of construction
aOn-site sewers that serve more than one building may be sized are selected.
according to the current standards and specifications of the ad- The size of the cleanout within a building
ministrative authority for public sewers.
bNo more than 2 water closets or 2 bathroom groups, except in
should be the same size as the piping, up to 4
single-family dwellings, where no more than 3 water closets or 3
in. (100 mm). For larger size interior piping, 4-
bathroom groups may be installed. in. (100-mm) cleanouts are adequate for their
intended purpose; however, 6-in. (150-mm) Floor Drains and Floor Sinks
cleanouts are recommended to allow for a larger
variety of access for sewer video equipment. A large-diameter drain with a deep sump con-
nected to a large-diameter pipe will pass more
Cleanouts should be provided at the follow- water more rapidly than a smaller drain will.
ing locations: However, economics do not allow the designer
1. Five ft 0 in. (1.5 m) outside or inside the build- arbitrarily to select the largest available drain
ing at the point of exit. when a smaller, less-expensive unit will do a sat-
isfactory job. High-capacity drains are intended
2. At every change of direction greater than 45°. for use primarily in locations where the flow
3. A maximum distance between cleanouts of reaches high rates, such as malls, washdown
50 ft (15.1 m) should be maintained for pip- areas, and certain industrial applications. Table
ing 4 in. (100 mm) and smaller, and of 75 ft 1-7, which shows minimum ratios of open grate
(22.9 m) for larger piping. Underground sani- area based on pipe diameter, is offered as a guide
tary sewer piping larger than 10 in. (250 mm) for the selection of drains where the drain pipe
in diameter should be provided with man- diameter is known.
holes at every change of direction and every The only drawback to using the open-area-
150 ft (45.7 m). pipe-diameter-ratio method is that all drain
4. At the base of all stacks. manufacturers do not list the total open areas of
grates in their catalogs. This information usu-
5. To comply with applicable codes.
ally can be obtained upon request, however.
Optional locations include:
For the sizing of floor drains for most indoor
1. At the roof stack terminal. applications, the capacity of a drain is not ex-
2. At the end of horizontal fixture branches or tremely critical because the drain’s primary
waste lines. function is to handle minor spillage or fixture
overflow. The exceptions are, of course, cases
3. At fixture traps. (Fixture traps can be where equipment discharges to the drain, where
premanufactured with cleanout plugs, al- automatic fire sprinklers may deluge an area with
though some codes prohibit the installation large amounts of water, and where flushing of
of this kind of trap.) the floor is required for sanitation.
Generally located floor drains or drains in-
stalled to anticipate a failure may not receive
sufficient water flow to keep the protective water
seal or plumbing trap from evaporating; if it does
evaporate, sewer gases will enter the space. Au-
tomatic or manual trap primers should be
Table 1-7 Recommended Grate Open
installed to maintain a proper trap seal. (A small
Areas for Various Outlet Pipe Sizes amount of vegetable oil will dramatically reduce
Recommended Minimum Grate Open Area the evaporation rate of infrequently used floor
Transverse Minimum drains and floor sinks.)
Nominal Area of Pipe, Inside Area, Figure 1-2 shows the basic components of a
Pipe Size, in.2a in.2
floor drain.
in. (mm) (× 10 mm2) (× 10 mm2)
1½ (40) 2.04 (1.3) 2.04 (1.3) Grates/Strainers

2 (50) 3.14 (2.0) 3.14 (2.0) The selection of grates is based on use and the
3 (80) 7.06 (4.6) 7.06 (4.6) amount of flow. Light-traffic areas may have a
4 (100) 12.60 (8.1) 12.06 (8.1) nickel-bronze-finished grate, while mechanical
5 (125) 19.60 (12.7) 19.60 (12.7) areas may have a large, heavy-duty, ductile iron
6 (150) 28.30 (18.3) 28.30 (18.3)
grate.
8 (200) 50.25 (32.4) 50.24 (32.4) The wearing of spike-heeled shoes prompted
the replacement of grates with a heel-proof, ¼-
aBased on extra-heavy soil pipe, nominal internal diameter.
Figure 1-2 Basic Floor-Drain Components:

(A) Removable Grate; (B) Rust-Resistant Bolts; (C) Integral, One-Piece, Flashing Ring;
(D) Cast Drain Body with Sump; (E) Sediment Bucket (optional).
in.-square (6.4-mm) hole design in public toilet into its original position. Ramp-drain gratings
rooms, corridors, passageways, promenade should be slightly convex because rapidly flowing
decks, patios, stores, theaters, and markets. ramp water has a tendency to flow across the
Though this type of grating has less drainage grate. A better solution to this problem is to place
capacity than the previous one, its safety fea- flat-top grates on a level surface at the bottom of
ture makes it well worth the change. the ramp, rather than on the ramp slope.
Grates or strainers should be secured with A technique in casting grates is the reversal
stainless-steel screws in nickel-bronze tops. of pattern draft, which removes the razor-sharp
Vandal-proof fasteners are available from most edges created when grates are buffed. See Fig-
manufacturers. Vandal-proofing floor drain ure 1-3. The prevalent buffing technique is called
grates is advisable. If there is public access to “scuff-buff’ because it gives the grate a slightly
the roof, consideration must be given to protect- used appearance. The use of slots in grates is
ing the vent openings from vandals. becoming obsolete because of the slicing edges
they create, which cause excess wear and tear
In school gymnasium shower rooms, where
the blocking of flat-top shower drains with paper
towels can cause flooding, dome grates in the cor-
ners of the room or angle grates against the walls
can be specified in addition to the regular shower
drains. Shower-room gutters and curbs have be-
come undesirable because of code requirements
(a)
and the obvious dangers involved. Therefore, the
passageways from shower areas into locker areas
need extended-length drains to prevent runoff
water from entering the locker areas.
Where grates are not secured and are subject
to vehicular traffic, it is recommended that
nontilting and/or tractor-type grates be installed. (b)
When a grate starts to follow a wheel or is hit on
one edge and starts to tilt, the skirt catches the Figure 1-3 Pattern Draft for Floor Gratings:
side of the drain body and the grate slides back (a) Sharp Edge, (b) Reverse Pattern.
on the wheels of hand-trucks and other vehicles.

Square openings are more desirable because they
shorten this edge and provide greater drainage
capacity than round holes.
Flashing Ring
This component makes an effective seal, which
prevents water from passing around the drain Figure 1-4 Types of Floor Drain:
to the area below. (A) Typical Drain with Integral Trap
that May Be Cleaned Through Removable
Strainer at Floor Level;
Sediment Bucket (B) Floor Drain with Combination Cleanout
A “sediment bucket” is an additional internal and Backwater Valve, for Use Where
Possibility of Backflow Exists;
strainer designed to collect debris that gets by
(C) Drain with Combined Cleanout,
the regular strainer; it is required wherever the
Backwater Valve, and Sediment Bucket.
drain can receive solids, trash, or grit that could
plug piping. Locations include:
1. Toilet rooms in commercial buildings should
be equipped with floor drains with sediment
buckets to facilitate cleaning.
Backwater Valves
2. Floor drains with sediment buckets must also A backwater valve can be installed on a building
be provided in mechanical equipment rooms, sewer/house drain when the drain is lower than
where pumps, boilers, water chillers, heat the sewer line, when unusual sewer surcharges
exchangers, and HVAC equipment regularly may occur due to combined storm-water and
discharge and/or must be periodically sanitary sewer systems, or when older munici-
drained for maintenance and repairs. HVAC pal sewers incur high rates of infiltration. A
equipment requires the drainage of conden- backwater valve reacts similarly to the way a
sate from cooling coils, using indirect drains. check valve does. The device consists of a me-
chanical flapper or disc, which requires a certain
3. Boilers require drains with sediment buck-
amount of maintenance; therefore, attention
ets. Strategically located floor drains are also
must be given during the placement of these
required in buildings with wet fire-protection
devices to a free area and access for maintenance.
sprinkler systems to drain water in case
Sediment can accumulate on the flapper valve
sprinkler heads are activated. The maximum
seat, preventing the flapper from closing tightly.
temperature of liquids discharged should be
Also, many valves employ a spring or mechani-
140°F (60°C).
cal device to exert a positive pressure on the
Floor drains shall connect into a trap so con- flapper device, which requires occasional lubri-
structed that it can be readily cleaned and sized cation. Most manufacturers of backwater valves
to serve efficiently the purpose for which it is provide an access cover plate for maintenance,
intended. A deep-seal-type trap or an approved which may also be used as a building sewer
automatic priming device should be provided. The cleanout.
trap shall be accessible either from the floor-drain
inlet or by a separate cleanout within the drain. Figure 1-5 illustrates various types of back-
Figure 1-4 illustrates several types of drain that water valve that may be installed where there is
a possibility of backflow.
meet these conditions.
Accessories Oil Interceptors

In commercial establishments such as service
A variety of accessories are available to make
stations, garages, auto-repair shops, dry clean-
the basic drain adaptable to various types of
structure. The designer must know the construc- ers, laundries, industrial plants, and process
tion of the building, particularly the floor and industries having machine shops, metal-treat-
ing process rooms, chemical process or mixing
deck structures, to specify the appropriate drain.
Grease Interceptors
In the drainage from commercial kitchens,
grease, fats, and oils must be separated from
sewage. This function is performed by grease in-
terceptors installed in drain lines where the
presence of grease in the sewage is expected.
It is sometimes practical to discharge the
waste from two or more sinks into a single inter-
ceptor. This practice is recommended only when
all the fixtures are close together to avoid instal-
Figure 1-5 Various Types of ling long piping runs to the interceptor. The closer
Backwater Valve the interceptor can be installed to the fixture(s)
the better. The longer the run of pipe, the cooler
the waste water is. As the waste water cools, the
grease congeals, coating and clogging the inte-
rior of the pipe.
rooms, etc., there is always the problem of flam-
mable or volatile liquids entering the drainage The procedures for sizing grease interceptors
system, which can contaminate the sewer line are as follows:
and cause a serious fire or explosive condition.
1. Determine the cubic content of the fixtures
Oil interceptors are designed to separate and by multiplying length by width by depth.
collect oils and other light-density, volatile liq-
2. Determine the capacity in gallons (1 gal =
uids, which would otherwise be discharged into
231 in.3) (liters [1 L = 1000 cm3]).
the drainage system. An oil interceptor is required
wherever lubricating oil, cutting oil, kerosene, 3. Determine the actual drainage load. The fix-
gasoline, diesel fuel, aircraft fuel, naphtha, par- ture is usually filled to about 75% of capacity
affin, trisodium phosphate, or other light-density with waste water. The items being washed
and volatile liquids are present in or around the displace about 25% of the fixture content.
drainage system. Therefore, actual drainage load = 75% of fix-
ture capacity.
The interceptor is furnished with a sediment
bucket, which collects debris, small parts, chips, 4. Determine the flow rate and the drainage pe-
particles, and other sediment that are frequently riod. In general, good practice dictates a
present in industrial waste from these types of 1-min drainage period; however, where con-
facility and could clog the drainage system. A ditions permit, a 2-min period is acceptable.
gasketed, removable cover permits access for The drainage period is the actual time re-
cleaning the interceptor. To eliminate pressure quired to completely empty the fixture.
buildup inside the interceptor, a connection on Actual drainage load
each side of the body allows the venting of the 5. Flow rate =
Drainage period
interceptor.
6. Select the interceptor that corresponds to the
Oil interceptors are sized in accordance with flow rate calculated.
the maximum anticipated gpm (L/s) flow rate of
waste water that could be discharged through It is recommended to provide the automatic
the drains they serve. A flow-control fitting of removal of grease from the interceptor to a stor-
the exact gpm (L/s) interceptor rating ensures age tank that can be cleaned regularly.
maximum oil interception efficiency. If this flow
rating is exceeded, the separation of the oil from Trap Primers
the waste water will not occur.
In lieu of deep-seal P-traps, many jurisdictions
Oil draw-off pipes, used in conjunction with require trap primers on floor and fixture drains
a supplemental waste oil storage tank, can im- that are consistently used on an infrequent ba-
prove efficiency and prolong system maintenance sis. General-purpose, mechanical-room drains;
and cleaning. toilet-room drains; and seasonable, condensate
drains fall into this category. A trap primer allows
small amounts of water to trickle into the device building settlement may be significant, special
to prevent the loss of the trap seal through evapo- hanging arrangements may be necessary. Un-
ration. Maintaining proper water-trap seals is derground piping should be continuously and
critical to keeping sewer gases from entering oc- firmly supported, but blocking below metal pipe
cupied spaces. (Refer to Chapter 3 of this volume, is usually acceptable. Consult the manufacturer
“Vents and Venting Systems.”) Some jurisdictions for recommendations for piping materials not
allow manual trap primers, which consist of a covered in the code and for special problems.
manual valve on a domestic water supply divert-
Hangers should be designed adequately. To
ing water to, or directly connected to, the fixture
protect from damage by building occupants, al-
trap. Automatic trap primers are widely accepted.
low at least a 250-lb (113.4-kg) safety factor when
Following are some of the different types:
designing hangers. See Data Book, Volume 4,
1. Electric-operated, solenoid valves. These can Chapter 6 for further information.
be programmed to operate at predetermined
Seismic restraint must also be considered.
and regular intervals. They require a power
source and should be specified to fail in the
closed position. MATERIALS
2. Pressure-differential-actuated valves. These
are connected to or installed in-line on a do- Materials recommended for soil and waste pip-
mestic water line. They discharge a small ing, installed above ground within buildings, are
amount of water each time there is a change copper alloy, copper, cast iron (hub-and-spigot
in the domestic-water-line pressure. Pressure or hubless), galvanized steel, lead, or PVC plas-
fluctuates upon fixture use and/or flush- tic pipe. Underground building drains should be
valve operation. cast-iron soil pipe, hard-temper copper tube, ABS
3. Fixture supply-water type. These devices are or PVC, PVDF, DWV pattern schedule 40 plastic
pipe with compression joints or couplings, in-
mounted on the tailpiece of a flushometer
stalled with a minimum cover of 12 in. (300 mm).
valve to collect a small portion of water as it
Corrosive wastes require suitably acid-resistant
cascades toward the bowl. The flushometer
materials such as high-silicon cast iron, boro-
tailpiece is typically protected from back-si-
phonage by the vacuum breaker mounted at silicate glass, polypropylene, etc. (Note: Some
the tailpiece entrance. blood analyzers disharge sodium azide. It forms
a very dangerous, explosive compound with cop-
4. Fixture waste-water type. These devices are per pipes. Either other piping must be used or
mounted on the trap of frequently used fix- the sodium azide must be kept out of the sys-
tures. A tapping at the overflow line will allow tem.) The materials used for pipe fittings must
small amounts of waste water to enter an be compatible with the materials utilized for pip-
adjacent, infrequently used drain as the trap ing. Fittings should sweep in the direction of flow
surges during use. and have smooth interior surfaces without
Automatic trap primers can be obtained as ledges, shoulders, or reductions that may ob-
pre-engineered devices, which have approvals struct the flow in piping.
that are widely accepted. All direct connections Drains specified with cast-iron or PVC bod-
between the sewer system and the potable water ies should be suitable for most installations.
system must be protected from contamination Where extra corrosion resistance is required,
potential. The above-referenced primers can be high-silica cast iron, polypropylene, borosilicate
manufactured with, or fitted with, devices that glass, stainless steel, galvanized iron, or other
are approved to prevent cross-contamination. acid-resisting material should be selected. Where
a sediment bucket is used, it should be bronze
Supports or galvanized or stainless steel. Enameled sedi-
ment buckets are impractical because they chip
The location of pipe supports is usually speci- when cleaned.
fied by code. They are located to maintain a slope
that is as uniform as possible and will not change In the selection of materials for top surfaces,
with time. In this regard, the rigidity of pipe and such as grates, where floor drains are visible in
joints and the possibility of creep and bedding finished areas, appearance is a prime consider-
settlement are primary considerations. When ation. As cast iron will rust and galvanizing and
chrome plating will eventually be worn off by traf- 2. Shallow fill. Where shallow amounts of fill
fic, the preferred material is solid, cast exist, the trench can be over excavated to
nickel-bronze, which maintains its attractive accept a bed of sand, crushed stone, or simi-
appearance. In a swimming pool, however, chlo- lar material that is easily compacted. Bedding
rine necessitates the use of chlorine-resistant should be installed in lifts (layers), with each
materials. For large grates that will be subject to lift compacted to ensure optimum compac-
hand-truck or forklift traffic, a ductile iron grate tion of the bedding. The bed must be
with or without a nickel-bronze veneer is recom- compacted in alignment with the proposed
mended. pitch and grade of the sewer. It is recom-
mended that pipe joints or bell hub
Polished brass or bronze for floor service has
depressions be hand prepared due to the
the disadvantage of discoloring unless there is
coarser crushed stone. The soil bearing
constant traffic over it. Cast aluminum has also
weight determines trench widths and bed-
been found inadequate for certain floor-service
ding thickness.
applications due to excessive oxidation and its
inability to withstand abrasion. 3. Deep fill. Where deep amounts of fill exist,
the engineer should consult a geotechnical
Noise Transmission engineer, who will perform soil borings to de-
termine the depths at which soils with proper
Noise transmission along pipes may be reduced bearing capacities exist. Solutions include
by avoiding direct metal-to-metal connections. compacting existing fill by physical means
Noise transmission through pipe walls is gen- or removing existing fill and replacing it with
erally reduced by using heavier materials. Noise crushed stone structural fill.
transmission to the building may be reduced 4. Backfilling. Backfilling of the trench is just
by isolating piping with resilient materials, such as critical as the compaction of the trench
as rugs, belts, plastic, or insulation. See Table bed and the strength of existing soils. Im-
1-8 for relative noise-insulation absorption proper backfill placement can dislodge pipe
values. and cause uneven sewer settlement, with
physical depressions in the surface. The type
of backfill material and compaction require-
BUILDING SEWER INSTALLATION ments need to be reviewed to coordinate with
the type of permanent surface. Landscaped
The installation of building sewers (house drains) areas are more forgiving of improper backfill
is very critical to the operation of the sewer. In- placement than hard surface areas, such as
adequate bedding in poor soils may allow the concrete or bituminous paving.
sewer to settle, causing dips and low points in
the sewer. The settlement of sewers interrupts Care must be taken when using mechanical
flow, diminishes minimum cleansing velocity, means to compact soils above piping. Me-
reduces capacity, and creates a point where sol- chanical compaction of the first layer above
ids can drop out of suspension and collect. the pipe by vibrating or tamping devices
should be done with caution. Compacting the
The following are some guidelines for install- soil in 6-in. (150-mm) layers is recommended
ing building sewers/drains: for a good backfill.
1. Compacted fill. Where natural soil or com- Proper sewer bedding and trench backfill re-
pacted fill exists, the trench must be sults in an installation that can be counted
excavated in alignment with the proposed upon for long, trouble-free service.
pitch and grade of the sewer. Depressions
need to be cut out along the trench line to
accept the additional diameter at the piping SANITATION
joint or bell hub. A layer of sand or pea gravel
is placed as a bed in the excavated trench All drains should be cleaned periodically,
because it is easily compacted under the pipe, particularly those in markets, hospitals, food-
allowing more accurate alignment of the pipe processing areas, animal shelters, morgues, and
pitch. The pipe settles into the bed and is other locations where sanitation is important.
firmly supported over its entire length.
Where sanitation is important, an acid-re- ter-supply line to a drain, a vacuum breaker in-
sisting enameled interior in floor drains is widely stalled according to code must be provided.
accepted. The rough surfaces of either brass or
iron castings collect and hold germs, fungus-
laden scum, and fine debris, which usually KITCHEN AREAS
accompany drain waste. There is no easy or sat-
isfactory way to clean these rough surfaces; the When selecting kitchen drains, the designer must
most practical approach is to enamel them. The know the quantity of liquid and solid waste the
improved sanitation compensates for the added drains will be required to accept, as well as which
expense. However, pipe threads cannot be cut equipment emits waste on a regular basis and
into enameled metals because the enameling will which produces waste only by accidental spillage.
chip off in the area of the machining. Also, pipe
Floor-cleaning procedures should be ascer-
threads themselves cannot be enameled; there- tained to determine the amount of water used. If
fore, caulked joints should be specified on any amount of solid waste is to be drained, re-
enameled drains. Most adjustable floor drains
ceptors must be specified with removable
utilize a threaded head that allows elevation ad-
sediment buckets made of galvanized or stain-
justments. The drains cannot be enameled
less steel. Also, there must be enough vertical
because of this adjusting thread. However, there
clearance over these drains to conveniently re-
are other adjustable drains that use sliding lugs move the sediment buckets for cleaning.
on a cast thread and may be enameled.
Many kitchen planners mount kitchen equip-
Another point to remember is that a grate or
ment on a 5-in. (125-mm) curb. Placing the drain
the top ledge of a drain can be enameled, but
on top of the curb and under the equipment
the enamel will not tolerate traffic abrasion with-
makes connection of indirect drain lines diffi-
out showing scratches and, eventually, chipping.
cult and the receptor inaccessible for inspection
The solution to this problem is a stainless-steel and cleaning. Mounting the receptor in front of
or nickel-bronze rim and grate over the enam- the curb takes up floor space, and the myriad
eled drain body, a common practice on indirect
indirect drains that discharge into it create a
waste receptors, sometimes referred to as “floor
potential hazard for employees who may trip over
sinks.” Specifiers seem to favor the square, indi-
them. The solution requires close coordination
rect waste receptor, but the round receptor is
between the engineer and the kitchen designer.
easier to clean and has better antisplash char-
acteristics. For cases where the choice of square
or round is influenced by the floor pattern, round
sinks with square tops are available.
In applications such as hospital morgues,
cystoscopic rooms, autopsy laboratories, slaugh-
terhouses, and animal dens, the enameled drain
is fitted with a flushing rim. This is most advis-
able where blood or other objectionable materials
might cling to the side walls of the drain.
Where the waste being drained can create a
stoppage in the trap, a heel inlet on the trap with
a flushing connection is recommended in addi-
tion to the flushing rim, which merely keeps the
drain sides clean. (This option may not be al-
lowed by certain codes.) A 2-in. (50-mm) trap
flushes more effectively than a 3-in. (80-mm) trap
because it allows the flushing stream to drill
through the debris rather than completely flush
it out. A valve in the water line to the drain is
the best way to operate the flushing-rim drain.
Flush valves have been used and save some wa-
ter; however, they are not as convenient or Figure 1-6 Combination Floor Drain
effective as a shutoff valve. In any flushing wa- and Indirect Waste Receptor
Figure 1-6 shows an arrangement whereby any with adjustable tops to attain an installation that
spillage in front of the curb can be drained by is flush with the finished floor.
half of the receptor, while indirect drains are
neatly tucked away.
JOINING METHODS
Where equipment is on the floor level and an
indirect waste receptor must be provided under Drain and cleanout outlets are manufactured in
the equipment, a shallow bucket that can easily four basic types:
be removed is recommended.
1. Inside caulk. In this arrangement, the pipe
extends up into the drain body and oakum is
WATERPROOFING packed around the pipe tightly against the in-
side of the outlet. Molten lead is then poured
Whenever a cast-iron drain is cemented into a into this ring and later stamped or caulked to
slab, separation due to expansion and contrac- correct for lead shrinkage. Current installa-
tion occurs and creates several problems. One tion methods use a flexible gasket for a
is the constant wet area in the crevice around caulking material. See Figure 1-7.
the drain that promotes mildew odor and the
2. Spigot outlet. This type utilizes the caulking
breeding of bacteria. Seepage to the floor below
method as outlined above, except that the
is also a possibility. This problem can be cor-
spigot outlet is caulked into the hub or bell
rected by a seepage or flashing flange. Weep holes
of the downstream pipe or fitting. See Figure
in the flashing flange direct moisture into the
1-8.
drain. Also, this flange accepts membrane ma-
terial and, when used, the flashing ring should 3. Push-seal gasketed outlet. This type utilizes
lock the membrane to the flange. a neoprene gasket similar to standard ASTM
C564 neoprene gaskets approved for hub-
One prevalent misconception about the flash-
and-spigot, cast-iron soil pipe. A ribbed
ing flange is that it can have weep holes when
neoprene gasket is applied to the accepting
used with cleanouts. In this case, there can be
pipe thus allowing the drain outlet to be
no weep holes into the cleanout for the moisture
pushed onto the pipe.
to run to. Weep holes should also be eliminated
from the flashing flanges of drains, such as re- 4. No-hub. This type utilizes a spigot (with no
flection-pool drains, where the drain entrance is bead on the end) that is stubbed into a neo-
shut off by an overflow standpipe to maintain a prene coupling with a stainless-steel bolting
certain water level. band (or other type of clamping device),
which, in turn, accepts a downstream piece
The term “nonpuncturing,” used in reference
of pipe or headless fitting. See Figure 1-9.
to membrane-flashing, ring-securing methods, is
now obsolete as securing bolts have been moved 5. IPS or threaded. This type is a tapered female
inboard on flashing L flanges and the membrane thread in the drain outlet designed to accept
need not be punctured to get a seal. Of the vari- the tapered male thread of a downstream piece
ous arrangements, this bolting method allows the of pipe or fitting. See Figure 1-10.
greatest squeeze pressure on the membrane.
FLOOR LEVELING
A major problem in setting floor drains and
cleanouts occurs when the concrete is poured
level with the top of the unit, ignoring the fact
that the addition of tile on the floor will cause
the drain or cleanout to be lower than the sur-
rounding surface. To solve the problem, cleanouts
can be specified with tappings in the cover rim
to jack the top part of the cleanout up to the
finished floor level. Floor drains can be furnished
Figure 1-7 Inside-Caulk Drain Body
THERMAL EXPANSION sis is to be performed due to excessive stresses

or to the differing expansion characteristics of
When excessive thermal expansion is anticipated, materials. See Data Book, Volume 2, Chapter 5
the pipe movement should be controlled to avoid for further information.
harmful changes in slope or damage. This may
be done by anchoring, using expansion joints,
or using expansion loops or bends. When an- PROTECTION FROM DAMAGE
choring, avoid excessive stress on the structure
and the pipe. Piping or mechanical engineering Following are some common types of damage to
handbooks should be consulted if stress analy- anticipate and some methods of protection:
Hazard Protection
Abrasion Plastic or rubber sleeves.
Insulation where copper
pipe leaves slab.
Condensation Insulation on piping.
Corrosion See Data Book, Vol. 1, Ch. 8,
“Corrosion.”
Earth loads Stronger pipe or pipe
Figure 1-8 Spigot-Outlet Drain Body sleeves.
Expansion and Flexible joints, loops, swing
contraction joints, or offsets.
Fire Building construction
around pipe. Some jurisdic-
tions require metal piping
within 2 ft (0.6 m) of an
entry into a firewall. Must
maintain fire ratings.
Heat Keeping thermoplastic pipe
away from sources of heat or
using insulation.
Nails Using ferrous pipe, steel
sleeves, steel plates or space
pipe away from possible nail
penetration zone.
Figure 1-9 No-Hub-Outlet Drain Body Seismic Bracing pipe and providing
flexible joints at connection
between piping braced to
walls or structure and
piping braced to the ceiling
and between stories (where
there will be differential
movements).
Settlement Sleeves or flexible joints.
When embedded in concrete,
covering with three layers of
15-lb (6.8-kg) felt.
Sunlight Protecting thermoplastic
Figure 1-10 IPS or Threaded- pipe by insulation and
Outlet Drain Body jacket or shading to avoid
warping.
Vandals Installing pipe above reach and negative pressures at or near the zero line
or in areas protected by throughout the system. Soil stack and vent com-
building construction. bine into a single sovent stack. Figure 1-11
Support piping well enough illustrates a typical sovent single-stack plumb-
to withstand 250 lb (113.4 ing system.
kg) hanging on the moving
pipe.
RESEARCH
Wood shrinkage Providing slip joints and
clearance for pipe when The advent and use of ultra-low-flow water clos-
wood shrinks. Approxi- ets, and to some extent other water-saving
mately s in. (16 mm)/floor fixtures, has brought into question the loading
is adequate for usual frame on drainage systems and how the reduced
construction, based on 4% amount of water “carries” solids in the system.
shrinkage perpendicular to Still to be confirmed is that the slope of conven-
wood grain. Shrinkage along tional drainage piping allows solids to remain in
the grain does not usually suspension until mixed with other flows in the
exceed 0.2%. drainage system. Further research is required
to determine the proper slopes of drainage pip-
ing and that the release of water from fixtures is
SOVENT SYSTEMS
properly timed to ensure that solids are carried
sufficient distances.
The sovent single-stack plumbing system is a
sanitary drainage system developed to improve There have been numerous studies, particu-
and simplify soil, waste, and vent plumbing in larly in the United Kingdom, of reduced-size
multistory buildings. venting. These studies are discussed in more
depth in Chapter 3 of this volume, “Vents and
The basic design criteria for sovent drainage
Venting Systems.”
plumbing systems for multistory buildings is
based on experience gained in the design and
construction of sovent systems serving many liv- REFERENCES
ing units and on extensive experimental work
on a plumbing test tower. The criteria to be used 1. Daugherty, Robert L., Joseph B. Franzini, and
as guidelines in design work must be obtained E. John Finnemore. 1985. Fluid mechanics with
from the designer and/or manufacturer of sovent engineering applications. 8th ed. New York:
systems. McGraw-Hill.
2. Dawson, F.M., and A.A. Kalinske. 1937. Report
The sovent system has four parts: a drain, on hydraulics and pneumatics of plumbing drain-
waste, and vent (DWV) stack; a sovent aerator age systems. State University of Iowa Studies in
fitting at each floor level; drain, waste, and vent Engineering, Bulletin no. 10.
(DWV) horizontal branches; and a sovent
3. Wyly and Eaton. 1950. National Bureau of Stan-
deaerator fitting at the base of the stack. The dards, Housing and Home Finance Agency.
two special fittings, the aerator and deaerator,
are the basis for the self-venting features of the
sovent system.
The functions of the aerator are (1) to limit
the velocity of both liquid and air in the stack,
(2) to prevent the cross section of the stack from
filling with a plug of water, and (3) to mix effi-
ciently the waste flowing in the branches with
the air in the stack. The deaerator fitting sepa-
rates the air flow in the stack from the liquid,
ensuring smooth entry into the building drain
and relieving the positive pressure at the bottom
of the stack. The result is a single stack that is
self venting with the fittings balancing positive
(A) (B)
Figure 1-11 (A) Traditional Two-Pipe System,

(B) Typical Sovent Single-Stack Plumbing System.
Chapter 2 — Gray-Water Systems 21
2
Gray-Water
Systems
INTRODUCTION Gray-water systems have been used in vari-

ous areas of the world. In many regions, water is
One of the means of conserving water is to re- a critical resource and extreme measures to op-
cycle it. Nonpotable water systems that use timize the use of water are sometimes necessary.
recycled water are commonly referred to as “gray- Water reuse offers a considerable savings of wa-
water systems.” ter resources, which is appealing in localities
where the underground aquifers are in danger
There is no single definition of gray water. of depletion or where adequate supplies of water
The definitions of a variety of recycled waters are not available. Waste-water management is
are interchangeable. In general, the term “gray also a significant reason for the use of gray-wa-
water” is intended to include appropriately ter systems.
treated water that has been recovered from typi-
cal fixtures, such as lavatories, bathtubs, On-site reclamation and recycling of relatively
showers, and clothes washers. Waste potentially clean, nonpotable water is considered for the fol-
containing grease, such as that from kitchens lowing reasons:
and dishwashers, as well as waste from food dis- 1. In areas where the code mandates that gray
posals in kitchens is excluded due to the water be used where the availability of po-
possibility of solid articles. Recycled water is in-
table water is in short supply or restricted.
tended to include “clean” water additionally
treated to remove bacteria, heavy metals, and 2. For projects where public liquid sewage
organic material. “Black water,” on the other disposal capacity is either limited or inad-
hand, is water recovered from plumbing fixtures equate.
discharging human excrement, such as water 3. For economic reasons because obtaining po-
closets and urinals, and cooling-tower water (be- table water or disposing of liquid waste is
cause of the chemicals involved in its treatment). very costly.
Rainwater is another excellent source of water.
It can be collected in cisterns for use in a wide 4. For economic reasons, where payback will
variety of nonpotable uses with little or no treat- occur in less than 2 years and where recy-
ment. Rainwater in cisterns can also be used for cling will reduce sewer and water usage fees,
an emergency supply of drinking water if it is resulting in substantial savings in operating
appropriately treated prior to use. This chapter costs.
is limited to the discussion of gray water only. Appropriately treated gray water is commonly
used for the following proposes:
1. Flushing water for water closets and urinals.
Note: This chapter is written primarily to familiarize the
reader with the general subject area. It is not intended to be 2. Landscape irrigation.
used for system design without reference and adherence to 3. Cooling-tower makeup.
other technical data and local code requirements.
4. Decorative pool and fountain fill water. Figure 2-1 shows flow charts for a conven-
5. Floor and general hard surface wash down. tional plumbing system and a recycled water
system. In the recycled-water flow system, the
6. Laundry prerinse water. gray water and black water sources are clearly
The most common purpose is to provide water defined. The use of the gray-water system is also
for the flushing of urinals and water closets, es- defined, namely, for all nonpotable water sys-
pecially in high-rises, hotels, and large dwellings. tems, cooling-tower water requirements, and the
irrigation system.
Figure 2-2(A) shows single-line diagrams of
CODES AND STANDARDS a gray-water plumbing system to bathtubs and
lavatories and a recycled, gray-water system with
There are no nationally or regionally established a gray-water treatment plant from bathtubs,
model codes that mandate the use of gray water. lavatories, and water closets. The reused water
The Uniform Plumbing Code discusses gray wa- (gray water) from the fixtures is pumped for re-
ter but limits the discussion to single-family use in the water closets. This figure shows the
dwellings. Many specific local areas have estab- isometric piping of a gray-water system with the
lished standards and guidelines for the use of supply and drainage piping arrangement. The
gray water in facilities and homes. Where gray- basic plumbing supply with hot water system
water use is permitted, local health departments feeds the lavatories and the bathtubs, which, in
have established minimum-treatment standards. turn, act as a source for the gray-water system.
In these localities, the engineer must check for In Figure 2-2(B), the effluent storage as well as
regulations applicable to gray water, as is done the sewage treatment plant (STP) utilize the gray
for plumbing and building codes. water to route to the cooling tower, irrigation,
The National Sanitation Foundation’s Stan- and wash-down systems, and the water-closet
dard 41, which regulates the minimum water fixtures.
quality for recycled waste water, is shown in Table A gray-water system requires modifications
2-1. The gray-water quality must be verified to the standard plumbing systems throughout a
against Table 2-1 and existing local regulations, facility. There will be duplicate drainage systems.
if any, before use. Instead of all the liquid discharged from all the
plumbing fixtures going to the sanitary sewer,
Table 2-1 The National Sanitation selected fixtures will have their effluent routed
Foundation’s Standard 41 for recovery by the gray-water treatment system.
The remainder will go to the sanitary sewer. There
Component Maximum Limits also will be duplicate water supplies: potable
water will go to lavatories, sinks, showers, etc.,
Biological oxygen demand 5 ppm (5 mg/L) and gray water to water closets, urinals, and
Suspended solids 5 ppm (5 mg/L)
other fixtures, depending on the quality of the
gray-water treatment.
Total coliform 2.2 counts/26.4 gal
(2.2 counts/100 mL) Special care must be taken during the
Nitrogen removal 85–95% installation of a gray-water system. Clear identi-
fication and labeling of the gray-water system is
mandatory. This will minimize the risk of cross
connection during installation or repair of the
SYSTEM DESCRIPTION system.
Many newly formed, planned communities
Gray-water systems collect the dilute waste water have adopted gray-water systems for their irri-
discharged from lavatories, service sinks, baths, gation systems. Warning signs of “nonpotable
laundry tubs, showers, and other similar types water” or colored PVC piping are now visible
of fixtures. This water is then filtered and/or across city landscapes. Blue dye has become a
treated until it reaches a level of quality consis- clear identification of the use of gray water.
tent with its intended reuse. The piping network
distributes it to sources not used for human con-
sumption in a safe and distinctive manner.
(A)
(B)
Figure 2-1 Plumbing System Flow Charts:

(A) Conventional Plumbing System; (B) Recycled-Water System.
System Components DESIGN CRITERIA FOR GRAY-

WATER SUPPLY AND CONSUMPTION
The following components are generally used for
most systems. Their arrangement and type de- It is estimated that q of the waste water dis-
pend on the specific treatment system selected. charged from a typical household in 1 day is gray
water. The remaining waste water (that is, 3 of
1. A separate gray-water collection piping sys-
the discharge) is black water from water closets.
tem.
The discharge from the separate piping system
2. A primary waste-treatment system consist- supplying the gray-water system should be sized
ing of turbidity removal, storage, biological based on the applicable plumbing code.
treatment, and filtering.
The following issues should be considered in
3. Disinfecting systems consisting of ozone, ul- the design of any gray-water system:
traviolet irradiation, chlorine, or iodine.
1. The design flow is based on the number of
4. Treated water storage and system distribu- people in a facility.
tion pressure pumps and piping.
(A)
(B)
Figure 2-2 Riser Diagrams: (A) Gray-Water Plumbing System; (B) Recycled-Water-Waste
System with System Treatment Plant (STP).
Notes, Figure 2-2(A):1. Gray water can also be utilized for other uses, such as irrigation, cooling tower makeup, etc., provided
treatment is adequate. 2. Common vent for both drainage stacks.
2. Lavatory use is estimated at 0.25 gal/use 500-employee office. This demand could be sup-
(0.95 L/use). plied in part by the 1 gal/person/day available
from the fixtures identified in the gray-water
3. Men use urinals 75% of the time and water
supply section above.
closets 25% of the time.
4. The average person uses a toilet 3 times a In shopping centers, flow rates are based on
day. square feet (m2) of space, not the number of per-
sons. The flow demand is gallons per day per
square foot (0.06 gpd/ft2 [0.23 L/day/0.1 m2]).
Design Estimates for Commercial
Buildings The calculations in food service resemble
those for grease interceptor sizing. The number
Gray-water supply Estimates of gray-water sup- of seats, the hours of operation, single-serving
ply sources vary in commercial buildings. In an utensils, and other, similar factors change the
office building, fixtures such as lavatories, water equations for gray-water calculations.
coolers, mop sinks, and coffee sinks are estimated
to generate 1 gal/day/person (3.79 L/day/per- Design Estimates for Residential
son). For an office building with 500 employees, Buildings
we would expect to be able to recover 500 gal/
day (1823 L/day) for gray-water reuse. Based on (a) The number of occupants of each dwelling
5 working days/week and 50 weeks/year annual unit shall be calculated as follows:
use, 125,000 gal/yr (473 175 L/yr) could be avail-
Occupants, first bedroom: 2
able for gray-water reuse.
Occupants, each additional bedroom: 1
Gray-water demand The gray-water demand for (b) The estimated gray-water flows for each oc-
an office building is estimated based on 3 toilet cupant shall be calculated as follows:
or urinal uses/day/person. For calculation pur-
poses, assume the population is 50% male and Showers, bathtubs, and wash basins:
50% female, and that men use urinals 75% of 25 gpd (95 L/day)/occupant
the time and water closets 25% of the time. For Laundry: 15 gpd (57 L/day)/occupant
an office building with 500 employees, we would
estimate the gray-water demand as follows: (c) The total number of occupants shall be mul-
tiplied by the applicable estimated gray-water
250 males × 3 flushes/day × 0.5 gal/flush discharge as provided above, and the type of
(urinals ) × 75% usage = 281 gal/day fixtures connected to the gray-water system.
250 males × 3 flushes/day × 1.6 gal/flush Example 2-1 Single-family dwelling, 3 bedrooms
(water closets ) × 25% usage = 300 gal/day with showers, bathtubs, wash basins, and laun-
250 women × 3 flushes/day × 1.6 gal/flush dry facilities all connected to the gray-water
(water closets) = 1200 gal/day system:
TOTAL gray-water demand = 1781gal/day = Total number of occupants = 2 + 1 + 1 = 4
approx. 445,250 gal/yr Estimated gray-water flow = 4 × (25 + 15) =
[250 males × 3 flushes/day × 1.89 L/flush 160 gpd
(urinals ) × 75% usage = 1063 L/day [4 × (95 + 57) = 608 L/day]
250 males × 3 flushes/day × 6.06 L/flush (wa-
ter closets ) × 25% usage = 1136 L/day Example 2-2 Single-family dwelling, 4 bedrooms
with only the clothes washer connected to the
250 women × 3 flushes/day × 6.06 L/flush gray-water system:
(water closets) = 4545 L/day
Total number of occupants = 2 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 5
TOTAL gray-water demand = 6744 L/day =
Estimated gray-water flow = 5 × 15 = 75 gpd
approx. 1 686 000 L/yr]
(5 × 57 = 285 L/day)
This example shows that approximately 3.6
gal/person/day (13.5 L/person/day) is needed
to supply gray water to toilets and urinals for a
Design Estimates for Irrigation Systems of the section. No excavation for an irrigation/
disposal field shall extend within 5 vertical ft (1.5
Gray-water system design and selection depends m) of the highest known seasonal ground water,
on a variety of elements: location, soil type, the nor shall it extend to a depth where gray water
source of water supply, the type of treatment may contaminate the ground water or ocean wa-
facility, and the application of reuse. Additional ter. The applicant shall supply evidence of
requirements are noted for the reuse of gray- ground-water depth to the satisfaction of the
water systems for irrigation systems. Some of administrative authority.
the parameters are ground-water level, geologi-
cal stability of the region, plot plan, and distances
of irrigation from adjacent properties, lakes, lot
lines, drainage channels, water supply lines,
surface slope, wells, and interaction of gray-wa- Table 2-2
ter systems with private sewage disposals. Design Criteria of Six Typical Soils
Inspection and testing is an inherent part of the
design. Type of Soil Minimum Minimum
Irrigation Area Absorption Capacity
System components must be securely in- (ft2/100 gal of (min/in.
stalled and the manufacturer properly identified. estimated gray-water of irrigation area/
The holding tanks must be installed in dry lev- discharge/day) day)
els, and, if underground, contamination issues
must be accounted for. The authorities having Coarse sand or gravel 20 5.0
jurisdiction shall review all plans, and qualified
Fine sand 25 4.0
and experienced contractors shall install the sys-
tem in accordance with the contract documents. Sandy loam 40 2.5
To design a gray-water system, one must esti- Sandy clay 60 1.7
mate the source of water supply. Separate design Clay with considerable
parameters become important for reuse in build- sand or gravel 90 1.1
ings or in irrigation systems. For irrigation Clay with small amount
systems, the required area of subsurface must of sand or gravel 120 0.8
be designed based on soil analysis. The follow-
ing paragraph clearly defines the design issues Source: IAPMO, 1997, Uniform Plumbing Code, Appendix G.
for irrigation facilities:
Each valved zone shall have a minimum
effective irrigation area in square feet (square
meters) as determined by Table 2-2 for the type Table 2-2 (M)
of soil found in the excavation. Table 2-2 gives Design Criteria of Six Typical Soils
the design criteria for the use of gray-water sys-
tems in various types of soil (coarse sand or Type of Soil Minimum Minimum
Irrigation/Leaching Absorption Capacity
gravel, fine sand, sandy loam, sandy clay, mixed
Area (min/m2
clay). As the soil weight decreases and the soil (m2/ L of of irrigation/
becomes less porous, the minimum square feet estimated gray-water leaching area/
(square meters) needed for leaching increases. discharge/day) day)
Coarse sand or gravel needs a 20-ft2 irrigation
area per 100 gal (1.86 m2 per 379 L) of estimated Coarse sand or
gray-water discharge per day. Clay with a small gravel 0.005 5.0
amount of sand or gravel requires 120 ft2 per
Fine sand 0.006 4.0
100 gal (11.15 m2 per 379 L) of estimated gray
water per day. The area of the irrigation/disposal Sandy loam 0.010 2.5
field shall be equal to the aggregate length of the Sandy clay 0.015 1.7
perforated pipe sections within the valved zone Clay with considerable
times the width of the proposed irrigation/dis- sand or gravel 0.022 1.1
posal field. Each proposed gray-water system Clay with small amount
shall include at least three valved zones, and each of sand or gravel 0.030 0.8
zone shall be in compliance with the provisions
Source: IAPMO, 1997, Uniform Plumbing Code, Appendix G.
Table 2-3 identifies the location and separa- be a minimum of 50 ft (15.2 m) from surge tanks
tion distances from a variety of structures and and 100 ft (30.5 m) from irrigation fields. Simi-
environments. For example, any building or larly, the distance from the public water main to
structure shall be a minimum of 5 ft (1.5 m) from a surge tank shall be a minimum of 10 ft (3.1
a gray-water surge tank. The minimum distance m). The table also identifies additional restric-
from any property lines to a gray-water surge tions.
tank is 5 ft (1.5 m). Critical areas such as
See Table 2-4 for the design of the gray-wa-
streams, lakes, seepage pits, or cesspools shall
ter distribution in subsurface drip systems for
various types of soil. This table gives the mini-
mum discharge, in gallons/day, for effective
Table 2-3 irrigation distribution. “Emitters” are defined as
Location of the Gray-Water System orifices with a minimum flow path of 120 microns
(µ) and shall have a tolerance of manufacturing
Element Minimum Horizontal Distance from variation equal to no more than 7%.
Irrigation
Holding Tank, Disposal Field,
ft (mm) ft (mm) TREATMENT SYSTEMS
Buildings or structures 5.2 (1524) 2.3 (610) Treatment systems vary widely. The treatment
system conditions the recovered water to a de-
Property line adjoining gree consistent with both the intended use of
private property 5 (1524) 5 (1524)
the conditioned water and the design require-
Water supply wells 50 (15 240) 100 (30 480) ments of the design engineer, the applicable code,
Streams and lakes 50 (15 240) 50.5 (15 240)
or the responsible code official—whichever is the
most stringent. Typical waste-water (gray-water
Seepage pits or cesspools 5 (1524) 5 (1524) and black-water) treatments used for various
Disposal field and 100% types of project are depicted in Figure 2-3. The
expansion area 5 (1524) 4.6 (1219) size of the treatment systems available vary from
those installed for individual private dwellings
Septic tank 0 (0) 5 (1524) to those serving multiple facilities. As the treat-
On-site domestic water ment facility becomes more complex, the number
service line 5 (1524) 5 (1524) of treatment activities increases and the quality
Pressurized public
of the water improves. Some of the treatment
water main 10 (3048) 10.7 (3048) activities are basic screening, flow equalization,
biological treatment, filtration, coagulation, sedi-
mentation, disinfections, reclaimed water tank,
membrane filtration, and activated carbon
filtration.
Table 2-4
Subsurface Drip Design Criteria The selection of a treatment system also
of Six Typical Soils depends on the quality and type of the influent
water. To decide which is the most appropriate
Type of Soil Minimum Minimum Number treatment, the kinds of fixture discharge to be
Emitter of Emitters per used for reclaiming and the treatment require-
Discharge, gal/day (L/day) ments of the authorities must be determined.
gal/day of Gray-Water
(L/day) Production Table 2-5 describes the types of filtration and
water-treatment processes most commonly used
in the gray-water treatment process. Depending
Sand 1.8 (6.8) 0.6
on the types of filtration, the degree and types of
Sandy loam 1.4 (5.3) 0.7 components filtered vary. Basic filtration con-
Loam 1.2 (4.5) 0.9 centrates on reducing suspended solids and does
Clay loam 0.9 (3.4) 1.1 not absorb nitrogen or phosphates. Coagulation
Silty clay 0.6 (2.3) 1.6 assists in building up the solid filtration and adds
Clay 0.5 (1.9) 2 phosphates to the list. Chlorination is signifi-
(A)
(B)
Figure 2-3 Water Treatment Systems:

(A) Types of Gray-Water Treatment System; (B) Types of Black-Water Treatment System
Table 2-5 Gray-Water Treatment Processes for Normal Process Efficiency
Biological Chemical Total

Suspended Oxygen Oxygen Phosphates, Dissolved
Process Solids Demand Demand P0-4 Nitrogen Solids
Filtration 80 40 35 0 0 0
Coagulation / filtration 90 50 40 85 0 15
Chlorination 0 20a 20a 0 0 0
Tertiary treatment 95 95 910 15-60 50-70 80
Absorphan (carbon filtration) 0 60-80 70 0 10 5
a Nominal, additional removals possible with super chlorination and extended contact time.
cant only on oxygen demand issues. Tertiary and plant life to prevent scaling of pipes and foul-
treatment includes filtration of all categories. ing of valves or equipment.
Absorphan, or carbon filtration, concentrates
primarily on biological and chemical oxygen
demands. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS—
AN EXAMPLE
Table 2-6 shows the design elements of gray-
water system treatments. In the type A treatment, Table 2-7 gives the life cycle economic compari-
separate gray-water riser piping and water-closet son of a gray-water system for a 250-room resort
piping is required. This type of treatment con-
hotel. The cost of the conventional system is
sists of filtration, chlorination, and color
based on water and sewer annual consumption.
modifications. The system re-feeds the water clos-
The minimum gray-water system, Type A treat-
ets. The enhanced version of the type A treatment
ment facility, would have an initial fixed
adds color as well as chemical treatments. If the estimated cost of $87,500.00. This cost amor-
water source contains high percentages of soaps tized over 15 years with 12% interest will result
or foaming agents, the addition of defoaming
in an annual cost for payment of the initial capi-
agents is highly recommended. Increased condi-
tal cost. This annual cost, plus the water and
tioning of the water will increase the use of the
sewer cost, plus the treatment equipment main-
water for other applications, such as cooling tow-
tenance cost is near the annual cost for the hotel
ers. Type B treatments give the complete tertiary management. With maximum gray-water treat-
treatment of the water and permit the use of ment, Type B, the total annual cost does not
water for a wide variety of reuse applications.
decrease very much. In fact, statistically they
The biological and chemical oxygen treatments
are nearly the same. Given this data, the only
are mandatory for the high concentrations of fe-
reasons to provide gray water in facilities are gov-
cal matter. The addition of chemical treatment,
ernmental or institutional incentives. In addition,
filtration, and/or carbon absorption conditions the cost of sewage as well as the cost of water
the water for a wide variety of applications. Treat- consumption may become the decisive factors.
ment quality also must take into account the
Any increase in the cost of sewage or water,
chemical compound of the water required for use
caused perhaps by a drought in a region, can
in piping, cooling towers, industrial applications,
alter the life-cycle economics.
Table 2-6 Comparison of Gray-Water System Applications

Potential Sewage
System Piping Treatment Gray-Water Uses Water Savingsa Savingsa
Conventional Base None N/A 0 0
Type A Separate Filtration, Water closets 20,000 gal/day 20,000 gal/day

(minimal gray-water chlorination, (75 708 L/day) (75 708 L/day)
treatment) riser/separate color 17% (inc. irrigation), 26%
WC stack 22% (without
irrigation)
Type A Separate Chemical Water closets, 35,000 gal/day, 35,000 gal/day

(enhanced gray-water filtration, cooling towers, (132 489 L/day) (132 489 L/day)
treatment) riser/separate chlorination, irrigation (pos.) 30% (incl. irrigation), 46%
WC stack color 38% (without
irrigation)
Type B Separate Tertiary All nonpotable 61,000 gal/day, N/A

gray-water riser sewage uses (230 909 L/day)
treatment 52% (incl. irrigation)
a Values for savings noted are based on the 250-room resort hotel example. Percentages based on normal usage of 117,850 gal/day,
Including irrigation, and 91,150 gal/day, without irrigation.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
Figure 2-4 System Design Flow Chart Example (250-Room Hotel):

(A) Conventional Plumbing System; (B) Recycling for Water Closets; (C) Recycling for Water
Closets and Cooling Tower; (D) Recycling for Water Closets, Cooling Tower, and Irrigation
Table 2-7 Life-Cycle Economic Comparison: To use the nomograph, proceed as follows:
Gray-Water Systems for 250-Room Hotel 1. Enter the lower right portion of the nomo-
graph with the anticipated total potable water
Installed System
consumption for all users (based on a con-
Type A Type B ventional system).
(Minimal
Conventional Gray (Gray
2. Move vertically up to the combined utility cost
System Water) Water) for water purchase and sanitary sewage
charges (e.g., $1.25/1000 gal [3785 L] for wa-
ter, and $0.75/1000 gal [3785 L] for sewage).
Fixed Cost 0.000 $87,500 $259,000
3. Move horizontally to the left to form baseline
Life 20 yr 15 yr 15 yr
(Base system)
X.
Cost of money 12% 12% 12%

4. Enter the upper right portion of the nomo-
graph with the estimated additional cost of
Capital recovery the gray-water system (additional piping,
factor N/A 0.1468.2 0.14682 storage, and treatment equipment).
Amortized first cost 0 $12,846 $38,026 5. Move vertically down to the annual interest
Utility costs 0 0 0 rate (cost of money) used in the analysis.
Water ($1.40/ 6. Move horizontally to the left to form
1000 gal $59,395 $49,315 $28,299 baseline Y.
[3785 L])
7. If the proposed system is a Type A gray-wa-
Sewage ($0.50/ ter system, go to the intersection of baseline
1000 gal $13,706 $10,106 0 X and the system A curve (lower left quad-
[3785 L]) rant) of the nomograph.
Operational cost 0 0 0 8. If a Type B gray-water system is being stud-
Treatment ied, go to the intersection of baseline X and
equipment 0 $1,240 $6,305 the system B curve.
9. From the appropriate intersection, move ver-
Total Annual Cost $73,101 $73,507 $72,630 tically up to the horizontal separation line
and then up and left at the indicated 45°
angle to an intersection with baseline Y.
The complete water flow chart of the 250- 10. From this intersection point, move vertically
room hotel is shown in Figure 2-4. As depicted down once again to the intersection with
in Table 2-6, the water-flow-rate savings are baseline X.
clearly defined.
11. If this final (circled) intersection is in the lower
Before one considers using a gray-water sys- right field, the system appears preliminarily
tem, it is desirable to be able to evaluate quickly, feasible and should be subjected to a more
on a preliminary basis, the potential economic detailed economic analysis.
feasibility of the proposed scheme. To facilitate
this, a nomograph such as that shown in Figure 12. If the final intersection falls to the left and
2-5 can be used. This analysis shows the varia- above the sector dividing line, then the eco-
tion in interest rates, variation in cost of nomic feasibility of the scheme is strongly
combined water and sewage, the water daily use, suspect.
and cost of total systems based on two types of Note: Obviously, the many variable inputs that must be
treatments, A and B. Movement through the considered in a detailed economic analysis do not lend
themselves to an easy-to-use nomograph. Many of these
chart from an interest rate (based on the cur- inputs have been simplified by making normal assumptions
rent economy) to the combined cost of sewage about such things as ratios of reuse, relative quantities of
and water (based on municipalities) to the water water consumption, and sewage discharge. Thus, while the
consumption (based on building occupancy) and nomograph does give a quick and relatively good indication
of feasibility, it does not replace a detailed economic
to the type of treatment facility (based on the evaluation. This is particularly true if the scheme under
purity required) can provide an approximate cost consideration has anticipated hydraulic flow patterns that
for a gray-water system. differ markedly from the relative uses outlined in Figure 2-5.
Figure 2-5 Nomograph for Overview of Preliminary Feasibility of Gray-Water Systems
As a region’s population grows, the utiliza- PRECAUTIONS

tion of limited water supplies becomes more
critical, and the need for conservation becomes Since gray water poses a potential health haz-
more obvious, evidenced by regulation, a change ard, a great deal of care must be exercised once
in the types of plumbing fixtures, public educa- such a system is installed. One of the greatest
tion and voluntary participation, or an increase dangers is the possibility that the gray water will
in water and sewage system charges. In addi- be inadvertently connected to the potable-water
tion, the economic capabilities of a municipality system. To avoid this possibility, the water itself
determine its capability for adding sewage-treat- and the piping must be made easily distinguish-
ment facilities and meeting the demands of the able, anti-cross-connection precautions must be
community. taken, and appropriate alarms must be installed.
Treated water could be colored by food dye not be attractive to the occupants of a newly oc-
that is biodegradable. Fixtures could be bought cupied high-rise. Educating the users of gray
in the color of the water if the water color will be water is imperative. An understanding of the
found objectionable. source and the associated dangers and limita-
tions of gray water is essential to acceptance by
The piping system itself must be clearly iden-
the general public. To draw a parallel, the gen-
tified with labels placed visibly along the run of
eral public is now fully aware of the dangers of
the pipe. If possible, the piping material should be
electricity, yet life without electricity is consid-
different so that the possibility of mistaking and
ered to be abnormal.
interconnecting the two systems will be unlikely.
An economic analysis of gray-water systems
The most important consideration is the edu-
in health-care facilities may favor dual plumb-
cation of individuals and the staff of a facility
ing systems. However, the presence of viruses,
with a gray-water system. An explanation of the
bacteria, and biological contamination in health-
dangers and proper operating instructions will
care gray-water systems (through lavatories,
ensure that an informed staff will operate and
bathtubs, showers, and sinks) may increase the
maintain the system in a correct manner.
cost of water treatment. Also there is a legiti-
mate concern regarding the spread of disease
PUBLIC CONCERNS/ACCEPTANCE through such gray-water systems that must not
be overlooked. Therefore, the application of gray-
Although gray-water systems have been approved water systems in health-care facilities may be a
less attractive option because of the possibility
for general use in different parts of the world
of biological contamination.
and have been designed in a variety of forms, it
is still unfamiliar to many city and county gov-
ernments, plumbing and facility engineers, and CONCLUSION
the general public. An exception is the Baha-
mas, where the local code mandates dual or
This Data Book chapter began with the definition
gray-water systems in all occupancies.
of gray water and ended with a discussion of its
Although the use of gray water is a proven public acceptance. It touched briefly on the de-
cost-effective alternative to the use of potable sign elements of the plumbing system and
water in various systems, there is reluctance on identified the variations among different facilities.
the part of authorities to approve it. Some rea- The economic analysis of the gray-water system
sons include: can become the decisive issue that determines
whether a gray-water system is even considered
1. There is no generally accepted standard for
for a project. This analysis can be extrapolated
the quality of recycled water. Several states
for any other projects and variations.
in the US, Japan, and the Caribbean have
adopted codes and guidelines, but for most For the full design of gray-water systems, the
of the world there is no standard. This has reader should refer to other technical data books.
resulted in rejection of the systems or long Water treatment is one of the backbones of the
delays during the approval process of projects gray-water system. For the water-flow calcula-
while the quality of the water is in question. tions with all the required pumps, piping, and
controls, the reader is referred to the ASPE
2. Regulatory and plumbing codes that do not
Manual on Gray Water (forthcoming).
have any specific restrictions against using
gray water or have ambiguous language that Finally, water shortages, government subsi-
could be interpreted for its use but whose dies, tax incentives, the facility limitations of local
officials impose special standards due to their governments, and population growth will be the
lack of experience. primary motivators for designers and project
Although the use of gray water is ideal in engineers to consider gray-water system selec-
certain circumstances, the success of gray wa- tions in their designs.
ter will depend solely on public acceptance, and
that will require an adequate educational effort.
The use of colored water in water closets may
REFERENCES
1. Atienze, J., and J. Craytor. 1995. Plumbing effi-
ciency through gray-water recycling. Consulting
Specifying Engineer. (March): 58.
2. Baltimore, MD, Dept. of Public Works. June
1966. Commercial water use research project, by
J. B. Wolf, F. P. Linaweaver, and J.C. Center.
3. Dumfries Triangle and Occoquan-Woodbridge
Sanitary District, Woodbridge, VA. Water uses
study, by G. D. Gray and J. J. Woodcock.
4. International Association of Plumbing and Me-
chanical Officials (IAPMO). 1998. California
plumbing code. Walnut, CA.
5. IAPMO. 1997. Uniform plumbing code.
6. Konen, Thomas P. 1986. Water use in office
buildings. Plumbing Engineer Magazine. July/Au-
gust.
7. Lehr, Valentine A. 1987. Gray-water systems.
Heating/Piping/Air Conditioning. January.
8. n.a. 1997. Water: Use of treated sewage on rise
in state. Los Angeles Times, August 17: A36.
9. Siegrist, R., and W. C. Boyle. 1976. Characteris-
tics of rural household waste water. Journal of
the Environmental Engineering Division, (June):
533.
10. US Dept. of Commerce, National Information Ser-
vices. 1978. Management of small waste flows,
by Wisconsin University, PB-286-560.
11. US General Services Administration. 1995. Wa-
ter management: A comprehensive approach for
facility managers.
Chapter 3 — Vents and Venting 35
3
Vents and
Venting
Venting systems are often the least understood lead to gurgling noises and sluggish waste flow.
of the basic plumbing design concepts. The com- Sewer ventilation is required by some local au-
plete venting of a building drainage system is a thorities to promote flow in the sewer and to
very complicated subject, as can be seen from reduce the concentration of dangerous and cor-
the great variety of venting systems that may be rosive gases.
involved. It is not feasible to cover all the vent-
ing variations in this chapter. However, to foster Vent Stack Terminal
understanding, the preparation of venting tables
for stacks and for horizontal branches for vari- A “vent stack terminal” is the part of the venting
ous venting systems is discussed. system that extends through the roof, thus keep-
ing the drainage system open to atmospheric
Owing to the fact that the conditions that
pressure. Though it may be small by compari-
tend to produce pneumatic pressures in the vent-
son to the overall sanitary drainage piping, the
ing system that exceed or are below atmospheric
vent stack terminal is an important portion of
pressure by considerable amounts vary so greatly
from case to case, and since the building drain the system. Through the terminal vent, air at
may be wholly or partly submerged—or not sub- atmospheric pressure enters the drainage sys-
tem to hold in balance the water seal contained
merged at all—where it enters the street sewer,
in each fixture trap. The balance of atmospheric
it is not feasible to lay down rules that will apply
air pressure and gravitational pull on the waste-
to the venting of all designs.
water mass follows the principles outlined in
Chapter 1 of this volume, “Sanitary Drainage
SECTION I — Systems.” Vent stack terminals need to be sized
VENTS AND VENTING in accordance with local codes and/or good en-
gineering practices.
Purposes of Venting Good engineering practices include the fol-
lowing:
Vent systems are installed to eliminate trap si-
phonage, reduce back pressure and vacuum 1. Increase the terminal pipe by two sizes at 18
surges, promote the rapid and silent flow of in. (455 mm) below the roof line. This allows
wastes, and ventilate the sewer. Trap siphonage for the interior building space (which is usu-
reduces or eliminates the trap seal and leads to ally warmer) to provide a convecting flow of
an insanitary and hazardous condition. Pressure interior building heat, keeping the vent ter-
and vacuum surges cause objectionable move- minal at the roof from freezing closed.
ments of the water in the highly visible water 2. Project the vent terminal in accordance with
closet traps as well as affect the trap seals in all jurisdictional building codes and in a distant
fixtures. Excessive pressure causes bubbles of relationship from air intake louvers, windows,
sewer gas to flow through traps. Unvented traps doors, and other roof openings, 10 ft (3 m)
minimum. Sewer gases will be forced upward extent as the fixture gradually empties after the
through the terminal stack by the weight of siphon is broken. Glass plumbing is a convenient
the waste water, therefore, the vent pressures way to observe this phenomenon. Water-closet
versus the air intake volumes need to be con- traps must always be siphoned to achieve a flush.
sidered. Water closets are designed so that the water-
closet trap is refilled. Traps can also be siphoned
3. Provide minimum 4-in. (101.6-mm) diameter
vent stack terminals. Experience has proved when there is excessive vacuum in the system.
that a 4-in. (101.6-mm) terminal allows an
adequate volume of air to enter the plumb- Factors Affecting Trap Seal Loss
ing system, and its effective opening is not
as easily constricted by foreign matter, ice, Based on the preceding, the following will reduce
snow, or vermin as the opening of a smaller the danger of seal siphonage of the trap:
diameter pipe would be. (It should be noted 1. Reduce the depth of the overflow rim in fix-
that most codes require only that one 3-in. tures.
[76-mm] vent to atmosphere be provided for
each building drain.) 2. Flatten the bottoms of fixtures.
Winds of sufficient force can affect the func- 3. Avoid high-suds detergents.
tion of the venting system. A strong wind blowing 4. Provide smaller discharge openings on the
across the effective opening of the vent stack ter- fixtures.
minal can create unbalanced air pressures within
5. Reduce the distance (tailpiece length) between
the system. Protective devices are available but
the fixture and the trap.
may be susceptible to frost closure. Care must
also be taken in locating the vent terminals with 6. Increase the size of the trap and trap arm.
respect to building walls, higher adjacent roofs, 7. Reduce the vacuum on the discharge side of
parapet walls, etc., as these may affect the proper the trap.
flow of air into and out of the venting system.
8. Provide a vent near the trap outlet.
Traps and Trap Seals There are three predominant ways in which
traps seals are reduced. The first way occurs
Traps are installed at the plumbing fixtures to when the pneumatic-pressure fluctuations
prevent sewer gas and odors from escaping into caused by the discharge of fixtures other than
the building and to keep insects and vermin out- the fixture to which a particular trap is attached
side. They are usually required to be of the siphon water out of the trap until the positive
water-seal, self-scouring type. part of the fluctuation occurs. The second way
Other types may be necessary to save pre- is by the discharge of the fixture to which the
cious metal or to keep harmful material out of trap is attached. The third way of reducing trap
the drainage system. Special code approvals may seals is by the buildup of high-suds detergents.
be necessary in these cases. The trap seal may It is recommended that the first phenomenon
be lost when a fixture is drained. During drain- described be called “induced siphonage” and the
age, water drops through the fixture outlet down second “self-siphonage.”
the tailpiece, acquiring momentum. This momen-
tum is transferred to trap-seal water. The Suds Venting
combined water then flows out of the trap down
the trap arm at a rate depending on slope and High-sudsing detergents may be expected to be
momentum. The momentum will be increased if used in kitchen sinks, dishwashers, and clothes-
there is a vacuum in the drainage system. If the washing machines in residential occupancies.
trap arm fills with water (either actually or effec- These suds disrupt the venting action and spread
tively because of suds in the trap arm), the trap through the lower portions of multistory drain-
water may siphon. (For this reason, most codes age systems. The more turbulence, the greater
limit the distance from the fixture to the trap the suds. In some cases, suds back up through
weir to 24 in. [0.6 m].) Some water will remain in the traps and even spill out on the floor. They
the trap, but the water seal will be lost or re- cause an increase in the pressure and vacuum
duced. The trap is usually replenished to some levels in the systems. They affect both single-
stack and conventional systems. Solutions to the
problem may involve avoiding suds pressure sudsy detergents are used, a zone shall
zones, connecting the suds-producing stack be considered to exist downstream in the
downstream of all other stacks, and increasing horizontal drain from the base of the
the size of the horizontal building drain to achieve stack and both upstream and down-
less restrictive flow of air and water. Using stream of the next offset fitting
streamline fittings, such as wyes, tends to re- downstream.
duce suds formation. Check valves in fixture Zone 4. In a soil or waste system, which
tailpieces have been used to fix problem instal- serves fixtures on two or more floors and
lations. receives wastes from fixtures wherein
The National Standard Plumbing Code, one sudsy detergents are used, a zone shall
of the traditional codes, lists the following spe- be considered to exist in the vent stack
cial requirements to avoid suds problems: extending upstream from the point of
connection to the base of the soil or waste
1. Where required. Where kitchen sinks, laun-
stack. See Figure 3-2.
dry trays, laundry washing machines, and
similar fixtures in which sudsy detergents
are normally used, discharge at an upper Fixture Vents
level into a soil or waste stack which drain- The discharge of a lavatory or sink is quite high
age and vent piping for such lower fixtures at first, decreasing a little as the depth in the
shall be arranged so as to avoid connection basin decreases, until suddenly the rate of dis-
to suds pressure zones in the sanitary drain- charge falls rapidly to nearly zero, with the
age and vent systems, or a suds relief vent,
relieving to a nonpressure zone shall be pro-
vided at each suds pressure zone where such
connections are installed. In multistory build- Table 3-1 Suds Pressure-Relief Vents
ings, with more than six branch intervals of
Waste Size, Relief Vent Size,
fixtures described above, separate waste and
in. (mm) in. (mm)
vent stacks for the lower four branch inter-
vals of fixtures shall be required. See Table
1½ (38) 2 (51)
3-1.
2 (51) 2 (51)
2. Suds pressure zones. Suds pressure zones
shall be considered to exist at the following 2½ (63) 2 (51)
locations in sanitary drainage and vent sys- 3 (76) 2 (51)
tems as indicated in Table 3-1. See Figure 3-1. 4 (101) 3 (76)
Zone 1. In a soil or waste stack, which 5 (127) 4 (101)
serves fixtures on two or more floors and 6 (152) 5 (127)
receives wastes from fixtures wherein
8 (203) 6 (152)
sudsy detergents are used, a zone shall be
considered to exist in the vertical portion Extent of Suds Pressure Zones for Various Size
upstream of an offset fitting and the riser Soil and Waste Piping,
to the upper section of the system, in the Extent of Zone (Measured from Fittings)
horizontal portion downstream of this fit- Stack Size, Upstream, Downstream,
ting and in the horizontal portion upstream in. (mm) U, ft (m) D, ft (m)
of the offset immediately preceding the next
offset fitting. See Table 3-1. 1½ (38) 5 (1.5) 1½ (0.45)
Zone 2. In a soil or waste stack, which 2 (51) 7 (2.1) 1½ (0.45)
serves fixtures on two or more floors and
2½ (63) 8 (2.4) 2 (0.61)
receives wastes from fixtures wherein
sudsy detergents are used, a zone shall be 3 (76) 10 (3.0) 2½ (0.76)
considered to exist at the base of the stack 4 (101) 13 (4.0) 3½ (1.1)
and extending upstream. See Table 3-1. 5 (127) 17 (5.2) 4 (1.2)
Zone 3. In a soil or waste system, which 6 (152) 20 (6.1) 5 (1.5)
serves fixtures on two or more floors and
receives wastes from fixtures wherein Note: For use with Figure 3-1.
Figure 3-1 Suds-Pressure-Zone Diagram
coincidental formation of a vortex which allows published. Tests of the siphonage of fixture traps
air to be sucked down into the drain. Air that is were made as early as 1880, but no record of
drawn through the fixture passes down the drain investigations of self-siphonage at such an early
in the form of bubbles that are dragged along date has been found. Perhaps the most system-
the highest element of the drain. If there is atic investigation of the subject was made by
enough air traveling with the water, when the John L. French and Herbert N. Eaton. A full-
flow from the fixture falls off, the bubbles enable scale test was conducted by them to determine
the water to break loose from the upper element the factors that affect self-siphonage and, more
of the drain, so that the piston effect of water particularly, to establish limits on drain lengths,
that would otherwise occur is often prevented. If slopes, diameters, and other pertinent variables
the slug of water continues to fill the cross sec- that would ensure that excessive trap-seal losses
tion as the flow decreases, it moves downstream due to self-siphonage would not occur.
slowly, creating a reduced pressure behind it that
Based on these early research results, lengths
sucks the water out of the trap just as happens
of nominally sized, horizontal, unvented waste
when the reduced pressure is due to induced
pipes believed to be safe against self-siphonage
siphonage.
have been established. For example, the Uniform
Only a limited amount of data on the self- Plumbing Code has a section on the maximum
siphonage of plumbing-fixture traps have been length of the trap arm stating as follows:
Figure 3-2 Suds Venting/Suds Pressure Zones
“Each fixture trap shall have a protecting vent It should be noted that the International
so located that the developed length of the trap Plumbing Code requirements differ significantly
arm from the trap weir to the inner edge of the from these. They are set forth as follows:
vent shall be within the distance given in Table
“Each fixture trap shall have a protecting vent
3-2, but in no case less than two (2) times the
located so that the slope and the developed length
diameter of the trap arm.”
in the fixture drain from the trap weir to the vent
fitting are within the requirements set forth in
Table 3-2 Maximum Length of Trap Arm Table 3-3.”
Diameter of Distance— Venting as a Means of Reducing Trap

Trap Arm, in. (mm) Trap to Vent, ft (m) Seal Losses from Induced Siphonage
1¼ (32) 2½ (0.76) Spent water and other wastes from plumbing fix-
1½ (38) 3½ (1.1) tures enter vertical stacks through branch drains
where the flow is described as separated flow.
2 (51) 5 (1.5)
The waste water travels along the lower portion
3 (76) 6 (1.8) of the drain allowing the free movement of air in
4 (101) 10 (3.0) the upper portion of the conduit. Shortly after
Table 3-3 Maximum Distance of conventional formula for expressing losses other
Fixture Trap from Vent than those associated with flow in long, straight
pipes. This can be expressed as:
Size of
Fixture Slope, Distance Equation 3-1
Size of Trap, Drain, in./ft from Trap,
fLV2
in. (mm) in. (mm) (cm/m) ft (m) hf =
D2g
14 (32) 14 (32) 4 (12.5) 32(1.07) where
14 (32) 12 (40) 4 (12.5) 5 (1.52)
hf = Head loss due to friction, ft (m) of
12 (40) 12 (40) 4 (12.5) 5 (1.52) air column
12 (40) 2 (51) 4 (12.5) 6 (1.83)
f = Coefficient of friction corresponding
2 (51) 2 (51) 4 (12.5) 8 (2.44) to the roughness of the pipe surface
3 (76) 3 (76) 8 (25) 10 (3.05) and the diameter of the pipe
4 (101) 4 (101) 8 (25) 12 (3.66) L = Length of piping, ft (m)
V = Velocity of flow, fps (m/s)
entering the stack, the waste water attaches it- D = Diameter of piping, ft (m)
self to the walls of the vertical pipe forming an g = Gravitational acceleration, 32.2 ft/
annular flow. The falling water drags with it air s2 (9.8 m/s2)
that in a conventional plumbing drainage sys-
tem is removed through the extensive network The maximum permissible length of vent pip-
of vents in addition to the building drain. ing is expressed as:
The capacity of a given design is governed by Equation 3-2

the system’s ability to manage the incoming air hfd5
in such a way that the pressure excursions, posi- L =
tive and negative, will be within certain (0.03109)fq2
acceptable limits. Positive pressures are high and where
often the cause of failure in systems with com-
plex building drains. The main vent stack is L = Length of piping, ft (m)
designed to remove the expected air with a pres- hf = Head loss due to friction, ft (m) of
sure loss less than 1 in. (25.4 mm) of water fluid column
column. In tall buildings, the falling water de-
d = Diameter of piping, in. (mm)
velops large negative pressures, which cause
failures by siphoning the water from traps. f = Coefficient of friction corresponding
to the roughness of the pipe surface
and the diameter of the pipe
Design of Vents to Control Induced
Siphonage q = Quantity rate of flow, gpm (L/s)
In most plumbing codes a loading table for vents Drainage Fixture Units
is provided. The purpose of such a table is to give
the information necessary to design the vent stack The selection of the size and length of vent pip-
for the delivery of the amount of air required for ing requires design or installation information
the control of pneumatic pressures at critical about the size of the soil and/or waste stack and
points in the drainage system within limits of ±1 the fixture unit (derived from the supply system
in. (25.4 mm) of water column from atmospheric design) loads connected to the stack. Total fix-
pressure. If this range of pressure can be main- ture units connected to the stack can be
tained, the effects of pneumatic-pressure computed in accordance with Table 3-4. Fixture
fluctuations on the fixture-trap seals will be neg- units are really weighting factors that effectively
ligible. The dimensions of pipes required to deliver convert the various types of fixture, having dif-
given quantities of air at a pressure drop of 1 in. ferent probabilities of use, to equivalent numbers
(25.4 mm) of water column can be computed from of an arbitrarily chosen type of fixture with a
the Darcy-Weisbach Formula combined with the single probability of use. In other words, the fix-
Table 3-4 Drainage-Fixture-Unit Values ture unit assigned to each kind of fixture repre-
for Various Plumbing Fixtures sents the degree to which it loads the system.
The designer should confirm or adjust this data
Type of Fixture or Drainage-Fixture- based on the local code.
Group of Fixtures Unit Value (dfu)
Vent Sizes and Lengths
Automatic clothes washer (2-in. [51 mm] standpipe) 3
Bathroom group consisting of a water closet, The above two equations are useful for comput-
lavatory, and bathtub or shower stall: ing lengths and diameters of vent pipes required
Flushometer valve closet 8
to carry given rates of air flow. Appropriate val-
Tank-type closet 6
Bathtub (with or without overhead shower)a 2 ues of the friction coefficient should be used in
Bidet 1 applying these equations. For any particular pipe,
Clinic Sink 6 “f” is an inverse function of the Reynold’s num-
Combination sink-and-tray with food-waste grinder 4 ber (turbulence) and increases with the
Combination sink-and-tray with one roughness of pipe material relative to diameter.
1½-in. (38 mm) trap 2
Combination sink-and-tray with separate The size of vent piping shall be determined
1½-in. (38 mm) trap 3 from its length and the total number of fixture
Dental unit or cuspidor 1 units connected thereto, as set forth in Table
Dental lavatory 1 3-5. Note, in Table 3-5, that some codes limit
Drinking fountain ½ the maximum length located in the horizontal
Dishwasher, domestic 2 position due to higher friction losses in horizon-
Floor drains with 2-in. (51 mm) waste 3 tal piping. On average, codes may limit that
Kitchen sink, domestic, with one 1½-in. (38 mm) trap 2 20-50% of maximum length be located in the
Kitchen sink, domestic, with food-waste grinder 2 horizontal position.
Kitchen sink, domestic, with food-waste grinder
and dishwasher 1½-in. (38 mm) trap 3
Kitchen sink, domestic, with dishwasher End Venting
1½-in. (38 mm) trap 3
Lavatory with 1¼-in. (32-mm) waste 1 “End venting” is a system of floor drains whose
Laundry trap (1 or 2 compartments) 2 branch arms do not exceed 15 ft (4.5 m) and are
Shower stall, domestic 2 sloped at 8 in./ft (3.2 mm/m) (1%) to a main
Showers (group) per headb 2 drain that is sized two pipe diameters larger,
Sinks: therefore allowing the main drain to be end
Surgeon’s 3 vented. The theory is that the system is over-
Flushing rim (with valve) 6
sized allowing the sewer always to flow partially
Service (trap standard) 3
Service (P trap) 2
full, thus permitting air to circulate above. (This
Pot, scullery, etc.b 4 configuration is similar to a combination waste-
Urinal, pedestal, syphon jet blowout 6 and-vent system.)
Urinal, wall lip 4
Urinal, stall, washout 4 Common Vent
Urinal, trough (each 6-ft [1.8 m] section) 2
Wash sink (circular or multiple) each set of faucets 2 A common vent may be used for two fixtures set
Water closet, tank-operated 4 on the same floor level but connecting at differ-
Water closet, valve-operated 6 ent levels in the stack, provided that the vertical
Fixtures not listed above:
drain is one pipe diameter larger than the upper
Trap size 1¼ in. (32 mm) or less 1
Trap size 1½ in. (38 mm) 2 fixture drain but in no case smaller than the
Trap size 2 in. (51 mm) 3 lower fixture drain, or whichever is the larger,
Trap size 2½ in. (63 mm) 4 and that both drains conform to the distances
Trap size 3 in. (76 mm) 5 from trap to vent for various size drains.
Trap size 4 in. (101 mm) 6
a A shower head over a bathtub does not increase the fixture-unit Stack Venting
value.
b See Chapter 1 of this volume for the method of computing equiva- A group of fixtures, consisting of one bathroom
lent fixture values for devices or equipment that discharges group and a kitchen sink or combination fixtures,
continuous or semicontinuous flows into sanitary drainage sys- may be installed without individual fixture vents
tems.
Table 3-5 Size and Length of Vents
Size of
Soil or Fixture Diameter of Vent Required, in. (mm)
Waste Units
1¼ (32) 1½ (38) 2 (51) 2½ (63) 3 (76) 4 (101) 5 (127) 6 (152) 8 (203)
Stack, Con-
in. (mm) nected Maximum Length of Vent, ft (m)
1½ (38) 8 50 (15.2) 150 (45.7)
2 (51) 12 30 (9.1) 75 (22.8) 200 (61)
2 (51) 20 26 (7.9) 50 (15.2) 150 (45.7)
2½ (63) 42 30 (9.1) 100 (30.5) 300 (91.4)
3 (76) 10 30 (9.1) 100 (30.5) 100 (30.5) 600 (182.9)
3 (76) 30 60 (18.3) 200 (61) 500 (152.4)
3 (76) 60 50 (15.2) 80 (27.8) 400 (122)
4 (101) 100 35 (10.7) 100 (30.5) 260 (79.2) 1000 (304.8)
4 (101) 200 30 (9.1) 90 (27.4) 250 (76.2) 900 (274.3)
4 (101) 500 20 (6.1) 70 (21.3) 180 (54.9) 700 (213.4)
5 (127) 200 35 (10.7) 80 (27.8) 350 (106.7) 1000 (304.8)
5 (127) 500 30 (9.1) 70 (21.3) 300 (91.4) 900 (274.3)
5 (127) 1100 20 (6.1) 50 (15.2) 200 (61) 700 (213.4)
6 (152) 350 25 (7.6) 50 (15.2) 200 (61) 400 (122) 1300 (396.6)
6 (152) 620 15 (4.6) 30 (9.1) 125 (38) 300 (91.4) 1100 (335.3)
6 (152) 960 24 (7.3) 100 (30.5) 250 (76.2) 1000 (304.8)
6 (152) 1900 20 (6.1) 70 (21.3) 200 (61) 700 (213.0)
8 (203) 600 50 (15.2) 150 (43.7) 500 (152.4) 1300 (396.6)
8 (203) 1400 40 (12.2) 100 (30.5) 400 (122) 1200 (365.8)
8 (203) 2200 30 (9.1) 80 (27.8) 350 (106.7) 1100 (335.3)
8 (203) 3600 25 (7.6) 60 (18.3) 250 (76.2) 800 (243.8)
10 (254) 1000 75 (22.9) 125 (38) 1000 (304.8)
10 (254) 2500 50 (15.2) 100 (30.5) 500 (152.4)
10 (254) 3800 30 (9.1) 80 (27.8) 350 (106.7)
10 (254) 5600 25 (7.6) 60 (18.3) 250 (76.2)

in a one-story building or on the top floor of a Table 3-6 Size of Vent Stacks
building, provided each fixture drain connects
independently to the stack, and the water closet Diam. of Vent Stacks
and bathtub or shower-stall drain enters the No. of Wet-Vented Fixtures in. mm
stack at the same level and in accordance with
trap-arm requirements. 1 or 2 bathtubs or showers 2 50.8
When a sink or combination fixture connects 3–5 bathtubs or showers 2½ 63.5
to the stack-vented bathroom group and when 6–9 bathtubs or showers 3 76.2
the street sewer is sufficiently overloaded to cause 10–16 bathtubs or showers 4 101.6
frequent submersion of the building sewer, a
relief vent or back-vented fixture shall be con-
nected to the stack below the stack-vented water Circuit and Loop Venting
closet or bathtub. A branch soil or waste pipe to which two but not
more than eight water closets (except blowout
Wet Venting type), pedestal urinals, trap standard to floor,
shower stalls, or floor drains are connected in
If allowed by local codes, a single-bathroom group battery may be vented by a circuit or loop vent
of fixtures may be installed with a drain from a which takes off in front of the last fixture con-
back-vented lavatory, kitchen sink, or combina- nection. In addition, lower-floor branches serving
tion fixture serving as a wet vent for a bathtub more than three water closets shall be provided
or shower stall and for the water closet, provided with a relief vent taken off in front of the first
that: fixture connection. When lavatories or similar
1. Not more than one fixture unit is drained into fixtures discharge above such branches, each
a 1½-in. (38-mm) diameter wet vent or not vertical branch shall be provided with a continu-
more than four fixture units drain into a 2-in. ous vent.
(51-mm) diameter wet vent. Figure 3-3 represents a typical loop-vented,
2. The horizontal branch connects to the stack water-closet row installed on the top floor of a
at the same level as the water-closet drain or building or in a one-story building. Figure 3-3(a)
below the water-closet drain when installed shows the horizontal branch installed at the back
on the top floor. below the water closet. Figure 3-3(b) is the same
toilet room, except that the horizontal branch is
Bathroom groups consisting of two lavato- directly under the water closets.
ries and two bathtubs or shower stalls back to
back on a top floor may be installed on the same Figure 3-4 illustrates a toilet arrangement
horizontal branch with a common vent for the similar to that shown in Figure 3-3 except that
lavatories and with no back vent for the bath- the installation applies to a multistory building.
tubs or shower stalls and for the water closets, A circuit vent is similar to a loop vent except
provided the wet vent is 2 in. (51 mm) in diam- that a circuit vent connects into the vent stack.
eter and the length of the fixture drain conforms
When the circuit, loop, or relief vent connec-
to Table 3-2.
tions are taken off the horizontal branch, the
On the lower floors of a multistory building, vent branch connection shall be taken off at a
the waste pipe from one or two lavatories may vertical angle or from the top of the horizontal
be used as a wet vent for one or two bathtubs or branch.
showers, provided that:
In sizing, the diameter of a circuit or loop
1. The wet vent and its extension to the vent vent shall be made not less than the size of the
stack is 2 in. (51 mm) in diameter. diameter of the vent stack, or one half the size of
the diameter of the horizontal soil or waste
2. Each water closet below the top floor is in-
branch, whichever is smaller.
dividually back-vented.
3. The vent stack is sized as shown in Table 3-6. When fixtures are connected to one horizon-
tal branch through a double wye or a sanitary
tee in a vertical position, a common vent for each
two fixtures back to back with a double connec-
Figure 3-4 Circuit Vent
Figure 3-3 Loop Vent, with Horizontal

Branch Located (a) at Back Below Water
Closets, (b) Directly Under Water Closets.
tion shall be provided. The common vent shall of the pipe out of line but into a line approxi-
be installed in a vertical position as a continua- mately parallel with the other section. The offset
tion of the double connection. distance can be estimated according to the fol-
lowing:
Relief Vents Pipe Size, Horizontal Offset,
in. (mm) in. (mm)
Soil and waste stacks in buildings having more
than ten branch intervals shall be provided with 2 (51) 5 (127)
a relief vent at each tenth interval installed, be- 3 (76) 7 (177)
ginning with the top floor. The size of the relief 4 (101) 10 (254)
vent shall be equal to the size of the vent stack
5 (127) 12 (303)
to which it connects. The lower end of each relief
vent shall connect to the soil or waste stack 6 (152) 14 (354)
through a wye below the horizontal branch serv- 8 (203) 18 (455)
ing the floor, and the upper end shall connect to
the vent stack through a wye not less than 3 ft Offsets less than 45° from the horizontal in
(0.9 m) above the floor level. a soil or waste stack shall comply with the fol-
lowing:
In order to balance the pressures that are
constantly changing within the plumbing sys- 1. Offsets may be vented as two separate soil
tem, it is necessary to provide a relief vent at or waste stacks, namely, the stack section
various intervals, particularly in multistory build- below the offset and the stack section above
ings. Figure 3-5 illustrates important the offset.
requirements for the installation of a relief vent.
2. Offsets may be vented by installing a relief
vent as a vertical continuation of the lower
Offset section of the stack or as a side vent con-
nected to the lower section between the offset
An offset in a run of piping consists of a combi-
and the next lower fixture or horizontal
nation of elbows or bends that brings one section
branch. The upper section of the offset shall with the requirements of Table 3-5, the number
be provided with a yoke vent. The diameter of units being the sum of all units on all stacks
of the vents shall be not less than the diam- connected thereto, and the developed length be-
eter of the main vent or of the soil and waste ing the longest vent length from the intersection
stack, whichever is smaller. at the base of the most distant stack to the vent
terminal in the open air as a direct extension of
Figure 3-6 illustrates the requirements for
installation. one stack.
Vent Headers Combination Waste and Vent Systems

These are horizontal wet-vented systems. They
Stack vents and vent stacks may be connected
are used where walls are not available for vents.
into a common vent header at the top of the
They depend on oversized drainage pipes to pre-
stacks and then extended to the open air at one
vent loss of trap seal. Surge loads are not allowed.
point. This header shall be sized in accordance
Figure 3-5 Relief Vent

Grease-producing fixtures are not allowed, as This system limits the trap arm length to re-
scouring action is poor. They are used primarily duce suction buildup. The size of the main stack
for extended floor or shower-drain installations, is increased to limit pressure and vacuum build-
for floor sinks for markets or restaurants, and up. See Figure 3-8. Check with the local authorities
for worktables in schools. See Figure 3-7. Some to see if this system is allowed. Contact the City of
codes also allow sinks and lavatories to be in- Philadelphia for specific requirements.
stalled with this type of system. Check the local
code for requirements. Sovent System
The performance of the sovent plumbing system
SECTION II — is based mainly on the aerator, which is required
SEVERAL VENTING SYSTEMS on each floor level, and the deaerator at the base
of the stack. The aerator provides an offset and
Philadelphia System entrance chamber to divert the main flow around
the branch inlet and permit a gradual mixing of
Philadelphia or one pipe system refers to using the branch flow with the main stack flow. These
one stack instead of having separate drainage fittings limit the velocity of both liquid waste and
and vent stacks. These systems depend on re- air in the stack and create minimum turbulence
lieving the pressures by making the pipe larger inside the fitting chamber. The resulting air flow
than required for drainage pipe in a two-pipe and associated pressure fluctuation are there-
system. These systems also use unvented traps fore less. The deaerator installed at the base and
(“s” traps) that depend on oversized traps and at every change of direction of the stack from
refill from flat bottom fixtures to maintain the vertical to horizontal acts to separate the air flow
trap seal. from the fixture in the stack, ensuring the smooth
Figure 3-6 Offset

entry of liquid into the building drain and reliev- fixtures are stack vented, economy of installa-
ing the positive pressure generated in the stack’s tion is achieved.
base. It is obvious that these fittings balance
However, with this type of venting, certain
positive and negative pressure at or near zero
precautions must be observed if the trap seals
throughout the entire system under conditions
of the stack-vented fixtures are not to be depleted
of normal usage.
excessively by the pneumatic-pressure variations
within the stack. One precaution that must be
Stack Venting observed is to connect the fixtures on the floor
in question to the stack in the proper order ver-
In stack venting the fixtures are connected in- tically upward. They should be connected in order
dependently through their fixture drains to the
of decreasing rate of discharge in the upward
drainage stack without any venting other than
direction. Thus the lavatory drain should be the
what is afforded through the stack and stack
drain that is highest on the stack. The reason
vent. Since no back venting is used when the
Figure 3-7 Combination Waste-and-Vent System

Figure 3-8 Philadelphia System

for this is that the discharge of a fixture drain

into the stack causes pressure reduction for some
distance below the point of entry, and this pres-
sure reduction is greater the greater the rate of
discharge. (See Figure 3-9.)
Another precaution that is observed in the
United States is to permit stack venting only in
single-story structures or on the top floor of
multistory buildings.
It should be noted, however, that the British
have installed some systems with stack venting
on every floor of multistory buildings and report
that it is working satisfactorily.
Wet Venting
A “wet vent” is one that vents a particular fix-
ture and at the same time receives the discharge
from other fixtures (see Figure 3-9). In practice,
such a vent receives the discharge only from low-
rate fixtures, such as lavatories, sinks, etc., never
from a water closet or from a number of fixtures.
The principal object of using wet vents is to
reduce the vent piping required for a given in-
stallation by making individual pipes serve two
purposes. Because wet venting simplifies the
drainage system and thereby decreases the cost
of installation, there is an increasing tendency Figure 3-9 Wet Venting and
among code-writing authorities to permit its use Stack Venting
under suitable restrictions that are necessary to
prevent excessive trap seal losses.
mance under various loading conditions (National
Dr. R. Hunter, at the National Bureau of Bureau of Standards 1974). At the same time,
Standards, conducted tests on wet venting and the ten-story wet-vent system in Stevens’s Build-
reported the results in Recommended Minimum ing Technology Research Laboratory had been
Requirements for Plumbing in Dwellings and Simi- modified by reducing the vents one to three pipe
lar Buildings. He pointed out that, under certain sizes in accordance with plans and specifications
conditions, wet venting could be used without furnished by the National Bureau of Standards
danger of reducing trap seals excessively. In a (NBS) and the conducting of a series of tests
later publication he indicated that bathroom under various loading conditions. Based on the
fixtures back to back can be wet vented satisfac- test loads imposed, the reduced-size vents
torily, provided the bathtub drains between the selected for use in this study appear to be ad-
wet vent and the bathtub trap are laid on a uni- equate with regard to trap-seal retention and
form slope and otherwise comply with the blow-back for a ten-story building (Stevens In-
conditions necessary to prevent excessive self- stitute of Technology 1973). In 1976, a report
siphonage. described the experimental findings of tests on a
full-scale, two-story plumbing system with re-
Reduced-Size Venting duced-size vents under a range of operating
conditions including having the vent terminals
In 1972, a laboratory study of one-story and split- closed and the building drain submerged. Re-
level experimental drainage systems where the sults indicate that dry-vent piping in one and
vents varied from one to six pipe sizes smaller two-story housing units can safely be made
than those presently specified by codes showed smaller than presently allowed by design with-
satisfactory hydraulic and pneumatic perfor- out jeopardizing the trap seals.
SECTION III— level rim of the fixture served. An arterial vent is

SIZING OF SEVERAL VENTING installed for systems with more than one floor of
SYSTEMS fixtures (the drainage piping between the arterial
vent and the street sewer is at least the same size
Reduced-Size Venting Design as the arterial vent). Vents that are subject to
freezing are of traditional size; vent terminals are
This system may allow economies in venting de- screened (free openings are at least 150% of the
sign in low-rise residential buildings. It is similar required flow area and openings face down); and
to traditional codes, but allows smaller size vents. drainage pipes are the size required by traditional
It is limited to special conditions and requires codes. Always consult with the local plumbing
that vent pipes not be restricted by products of code enforcement agency or other governmental
corrosion. department having jurisdiction before designing
the system to be sure this sizing method is ac-
General limitations Reduced-size venting is lim- ceptable under the applicable code.
ited to water fall from the highest fixture to the
building drain or its horizontal branches of 15 ft
(4.6 m) for residential occupancies and residen-
tial-type fixtures. Reduced-size vents must be of Table 3-7 Fixture Unit Loads
corrosion-resistant materials, such as copper or
plastic; must slope to the drain; must not be lo- Fixture Fixture Units
cated where a stoppage could cause waste to back
up into them (e.g., a single-compartment sink with Bathtub or shower 2
a garbage disposer that could pump waste into Clothes washer 3
the vent pipe in the event of stoppage below the Dish washer 2
vent); must not be installed within 1½ ft (0.5 m) Floor drain 3
developed length from a clothes-washer trap arm;
Laundry tray 2
and must be independent of other systems. (Ex-
Lavatory 1
ception: The drains from these systems may
connect to any other system in gravity-flow build- Sink (including dishwasher and
garbage disposer) 3
ing sewers.) Fixture and stack vents are traditional
sizes up to at least 6 in. (152 mm) above the flood Water closet (tank type) 4
Table 3-8 Fixture Vents and Stack Vents

Elevation of Trap Centerline, Arm above Load Served by Vent Nominal Size of Fixture
Type of Vent Centerline of Its Horizontal Drain, ft (m) (fixture units) or Stack Vent, in. (mm)
Fixture vent for one trap Up to 8 (2.4) 3 or less ½ (12.7)a

4 ¾ (19)a
8–16 (2.4–4.9) 3 or less ¾ (19)
4 1 (25.4)
Fixture vent for two traps Up to 8 (2.4) 3 or less ¾ (19)a
4–6 1 (25.4)
7 and 8 1¼ (32)
8–16 (2.4–4.9) 6 or less 1 (25.4)
7 and 8 1¼ (32)
Stack vent Up to 8 (2.4) 6 or less 1 (25.4)
7–15 1¼ (32)
16–29 1½ (38)
8–16 (2.4–4.9) 6 or less 1¼ (32)
7–15 1½ (38)
16–29 2 (51)
aIncrease one pipe size for two-story systems.
Sizing procedure The following steps should Table 3-9 Confluent Vents Serving
be followed in the design of reduced-size vent- Three Fixture or Stack Vents
ing:
Nominal Size of Fixture or Stack Vent, Nominal Size of
1. Prepare a pipe layout drawing.
in. (mm) Confluent Vent,
2. Determine the fixture units for each fixture Largest Next to Largest Smallest in (mm.)
vent and each stack vent using Table 3-7.
3. Size fixture and stack vents using Table 3-8. ½ (12.7) ½ (12.7) ½ (12.7) ¾ (19)
a
4. Size confluent vents, beginning at the vents ¾ (19) ¾ (19) ¾ (19)a 1 (25.4)
farthest from their termination. 1 (25.4) 1 (25.4) a ¾ (19)a 1¼ (31)
A. When a confluent vent serves two fixture 1 (25.4) 1 (25.4) 1 (25.4) 1½ (38)
vents, two stack vents, or one fixture vent
a
and one stack vent, make the confluent 1¼ (31) ¾ (19) ¾ (19)a 1½ (38)
vent one pipe size larger than the vents 1¼ (31) 1 (25.4) ½ (12.7) 1½ (38)
served.
1¼ (31) 1 (25.4) ¾ (19) 2 (51)
B. When a confluent vent serves any com-
bination of three fixture vents and stack
vents, size the confluent vent using Table 1¼ (31) 1¼ (31) ½ (12.7) 1½ (38)
3-9. 1¼ (31) 1¼ (31) ¾ (19) 2 (51)
C. When a confluent vent serves any com- 1½ (38) 1¼ (31)a 1¼ (31)a 2 (51)
bination of four or more fixture and stack
vents, size the confluent vent using Table 1½ (38) 1½ (38) 1 (25.4)a 2 (51)
3-10 or 3-11. For flow areas of pipe and 1½ (38) 1½ (38) 1¼ (31) 3 (76)
tube, use Table 3-12.
aOr smaller.
Table 3-10 Confluent Vents Serving Four or More Fixture or Stack Vents, Schedule 40 Pipe
Nominal Size of Confluent Vent, in. (mm)

Size of Largest
Vent Served, 1 (25.4) 1¼ (31) 1½ (38) 2(51) 2½ (63) 3(76) 4 (101)
in. (mm) Total Flow Area of Vents Served, in2 (103 mm2)
½ (12.7) 1.2–2.5 2.5–7.5 7.5–14

(0.8–1.6) (1.6–4.8) (4.8–9.0)
¾ (19) 1.4–4.2 4.2–7.9 7.9– 21
(0.9–2.7) (2.7–5.1) (5.1–13.6)
1 (25.4) 1.8–2.6 2.6–4.8 4.8–13 13–27
(1.2–1.7) (1.7–3.1) (3.1–8.4) (8.4–17.4)
1¼ (31) 2.4–2.8 2.8–6.7 6.7–15 15–36
(1.6–1.8) (1.8–4.3) (4.3–9.7) (9.7–23.2)
1½ (38) 2.9–5.5 5.5–11 11–27 27 to 79
(1.9–3.6) (3.6–7.1) (7.1–17.4) (17.4 to 51.0)
2 (51) 3.8–6.8 6.8–16 16 to 48
(2.5–4.4) (4.4–10.3) (10.3 to 31.0)
2½ (63) 5.7–11 to 34
(3.7–7.1) (7.1 to 21.9)
3 (76) 8.3 to 22
(5.4 to 14.2)
Table 3-11 Confluent Vents Serving Four or More Fixture or Stack Vents, Copper Tube
Nominal Size of Confluent Vent, in. (mm)
Size of Type M Type DWV
Largest
Vent Served, ¾ (19) 1 (25.4) 1¼ (31) 1½ (38) 2 (51) 3 (76) 4 (101)
in. (mm) Total Flow Area of Vents Served, in (103 mm2)
2
½ (12.7) 1.0–1.1 1.1–3.0 3.0–7.0 7.0–14

(0.6–0.7) (0.7–1.9) (1.9–4.5) (4.5–9.0)
¾ (19) 1.3–1.5 1.5–3.4 3.4–6.7 6.7–21
(0.8–1.0) (1.0–2.2) (2.2–4.3) (4.3–13.6)
1 (25.4) 1.6–2.0 2.0–4.0 4.0–12 12–60
(1.0–1.3) (1.3–2.6) (2.6–7.7) (7.7–38.7)
1¼ (31) 2.1–2.7 2.7–8.1 8.1–40 40–120
(1.4–1.7) (1.7–5.2) (5.2–25.8) (25.8–77.4)
1½ (38) 2.6–5.7 5.7–28 28–85
(1.7–3.7) (3.7–18.1) (18.1–54.8)
2 (51) 4.1–16 16–49
(2.7–10.3) (10.3–31.6)
3 (76) 8–22
(5.2–14.2)
5. When a vent is longer than 25 ft (7.6 m) de- Table 3-12 Flow Areas of Pipe and Tube,
veloped length between the trap arm and the in2 (103 mm2)
roof termination, increase the vent one pipe
size over its entire length. Nominal
Size, Schedule Copper Tube
6. When serving more than one floor level of in. (mm) 40 Pipe Type M Type DWV
fixtures, provide an arterial vent, connected
to the largest drain and near the building
¼ (12.7) 0.3 (0.2) 0.25 (0.2) —
sewer. Size the arterial vent using Table 3-
13. The arterial vent may also serve as a ½ (19) 0.53 (0.3) 0.52 (0.3) —
confluent vent and fixture vent. Increase the 1 (25.4) 0.86 (0.6) 0.87 (0.6) —
connecting drain size to equal the arterial
1¼ (31) 1.5 (1.0) — 1.32 (0.9)
vent size to vent the system properly.
1½ (38) 2.04 (1.3) — 1.87 (1.2)
7. When a portion of the vent is subject to freez-
ing, increase that portion to the traditional 2 (51) 3.36 (2.2) — 3.27 (2.1)
size. 2½ (63) 4.79 (3.1) — —
Installation The design engineer should explain 3 (76) 7.39 (4.8) — 7.24 (4.7)
the special requirements of the reduced-size vent- 4 (101) 12.7 (8.2) — 12.6 (8.1)
ing method to the installer, who may be
unfamiliar with them. More detailed drawings
may be necessary to describe the system com- Table 3-13 Arterial Vents
pletely. The engineer should make regular
inspections to be sure that the design conditions Load on System Length of Arterial Nominal Size of
(fixture units) Vent, ft (m) Arterial Vent, in. (mm)
are met in the field. Also, the owner should be
given copies of the plumbing drawings for per-
manent records so that future additions can be 10 or less 36 (11) or less 1½ (38)
properly sized. over 36 (11) to 120 (36.6) 2 (51)
11–30 30 (9.1) or less 1½ (38)
over 30 (9.1) to 100 (30.5) 2 (51)
Example. The following design example illustrates the reduced-size venting method:
Conditions. Two-story residential building, freezing climate, Schedule 40 plastic vents.
Step 1. Prepare a pipe layout. See Figure 3-10.
Step 2. Determine fixture and stack vent sizes by using Table 3-8.
Number of Elevation, Load (from Table 3-7) Size,
Vent Pipe Fixture Traps Vent Stack ft (m) (fixture units) in. (mm)
1 1 no 5 (1.5) 3 ½ (12.7)
2 2 no 5 (1.5) 5 1 (25.4)
3 2 yes 15 (4.6) 5 1¼ (31)
4 3 yes 15 (4.6) 7 1½ (38)
5 1 no 4 (1.2) 3 ½ (12.7)
Step 3. Determine confluent vent size.

Sizes, Area (from Table 3-12), Size,
Vent Pipe Number in. (mm) in2 (mm2) in. (mm)
20 2 1, 1 (25.4, 25.4) (vents 1 & 2) — 1¼ (31) (one size over 1)

21 3 1¼, 1, 1 (31, 25.4, 25.4) (vents 1, 2, and 3) — 2 (51) (from Table 3-10)
22 4 1 (25.4) (vent 1) 0.86 (0.6) 2 (51) (from Table 3-10)
1 (25.4) (vent 2) 0.86 (0.6)
1¼ (31) (vent 3) 1.5 (1.0)
1½ (38) (vent 4) 2.04 (1.3)
Step 4. No vent is longer than 25 ft (7.6 m); therefore, no increase is necessary.

Step 5. Determine arterial vent size from Table 3-13.
Vent Pipe Load (fixture units) Length, ft (m) Size, in. (mm)
4, 22, and 23 23 5 (1.5) 1½ (38)
Step 6. Increase all vents that are subject to freezing conditions to traditional sizes.
Vent Pipe Load (fixture units) Length ft, (m) Size, in. (mm)
22 23 4½ (1.4) 2 (51)a
23 23 1½ (0.5) 3 (76)b
a Traditional size.
b Size required to prevent frost closure.
Vent 22 was 2 in. (51 mm), Step 3.

Vent 23 (extension of vent 22) should be increased from 2 in. (51 mm), Step 4, to 3 in. (76 mm).
Increase bathtub drain to 2 in. (51 mm).
Figure 3-10 Pipe Layout Drawing – Two-Story Residential Building,

Freezing Climate, Schedule 40 Plastic Vents
Sovent Systems fitting at each floor level; DWV horizontal

branches; and a sovent deaerator fitting at the
The sovent system is a single-stack system that base of the stack. The two special fittings, the
may allow economies in drainage and vent aerator and the deaerator, are the basis for the
systems. There are no limits to heights or occu- self-venting features of the sovent system. Soil
pancies, but there are special design rules. The stack and vent combine into a single sovent
effects of excess suds should be considered. stack. Figure 3-11 illustrates a typical sovent
Always consult with the local plumbing code single-stack plumbing system and a traditional
enforcement agency or other governmental de- two-pipe system.
partment having jurisdiction before designing the
Aerator fittings The sovent system aerator fit-
system to make sure this system is acceptable
ting consists of an offset at the upper stack inlet
under the local code.
connection, a mixing chamber, one or more
The sovent system has four parts: a drain, branch inlets, one or more waste inlets for the
waste, and vent (DWV) stack; a sovent aerator connection of smaller waste branches, a baffle
(A) (B)
Figure 3-11 (A) Traditional Two-Pipe Plumbing System;

(B) Typical Sovent Single-Stack Plumbing System.
in the center of the chamber with an aperture is designed to overcome the tendency of the fall-
between it and the top of the fitting, and the stack ing waste to build up excessive back pressure at
outlet at the bottom of the fitting. The aerator the bottom of the stack when the flow is deceler-
fitting provides a chamber where the flow of soil ated by the bend into the horizontal drain. The
and waste from horizontal branches can unite deaerator provides a method of separating air
smoothly with the air and liquid already flowing from system flow and equalizing pressure build-
in the stack. ups. The configuration of the deaerator fitting
causes part of the air falling with the liquid and
The aerator fitting performs this function ef-
solid in the stack to be ejected through the pres-
ficiently so that no plug of water forms across
sure relief line to the top of the building drain
the stack to cause pressure and vacuum fluc-
while the balance goes into the drain with the
tuations that could blow or siphon fixture trap
soil and waste.
seals. The aerator also slows the flow down the
stack at each floor level.
Aerator fittings are installed in the sovent
system at every floor level, where there is a soil
branch or where there is no soil branch but a
waste branch equal in diameter to, or one size
smaller than, the stack. At a floor level where
the aerator fitting is not needed (e.g., on a 4-in.
[101-mm] stack where there is no soil branch
and only a 2-in. [51-mm] waste branch enters),
a double in-line offset is used in place of the aera-
tor fitting. This offset reduces the vertical velocity
in the stack between floor intervals in a manner
similar to the aerator fitting (see Figure 3-12).
Deaerator fittings The sovent system deaerator

fitting consists of an air separation chamber
having an internal nose piece, a stack inlet, a
pressure-relief outlet at the top, and a stack out-
let at the bottom. (See Figure 3-13.) The deaerator
fitting at the bottom of the stack functions in
combination with the aerator fittings above to
make the single stack self venting. The deaerator
Figure 3-12 Typical Figure 3-13 Typical

Sovent System Aerator Fitting Sovent System Deaerator
Sizing procedure The following steps should must be one pipe size larger than the size of the
be followed in the design of this system: larger stack below the tie line.
1. Prepare a layout drawing. An aerator fitting is required at each level

where one of the following horizontal branches
2. Determine the loading on each section of pipe. enters the sovent stack: (1) a soil branch, (2) a
3. Size the stack. waste branch the same size as the sovent stack,
or (3) a waste branch one DWV tube size smaller
4. Size the branches.
than the sovent stack. A 2-in. (51-mm) horizon-
5. Select the fittings above the building drain. tal waste branch may be entered directly into a
4-in. (101-mm) sovent soil stack. At any floor level
6. Design the connections to the building drain.
where an aerator fitting is not required, a double
7. Size the building drain. in-line offset is built into the stack at the nominal
(For additional illustrations of requirements, floor interval. This maintains the lowered fall rate
see Copper Development Association listing in of the sovent system within the stack.
References.) The size of the stack is determined by the num-
ber of fixture units connected, as with traditional
Stack The stack must be carried full size
sanitary systems. (See Tables 3-14 and 3-15.)
through the roof to the atmosphere. Two stacks
can be tied together at the top, above the highest Branches The starting point in sizing the hori-
fixture, with only one stack extending through zontal soil and waste branches is to determine
the roof. If the distance between the two stacks is the fixture-unit loading based on the various fix-
20 ft (6.1 m) or less, the horizontal line that ties tures and appliances in the system design.
the two verticals together, pitched at ¼ in./ft (20.8 According to traditional practice, the maximum
mm/m), can be the same diameter as the stack number of fixture-units that may be connected
that terminates below the roof level. If the dis- to branches and branch arms of various sizes is
tance is greater than 20 ft (6.1 m), the line must shown in Table 3-14. Tailpiece, trap, trap arm,
be one size larger than the terminated stack. An and branch sizes for the individual fixture con-
inverted long-turn fitting is used at the junction. nections are shown in Table 3-16 (see Figures
The common stack extending through the roof 3-14 and 3-15).
Figure 3-14 Sovent System Branches

Table 3-14 Fixture Unit Loads

Fixture-Unit Value Minimum Size of
Fixture Type as Load Factor Trap, in. (mm)
1 bathroom group (water closet, lavatory, and bath tub or shower stall) . Tank-type closet 6
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Flush-valve closet 8
Bathtuba (with or without overhead shower) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1½ (38)
Bathtuba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2 (51)
Bidet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Nominal 1½ (38)
Combination sink and tray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1½ (38)
Combination sink and tray with food-disposal unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Separate 1½ (38) traps
Dental unit or cuspidor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ½ 1¼ (31)
Dental lavatory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1¼ (31)
Drinking fountain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ½ 1 (25.4)
Dishwasher,b domestic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1½ (38)
Floor drainsc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 (51)
Kitchen sink, domestic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1½ (38)
Kitchen sink, domestic, with food-disposal unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1½ (38)
Lavatory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1¼ (31)
Lavatory, barber, beauty parlor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1½ (38)
Lavatory, surgeon’s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1½ (38)
Laundry tray (1 or 2 compartments) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1½ (38)
Shower stall, domestic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2 (51)
Showers (group) per head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Sinks
Surgeon’s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1½ (38)
Flushing rim (with valve) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 3 (76)
Service (trap standard) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 3 (76)
Service (P trap) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2 (51)
Pot, scullery etc.b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1½ (38)
Urinal, pedestal, syphon, jet, blowout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Nominal 3 (76)
Urinal, wall lip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1½ (38)
Urinal stall, washout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 2 (51)
Urinal troughb (each 2-ft section) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1½ (38)
Wash sinkb (circular or multiple, each set of faucets) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Nominal 1½ (38)
Water closet
Tank-operated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Nominal 3 (76)
Valve-operated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 3 (76)
a A shower head over a bathtub does not increase the fixture value.
b See following note for method of computing unit value of fixtures.
c Size of floor drain shall be determined by the area of surface water to be drained.
Table 3-14 Fixture Unit Loads (cont’d)

Note: Fixtures not listed in the above table shall be estimated Table 3-15 Maximum Fixture Units
as follows:
Fixture Drain or Trap Size, Branch

in. (mm) Fixture-Unit Value Size, Fixture
in. (mm) Units Exception
1¼ (32) and smaller 1
1½ (38) 2 2 (51) 6a No 6-unit fixtures or traps
2 (51) 3 3 (76) 35 Only two 6-unit fixtures or traps
2½ (63) 4
3 (76) 5 4 (101) 180
4 (101) 6 a4, if simultaneous discharge of more than 4 fu is probable.
Figure 3-15 Soil and Waste Branches Connected into a Horizontal Stack Offset.
Waste Branches Connected into the Pressure-Relief Line.
Branch sizes must be increased over the sizes downstream side of the fitting at the begin-
shown in Tables 3-15 and 3-16 under the fol- ning of the vertical drop in question.
lowing conditions:
2. When three 90° changes in direction (using
1. A second vertical drop downstream from a trap 90° elbows or similar one-diameter radius
arm or any vertical drop of more than 3 ft (0.9 turns) occur in a horizontal branch, it must
m) requires an increase of one pipe size at the be increased one pipe size at the upstream
side of the third 90° change in direction. If a
90° change in direction in the horizontal can
be made with two 45° elbow fittings, or with
Table 3-16 Size Rules for an extra long-term elbow (more than one and
Connecting Fixtures into the Sovent one half diameter radius), this rule does not
Single-Stack Drainage Plumbing System apply.
Tailpiece, Trap, Trap Arm, Branch, 3. When a branch serves two water closets and
in. (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm) one or more additional fixtures, the soil line
must be increased to 4 in. (101 mm). Start-
1¼ (31) 1¼ (31) 1½ (38) 2 (51) ing at the most remote fixture and moving
toward the stack, the branch size is increased
1¼ (31) 1½ (38) 2 (51) 2 (51)
to 4 in. (101 mm) at the point where it has
1½ (38) 1½ (38) 2 (51) 2 (51) picked up one water closet and one additional
2 (51) 2 (51) 3 (76)a 3 (76) fixture closer to the stack.
Note: Diameter is shown for each permitted combination of ele- 4. When a soil branch exceeds 12 ft (3.7 m) in
ments. horizontal length, it should be increased one
a2 in. (51 mm) for stall shower, floor drain, or automatic washing pipe size.
machine standpipe drain.
5. When a waste branch exceeds 15 ft (4.6 m) Connection DWV Fitting

in horizontal length, it should be increased
From trap arm to upper Single 90° elbow; for two
one pipe size.
vertical branch terminal lavatories double elbow
Note: It is best to install a secondary pressure- (short turn); for two sinks
equalizing line when the horizontal length 90° elbow plus a 45° elbow
exceeds 27 ft (8.2 m) in cases (4) and (5) From vertical branch to Long turn T-Y, 45° wye
above. horizontal branch and 45° or 90° elbow
(exception: soil branches
Fittings An aerator fitting is required at each require long turn 90°
level where one of the following horizontal elbows for all 90°
branches enters the sovent stack: (1) a soil changes in direction)
branch, (2) a waste branch the same size as the From horizontal branch Single 90° elbow or
sovent stack, or (3) a waste branch one DWV to vertical branch double elbow
tube size smaller than the sovent stack. A 2-in.
From horizontal to 45° wye and 45° elbow,
(51-mm) horizontal waste branch may be entered
horizontal (exception: long turn T-Y or 90° elbow
directly into a 4-in. (101-mm) sovent soil stack. soil branches require long
At a floor level where the aerator fitting is turn 90° elbows for all
90° changes in direction)
not needed (e.g., on a 4-in. [101-mm] stack where
there is no soil branch and only a 2-in. [51-mm] From waste branch to stack Sanitary tee
waste branch enters), a double in-line offset is
From branch below the Long turn T-Y or a 45°
used in place of the aerator fitting. deaerator fitting to stack, wye and a 45° elbow
At the deaerator outlet, the stack is connected to building drain, to
horizontal offset or to
into the horizontal drain through a long-turn fit-
pressure relief line
ting arrangement. Downstream, at least 4 ft (1.2
m) from this point, the pressure relief line from
the top of the deaerator fitting is connected into Pressure-equalizing lines As an alternative to
the top of the building drain. A deaerator fitting, the sizing procedures previously outlined and
with its pressure-relief line connection, is in- increasing the branch sizes, a pressure-equaliz-
stalled in this way at the base of every sovent ing line may be used. Where this is done, a 1-in.
stack and also at every offset (vertical-horizon- (25.4-mm) or larger line is used to equalize the
tal-vertical) in a stack. In the latter case, the pressure in the branch by connecting it from the
pressure-relief line is tied into the stack imme- top of the discharge side of the trap to one of the
diately below the horizontal portion. following locations:
Waste branches at least one pipe size smaller 1. The top of the sovent aerator, using a special
than the stack may be led directly into the sovent inlet in the top of the fitting.
aerator fitting through a waste entry. Smaller 2. The atmosphere, via a run that may also con-
waste branches may be led directly into a stack nect with similar upper floor fixtures.
fitting.
3. The stack, at least 3 ft (0.9 m) above the aera-
Where there is an offset (vertical-horizontal- tor at that floor level or immediately below one
vertical) in the stack, a deaerator fitting, with its at a higher level, using a DWV tee fitting.
pressure-relief line, must be installed. This elimi-
nates the need for a deaerator fitting at the base Of the three locations, the top of the aerator
of the stack if no branches enter the stack below is the preferred one. The minimum size of the
the stack offset and provided that double in-line pressure-equalizing line depends on the branch
offsets occur at every nominal floor interval. At length, as shown in Table 3-17.
a stack offset of less than 60° with the vertical The three recommended vent connection points
no deaerator fitting is needed. are based on the formula of Prandtl-Colebrook
The following must be observed with regard (drain half full, roughness Kb = 0.04 in. [1.0 mm]).
to fittings in sovent systems: Fixture units are according to Hunter’s curve for
peak load (NBS Monograph 31).
Building drain connections Each sovent

stack normally empties through a deaerator,
Table 3-17 Minimum Size of top of the building drain is through a 45° wye
Equalizing Line fitting. (See Figures 3-16 and 3-17.)
The deaerator fitting may be installed at a
Branch Length, Up to 8 Fixture 8–353 Fixture
floor level above the base of the stack if design
ft (m) Units, in. (mm) Units, in. (mm)
conditions dictate and no fixtures are attached
into the stack below it. Where this is done, the
Up to 30 (up to 9.1) 1 (25.4) 1½ (38) traditional rules for connecting the deaerator fit-
30–40 (9.1–12.2) 1¼ (31) 2 (51) ting are followed; however, a longer relief line
will be required to reach the prescribed connec-
40–50 (12.2–15.2) 1½ (38) 2 (51)
tion point in the horizontal drain. Double in-line
Over 50 (over 15.2) 2 (51) 3 (76) offsets must be installed in the stack at normal
floor intervals below the deaerator.
which should be installed as close as possible to Two stacks may be combined before they en-
the building drain. ter the building drain. The size of the continuing
common stack is determined by the total fixture
The deaerator outlet is connected to the build- loading on the combined stacks. Fixtures may be
ing drain through a long-turn 90° elbow (radius connected into the stack immediately below the
of at least 1½ diameter), through two 45° elbows deaerator fitting and into the building drain be-
or wyes, or through a long-turn (more than 1½ tween the base of the stack and the point where
diameter) T-Y fitting. The relief line venting the the pressure-relief line ties into the building drain.
deaerator chamber into the horizontal drain Fixtures may also be connected below a deaerator
should be 3 in. (76 mm) and should be connected fitting into a horizontal offset in a stack. Two-in.
into the top of the horizontal drain at least 4 ft (51-mm) waste branches may be connected into
(1.2 m) downstream from the base of the stack. the 3-in. (76-mm) deaerator pressure-relief line
Connection of the pressure-relief line into the by using a Y-branch fitting.
Figure 3-16 Soil and Waste Branches Connected below a

Deaerator Fitting at the Bottom of the Stack
Sovent fitting Two basic types of sovent aera-

tor fitting meet the needs of most stack designs:
the double-side-entry fitting and the single-side-
entry fitting. Face-entry fittings and top-entry
fittings are used in special cases. (See Figure
3-18.)
Branch inlets can be of any size to accom-
modate standard DWV tube. When using the
single-entry fitting, the inlet connections are
normally 3 in. (76 mm). When the double-side-
entry fitting is used, the branch inlet connections
may be 4 or 3 in. (101 or 76 mm), depending on
the branch loading. Branches under 3 in. (76
mm) in size can be connected into the aerator
fittings with 3 and 4-in. (76 and 101-mm) en-
tries by using appropriate reducer fittings.
Alternatively, fittings can be ordered to accom-
modate smaller branches. However, economical
design is more likely to dictate the use of fittings
with waste inlets to take smaller branches.
Consider a typical apartment-house, back-
to-back bathroom grouping, as shown in Plan A
of Figure 3-19, and assume a ten-story building.
Stack size will be 4 in. (101 mm). The branches
are sized and designed as follows:
1. The lavatories, with a trap arm size of 1½ in.
(38 mm), are joined into a vertical waste
branch of 2-in. (51-mm) size, according to
Figure 3-17 Deaerator Fitting Located
Table 3-16. Since there is only one vertical
above Floor Level of Building Drain
drop in the branch serving the lavatories, it
remains 2 in. (51 mm) all the way to the aera-
tor fitting waste inlet.
2. Water closets require a minimum soil-branch
size of 3 in. (76 mm). Since the branch serv-
ing the two water closets also serves an
additional fixture, it must be increased to 4
in. (101 mm) for entry into the aerator fitting.
An alternative design for the branches is
shown in Plan B of Figure 3-19, which assumes
that a drop ceiling is not possible and the four
bathrooms must be served by two 4-in. (101-mm)
stacks.
Installation The design engineer should explain

the special requirements of the sovent system to
the installer, who may be unfamiliar with them.
More detailed drawings may be necessary to de-
scribe the system completely. The engineer
(A) (B) should make regular inspections to be sure that
the design conditions are met in the field. Also,
Figure 3-18 Sovent Fitting: (A) Single-Side the owner should be given copies of the plumb-
Entry (Without Waste Inlets); (B) Double- ing drawings for permanent records so that
Side Entry (with Waste Inlets) future additions can be properly sized.
Table 3-18 Maximum Sovent Table 3-19 Loadings for Building Drains
Stack Loadings
Drain Suggested Maximum Fixture Units
Stack Size, in. (mm) Maximum Fixture Units Size, 1
/8-in./ft ¼-in./ft ½-in./ft
in. (mm) (12.5 cm/m) (25 cm/m) (50 cm/m)
3 (76) 64a Fall (1%) Fall (2%) Fall (4%)
4 (101) 500
5 (127) 1100 4 (101) 36 100 200
5 (127) 150 350 650
6 (152) 1900
6 (152) 430 850 1400
aIncluding no more than 8 water closets. 8 (203) 1700 2700 3900
Figure 3-19 Two Alternative Design Layouts for

Typical Back-to-Back Bathroom Arrangements
GLOSSARY Horizontal branch drain A drain branch pipe

extending laterally from a soil or waste stack or
For the purposes of this chapter, the following building drain, with or without vertical sections
terms have the meanings indicated. or branches, that receives the discharge from
one or more fixture drains and conducts it to
Air admittance valve This is a mechanical de- the soil or waste stack or to the building drain.
vice that allows the introduction of air into the
venting system but prevents the discharge of air Insanitary (unsanitary) A condition that is
from the venting system. It reduces the volume contrary to sanitary principles or is injurious to
of the venting system and may reduce the num- health.
ber of vents required to terminate to atmosphere. Loop vent A circuit vent that loops back to con-
This device can be used only when the system
nect with a stack vent instead of a vent stack.
experiences negative pressure fluctuations.
Offset A combination of elbows or bends that
Battery of fixtures Any group of two or more
brings one section of the pipe out of line but into
similar adjacent fixtures that discharge into a
a line approximately parallel with the other sec-
common horizontal waste or soil branch. tion.
Branch interval The distance along a soil or Relief vent An auxiliary vent that permits ad-
waste stack, corresponding in general to a story
ditional circulation of air in or between drainage
height but in no case less than 8 ft (2.4 m), within
and vent systems.
which the horizontal branches from one floor or
story of a building are connected to the stack. Stack venting A method of venting a fixture
or fixtures through the soil or waste stack.
Building drain That part of the lowest piping
of a drainage system that receives discharges Trap arm That portion of a fixture drain be-
from the soil, waste, and other drainage pipes tween a trap and its vent.
inside the walls of the building and conveys them
Trap seal The maximum vertical depth of liq-
to the building sewer beginning 3–5 ft (1–1.5 m)
uid that a trap will retain, measured between
outside the building wall.
the crown weir and the top of the dip of the trap.
Circuit vent A branch vent that serves two or
Vent stack A vertical vent pipe that is installed
more traps and extends from the downstream
to provide circulation of air to and from the drain-
side of the highest fixture connection of a hori-
age system and that extends through one or more
zontal branch to the vent stack.
stories.
Combination waste-and-vent system A spe-
Vent stack terminal The vertical termination
cially engineered system of waste piping
point that normally extends up through the roof
embodying the horizontal wet venting of one or
of the building, thus venting to the atmosphere.
more sinks or floor drains by means of a com-
mon waste and vent pipe adequately sized to Wet vent A vent that receives the discharge of
provide free movement of air above the flow line wastes from sources other than water closets and
of the drain. kitchen sinks.
Common vent A vent connected at the com-
mon connection of two fixture drains and serving
as a vent for both fixtures.
Continuous vent A vertical vent that is a con-
tinuation of the drain to which it connects.
Drainage fixture unit (dfu or fu) A measure
of the probable discharge into the drainage sys-
tem by various types of plumbing fixture. The
drainage-fixture-unit value for a particular fix-
ture depends on its volume rate of drainage
discharge, on the duration of a single drainage
operation, and on the average time between suc-
cessive operations.
REFERENCES
1. American Society of Plumbing Engineers (ASPE)
Research Foundation. 1978. Reduced-size vent-
ing design, by E. Brownstein. Westlake Village,
CA.
2. Copper Development Association, Inc. Copper
sovent single-stack plumbing system handbook
supplement. New York.
3. Manas, Vincent T. 1957. National plumbing code
handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill.
4. National Association of Home Builders Research
Foundation. 1971. Performance of reduced-size
venting in residential drain, waste and vent sys-
tem. Report LR 210-17.
5. National Association of Plumbing-Heating-Cool-
ing Contractors and American Society of
Plumbing Engineers. 1973. National standard
plumbing code.
6. National Bureau of Standards. 1923. Recom-
mended minimum requirements for plumbing in
dwellings and similar buildings, by Dr. R. Hunter.
7. National Bureau of Standards. 1974. Laboratory
studies of the hydraulic performance of one-story
and split-level residential plumbing systems with
reduced-size vents, by R. S. Wyly, G. C. Sherlin,
and R. W. Beausoliel. Report no. BBS 49.
8. National Bureau of Standards. n.d. Monograph
no. 31.
9. Stevens Institute of Technology. 1973. An inves-
tigation of the adequacy of performance of
reduced-size vents installed on a ten-story drain,
waste and vent system, by T. K. Konen and T.
Jackson. Report SIT-DL-73-1708.
Chapter 4 — Storm-Drainage Systems 67
4
Storm-
Drainage
Systems
GENERAL DESIGN tem, not allowing for gravity drainage, the drain-
CONSIDERATIONS FOR BUILDINGS age must be pumped. When a public means of
AND SITES disposal is not available, the discharge should
be directed to a safe point of disposal as approved
Storm-drainage systems convey rainwater from by the jurisdictional authority for storm-water
buildings, surface runoff from all types of pre- control.
cipitation, ground water, and subsurface water. The storm sewer should be separate from the
The drainage may include rainwater from park- sanitary sewer system unless there is an ap-
ing lots, roadways, roofs of structures, and un- proved combined storm/sanitary sewer system
developed areas of a site. available. Such systems have become a rarity
Depending on the approval of the local ad- because of the additional loads imposed on the
ministrative authority, some clear-water wastes, municipal sewage disposal plants; also, overflow
such as condensate from HVAC units, untreated could cause direct contamination of the local
cooling-tower water, ice-machine discharge, and streams and waterways. Federal government
pond overflow, may be allowed to be conducted regulations prohibit the use of combined sewers
to the storm-drainage system. These discharges for any public system that receives federal fund-
must exclude any chemicals or sanitary flow. ing. Controlled-flow storm-drainage systems
should be considered in all combined storm/sani-
If any oils are directed to the storm system, tary sewer systems.
an oil separator must be provided to separate
the oils prior to discharge to a public storm sys- If the storm-drainage piping does connect to
tem. The local authority must approve all drain- the sanitary sewer, the storm drain must be prop-
age plans, including detention and outfall erly trapped prior to its connection. Storm-drain-
structures, and must issue permits. age stacks do not require venting because there
is no need to control hydraulic or pneumatic pres-
Building sites should be provided with a sures within any fixed limits. Negative pressures
means for draining water from roofs, paved ar- occur at the top of the stack and positive pres-
eas, areaways, yards, and all other areas where sures exist at the bottom of the stack. Because
the collection or uncontrolled flow of rainwater the stack is not vented, pressures can become
could cause damage to a building, overload local rather high, creating turbulence at the base of
streams, or present a hazard to the public. The the stack known as the “hydraulic jump” phe-
storm-drainage systems should provide a con- nomenon. In general, supercritical flow can be
duit or channel from the point of collection to an changed to subcritical flow only by passing
approved point of disposal, usually a public storm through a hydraulic jump. The extreme turbu-
sewer system or drainage canals. lence in a hydraulic jump will dissipate energy
If the building storm-drainage system is at a rapidly, causing a sharp drop in the total head
lower elevation than the public storm sewer sys- between the supercritical and subcritical states
of flow. No connections should be made within pable of withstanding all anticipated abuses,
the area where hydraulic jump may occur. corrosion, weather, and expected expansion and
contraction.
It may be more advantageous to route the
storm and sanitary mains separately to the ex- Underground piping should be of cast iron
terior of the building before they are tied together (service or extra-heavy weight, depending on the
in the combined system, with a trap separating loads exerted on the pipe), ductile iron, hard-
the systems. Traps should be either located in- temper copper, aluminum, ABS, PVC-DWV, con-
side the building or buried, with access, below crete or extra-strength vitrified clay. If plastic
the frostline to prevent freezing. Connection of piping is used, a proper class B bedding must be
the storm leaders to the sanitary sewer should provided for adequate laying and support of the
be a minimum of 10 ft (3.1 m) downstream from pipe. Plastic piping does not have the scour re-
any sanitary connection to prevent the hydrau- sistance of metal piping, especially at the base
lic jump from disrupting flow when the storm elbow. Aluminum pipe and other metallic pipe
drains are discharging and causing backups in in corrosive soils must be wrapped or coated.
the sanitary system. Piping cast in columns should be type L copper
or plastic. All materials must be approved by the
Rainwater is normally conveyed from the area
local code body. See other Data Book chapters
being drained at the same rate at which it is
on piping and drainage for data on pipe sched-
collected, unless controlled-flow systems are uti-
ules, joining methods, plumbing drains, etc.
lized to alleviate overtaxation of the public storm
sewers. The rate of the water flow to be drained
is determined by the size of the area being PART ONE: BUILDING DRAINAGE
drained, the roughness coefficient and infiltra- SYSTEM DESIGN
tion rate of the area being drained, and the rate
of rainfall. Rainfall intensity charts published by
The design of drainage systems should be based
the National Weather Service and the adminis- on sound engineering judgment with standard
trative authority having jurisdiction should be engineering methods governing the basic aspects
consulted when determining the rate of rainfall
of drainage systems. Special local conditions,
for the area of the country in which a building is
building and site characteristics, and code au-
being constructed.
thority requirements may necessitate a unique
Ponding may be allowable in areas such as a design. The designer should keep in mind that
paved schoolyard, where it would cause few prob- the codes are minimum standards only. All de-
lems because of the normal inactivity in a signs must meet, or exceed, the local code re-
schoolyard during rainy periods. If the structure quirements.
cannot tolerate the additional weight imposed
by the ponding of the water or if the ponding of Design Criteria
water may cause a hazard to the public, the more
stringent of design considerations may be ap- The following items should be considered when
propriate. establishing the design criteria:
Similar to the requirements for sanitary sys- 1. Local climatic conditions. Rainfall rate, snow
tems and per the local code authority, all sys- depth, freezing conditions, frost line, etc., as
tems must be properly tested upon completion. determined from National Weather Service
publications.
MATERIALS 2. Building construction. Type of roof, pattern of

drainage slopes, vertical wall heights, para-
pet heights, scupper sizes and locations,
Materials for aboveground piping in buildings
emergency drain requirements and locations,
should be brass, copper pipe or tube type DWV,
pipe space allocations in the ceiling space,
cast-iron, galvanized or black steel, lead, alumi-
wall and chase locations, etc.
num, ABS or PVC-DWV. Care should be taken
in the use of plastic piping because of its higher 3. Departments having jurisdiction. Design rain-
expansion and contraction characteristics, re- fall rate, minimum pipe size and slope, over-
quired supports, and possible noise problems. flow requirements, extent of overflow pipe and
Exposed leaders or downspouts should be ca- discharge requirements, method of connec-
tion to the public storm sewer, safe method the base of any stack, as high pressure can
of disposal if the public storm sewer is not exist in this zone due to hydraulic jump.
available, controlled-flow roof drainage, re-
8. The size of the building overflow storm drain
tention/detention, etc.
is based on the accumulated flow from the
4. Site conditions. Location, size, topography and overflow drain leaders upstream. Means for
elevation, soil conditions and type, water the disposal of the overflow drain discharge
table, location and pipe material of public must meet the requirements of the local
storm sewer, location of existing manholes, codes. Local codes may not allow open dis-
location of other utilities within the site, etc. charge on the street, especially in northern
climates; therefore, it may be necessary to
Pipe Sizing and Layout tie to the public storm sewer separately from
the primary drainage system. Both may be
The storm-drainage system(s) required for a routed to the same manhole but with sepa-
building and site of simple design are shown in rate inlets.
Figures 4-1 and 4-2. The following points should
9. The size of the area drain piping is based on
be considered:
the collection area plus a percentage of the
1. Roof drains and pipe sizing are based on the adjacent wall areas draining into the collec-
collection areas, the slope of the pipe, and tion area.
the rainfall rate. 10. The size of an areaway or stairwell drain pip-
2. Overflow drains and piping are equivalent to ing is based on the collection area plus a per-
the roof drains served, and the basis of the centage of the adjacent wall areas not
sizing is the same as it is for roof drains. previously calculated draining into the area-
These drains should be piped separately from way or stairwell.
the primary system to a separate disposal 11. The size of the catch basin piping is based
point so that blockage of the primary drain- on the “rational method” (see discussion un-
age system will not affect the overflow drain- der “Site Drainage” in Part Two of this chap-
age system. ter).
3. The collection area for deck and balcony 12. The size of the storm drain from the catch
drains, where there is an adjacent vertical basins is based on the cumulative flows from
wall face, is based on the horizontal collec- the catch basins upstream.
tion area plus a percentage of the adjacent
vertical wall areas. 13. The drain from the lower-level deck drain
should connect to the horizontal storm main
4. The sizes of the mains are based on the ac- a minimum of 10 ft (3.3 m) downstream of
cumulated flows of the drains and drain lead- the base of any stack, as high pressure can
ers upstream. exist in this zone due to hydraulic jump.
5. The building storm-drain size is based on the
total of the horizontal collection areas plus a Rainfall Rates
percentage of the vertical wall areas on the
one side of the building that contributes the Rainfall rate tables Table 4-1 lists the maxi-
greatest flow. mum rainfall rates for various US cities. These
6. Sizes of mains downstream of sump pumps rates are also listed for various rainfall intensi-
are based on the accumulated flows of grav- ties, both in duration length and in return pe-
ity drains upstream plus the discharge ca- riod. Table 4-1 allows the selection of a
pacity of any sump pumps upstream. precipitation-frequency value for a 10-year or
100-year return period with durations of 5 min,
7. The pipe size of the sump pump discharge is 15 min, or 60 min. Other return periods and
based on the capacity of the pump but is nor- durations can be selected by interpolation be-
mally the same as the discharge pipe size of tween the values listed, as follows:
the pump. For duplex pumps that may oper-
ate simultaneously, the combined discharge Equation 4-1
capacity should be used. The discharge pipe
should connect to the horizontal storm main 10-min value = 0.59 (15-min value) +
a minimum of 10 ft (3.3 m) downstream of 0.41 (5-min value)
Figure 4-1 Piping Layout for Figure 4-2 Piping Layout for
Typical Building Elevation Typical Building Site Plan
Note: A = Roof drains and pipe, B = Overflow drains and Note: E = Building storm drain, H = Building overflow storm
piping, C = Collection area for deck and balcony drains, D = drain, I = Area drain piping, J = Area-way/stairwell drain
Storm leaders, E = Building storm drain, F = Main down- piping, K = Catch basin piping, L = Storm drain from the
stream of sump pump, G = Sump pump discharge, H = catch basin.
Building overflow storm drain, I = Area drain piping, J =
Area-way/stairwell drain piping, M = Connection of lower
deck drain to horizontal storm main.
Equation 4-2 rainfall rate is averaged over the period, is sig-

nificantly heavier than a 60-min duration total
30-min value = 0.49 (60-min value) + for a 60-min period.
0.51 (15-min value)
The local code having jurisdiction should be
The “return period” determines the rainfall consulted to determine the rate of rainfall that
history used in the calculations and is the is applicable for the design areas. A minimum
estimated average period of time between occur- design should be for a 10-year, 5-min storm for
rences of a rainfall rate that equals or exceeds the building roof and for the site.
the design condition. A 100-year return period
will include heavier storms than a 10-year re- Design for the most stringent rainfall inten-
turn period and requires the use of a heavier sities may not be necessary if a secondary drain-
rainfall intensity. age system is provided, such as scuppers in a
parapet wall or a separately piped secondary
The “duration” determines the length of time drainage system, that will accept the overflow.
to be utilized in the rainfall calculations. Nor- Therefore, the design may be based on a more
mally, the intensity of a storm is much heavier liberal design storm of a 100-year return period,
taken over a shorter duration and decreases as 60-min duration, as opposed to a more conser-
the storm progresses. During a flash flood or vative 100-year return period, 5-min duration.
summer storm, a deluge of precipitation may
occur for a short duration and taper off. There- Secondary drainage systems Some codes re-
fore, the amount of rainfall for a 5-min dura- quire that the primary drainage system be de-
tion, projected over a 60-min period where the signed for the less stringent value, with the
Table 4-1 Maximum Rates of Rainfall for Various US Cities, in./h (mm/h)
Frequency and Duration of Storm
100-Yr., 5 Min. 100-Yr., 15-Min. 100-Yr., 60-Min. 10-Yr., 5-Min.
Alabama:
Birmingham 10.08 (256.0) 7.28 (184.9) 3.7 (94.0) 7.50 (190.5)
Huntsville 9.96 (253.0) 7.08 (179.8) 3.3 (83.8) 7.30 (185.4)
Mobile 10.80 (274.3) 8.00 (203.2) 4.5 (114.3) 8.18 (207.8)
Montgomery 10.26 (260.6) 7.60 (193.0) 3.8 7.73 (196.4)
Alaska:
Fairbanks Use NOAA atlas for detailed 1.00 (25.4) 3.70 (94.0)
Juneau state precipitation map. 0.60 (15.2) 1.70 (43.2)
Arizona: Use NOAA atlas for detailed

Phoenix state precipitation map. 2.2 (55.9) 4.30 (109.2)
Arkansas:
Bentonville 10.20 (259.1) 7.24 (183.9) 3.62 (91.9) 7.38 (187.4)
Ft. Smith 10.20 (259.1) 7.28 (184.9) 3.9 (99.1) 7.41 (188.1)
Little Rock 9.96 (253.0) 7.16 (181.9) 3.7 (94.0) 7.36 (186.9)
California:
Eureka 1.5 (38.1) 2.70 (68.6)
Fresno 1.90 (48.3) 3.60 (91.4)
Los Angeles 2.00 (50.8) 3.60 (91.4)
Mt. Tamalpais 1.50 (38.1) 2.50 (63.5)
Pt. Reyes 1.50 (38.1) 2.40 (61.0)
Red Bluff Use NOAA atlas for detailed 1.75 (44.5) 3.80 (96.5)
Sacramento state precipitation map. 1.30 (33.0) 3.00 (76.2)
San Diego 1.50 (38.1) 3.30 (83.8)
San Francisco 1.50 (38.1) 3.00 (76.2)
San Jose 1.50 (38.1) 2.00 (50.8)
San Luis Obispo 1.5 (38.1) 3.10 (78.7)
Colorado:
Denver Use NOAA atlas for detailed 2.2 (55.9) 5.70 (144.8)
Grand Junction state precipitation map. 1.70 (43.2) 3.00 (76.2)
Pueblo 2.50 (63.5) 5.00 (127.0)
Wagon Wheel Gap 1.90 (48.3) 3.60 (91.4)
Connecticut:
Hartford 8.70 (221.0) 5.96 (151.4) 2.8 (71.1) 6.23 (158.2)
(Continued)
(Table 4-1 continued) Frequency and Duration of Storm

New Haven 9.00 (228.6) 6.00 (152.4) 3.0 6.42 (163.1)

Delaware:
Dover 9.48 (240.8) 7.00 (177.8) 3.5 (88.9) 6.93 (176.1)
District of Columbia:
Washington 9.72 (246.9) 7.22 (183.4) 4.0 (101.6) 7.10 (180.4)
Florida:
Jacksonville 10.08 (256.0) 8.08 (205.2) 4.3 (109.2) 7.86 (199.6)
Key West 9.12 (231.6) 7.24 (183.9) 4.28 (108.7) 7.07 (179.6)
Miami 9.84 (249.9) 8.80 (223.5) 4.5 (114.3) 7.69 (195.4)
Orlando 10.80 (274.3) 8.40 (213.4) 4.50 (114.3) 8.42 (213.9)
Pensacola 10.80 (274.3) 8.08 (205.2) 4.60 (116.8) 8.18 (207.8)
Tampa 10.80 (274.3) 8.40 (213.4) 4.2 (106.7) 8.33 (211.6)
Tallahassee 10.50 (266.7) 8.04 (204.2) 4.1 8.05 (204.4)
Georgia:
Atlanta 9.90 (251.5) 7.12 (180.9) 3.5 (88.9) 7.33 (186.2)
Augusta 9.84 (249.9) 7.20 (182.9) 4.00 (101.6) 7.33 (186.2)
Macon 10.08 (256.0) 7.40 (188.0) 3.7 (94.0) 7.62 (193.6)
Savannah 9.60 (243.8) 7.60 (193.0) 4.0 (101.6) 7.44 (188.9)
Thomasville 10.44 (265.2) 7.88 (200.2) 4.0 (101.6) 7.96 (202.2)
Hawaii: Use NOAA atlas for detailed 3.00 (76.2) 5.2 (132.1)
Honolulu state precipitation map.
Idaho:
Boise Use NOAA atlas for detailed 1.0 (25.4) 2.7 (68.6)
Lewiston state precipitation map. 1.0 (25.4) 3.1 (78.7)
Pocatello 1.20 (30.5) 3.7 (94.0)
Illinois:
Cairo 9.84 (249.9) 6.96 (176.8) 3.40 (86.4) 7.16 (181.8)
Chicago 9.30 (236.2) 6.60 (167.6) 2.7 (68.6) 6.76 (171.8)
Peoria 9.72 (246.9) 6.88 (174.8) 2.9 () 7.04 (178.9)
Springfield 9.84 (249.9) 7.12 (180.9) 3.0 (76.2) 7.10 (180.3)
Indiana:
Evansville 9.72 (246.9) 6.80 (172.7) 3.0 (76.2) 7.04 (178.9)
Ft. Wayne 9.24 (234.7) 6.48 (164.6) 2.85 (72.4) 6.65 (168.9)
(Continued)

Indianapolis 9.42 (239.3) 6.60 (167.6) 2.8 (71.1) 6.82 (173.2)

Terre Haute 9.66 (245.4) 6.72 (170.7) 3.18 (80.8) 7.02 (178.2)
Iowa:
Charles City 9.96 (253.0) 7.08 (179.8) 3.35 (85.1) 7.06 (179.4)
Davenport 9.84 (249.9) 7.00 (177.8) 3.0 (76.2) 7.04 (178.7)
Des Moines 10.32 (262.1) 7.28 (184.9) 3.4 (86.4) 7.31 (185.7)
Dubuque 9.84 (249.9) 6.94 (176.3) 3.30 (83.8) 7.01 (178.0)
Keokuk 9.96 (253.0) 7.08 (179.8) 3.30 (83.8) 7.15 (181.6)
Sioux City 10.44 (265.2) 7.32 (185.9) 3.6 (91.4) 7.34 (186.3)
Kansas:
Concordia 10.44 (265.2) 7.48 (190.0) 3.75 (95.3) 7.37 (187.1)
Dodge City 10.20 (259.1) 7.24 (183.9) 3.45 (87.6) 7.20 (182.8)
Goodland 9.96 (253.0) 6.80 (172.7) 3.5 (88.9) 6.85 (174.1)
Iola 10.44 (265.2) 7.32 (185.9) 3.62 (91.9) 7.40 (187.9)
Topeka 10.50 (266.7) 7.40 (188.0) 3.8 (96.5) 7.39 (187.8)
Wichita 10.50 (266.7) 7.50 (190.5) 3.9 (99.1) 7.51 (190.8)
Kentucky:
Lexington 9.36 (237.7) 6.56 (166.6) 2.9 () 6.82 (173.3)
Louisville 9.36 (237.7) 6.56 (166.6) 2.8 (71.1) 6.88 (174.8)
Louisiana:
Alexandria 10.50 (266.7) 7.96 (202.2) 4.30 (109.2) 7.99 (202.9)
New Orleans 10.92 (277.4) 8.20 (208.3) 4.5 (114.3) 8.30 (210.7)
Shreveport 10.44 (265.2) 7.60 (193.0) 4.0 (101.6) 7.81 (198.4)
Maine:
Eastport 6.60 (167.6) 4.60 (116.8) 2.20 (55.9) 4.63 (117.6)
Portland 7.56 (192.0) 5.12 (130.1) 2.25 (57.2) 5.36 (136.1)
Presque Isle 6.96 (176.8) 4.68 (118.9) 2.05 (52.1) 4.91 (124.7)
Maryland:
Baltimore 9.72 (246.9) 7.24 (183.9) 3.5 (88.9) 7.11 (180.7)
Cambridge 9.60 (243.8) 7.24 (183.9) 3.25 (82.6) 7.05 (179.0)
Cumberland 9.30 (236.2) 6.56 (166.6) 2.75 (69.9) 6.76 (171.8)
Massachusetts:
Boston 7.20 (182.9) 5.20 (132.1) 2.7 (68.6) 5.26 (133.5)
Nantucket 7.20 (182.9) 5.12 (130.1) 2.50 (63.5) 5.32 (135.0)
(Continued)

Springfield 8.64 (219.5) 6.00 (152.4) 2.70 (68.6) 6.20 (157.5)
Michigan:
Alpena 8.64 (219.5) 5.60 (142.2) 2.50 (63.5) 6.02 (153.0)
Detroit 8.88 (225.6) 5.92 (150.4) 2.5 (63.5) 6.37 (161.7)
Escanaba 8.88 (225.6) 5.60 (142.2) 2.40 (61.0) 6.22 (158.0)
Grand Rapids 9.00 (228.6) 6.00 (152.4) 2.6 (66.0) 6.48 (164.6)
Houghton 8.40 (213.4) 5.20 (132.1) 2.40 (61.0) 6.00 (152.5)
Lansing 9.24 (234.7) 6.10 (154.9) 2.80 (71.1) 6.62 (168.1)
Marquette 8.40 (213.4) 5.20 (132.1) 2.40 (61.0) 5.97 (151.7)
Port Huron 8.76 (222.5) 5.80 (147.3) 2.70 (68.6) 6.31 (160.4)
Ste. Marie 7.80 (198.1) 5.20 (132.1) 2.25 (57.2) 5.59 (141.9)
Minnesota:
Duluth 9.48 (240.8) 6.40 (162.6) 2.6 (66.0) 6.70 (170.1)
Minneapolis 9.96 (253.0) 6.88 (174.8) 3.0 (76.2) 7.00 (177.8)
Moorhead 10.02 (254.4) 6.88 (174.8) 3.20 (81.3) 6.88 (174.7)
Worthington 10.50 (266.7) 7.30 (185.4) 3.4 (86.4) 7.29 (185.2)
Mississippi:
Biloxi 11.04 (280.4) 8.10 (205.7) 4.5 (114.3) 8.35 (212.1)
Meridian 10.32 (262.1) 7.64 (194.1) 4.05 (102.9) 7.82 (198.6)
Tupeto 9.96 (253.0) 7.20 (182.9) 3.60 (91.4) 7.72 (196.0)
Vicksburg 10.44 (265.2) 7.68 (195.1) 4.20 (106.7) 7.87 (199.9)
Missouri:
Columbia 10.08 (256.0) 7.20 (182.9) 3.80 (96.5) 7.20 (183.0)
Hannibal 10.02 (254.5) 7.08 (179.8) 3.75 (95.3) 7.18 (182.3)
Kansas City 10.44 (265.2) 7.34 (186.4) 3.65 (92.7) 7.37 (187.1)
Poplar Bluff 9.96 (253.0) 7.08 (179.8) 3.55 (90.2) 7.27 (184.6)
St. Joseph 10.44 (265.2) 7.36 (186.9) 3.65 (92.7) 7.37 (187.1)
St. Louis 9.90 (251.5) 7.00 (177.8) 3.2 (81.3) 7.12 (180.9)
Springfield 10.14 (257.6) 7.20 (182.9) 3.7 (94.0) 7.23 (183.7)
Montana:
Havre 1.60 (40.6) 4.30 (109.2)
Helena Use NOAA atlas for detailed 1.50 (38.1) 3.80 (96.5)
Kalispell state precipitation map. 1.20 (30.5) 3.30 (83.8)
Miles City 2.15 (54.6) 7.00 (177.8)
Missoula 1.30 (33.0) 2.70 (68.6)
(Continued)

Nebraska:
Lincoln 10.50 (266.1) 7.44 (189.0) 3.80 (96.5) 7.39 (187.8)
North Platte 10.02 (254.5) 6.80 (172.7) 3.35 (85.1) 6.88 (174.7)
Omaha 10.50 (266.1) 7.38 (187.5) 3.6 (91.4) 7.39 (187.8)
Scottsbluff 9.60 (243.8) 6.40 (162.6) 3.15 (80.0) 6.41 (162.7)
Valentine 9.96 (253.0) 6.84 (173.7) 3.25 (82.6) 6.78 (172.2)
Nevada:
Reno Use NOAA atlas for detailed 1.2 (30.5) 3.20 (81.3)
Tonopah state precipitation map. 1.00 (25.4) 3.00 (76.2)
Winnemucca 1.00 (25.4) 2.70 (68.6)
New Hampshire:
Berlin 7.80 (198.1) 5.36 (136.1) 2.2 (55.9) 5.64 (143.4)
Concord 7.92 (201.2) 5.60 (142.2) 2.50 (63.5) 5.73 (145.5)
New Jersey:
Atlantic City 9.36 (237.7) 6.72 (170.7) 3.4 (86.4) 6.82 (173.3)
Paterson 9.24 (234.7) 6.52 (165.6) 3.00 (76.2) 6.65 (168.9)
Trenton 9.30 (236.2) 6.72 (170.7) 3.2 (81.3) 6.71 (170.3)
New Mexico:
Albuquerque Use NOAA atlas for detailed 2.00 (50.8) 3.70 (94.0)
Roswell state precipitation map. 2.60 (66.0) 5.40 (137.2)
Santa Fe 2.00 (50.8) 4.40 (111.8)
New York:
Albany 9.12 (231.6) 6.24 (158.5) 2.50 (63.5) 6.48 (164.5)
Binghamton 8.82 (224.0) 5.72 (145.3) 2.4 (61.0) 6.34 (161.1)
Buffalo 8.40 (213.4) 5.34 (135.6) 2.30 (58.4) 5.97 (151.7)
Canton 8.10 (205.7) 5.24 (133.1) 2.25 (57.2) 5.84 (148.3)
Messena 7.86 (199.6) 5.20 (132.1) 2.25 (57.2) 5.61 (142.6)
New York 9.24 (234.7) 6.40 (162.6) 3.1 (78.7) 6.65 (168.9)
Oswego 8.28 (210.3) 5.50 (139.7) 2.20 (55.9) 5.81 (147.6)
Rochester 8.28 (210.3) 5.20 (132.1) 2.20 (55.9) 5.80 (147.3)
Syracuse 8.64 (219.5) 5.32 (135.1) 2.4 (61.0) 6.06 (154.0)
North Carolina:
Asheville 9.60 (243.8) 6.84 (173.7) 3.2 (81.3) 6.99 (177.5)
Charlotte 9.84 (249.9) 6.92 (175.8) 3.4 (86.4) 7.24 (183.9)
Greensboro 9.84 (249.9) 7.00 (177.8) 3.30 (83.8) 7.22 (183.4)
(Continued)

Hatteras 9.36 (237.7) 6.88 (174.8) 4.15 (105.4) 7.07 (179.6)

Raleigh 9.84 (249.9) 7.28 (184.9) 4.0 (101.6) 7.29 (185.1)
Wilmington 9.48 (240.8) 7.36 (186.9) 4.4 (111.8) 7.14 (181.4)
North Dakota:
Bismarck 9.84 (249.9) 6.40 (162.6) 2.7 (68.6) 6.57 (166.9)
Devil’s Lake 9.96 (253.0) 6.48 (164.6) 2.82 (71.6) 6.67 (169.5)
Williston 9.00 (228.6) 6.00 (152.4) 2.60 (66.0) 6.00 (152.5)
Ohio:
Cincinnati 9.30 (236.2) 6.52 (165.6) 2.8 (71.1) 6.79 (172.4)
Cleveland 8.76 (222.5) 5.92 (150.4) 2.4 (61.0) 6.31 (160.4)
Columbus 9.00 (228.6) 6.42 (163.1) 2.7 (68.6) 6.57 (166.9)
Steubenville 8.88 (225.6) 6.00 (152.4) 2.70 (68.6) 6.44 (163.7)
Toledo 8.94 (227.1) 6.04 (153.4) 2.6 (66.0) 6.46 (164.1)
Oklahoma:
Hooker 10.08 (256.0) 7.12 (180.8) 3.30 (83.8) 7.08 (180.0)
Oklahoma City 10.50 (266.7) 7.42 (188.5) 4.1 () 7.58 (192.6)
Tulsa 10.38 (263.7) 7.40 (188.0) 3.80 (96.5) 7.52 (190.9)
Oregon:
Baker Use NOAA atlas for detailed 0.90 (22.9) 3.30 (83.8)
Portland state precipitation map. 1.3 (33.0) 3.00 (76.2)
Roseburg 1.40 (35.6) 3.60 (91.4)
Pennsylvania:
Bradford 8.64 (219.5) 5.60 (142.4) 2.50 (63.5) 6.11 (155.2)
Erie 8.64 (219.5) 5.68 (144.3) 2.4 (61.0) 6.14 (156.0)
Harrisburg 9.36 (237.7) 6.92 (175.8) 2.9 () 6.76 (171.8)
Philadelphia 9.36 (237.7) 6.88 (174.8) 3.2 (81.3) 6.76 (171.8)
Pittsburg 8.82 (224.0) 5.96 (151.4) 2.5 (63.5) 6.40 (162.6)
Reading 9.36 (237.7) 6.80 (172.7) 3.05 (77.5) 6.81 (172.9)
Scranton 9.12 (231.6) 6.20 (157.5) 2.8 (71.1) 6.56 (166.8)
Puerto Rico: Use NOAA atlas for detailed

San Juan state precipitation map. 2.50 (63.5) 5.70 (144.8)
Rhode Island:
Block Island 8.16 (207.3) 5.54 (140.7) 2.75 (69.9) 5.90 (149.8)
Providence 7.80 (198.1) 5.40 (137.2) 2.9 () 5.64 (143.4)
(Continued)

South Carolina:
Charleston 9.36 (237.7) 7.48 (190.0) 4.1 () 7.24 (183.8)
Columbia 9.90 (251.5) 6.40 (162.6) 3.5 (88.9) 7.35 (186.6)
Greenville 9.84 (249.9) 7.36 (186.9) 3.3 (83.8) 7.17 (182.1)
South Dakota:
Aberdeen 10.02 (254.5) 7.08 (179.8) 3.30 (83.8) 6.82 (173.2)
Pierre 9.90 (251.5) 6.80 (172.7) 3.10 (78.7) 6.69 (169.9)
Rapid City 9.84 (249.9) 6.36 (161.5) 2.7 (68.6) 6.51 (165.4)
Yankton 10.44 (265.2) 7.28 (184.9) 3.62 (91.9) 7.25 (184.1)
Tennessee:
Chattanooga 9.84 (249.9) 7.00 (177.8) 3.50 (88.9) 7.32 (188.9)
Knoxville 9.00 (228.6) 6.60 (167.6) 3.1 (78.7) 6.66 (169.2)
Memphis 9.96 (253.0) 7.14 (181.4) 3.5 (88.9) 7.37 (187.3)
Nashville 9.84 (249.9) 6.92 (175.8) 3.0 (76.2) 7.10 (180.3)
Texas:
Abilene 10.38 (263.7) 7.32 (185.9) 3.70 (94.0) 7.43 (188.7)
Amarillo 10.20 (259.1) 7.24 (183.9) 3.55 (90.2) 7.30 (185.4)
Austin 10.50 (266.7) 7.68 (195.1) 4.25 (108.0) 7.69 (195.3)
Brownsville 10.68 (271.3) 7.92 (201.2) 4.40 (111.8) 7.89 (200.4)
Corpus Christi 10.68 (271.3) 8.00 (203.2) 4.6 (116.8) 7.92 (201.2)
Dallas 10.50 (266.7) 7.50 (190.5) 4.2 (106.7) 7.63 (193.8)
Del Rio 10.20 (259.1) 7.29 (185.1) 4.00 (101.6) 7.32 (186.0)
El Paso 6.60 (167.6) 5.60 (142.2) 2.0 (50.8) 4.57 (116.1)
Fort Worth 10.50 (266.7) 7.50 (190.5) 3.90 (99.1) 7.60 (193.1)
Galveston 10.92 (277.4) 8.10 (205.7) 4.70 (119.4) 8.30 (210.7)
Houston 10.80 (274.3) 8.04 (204.2) 4.5 (114.3) 8.18 (207.8)
Palestine 10.44 (265.2) 7.60 (193.0) 4.00 (101.6) 7.79 (197.8)
Port Arthur 10.92 (277.4) 8.08 (205.2) 4.65 (118.1) 8.30 (210.7)
San Antonio 10.50 (266.7) 7.70 (195.6) 4.4 (111.8) 7.61 (193.2)
Tyler 10.38 (263.7) 7.52 (191.0) 3.90 (99.1) 7.76 (197.0)
Utah:
Modena Use NOAA atlas for detailed 1.50 (38.1) 3.80 (96.5)
Salt Lake City state precipitation map. 1.30 (33.0) 3.40 (86.4)
Vermont:
Brattleboro 8.40 (213.4) 5.88 (149.4) 2.40 (61.0) 6.02 (152.9)
Burlington 8.16 (207.3) 5.52 (140.2) 2.3 () 5.75 (146.0)
(Continued)

Rutland 8.28 (210.3) 5.60 (142.2) 2.4 (61.0) 5.92 (150.4)
Virginia:
Lynchburg 9.60 (243.8) 6.56 (166.6) 2.75 (69.9) 7.06 (179.3)
Norfolk 9.54 (242.3) 7.20 (182.9) 4.0 (101.6) 7.11 (180.6)
Richmond 9.84 (249.9) 7.28 (184.9) 4.0 (101.6) 7.23 (183.6)
Winchester 9.48 (240.8) 6.68 (169.7) 2.75 (69.9) 6.88 (174.6)
Wytheville 9.30 (236.2) 6.50 (165.1) 3.25 (82.6) 6.76 (171.8)
Washington:
North Head 1.00 (25.4) 2.80 (71.1)
Port Angeles 1.10 (27.9) 2.20 (55.9)
Seattle Use NOAA atlas for detailed 1.0 (25.4) 2.20 (55.9)
Spokane state precipitation map. 1.00 (25.4) 3.10 (78.7)
Tacoma 1.00 (25.4) 2.80 (71.1)
Tatoosh Island 1.00 (25.4) 3.20 (81.3)
Walla Walla 1.00 (25.4) 2.70 (68.6)
Yakima 1.10 (27.9) 2.60 (66.0)
West Virginia:
Charleston 9.00 (228.6) 6.34 (161.0) 2.9 () 6.57 (166.9)
Elkins 8.94 (227.1) 6.32 (160.5) 2.75 (69.9) 6.53 (165.8)
Parkersburg 9.06 (230.1) 6.34 (161.0) 2.75 (69.9) 6.62 (168.0)
Wisconsin:
Green Bay 9.00 (228.6) 6.12 (155.4) 2.5 (63.5) 6.42 (163.1)
LaCrosse 9.84 (249.9) 6.90 (175.3) 2.9 () 6.98 (177.2)
Madison 9.48 (240.8) 6.70 (170.2) 3.12 (79.2) 6.79 (172.4)
Milwaukee 9.12 (231.6) 6.48 (164.6) 2.7 (68.6) 6.60 (167.7)
Spooner 9.66 (245.4) 6.52 (165.6) 2.85 (72.4) 6.81 (172.9)
Wyoming:
Cheyenne 2.5 (63.5) 5.60 (142.2)
Lander Use NOAA atlas for detailed 1.50 (38.1) 3.70 (94.0)
Sheridan state precipitation map. 1.70 (43.2) 5.20 (132.1)
Yellowstone Park 1.40 (35.6) 2.50 (63.5)
Sources: Table 4-1 is based on the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Technical Memorandum NWS HYDRO-35, except for
the 12 western states. NWS Technical Paper no. 25 was used for the following 12 western states: Arizona, California, Colorado, Hawaii,
Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming. The NOAA Atlas 2: Precipitation–Frequency Atlas of the
Western United States (11 Volumes, 1973) should also be utilized in the design for the 12 western states.
secondary drainage system handling any over- sible benefits of ponding. The plumbing engineer
flow that may occur when heavier storms arise. should also ensure that the drains are located
These same codes may require that the second- in the low points of the roof to limit deflection—
ary drainage systems be designed for the more which could cause ponding and shifting of the
stringent values, for when the primary drainage roof low point—and located to minimize the hori-
systems may be clogged. The Standard Plumbing zontal piping runs.
Code, effective in 1990, requires that the pri-
mary drainage system be designed for a 100-year, Drain location The first roof drain should not
60-min rainfall frequency; also, the secondary be farther than 50 ft (15.2 m) from the end of a
drainage system must be designed for a 100-year, valley, the maximum distance between drains
15-min rainfall frequency. The two systems’ com- should be 200 ft (61 m). With a roof slope of ¼
bined capacities would exceed the required ca- in./ft (21 mm/m) and a distance of 20 ft (6.1 m)
pacity for a 100-year, 5-min storm. If a rainfall from the roof high point to the roof drain, the
heavier than the design rainfall occurred, the two depth of water at the drain would be approxi-
systems would work together to carry the in- mately 5 in. (12.7 cm). The parapet wall scup-
creased load. pers would be set at 5 in. (12.7 cm) above the
roof low point. A maximum weight at the drain
An argument can be made for using the most that would be transmitted to the roof structural
conservative rainfall rates in the design of roof supports would be 26 psf (126.9 kg/m2) live load,
drainage systems. The shortcomings of under- which would exceed the capacity of a normal 20
designed roof drainage systems have had dra- psf (97.7 kg/m2) roof live load (30 psf [146.5 kg/
matic results when roofs collapsed. The designer m2] live load in snow areas). The designer must
must weigh the liabilities of an under-designed closely coordinate the drainage system design
drainage system against the economic benefit of with the roof structural design.
maybe only one pipe size. In consideration for
the safety of life and the protection of the owner’s All penetrations through the roof must be
property, use of the most conservative design sealed watertight. Metal flashing, 18–24 in. (0.46-
may be appropriate. 0.61 m) square or round, is often suggested
around the roof drain because of the heavy wear
and the likelihood that it will be a leakage prob-
Roof Drainage
lem area; it is usually placed between the roof-
ing plies. This flashing may also be used to form
Coordination The building roof transfers the
a roof sump to collect the storm water prior to
combined weight of live and dead loads to the
its entering the drain. (A square opening is easier
supporting structure. The supporting structure to cut into the roof than a round opening.)
may be constructed of steel, concrete, wood, or
other materials. Live loads include snow, rain, Most codes require a minimum of two roof
wind, etc. Dead loads include HVAC units, roof drains on roofs with areas less than 10,000 ft2
drains, and the roof deck. (929 m2), and four drains on roofs exceeding
10,000 ft2 (929 m2). Some codes allow a maxi-
Locating the roof drains should be a coop-
mum roof area per drain of 10,000 ft2 (929 m2),
erative effort among the architect, the structural but this may require that the drains and associ-
engineer, and the plumbing engineer. The ar- ated piping be excessively large. To control labor
chitect is familiar with the building construc-
costs and avoid potential furring and footing
tion, parapets, walls, chase locations, available
depth problems with the piping, a maximum area
headroom for pipe runs, roof construction, and
of 5000 ft2 (465 m2)per drain and a maximum
the waterproofing membrane. The structural en-
drain and leader size of 8 in. (203 mm) should
gineer is familiar with the structural support lay- be considered.
out, roof slopes, column orientation, footing sizes
and depths, and the maximum allowable roof The designer must be aware of the location
loading. of roof expansion joints. These joints may pro-
hibit rainwater flow across the roof, thus divid-
The plumbing engineer can provide informa-
ing the roof into fixed drainage areas. At least
tion concerning the maximum roof areas per
two roof drains should be provided for each roof
drain, wall and column furring-out requirements, drainage area, no matter how small.
headroom requirements, ceiling space require-
ments, minimum footing depths, and the pos-
The roof drain should be a minimum of 12– a terrace, used as a parking deck with heavy
18 in. (0.30-0.61 m) from any parapet wall or traffic, or used to retain rainwater to limit the
other obstruction to allow for proper flashing. effluent to the storm sewer system.
The drains should be located a minimum of 10 ft
Roof drains, other than for flat decks, should
(3.05 m) from any building opening or air in-
have strainers that extend a minimum of 4 in.
take. The minimum roof drain size should be 2
(100 mm) above the roof surface immediately ad-
in. (50.8 mm) for decks and 3 in. (76.2 mm) where
jacent to the drain. Strainers for the roof drains
leaves are possible. In selecting the size of the
shall have an available inlet area not less than
roof drain, all of the horizontal roof area from
1½ times the area of the leader that serves the
adjacent high points sloping to the drain must
drain. Dome-type strainers are required to pre-
be taken into account.
vent the entrance of leaves, debris, birds, and
Adjacent surfaces The roof drain must also small animals. Flat-deck strainers, for use on
receive drainage of rainwater from other roof ar- sun decks, promenades, and parking garages
eas, such as penthouses, that dump onto the where regular maintenance may be expected,
roof area being calculated and from the adjacent shall have an available inlet area not less than 2
vertical walls that discharge onto the horizontal times the area of the leader that serves the drain.
roof surface. Some codes require that 50% of all Heel-proof strainers may be required if subjected
vertical wall areas be added to the horizontal roof to pedestrian traffic.
area. Other codes use complex formulae for vari- The flashing ring is used to attach the roof
ous wall configurations. These formulae are nor- waterproofing membrane to the drain body to
mally excessive for roof areas that have more than maintain the watertight integrity of the roof. An
one vertical wall or multiple-story walls with run- underdeck clamp should be utilized for securing
off directed to the horizontal roof surface. Rain the drain to the metal or wood decking; poured
seldomly falls in a totally vertical direction. De- concrete roofs do not require these clamps. Drain
pending on the wind conditions, the angle of rain- receivers should be used on drains for concrete
fall could be as much as 60° to the vertical or
more. The wind, particularly in high-rise build-
ings, can blow the rain off a vertical wall and
away from the building surfaces.
The height above a horizontal surface at
which the wind removes more than 50% of the
rainwater from the wall surfaces has not been
determined. Further study is required before lo-
cal codes can be contradicted; therefore, the lo-
cal code concerning vertical wall contribution of
rainwater to horizontal surfaces should be com-
plied with as a minimum.
Roof drain construction Standard roof drains

have three basic parts: the strainer, the flashing
ring with gravel stop, and the drain body or sump.
The strainers may be cast-iron coated or poly-
ethylene dome type (for use where leaves may be
encountered) or flat type (for sunroofs, areaways,
and parking decks). Standard roof drain con-
struction is shown in Figure 4-3. The roof drain
types for all the common roof types are depicted
in Figure 4-4.
When selecting the type of drain to be used,
the engineer must know the roof construction
and thickness. The roof may be flat or pitched, Figure 4-3 Typical Roof Drain
used to retain water for cooling purposes, have
a sprinkler system for cooling purposes, used as Source: Reprinted, by permission, from the Jay R. Smith
catalog.
decks. Drains that may receive sand and grit increase resulted in an unavailable rectangular
should be provided with sediment buckets. size, the next larger stock size was shown. The
ratio of width to depth of rectangular leaders
Piping system design Once the rainfall rate should not exceed 3:1. Use Form 4-1, found in
has been determined, the drains must be selected the Appendix at the end of this chapter, for
and the piping system designed. Determining the project roof drain and vertical leader sizing cal-
rate of rainfall for a system’s design requires re- culations that can be maintained in the project
searching the requirements for the particular files.
structure under consideration. Secondary (over-
flow) drainage systems are required on buildings Gutters and downspouts For sizing horizon-
with parapet walls–or any other construction tal gutters, refer to Table 4-3. This table depicts
around the perimeter of the roof that would en- semicircular gutters and the equivalent rectan-
trap rainwater on the roof. gular gutters. The method of selecting sizes is
similar to that used for round and rectangular
Conventional roof drainage systems are de-
leaders. Gutters should be a minimum of 4 in.
signed to remove rainwater as rapidly as it falls
(100 mm) wide—the more the roof slope, the
on a roof.
wider the gutter should be to prevent the rain-
Example 4-1. For Greenville, South Carolina, water from planing over the gutter without en-
for a 100-year return period with a 5-min dura- tering. The minimum slope the gutter should
tion, Table 4-1 shows a precipitation-frequency maintain is z in./ft (1.6 mm/m).
value of 9.84 in./h/ft2 (249.9 mm/h/ft2). If a roof
Downspouts from the gutter should be sheet
area of 1850 ft2 (172 m2) per drain is used, the
metal (which is less susceptible to freezing than
roof drain and vertical pipe section (roof drain
nonmetal materials) to 5 ft (1.5 m) above grade
leader or downspout) would be sized for a rain-
and cast iron or ductile iron to the tie-in with
fall intensity of 9.84 in./h/ft2 × 1850 ft2 = 18,204
the underground piping, as this type of piping is
in./h (249.9 mm/h/ft2 × 172 m2 = 42 982.8 mm/
more resistant to damage. Downspouts should
h). To convert in./h to gallons per minute (gpm),
be a minimum size of 1¾ × 2¼ in. (44.4 × 57.2
multiply by the value of 0.0104 gpm/in./h:
mm) and should be a maximum of 75 ft (22.8 m)
18,204 in./h × 0.0104 gpm/in./h = 189.3 gpm
apart (the American Bridge Co. recommends 40
per drain. As seen in the engineering sheet for a
ft [12.2 m]). Outlets that dump onto grade on
4-in. roof drain (Figure 4-5), the drain can handle
splashbacks or are indirectly tied to the under-
varied flow rates depending on the developed
ground piping may be provided with screens or
head of water at the drain. If the purpose of the
strainers for filtering debris and sediment. For
drain design is to drain the rainwater from the
residential construction, 5½-in. (139.7-mm)
roof as quickly as it collects, the design must be
minimum semicircular gutters should be used,
capable of handling the peak flow rate with a
and leaders/downspouts should be 3 or 4 in.
low head of water at the drain. Therefore, the
(76.2 or 101.6 mm) round, or 2 × 3 in. (50.8 ×
maximum flow rates per drain shown in Table
76.2 mm) or 2 × 4 in. (50.8 × 101.6 mm) rectan-
4-2 are to be considered conservative.
gular.
After calculating the peak flow to the roof
drains, refer to Table 4-2 for sizing the roof drains Piping coordination Any piping layout must
and the vertical pipe sections. The roof drain be coordinated with the other trades that may
leader should be sized at least to match the roof be affected, such as architecture for furring-in
drain connection. Round and rectangular lead- the proper columns for vertical leaders (also
ers are shown. known as conductors or downspouts)–and struc-
tural engineering for pipe support and footing
Rectangular leaders A rectangular leader, be- depths. Other utilities, such as piping, ductwork,
cause of its four sides and corners, experiences and conduit runs, may also be affected.
a greater friction loss than the equivalent round
If interior floor/hub drains, drains from lower
leader, which diminishes its carrying capacity.
roofs, clear-water wastes, or areaway drains are
To compensate for this increased friction loss, a
connected to the storm system inside the build-
rectangular leader should be at least 10% larger
ing (if allowed by the jurisdictional authority),
than a round leader to provide the same capac-
the drains must connect at least 10 pipe diam-
ity. Table 4-2 has been adjusted to include the
eters (10 ft [3.0 m] minimum) downstream of the
10% increase for rectangular leaders. If the 10%
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
(F)
Figure 4-4 Typical Roof-Drain Installations: (A) Steel or Concrete Roof Deck with Insulation
Tapered to the Drain; (B) Precast or Steel Substrate with an Inverted-Membrane Type Roof; (C)
Parapet Drain in Poured Concrete Deck with Downspout Elbow; (D) Planting Area Drain in
Raised Planter Box; (E) Indirect Waste for HVAC Equipment on Concrete Roof Deck; (F) Prom-
enade Drain in Precast Deck with Synthetic Flooring and Underdeck Clamp.
Source: Reprinted by permission of Tyler Pipe/The Wade Division, Tyler, Texas.
Figure 4-5 4-In. (101-mm) Roof Drain Flow Chart

Source: Reprinted by permission of the Josam Company from the Design Engineering Sheet.
last offset fitting. Clear-water wastes should be

properly trapped and vented (see Figure 4-6).
Traps must be the same size as the horizontal
drain to which they are connected and should
be provided with 4-in. (102-mm) minimum, deep-
seal p-traps, or with water from trap primers or
frequently used fixtures to maintain the trap seal
for drains not receiving water on a regular basis.
Because of the excessive pressure that may
exist in the leader, a low-level drain may become
the vent to relieve the pressure, blowing water
and air from the drain. These drains are subject
to backflow and should be provided with back- Figure 4-6 Clear-Water Waste Branches for
water valves and vented, or routed separately to Connection to Storm System
tie to the system beyond the point of excess pres-
Source: Reprinted, by permission, from The Illustrated Na-
sure. If backwater valves are used, they can cause tional Plumbing Code Design Manual (Ballanco & Shumann
the areas affected not to allow drainage and a 1987).
Table 4-2 Sizes of Roof Drains and Vertical Pipes

Diameter of Leader, in. (mm) Cross-Sectional Water Contact Maximum Discharge
Dimensions of Leader, in. (mm) Area, in.2 (cm2) Area, in.2 (cm2) Capacity, gpm (L/s)a
2 (50.8) 3.14 (20.3) 6.28 (40.5) 30 (1.2)

2 × 2 (50.8 × 50.8) 4.00 (25.8) 8.00 (51.6) 30 (1.2)
1½ × 2½ (38.1 × 63.5) 3.75 (24.2) 8.00 (51.6) 30 (1.2)
2½ (63.5) 4.91 (31.7) 7.85 (50.6) 54 (3.4)
2½ × 2½ (63.5 × 63.5) 6.25 (40.3) 9.00 (58.1) 54 (3.4)
3 (76.2) 7.07 (45.6) 9.42 (60.8) 92 (5.8)
2 × 4 (50.8 × 101.6) 8.00 (51.6) 12.00 (77.4) 92 (5.8)
2½ × 3 (63.5 × 76.2) 7.50 (48.4) 11.00 (71.0) 92 (5.8)
4 (101.6) 12.57 (81.1) 12.57 (81.1) 192 (12.1)
3 × 4¼ (76.2 × 107.6) 12.75 (82.3) 14.50 (93.6) 192 (12.1)
3½ × 4 (88.9 × 101.6) 14.00 (90.3) 14.00 (90.3) 192 (12.1)
5 (127) 19.06 (123.0) 15.07 (97.2) 360 (22.7)
4 × 5 (101.6 × 127) 20.00 (129.0) 18.00 (116.1) 360 (22.7)
4½ × 4½ (114.3 × 114.3) 20.25 (130.6) 18.00 (116.1) 360 (22.7)
6 (152.4) 28.27 (183.4) 18.85 (121.6) 563 (35.5)
5 × 6 (127 × 152.4) 30.00 (193.5) 22.00 (141.9) 563 (35.5)
5½ × 5½ (139.7 × 139.7) 30.25 (195.2) 22.00 (141.9) 563 (35.5)
8 (203.2) 50.27 (324.3) 25.14 (162.2) 1208 (76.2)
6 × 8 (152.4 × 203.2) 48.00 (309.7) 28.00 (180.6) 1208 (76.2)
a With approximately 1¾-in. (45-mm) head of water at the drain.
buildup of water may occur. Horizontal piping of ings or, where exposed, drip marks on the floor-
clear-water wastes and vents should be sized as ing.
a sanitary drainage branch is. When such pip-
ing is tied to a leader, an upright wye should be Locating vertical leaders Locating the verti-
utilized. cal leaders within the building has several ad-
vantages: convenience, safety, appearances, and
Expansion Expansion and improper anchoring freeze protection. However, leaders located on the
of the vertical pipe have caused roof drains to be exterior can be installed at a much lower cost
pushed up above the roof deck, destroying the and do not take up any valuable floor space.
integrity of the roof waterproofing by tearing the
To keep the number of leaders to a minimum,
flashing and the waterproofing membrane. This
the leaders may combine flows from more than
problem can be more apparent in high-rise build-
one roof drain, from a roof drain and a lower-
ings and buildings where the exposed leader is
subjected to cold rainwater or melting snow and deck drain, from a roof drain and clear-water
ice that enters piping at the ambient tempera- wastes, or from any combination of the above.
The engineer must include the additional flows
ture of the building. An expansion joint at the
when calculating the leader size. This method is
roof drain or a horizontal section of the branch
especially beneficial in keeping the costs of high-
line should be provided to accommodate the
rise buildings contained.
movement of the leader without affecting the roof
drain. See Figure 4-7. If the leaders are to be located at the build-
ing columns, the column footings must be
Insulation The horizontal section of pipe and dropped correspondingly to accommodate the
the roof-drain body should be insulated, per cold elbow at the base of the leader (stack). The base
water installations with a vapor barrier, to con- elbow should be a long sweep bend to help alle-
trol condensation. See Figure 4-8. Low-tempera- viate any excess pressures in the downstream
ture liquid flow in the piping will cause pipe, and the elbow should be properly sup-
condensation to form on the outside of the pip- ported. The elbow may rest directly on the col-
ing, possibly causing stain damage to the ceil- umn footing to act as a support (see Figure 4-8).
A riser clamp should be provided at each floor be protected by metal or concrete guards or re-
line for support of the leader. Also a cleanout cessed in the wall and constructed of a ferrous
should be provided at the base of all stacks to alloy pipe, such as cast iron, to 5 ft (1.5 m) above
allow the base elbow to be rodded out. the paving or loading platforms.
If blockage occurs in the drainage system and If an offset is 45° or less, the leader can be
backs up in the vertical leader, the piping sys- sized as a vertical pipe. If the offset is greater
tem may be subjected to a head pressure that is than 45°, the pipe must be sized as a horizontal
greater than the joining system is designed for. pipe. To avoid stoppages due to leaves, ice, etc.,
To prevent joint failure, pressure pipe may be the leader cannot be reduced in size in the di-
considered for the piping system. All exterior lead- rection of flow throughout its length. For ex-
ers that may be exposed to damage, such as oc- ample, an 8-in. (203-mm) horizontal line must
curs in parking or truck-loading areas, should
Table 4-3 Sizes of Semicircular and Equivalent Rectangular Gutters
Diameter of Gutter, in. (mm) Cross-Sectional Water Contact, Slope,a Capacity,

Dimensions of Gutter, in. (mm) Area, in.2 (mm2) Area, in.2 (cm2) in./ft (mm/m) gpm (L/min)
3 (76.2) 3.53 (22.83) 4.70 (30.32) z (1.6) —

3 (76.2) 3.53 (22.83) 4.70 (30.32) 8 (3.2) —
1½ × 2½ (38.1 × 63.4) 3.75 (24.25) 5.50 (35.48) ¼ (6.4) 26 (97.5)
1½ × 2½ (38.1 × 63.5) 3.75 (24.25) 5.50 (35.48) ½ (12.7) 40 (150)
4 (101.6) 6.28 (40.61) 6.28 (40.52) z (1.6) —
4 (101.6) 6.28 (40.61) 6.28 (40.52) 8 (3.2) 39 (146.25)
2¼ × 3 (57.2 × 76) 6.75 (43.65) 7.50 (48.50) ¼ (6.4) 55 (206.25)
2¼ × 3 (57.2 × 76) 6.75 (43.65) 7.50 (48.50) ½ (12.7) 87 (326.25)
5 (127) 9.82 (63.50) 7.85 (50.76) z (1.6) —
5 (127) 9.82 (63.50) 7.85 (50.76) 8 (3.2) 74 (277.5)
4 × 2½ (101.6 × 63.4) 10.00 (64.67) 9.00 (58.20) ¼ (6.4) 106 (397.5)
3 × 3½ (76 × 88.9) 10.00 (64.67) 9.00 (58.20) ½ (12.7) 156 (585)
6 (152) 14.14 (91.44) 9.43 (60.9) z (1.6) —
6 (152) 14.14 (91.44) 9.43 (60.9) 8 (3.2) 110 (412.5)
3×5 (76 × 127) 15.00 (97.00) 11.00 (71.14) ¼ (6.4) 157 (588.75)
3×5 (76 × 127) 15.00 (97.00) 11.00 (71.14) ½ (12.7) 225 (843.75)
8 (203.2) 25.27 (163.42) 12.57 (81.29) z (1.6) 172 (645)
8 (203.2) 25.27 (163.42) 12.57 (81.29) 8 (3.2) 247 (926.25)
4½ × 6 (114.3 × 152.4) 27.00 (174.6) 15.00 (97.00) ¼ (6.4) 348 (1305)
4½ × 6 (114.3 × 152.4) 27.00 (174.6) 15.00 (97.00) ½ (12.7) 494 (1852.5)
10 (254) 39.77 (257.19) 15.70 (101.52) z (1.6) 331 (1241.25)
10 (254) 39.77 (257.19) 15.70 (101.52) 8 (3.2) 472 (1770)
5×8 (127 × 203.2) 40.00 (258.7) 18.00 (116.40) ¼ (6.4) 651 (2440.25)
4 × 10 (101.6 × 254) 40.00 (258.7) 18.00 (116.40) ½ (12.7) 1055 (3956.25)
Note: Figures are based on the Chezy Formula for Discharge of Circular Sewers, n = 0.013, and gutter flowing full.
aMinimum velocity of 2 fps (0.6 m/s).
Figure 4-7 Typical Expansion Joint or Horizontal Offset

Source: Reprinted, by permission, from Plumbing Design and Installation Reference Guide (Hicks 1986).
Figure 4-8 Typical Roof Drain and Roof Leader

Source: Reprinted, by permission, from
Cast Iron Soil Pipe and Fittings Engineering Manual (Cast-Iron Soil Pipe Institute 1976).
tie to an 8-in. (203-mm) vertical leader, even if n = Coefficient of roughness, constant

Table 4-2 requires a smaller size. Vertical lead-
The roughness coefficient of the pipe can be
ers should be tied to the horizontal main with
affected by age, corrosion, misalignment of the
single-wye fittings; double-wye fittings should be
pipe, solid deposits in the pipe, and tree roots or
avoided.
other obstructions. Table 4-4 shows the types of
Horizontal pipe sizing The horizontal piping pipe material that are available for each of the
should be sized to flow full under uniform flow listed sizes. It also shows the various capacities
conditions at the peak flow rate, as opposed to of the piping at different slopes. The greater the
sanitary sewers, which are designed to flow ½ to slope is, the higher the capacity, but the greater
Q full. A minimum velocity of 2 ft/s (fps) (0.61 the slope, the deeper the line and the more exca-
m/s) should be maintained to properly scour the vation required. This may cause significant prob-
pipe of grit, sand, and debris. (Some authorities lems when the engineer is trying to tie in to an
recommend a minimum velocity of 3 fps [0.91 existing storm sewer or “daylight” (i.e., discharge
m/s] to keep the sediment in suspension.) to the open atmosphere as opposed to into an
underground pipe) to a ditch or canal.
The horizontal piping must be properly sup-
ported, with bell holes provided for underground Secondary drainage systems may be either
bell-and-spigot piping. Use Form 4-2, in the Ap- scuppers, which allow the entrapped rainwater
pendix at the end of this chapter, to calculate to overflow the roof, or a separately piped drain-
the storm-drain horizontal main size. Cleanouts age system to a separate point of discharge. Scup-
should be provided at any change in direction pers shall be sized in accordance with Table 4-5.
exceeding 45° and at any change in pipe size, The secondary piping system shall be designed
and to meet any applicable local code require- similarly to the way the primary drainage sys-
ments for distances between cleanouts. The tem was designed. Some codes and designers
cleanouts should be extended up to grade or the prefer that the discharge from secondary drain-
floor above, or out to the wall face with a wall age systems be readily noticeable, to ensure the
plate. The location of cleanout plugs above ceil- prompt repair of the primary drainage systems.
ings may cause damage to the ceiling when the If the storm-drainage system receives con-
pipe must be cleaned. tinuous or intermittent flow from sump pumps,
Avoid running horizontal piping above the air-conditioning units, or similar devices, the flow
ceilings of computer rooms, kitchens, and food- should be added to the drainage system, either
preparation areas. A pipe rupture above one of on the roof if the discharge is onto the roof, or in
these areas could cause major damage and con- the piping if the discharge ties directly to the
tamination. Piping under building slabs should drainage system.
be avoided if feasible; as pipe leaks could erode After the system has been laid out and sized,
the fill below slabs and cause the slab to crack. the designer should review the proposed system
Once the peak flow has been determined, the to determine if revisions to the layout would im-
Manning Formula (Equation 4-3) should be used prove the system from the standpoint of ease of
for sizing; refer to Table 4-4. installation, cost of materials and/or coordina-
tion with other trades.
Equation 4-3
Controlled-flow storm-drainage system In lieu
1.486 of sizing the storm-drainage system on the basis
Q = × A × R.67 × S.5
n of the actual maximum projected roof areas, the
roof drainage system (or a part of it) may be sized
where on the equivalent or adjusted projected roof ar-
Q = Flow rate, ft3/s (m3/s) eas that result from the controlled flow and the
A = Area, ft2 (m2) storage of storm water on the roof.
R = Hydraulic radius of pipe = D/4, ft Controlled-flow systems collect the rainwa-
(m) ter on the roof and release the flow slowly to the
drainage system. These systems can provide sig-
[D = Diameter of pipe, ft (m)]
nificant installation savings by requiring smaller
S = Hydraulic slope, ft/ft (m/m) roof drains, smaller diameter piping and smaller
Table 4-4 Pipe Sizing Chart

Slope Discharge Capacity Velocity
Pipe Pipe Size, in./ft % gpm cfs fps

Material in. (mm) (cm/m) (L/s) (L/s) (m/s)
Cast iron 2 (50) ¼ (25) 2.1 19 (1.199) 0.043 (1.217) 1.97 (0.591)
PVC-DWV 2 (50) ½ (50) 4.2 27 (1.703) 0.061 (1.726) 2.80 (0.840)
Steel 2 (50) 1 (100) 8.3 39 (2.460) 0.086 (2.434) 3.94 (1.182)
Cast iron 3 (80) 8 (12.5) 1.0 40 (2.523) 0.090 (2.547) 1.83 (0.549)
Ductile iron 3 (80) ¼ (25) 2.1 57 (3.596) 0.127 (3.594) 2.59 (0.867)
PVC-DWV 3 (80) ½ (50) 4.2 81 (5.109) 0.180 (5.094) 3.67 (1.101)
Steel 3 (80) 1 (100) 8.3 114 (7.191) 0.254 (7.188) 5.17 (1.551)
Cast iron 4 (100) 8 (12.5) 1.0 87 (5.488) 0.194 (5.490) 2.22 (0.666)
Ductile iron 4 (100) ¼ (25) 2.1 123 (7.759) 0.274 (7.754) 3.14 (0.942)
PVC-DWV 4 (100) ½ (50) 4.2 174 (10.976) 0.390 (11.037) 4.47 (1.341)
Steel 4 (100) 1 (100) 8.3 247 (15.581) 0.550 (15.565) 6.30 (1.890)
Concrete
Vitrified clay
Cast iron 6 (150) z (6.3) 0.5 178 (11.228) 0.397 (10.726) 2.02 (0.606)
Ductile iron 6 (150) 8 (12.5) 1.0 257 (16.212) 0.572 (16.188) 2.91 (0.873)
PVC-DWV 6 (150) x (18.8) 1.5 309 (19.492) 0.687 (19.442) 3.50 (1.050)
Steel 6 (150) ¼ (25) 2.1 363 (22.898) 0.808 (22.866) 4.11 (1.233)
Concrete 6 (150) c (31.3) 2.5 398 (25.106) 0.887 (25.102) 4.52 (1.356)
Vitrified clay 6 (150) a (37.5) 3.0 436 (27.503) 0.972 (27.508) 4.95 (1.485)
6 (150) v (43.8) 3.5 471 (29.711) 1.050 (29.715) 5.35 (1.605)
6 (150) ½ (50) 4.2 514 (32.423) 1.145 (32.404) 5.83 (1.749)
6 (150) s (62.5) 5.0 563 (35.514) 1.255 (35.517) 6.39 (1.917)
6 (150) ¾ (75) 6.0 617 (38.920) 1.375 (38.913) 7.00 (2.100)
6 (150) d (87.5) 7.0 666 (42.011) 1.485 (42.026) 7.56 (2.268)
Cast iron 8 (200) 0.2 243 (15.328) 0.541 (15.291) 1.55 (0.465)
Ductile iron 8 (200) 0.4 343 (21.636) 0.765 (21.650) 2.19 (0.657)
PVC-DWV 8 (200) z (6.3) 0.5 420 (26.494) 0.937 (26.517) 2.68 (0.804)
Steel 8 (200) 0.8 485 (30.594) 1.082 (30.621) 3.10 (0.930)
Concrete 8 (200) 8 (12.5) 1.0 554 (34.946) 1.234 (34.922) 3.53 (1.059)
Vitrified clay 8 (200) x (18.8) 1.5 665 (41.948) 1.481 (41.912) 4.24 (1.272)
8 (200) ¼ (25) 2.1 782 (49.329) 1.742 (49.299) 4.99 (1.497)
8 (200) c (31.3) 2.5 858 (54.123) 1.912 (54.110) 5.48 (1.644)
8 (200) a (37.5) 3.0 940 (59.295) 2.095 (59.289) 6.00 (1.800)
8 (200) v (43.8) 3.5 1,015 (64.026) 2.263 (64.043) 6.48 (1.944)
8 (200) ½ (50) 4.2 1,107 (69.830) 2.467 (69.816) 7.06 (2.118)
8 (200) b (56.3) 4.5 1,152 (72.668) 2.566 (72.618) 7.35 (2.205)
Cast iron 10 (250) 0.2 439 (27.692) 0.980 (27.751) 1.80 (0.540)
Ductile iron 10 (250) 0.4 621 (39.173) 1.380 (39.054) 2.53 (0.759)
PVC-DWV 10 (250) z (6.3) 0.5 761 (48.004) 1.700 (48.110) 3.12 (0.936)
Steel 10 (250) 0.8 879 (55.447) 1.960 (55.468) 3.59 (1.077)
Concrete 10 (250) 8 (12.5) 1.0 1,002 (63.206) 2.230 (63.109) 4.09 (1.227)
Vitrified clay 10 (250) x (18.8) 1.5 1,203 (75.885) 2.680 (75.844) 4.91 (1.473)
10 (250) ¼ (25) 2.1 1,414 (89.195) 3.150 (89.145) 5.78 (1.734)
10 (250) c (31.3) 2.5 1,553 (97.963) 3.460 (97.918) 6.34 (1.902)
10 (250) a (37.5) 3.0 1,701 (107.299) 3.790 (107.257) 6.95 (2.085)
10 (250) v (43.8) 3.5 1,837 (115.878) 4.090 (115.747) 7.50 (2.250)
Cast iron 12 (300) 0.2 715 (45.102) 1.590 (44.997) 2.02 (0.606)
Ductile iron 12 (300) 0.4 1,012 (63.837) 2.250 (63.675) 2.86 (0.600)
(Continued)
(Table 4-4 continued) Slope Discharge Capacity Velocity

PVC-DWV 12 (300) z (6.3) 0.6 1,239 (78.156) 2.760 (78.108) 3.51 (1.053)
Steel 12 (300) 0.8 1,431 (90.267) 3.190 (90.277) 4.06 (1.218)
Concrete 12 (300) 8 (12.5) 1.0 1,632 (102.947) 3.640 (103.012) 4.63 (1.389)
Vitrified clay 12 (300) 1.2 1,752 (110.516) 3.900 (110.370) 4.97 (1.491)
12 (300) 1.4 1,893 (119.410) 4.220 (119.426) 5.37 (1.611)
12 (300) 1.6 2,024 (127.674) 4.510 (127.633) 5.74 (1.722)
12 (300) 1.8 2,146 (135.370) 4.780 (135.274) 6.09 (1.827)
12 (300) ¼ (25) 2.1 2,304 (145.336) 5.130 (145.179) 6.53 (1.959)
12 (300) 2.2 2,373 (149.689) 5.290 (149.707) 6.74 (2.022)
12 (300) 2.4 2,478 (156.312) 5.520 (156.216) 7.03 (2.109)
Ductile iron 14 (350) 0.1 760 (47.941) 1.690 (47.827) 1.58 (0.474)
PVC-DWV 14 (350) 0.2 1,074 (67.748) 2.390 (67.637) 2.24 (0.672)
Steel 14 (350) 0.3 1,316 (83.013) 2.930 (82.919) 2.74 (0.822)
14 (350) 0.4 1,519 (95.819) 3.380 (95.654) 3.16 (0.948)
14 (350) z (6.3) 0.5 1,699 (107.173) 3.780 (106.974) 3.54 (1.062)
14 (350) 0.6 1,861 (117.392) 4.150 (117.445) 3.88 (1.164)
14 (350) 0.7 2,010 (126.791) 4.480 (126.784) 4.19 (1.257)
14 (350) 0.8 2,149 (135.559) 4.790 (135.557) 4.48 (1.344)
14 (350) 0.9 2,279 (143.759) 5.080 (143.764) 4.75 (1.425)
14 (350) 8 (12.5) 1.0 2,450 (154.546) 5.460 (154.518) 5.11 (1.533)
14 (350) 1.1 2,519 (158.899) 5.610 (158.763) 5.25 (1.575)
14 (350) 1.2 2,631 (165.963) 5.860 (165.838) 5.48 (1.644)
14 (350) 1.3 2,739 (172.776) 6.100 (172.630) 5.71 (1.713)
14 (350) 1.4 2,842 (179.273) 6.330 (179.139) 5.92 (1.776)
14 (350) x (18.8) 1.5 2,942 (185.581) 6.560 (185.648) 6.14 (1.842)
14 (350) 1.6 3,039 (191.700) 6.770 (191.591) 6.33 (1.899)
14 (350) 1.7 3,132 (197.567) 6.980 (197.534) 6.53 (1.959)
Cast iron 15 (375) 0.1 918 (57.907) 2.040 (57.766) 1.66 (0.498)
Ductile iron 15 (375) 0.2 1,298 (81.878) 2.890 (81.787) 2.36 (0.708)
Concrete 15 (375) 0.3 1,590 (100.297) 3.540 (100.182) 2.89 (0.867)
Vitrified clay 15 (375) 0.4 1,835 (115.752) 4.090 (115.747) 3.33 (0.999)
15 (375) z (6.3) 0.5 2,052 (129.440) 4.570 (129.331) 3.72 (1.116)
15 (375) 0.6 2,248 (141.804) 5.010 (141.783) 4.08 (1.224)
15 (375) 0.7 2,428 (153.158) 5.410 (153.103) 4.41 (1.323)
15 (375) 0.8 2,596 (163.756) 5.780 (163.574) 4.71 (1.413)
15 (375) 0.9 2,753 (173.659) 6.130 (173.479) 5.00 (1.500)
15 (375) 8 (12.5) 1.0 2,960 (186.717) 6.600 (186.780) 5.38 (1.614)
15 (375) 1.1 3,044 (192.016) 6.780 (191.874) 5.53 (1.659)
15 (375) 1.2 3,179 (200.531) 7.080 (200.364) 5.77 (1.731)
15 (375) 1.3 3,309 (208.732) 7.370 (208.571) 6.01 (1.803)
15 (375) 1.4 3,434 (216.617) 7.650 (216.495) 6.23 (1.869)
15 (375) x (18.8) 1.5 3,554 (224.186) 7.920 (224.136) 6.45 (1.935)
15 (375) 1.6 3,671 (231.567) 8.180 (213.494) 6.67 (2.001)
15 (375) 1.7 3,784 (238.695) 8.430 (238.569) 6.87 (2.061)
Ductile iron 16 (400) 0.1 1,049 (66.171) 2.340 (66.222) 1.66 (0.498)
PVC-DWV 16 (400) 0.2 1,484 (93.611) 3.310 (93.673) 2.35 (0.705)
Steel 16 (400) 0.3 1,817 (114.616) 4.050 (114.615) 2.87 (0.861)
16 (400) 0.4 2,099 (132.405) 4.680 (132.444) 3.32 (0.996)
16 (400) z (6.3) 0.5 2,346 (147.986) 5.230 (148.009) 3.71 (1.113)
(Continued)

16 (400) 0.6 2,570 (162.116) 5.730 (162.159) 4.06 (1.218)

16 (400) 0.7 2,776 (175.110) 6.190 (175.177) 4.39 (1.317)
16 (400) 0.8 2,968 (187.221) 6.610 (187.063) 4.69 (1.407)
16 (400) 0.9 3,148 (198.576) 7.010 (198.383) 4.97 (1.491)
16 (400) 8 (12.5) 1.0 3,385 (213.526) 7.540 (213.382) 5.35 (1.605)
16 (400) 1.1 3,480 (219.518) 7.750 (219.325) 5.50 (1.650)
16 (400) 1.2 3,635 (229.296) 8.100 (229.230) 5.74 (1.722)
16 (400) 1.3 3,783 (238.632) 8.430 (238.569) 5.98 (1.794)
16 (400) 1.4 3,926 (247.652) 8.750 (247.625) 6.21 (1.863)
16 (400) x (18.8) 1.5 4,064 (256.357) 9.050 (256.115) 6.42 (1.957)
Ductile iron 18 (450) 0.1 1,486 (93.737) 3.310 (93.673) 1.87 (0.561)
Steel 18 (450) 0.2 2,101 (132.531) 4.680 (132.444) 2.65 (0.795)
Concrete 18 (450) 0.3 2,574 (162.368) 5.730 (162.159) 3.24 (0.972)
Vitrified clay 18 (450) 0.4 2,972 (187.474) 6.620 (187.346) 3.75 (1.125)
18 (450) z (6.3) 0.5 3,322 (209.552) 7.400 (209.420) 4.19 (1.257)
18 (450) 0.6 3,640 (229.611) 8.110 (229.513) 4.59 (1.377)
18 (450) 0.7 3,931 (247.967) 8.760 (247.908) 4.96 (1.488)
18 (450) 0.8 4,203 (265.125) 9.360 (264.888) 5.30 (1.590)
18 (450) 0.9 4,458 (281.211) 9.930 (281.019) 5.62 (1.686)
18 (450) 8 (12.5) 1.0 4,793 (302.342) 10.680 (302.244) 6.04 (1.812)
18 (450) 1.1 4,928 (310.858) 10.980 (310.734) 6.21 (1.863)
18 (450) 1.2 5,147 (324.673) 11.470 (324.601) 6.49 (1.947)
18 (450) 1.3 5,357 (337.920) 11.940 (337.902) 6.76 (2.028)
18 (450) 1.4 5,560 (350.725) 12.390 (350.637) 7.01 (2.103)
Ductile iron 20 (500) 0.1 1,971 (124.331) 4.390 (124.237) 2.01 (0.603)
Steel 20 (500) 0.2 2,787 (175.804) 6.210 (175.743) 2.85 (0.855)
20 (500) 0.3 3,414 (215.355) 7.610 (215.363) 3.49 (1.064)
20 (500) 0.4 3,942 (248.661) 8.780 (248.474) 4.03 (1.209)
20 (500) z (6.3) 0.5 4,407 (277.994) 9.820 (277.906) 4.50 (1.350)
20 (500) 0.6 4,828 (304.550) 10.760 (304.508) 4.93 (1.479)
20 (500) 0.7 5,215 (328.962) 11.620 (328.846) 5.33 (1.599)
20 (500) 0.8 5,575 (351.671) 12.420 (351.486) 5.69 (1.707)
20 (500) 0.9 5,913 (372.992) 13.170 (372.711) 6.04 (1.812)
20 (500) 8 (12.5) 1.0 6,357 (401.000) 14.160 (400.728) 6.49 (1.947)
20 (500) 1.1 6,537 (412.354) 14.560 (412.048) 6.68 (2.004)
20 (500) 1.2 6,828 (430.710) 15.210 (430.443) 6.97 (2.091)
Concrete 21 (520) 0.1 2,242 (141.425) 5.000 (141.500) 2.08 (0.624)
Vitrified clay 21 (520) 0.2 3,171 (200.027) 7.070 (200.081) 2.94 (0.882)
21 (520) 0.3 3,884 (245.042) 8.650 (244.795) 3.60 (1.080)
21 (520) 0.4 4,485 (282.914) 9.990 (282.717) 4.15 (1.245)
21 (520) z (6.3) 0.5 5,014 (316.283) 11.170 (316.111) 4.64 (1.392)
21 (520) 0.6 5,493 (346.498) 12.240 (346.392) 5.09 (1.527)
21 (520) 0.7 5,933 (374.254) 13.220 (374.126) 5.50 (1.650)
21 (520) 0.8 6,343 (400.116) 14.130 (399.879) 5.88 (1.764)
21 (520) 0.9 6,727 (424.339) 14.990 (424.217) 6.23 (1.869)
21 (520) 8 (12.5) 1.0 7,233 (456.258) 16.120 (456.468) 6.70 (2.010)
21 (520) 1.1 7,437 (469.126) 16.570 (469.210) 6.89 (2.067)
Ductile iron 24 (600) 0.05 2,265 (142.876) 5.040 (142.632) 1.60 (0.480)
Steel 24 (600) 0.1 3,204 (202.108) 7.140 (202.062) 2.27 (0.681)
Concrete 24 (600) 0.2 4,531 (285.815) 10.090 (285.547) 3.21 (0.963)
(Continued)

Vitrified clay 24 (600) 0.3 5,549 (350.031) 12.360 (349.788) 3.93 (1.179)
24 (600) 0.4 6,408 (404.217) 14.280 (404.124) 4.54 (1.362)
24 (600) z (6.3) 0.5 7,164 (451.905) 15.960 (451.668) 5.08 (1.524)
24 (600) 0.6 7,848 (495.052) 17.480 (494.684) 5.56 (1.668)
24 (600) 0.7 8,477 (534.729) 18.890 (534.587) 6.01 (1.803)
24 (600) 0.8 9,062 (571.631) 20.190 (571.377) 6.43 1.929)
Concrete 27 (685) 0.05 3,102 (195.674) 6.910 (195.553) 1.74 (0.522)
27 (685) 0.1 4,387 (276.732) 9.770 (276.491) 2.46 (0.738)
27 (685) 0.2 6,204 (391.348) 13.820 (391.106) 3.48 (1.044)
27 (685) 0.3 7,599 (749.345) 16.930 (479.119) 4.26 (1.278)
27 (685) 0.4 8,774 (553.464) 19.550 (553.265) 4.92 (1.476)
27 (685) z (6.3) 0.5 9,810 (618.815) 21.860 (618.638) 5.50 (1.650)
27 (685) 0.6 10,746 (677.858) 23.940 (677.502) 6.02 (1.806)
27 (685) 0.7 11,607 (732.170) 25.860 (731.838) 6.50 (1.950)
Ductile iron 30 (760) 0.05 4,111 (259.322) 9.160 (259.228) 1.87 (0.561)
Steel 30 (760) 0.1 5,813 (366.684) 12.950 (366.485) 2.64 (0.792)
Concrete 30 (760) 0.2 8,221 (518.581) 18.320 (518.456) 3.73 (1.119)
Vitrified clay 30 (760) 0.3 10,069 (635.153) 22.430 (634.769) 4.57 (1.371)
30 (760) 0.4 11,626 (733.368) 25.900 (732.970) 5.28 (1.584)
30 (760) z (6.3) 0.5 12,999 (819.977) 28.960 (819.568) 5.90 (1.770)
30 (760) 0.6 14,239 (898.196) 31.730 (897.959) 6.46 (1.938)
Concrete 33 (840) 0.05 5,302 (334.450) 11.810 (334.223) 1.99 (0.597)
Vitrified clay 33 (840) 0.1 7,498 (472.974) 16.700 (472.610) 2.81 (0.843)
33 (840) 0.2 10,603 (668.837) 23.620 (668.446) 3.98 (1.194)
33 (840) 0.3 12,986 (819.157) 28.930 (818.719) 4.87 (1.461)
33 (840) 0.4 14,995 (945.885) 33.410 (945.503) 5.62 (1.686)
33 (840) z (6.3) 0.5 16,765 (1057.536) 37.350 (1057.005) 6.29 (1.887)
33 (840) 0.6 18,365 (1158.464) 40.920 (1158.036) 6.89 (2.067)
Ductile iron 36 (915) 0.05 6,688 (421.879) 14.900 (421.670) 2.11 (0.633)
Steel 36 (915) 0.1 9,458 (596.611) 21.070 (596.281) 2.98 (0.894)
Concrete 36 (915) 0.2 13,376 (843.758) 29.800 (843.340) 4.22 (1.266)
Vitrified clay 36 (915) 0.3 16,382 (1033.377) 36.500 (1032.950) 5.16 (1.548)
36 (915) 0.4 18,917 (1193.284) 42.150 (1192.845) 5.96 (1.788)
36 (915) z (6.3) 0.5 21,149 (1334.079) 47.120 (1333.496) 6.67 (2.001)
Notes:
1. Calculations for the discharge of circular sewers are based on the Manning Formula: Q = 1.486 AR2/3 S1/2
η
2. Pipe capacities for sewers are based on an “η” value of 0.013. This may vary somewhat with depth of flow and with pipe materials as
follows:
Vitrified clay, concrete, unlined ductile iron η = 0.013
Cast iron, uncoated η = 0.015
Steel η = 0.012
PVC-DWV η = 0.009
Corrugated η = 0.024
3. Pipe capacities are based on the pipe flowing full.
4. Velocity of flow shall not be less than 2 fps (0.61 m/s).
Table 4-5 Sizes of Scuppers for Secondary Drainage

Length, L, of Weir, in. (cm)
Head, H, 4 (10.2) 6 (15.2) 8 (20.3) 10 (25.4) 12 (30.5) 18 (45.7) 24 (61.0) 30 (76.2) 36 (91.4) 48 (121.9)
in. (cm) Capacity, gpm (L/s)
1 10.7 (0.7) 17.4 (1.1) 23.4 (1.5) 29.3 (1.8) 35.4 (2.2) 53.4 (3.4) 71.5 (4.5) 89.5 (5.6) 107.5 (6.8) 143.7 (9.1)
2 30.5 (1.9) 47.5 (3.0) 64.4 (4.1) 81.4 (5.1) 98.5 (6.2) 149.4 (9.4) 200.3 (12.6) 251.1 (15.8) 302.0 (19.1) 404.0 (25.5)
3 52.9 (3.3) 84.1 (5.3) 115.2 (7.3) 146.3 (9.2) 177.8 (11.2) 271.4 (17.1) 364.9 (23.0) 458.5 (28.9) 552.0 (34.8) 739.0 (46.6)
4 76.7 (4.8) 124.6 (7.9) 172.6 (10.9) 220.5 (13.9) 269.0 (17.0) 413.3 (26.1) 557.5 (35.2) 701.8 (44.3) 846.0 (53.4) 1135.0 (71.6)
6 123.3 (7.8) 211.4 (13.3) 299.5 (18.9) 387.5 (24.4) 476.5 (30.1) 741.1 (46.8) 1005.8 (63.5) 1270.4 (80.1) 1535.0 (96.8) 2067.5 (130.4)
Source: Reprinted by permission of the Ingersol-Rand Co.1981. 16th ed.

Note: Calculations are based on the Francis Formula:
Q = 3.33 (L – 0.2H) H1.5
where
Q = Flow rate, ft3/s (m3/s)
L = Length of scupper opening, ft (m) (Should be 4 to 8 times H.)
H = Head on scupper, ft (m) (Measured 6 ft [1.83 m] back from opening.)
diameter storm sewers. These systems also help The flow-control devices must be acceptable
to alleviate flooding in overtaxed public storm to the administrative authority. Valves, orifices,
sewers or drainage canals during heavy rainfalls. or mechanical devices are not permitted to re-
The impact on the sewage treatment plant for a strict or control flow. The roof drains are pro-
combined storm/sanitary sewer is considerably vided with weirs, which are either parabolic,
lessened by the use of controlled-flow roof-drain- adjustable rectangular, or triangular, and which
age systems. act like small dams to control flow into the drains.
For standard, controlled-flow roof-drain con-
Controlled-flow systems should not be used
struction, see Figure 4-9.
if the roof is used for functions precluding water
storage, such as a sundeck or a parking level, or Certain roof-design details must be incorpo-
if not allowed by the authority having jurisdic- rated into the finished roof. The water depth on
tion. Holding the water on the roof increases the the roof must not exceed 3 in. (80 mm) on dead-
structural costs and may require a different roof- flat roofs and an average maximum depth of 3
covering material. in. (80 mm) for pitched roofs (6 in. [150 mm]
maximum from the high point to the low point of a minimum of 30 lb/ft2 (psf) (1.44 kPa) loading
the roof) during the storm. The depth of water to provide a safety factor above the 15.6 psf (0.75
must be representative of the depth over all the kPa) represented by the 3-in. (76.2-mm) design
roof and must assume the primary drains are depth of water. The roof should be level and 45°
blocked. The drain-down time is the time, mea- cants should be installed at any wall or parapet.
sured in hours, for the roof to completely drain The flashing should extend at least 6 in. (152.4
after the storm has reached its maximum mm) above the roof level. Doors opening onto
intensity and duration and has ceased. The the roof must be provided with a curb at least 4
drain-down time must be in accordance with the in. (101 mm) high. Flow-control devices should
local code but should not exceed 24 hours (12– be protected by strainers and in no case should
17 hours maximum recommended). the roof surface in the vicinity of the drain be
recessed to create a reservoir.
The flow-control device should be installed
so that the rate of discharge of the water should Roof-drain manufacturers have done much
not exceed the rate allowed. The roof design for research on engineering criteria and parameters
controlled-flow roof drainage should be based on regarding the head of water on the roof for the
weir design in controlled-flow roof drains, and
they have established suggested design proce-
dures with flow capacities and charts.
Secondary roof drainage is required in case
the primary drains are blocked, as is discussed
earlier in this chapter. Secondary drainage sys-
tems can reduce the savings potential of con-
trolled-flow roof drainage systems. If scuppers
are utilized, they should be placed ½ in. (12.7
mm) above the maximum designated head, 3½
in. (88.9 mm) above the roof level. One scupper,
or secondary drain, should be provided for each
roof drain.
Figure 4-9 Example of a

Controlled-Flow Drain
Source: Reprinted, by permission, from the Jay R. Smith
catalog.
PART TWO: applied to the surface, and it assumes that the

SITE DRAINAGE SYSTEM DESIGN runoff coefficient would remain constant.
The Rational Method of storm-drainage
General Design Considerations design states that the peak discharge is approxi-
mately equal to the product of the area drained,
Part One of this chapter discussed general crite- the runoff coefficient, and the maximum rainfall
ria that must be considered in the design of both intensity, or:
roof and site drainage systems, including mate-
rials, rainfall rates, and pipe sizing. These gen- Equation 4-4
eral design considerations apply to Part Two also. Q = CIA
The tables and figures used to illustrate the chap-
ter are consecutive from Part One to Part Two. where
Q = Rainfall runoff, ft3/s (m3/s)
Site Drainage C = Surface runoff, coefficient (depen-
When large areas with fewer drainage points– dent on the surface of the area
such as commercial or industrial sites, parking drained)
lots, highways, airports or whole cities–require I = Rainfall intensity, in./h (mm/h)
storm drainage, the methods and tables found A = Drainage area, acres (m2)
in most codes are not applicable. The solutions
obtained using those methods would result in Note: 1 acre = 43,560 ft2 (4047 m2)
systems that are oversized for the flows involved The “runoff coefficient” is that portion of rain
and are far too large to be economically feasible. that falls on an area and flows off as free water
The reason is that, in large systems, time is and is not lost to infiltration into the soil, ponding
required for flows to peak at the inlets and accu- in surface depressions, or evaporation (expressed
mulate in the piping system. Because of this time as a decimal). Construction increases have in-
factor, the peak flow in the piping does not nec- creased the number of impervious surfaces,
essarily coincide with the peak rainfall. The de- which also increases the quantity of runoff. Table
sign of large storm-drainage systems usually is 4-6 lists some values for the runoff coefficient as
the responsibility of the civil engineer; however, reported in the American Society of Civil Engi-
the applicable theories and principles are often neers’ Manual on the Design and Construction of
used by the plumbing engineer. Sanitary and Storm Sewers.
The rate of runoff from an area is influenced The rate of runoff is hard to accurately evalu-
by many factors, such as: ate and is impacted by the precipitation rate,
1. Intensity and duration of the rainfall.

2. Type, imperviousness, and moisture content
Table 4-6 Some Values of the
of the soil.
Rational Coefficient C
3. Slope of the surfaces.
Surface Type C Value
4. Type and amount of vegetation.
5. Surface retention. Bituminous streets 0.70–0.95
Concrete streets 0.80–0.95
6. Temperature of the air, water, and soil.
Driveways, walks 0.75–0.85
Roofs 0.75–1.00
The Rational Method of System Design Lawns, sandy soil
Flat, 2% 0.05–0.10
The “Rational Method” is the most universally Average, 2–7% 0.10–0.15
applied and recommended way of calculating Steep, 7% 0.15–0.20
runoff because it takes all these factors into ac- Lawns, heavy soil
count. This method assumes that, if rain were Flat, 2% 0.13–0.17
to fall on a totally impervious surface at a con- Average, 2–7% 0.18–0.22
stant rate long enough, water would eventually Steep, 7% 0.25–0.35
Unimproved areas 0.10–0.30
run off of the surface at the same rate as it was
surface composition and slope, duration of the positions. The runoff coefficient can be weighted
precipitation, and the degree of saturation of the and calculated as follows:
soil. The infiltration rate is much greater for loose
sandy soils than for hard clay type soils. Once Equation 4-5
saturated, the soil will not absorb any more wa- (A1 × C1) + (A2 × C2) + (A3 × C3) +...(An × Cn)
ter, which causes greater runoff. The longer the Cw =
duration of the precipitation and the steeper the A1 + A2 + A3 +...An
slope of the ground, the lower are the rate of
where
infiltration and the amount of water held in de-
pressions. Cw = Surface runoff
Most engineering designers make use of in- A1 = Drainage area, by surface type, ft2
formation reported in tabular or graphic form, (m2)
inserting local conditions per their experience and C1 = Runoff coefficient, by surface type
practice. Most sites have various surface com-
Figure 4-10 Overland Flow Time

The weighted runoff coefficient must be re- value districts, 10 to 20 years or higher return
calculated for each drainage point because the periods often are selected. Local conditions and
variables may change. practice normally dictate the selection of these
design criteria.
The time of concentration is the sum of the
overland flow time plus the time of flow in the After tc and the rainfall frequency have been
pipe above the section of the pipe being designed. ascertained, the rainfall intensity, I, may be ob-
The overland flow time is usually taken from a tained from Table 4-1. For values different than
nomograph adapted from sources such as the those listed in Table 4-1, the rainfall intensity is
Engineering Manual of the War Department. See usually obtained by making use of a set of rain-
Figure 4-10 for an example. fall intensity-duration-frequency curves for the
area of design, such as those shown in Figure
Water travels faster across impervious sur-
4-11.
faces, such as roofs or parking areas, than across
absorbent surfaces such as grassy or wooded The tributary area can be accurately mea-
areas. Flow time in piping is usually determined sured from a site plan showing contours and
by using the Manning Formula to find the veloc- noting that water can only flow from higher el-
ity in the piping. If the velocity and the distance evations to the drain inlet under consideration.
of flow are known, the time can be calculated. The total tributary area may extend beyond prop-
The time of concentration is needed to determine erty lines.
the rainfall intensity affecting the flow at that
point in the system, a minimum of 10 min. Example 4-2
In the application of the Rational Method, a Calculate the storm-water runoff into one inlet
rainfall intensity, I, must be used, which repre- from a tributary area having a grassy area of 0.5
sents the average intensity of a storm of given acres, a pavement area of 0.5 acres, and a roof
frequency for the time of concentration, tc. The area of 0.2 acres, for a total area of 1.20 acres.
frequency chosen is largely a matter of econom- The water must flow across 100 ft (30.5 m) of
ics. grassy area and across 100 ft (30.5 m) of pave-
ment from the most remote point of the tribu-
Factors related to the choice of a design fre- tary area. The slope of the grass surface is 2%.
quency have already been discussed. Frequen- The slope of the pavement is 1%. The design
cies of 1 to 10 years are commonly used where storm frequency is 20 years. The roof drains flow
residential areas are to be protected. For higher-
Figure 4-11 Typical Intensity-Duration-Frequency Curves

onto the grassy area at the most remote point of that the public storm system has the capacity
the tributary area. for the projected flow. If the available capacity is
not sufficient to handle the additional flow, ei-
Solution ther a controlled-flow roof drainage system or a
The weighted coefficient of runoff for the entire retention basin, or both, may be required. The
area will be calculated using Equation 4-5. The designer must coordinate the piping layout with
time of concentration will then be determined. other underground utilities.
The runoff rate will then be calculated using the The pipe should have a minimum exterior
Rational Method Formula (Equation 4-4). Assume size of 10 in. (254 mm) unless otherwise noted
coefficients of runoff for the various portions of by the local code authority and should maintain
the tributary area to be as follows: grassy area = a minimum velocity of 2–3 ft/s (fps) (0.61-0.91
0.15, pavement = 0.90, and the roof = 1.00. m/s); maximum velocity should be 30 fps (9.1
Therefore, the weighted runoff coefficient is: m/s) to limit erosion of the pipe interior. Use
(0.50 × 0.15) + (0.50 × 0.90) + (0.20 × 1.00) Table 4-4 for sizing the exterior piping, this siz-
Cw = ing is based on the Manning Formula. The flow
0.50 + 0.50 + 0.20 rates from other inlets should be accumulated
0.725 through the piping system. Use Form 4-3 (Sheets
Cw = = 0.60 1-3) in the Appendix at the end of this chapter
1.20
for record keeping. The overland flow time to the
Time of concentration first inlet must be added to the pipe flow time.
The pipe flow time is determined by dividing the
Distance—Inlet to Time for length of pipe between two points by the velocity
Most Remote Point, Overland Flow of flow in the pipe. The size is controlled by ei-
ft (m) (min)
ther the existing storm sewer size or by the al-
lowable slope.
Grass 100 (30.5) 15
Pavement 100 (30.5) 3 There are three basic inlets to the storm-
drainage system:
Roof — 5
Total 23 1. Drainage inlets. Structures that admit storm
water into the storm-drainage system, located
Rainfall intensity Using Figure 4-11 and enter- in areas generally free of sediment or debris.
ing the bottom of the graph at a time concentra- Bottom is level with outlet pipe invert.
tion of 23 min, and following the vertical axis of 2. Catch basins. Similar to inlets except for
the graph to where the vertical line intersects space below the inlet and outlet pipes for re-
the 20-year frequency curve then horizontally to tention of sediment. Located in paved areas;
the left, a rainfall intensity of approximately 5.1 require good maintenance.
in./h (129.5 mm/h) is obtained.
3. Manholes. Provide ease of access to pipe con-
Runoff The runoff from this tributary area is nections; use a drop manhole if there is a
calculated using the Rational Method Formula difference of 2 ft (0.61 m) or more between
(Equation 4-4): the inlet and the outlet.
Catch basins should be provided at the inlet
0.60 × 5.1 × 43,560
Q = = 3.1 ft3/s to drains, with strainer openings equal to at least
3600 × 12 twice the area of the drains. Use site contour
0.60 × 129.5 × 4047 lines to locate site low points; these areas must
Q = = 0.9 m3/s be provided with drains to prevent ponding. Park-
3600 × 1000 ing area and street gutter drains should be open-
throat, curb type drains and should be provided
Exterior Piping and Inlets with hoods. Grate type inlets can become fouled,
decreasing the capacity of the drain. Street in-
The designer should obtain drawings of the public lets should be located upstream of flow at the
storm sewer available at the project site that intersection of streets and so that the maximum
depict materials, locations, sizes, and depths. The water depth at the curb is approximately Q the
local authority should be contacted to ascertain height of the curb and the width of water in the
gutter does not exceed ½ the width of the adja- proper traffic load, and have an impact slab if
cent driving lane. the storm water cascades 10 ft (3.1 m) or more.
Street gutters should use a roughness coef- The layout of the piping system should at-
ficient of 0.015. If trenches are utilized, the tempt to keep excavation to a minimum by fol-
trenches must be wide enough for a drain of the lowing the slope of the ground above the pipe
proper size to connect to the trenches. Location and by limiting manhole depths to a maximum
of drain inlets should be done so as to avoid pe- of 15 ft (4.6 m), if possible, by locating the man-
destrian crossing zones and to prevent water from holes closer together. The layout should also at-
crossing a street or sidewalk to reach the drain. tempt to avoid tree locations because of root
Inlets should be in grassy areas to prevent wa- problems, and piping below paving should be
ter from flowing from the grassy area onto paved kept to a minimum. The layout should avoid rail-
areas and especially to prevent water from freez- road tracks. The exfiltration of water from bad
ing on the paved areas in colder climates. Fur- joints and cracks in the pipe can erode the
ther, they should be adjacent to buildings to subgrade of roads or railways. When piping must
ensure positive drainage away from the build- cross a road or railway, joints with very little or
ings. Inlet flow capacities should be limited to no leakage should be selected and the strength
approximately 5 ft3/s (0.14 m3/s). The maximum of the pipe must be proper for the trench loads it
distance between inlets should be 300 ft (91.4 m). will endure.
Culvert pipes are storm sewers that are usu-
ally open on both ends. They are commonly Subsurface Drainage
placed in a creek bed or ditch and used to trans-
port storm water from one side of a road or em- The importance of subsurface water-conveying
systems cannot be overemphasized. Each sys-
bankment to the other side. Culvert inlets and
tem is designed to solve a specific problem. Some
outlets should be provided with head walls com-
systems are installed to prevent the earth from
posed of straight walls for culverts less than 24
losing bearing resistance by water erosion of the
in. (0.61 m) in diameter and with wing walls for
culverts greater than 24 in. (0.61 m) in diam- soil, others to prevent uplifting of the building
eter. Head walls tend to improve the hydraulic slabs by hydrostatic pressure. Another reason
for installing subsurface drainage systems is to
characteristics of the culvert and should be pro-
prevent the slab or walls below grade from be-
vided with vertical sloped bar strainers to reduce
coming wet by capillary action if the ground wa-
clogging.
ter is too close to the slab. In each case, the
The culvert should be sized to pass the de- objective of this type of system is to prevent sub-
sign flow rate without building up an excessive surface water from rising above a predetermined
water depth on the upstream end of the culvert, elevation.
a minimum of 15 in. (381 mm). The culvert de-
sign should provide reasonable freeboard to pre- Source of subsurface water The source of all
vent the water from running over the road or subsurface water is rain, hail, snow, or sleet.
embankment, yet it cannot allow the water to Some precipitation finds its way to streams, riv-
build up high enough to cause damage upstream ers, lakes, and oceans by surface runoff. Much
of the culvert.
Manholes should be provided for cleanout
purposes on exterior piping at changes in direc-
tion, changes in pipe size, and changes in slope;
at multiple pipe connections; and at intervals as
required by the local code, but they should not
be more than 250–500 ft (76.2-152.4 m) apart.
Manholes should have a minimum opening of
24 in. (0.61 m) in diameter, have a 48-in. (1.22-
m) minimum base diameter, have a 1–3-in. (25.4–
76.2-mm) drop in invert across the base, be
provided with cast-iron steps at 9 in. (228.6 mm)
on center, have a cast-iron frame and cover for
Figure 4-12 Sources of Subsurface Water
of it seeps into the ground, percolates through

the pores of the soil, and, eventually, spills into
large surface bodies of water through under-
ground passages or by becoming surface-borne
again. See Figure 4-12.
There are two basic types of subsurface
water:
1. Perched water is a local accumulation that
has seeped into the ground from previous
rains and is trapped in small pockets by im-
pervious substances, such as clay or rock.
The water accumulates because these sub-
stances form a basin. Because perched wa-
ter does not flow in the absence of rainfall, Figure 4-13 Borings Revealing the Nature
the upper surface of the water (called the
of the Ground, Water Table Elevations,
water table) is approximately level and the
and Rock Conditions
absence of a constant inflow makes control
of the water straightforward. Pumping will
completely remove this water and local rain-
fall is necessary to replenish it. While rock can be useful in providing a good
2. Flowing water occurs when subsurface wa- bearing for the structure, its presence may be
ter passes from deposit to deposit by perco- the one factor that prevents the use of the site
lation (constant flowing water table). This due to excessive excavation costs. The soil may
body of water can be a small brook or a large be of a texture that will not sustain the weight of
river. The flow is constant in one direction. the structure and piles may have to be driven.
The top of the water table is never level be- Also, ground water contributes to foundation
cause of the resistance of the soil to the flow problems. The level of the ground water may
of water. The quantity of water flowing is re- cause poor soil bearing values, and often a high
lated to the rate of water overflowing the de- ground-water table will necessitate costly pres-
posits, which, in turn, is related to the sure foundation slabs.
amount of percolation entering the deposits.
Determining capacities of ground water Prior
During regional droughts, there may be no
to designing drainage systems, it is necessary to
flow at all.
determine the quantity of subsurface water that
Site investigation Economics and feasibility must be removed to lower the water table to a
are the bases of all analytical studies. The loca- safe elevation. These tests are normally per-
tion of a structure is accepted only after a sur- formed by a soils engineer or done at the request
vey has proven that it is both technically feasible of the civil or structural engineer. As is common
and economically practical. The contours of the with the majority of hydraulic formulae and the
land have an important bearing on the amount methods devised to ascertain characteristics of
of excavation and backfilling required. Under- fluids, determination of subsurface water quan-
ground conditions, such as rock and water, can tities involves an educated guess. With all the
also be deciding factors. necessary factors for various conditions that
must be used in the formulae, it is improbable
Land contours and conditions above ground that an accurate answer will be attained. How-
can easily be determined by direct observation; ever, an answer that can be used with the as-
underground conditions are more difficult to as- surance that it is the best available can be
certain and require special equipment and expe- obtained by considering the information from the
rience. The most common method of determining great number of tests conducted in the labora-
subsurface conditions is to bore a hole into the tory and in the field.
ground and record the texture and strata eleva-
tion of the various types of soil found. Borings Two factors are used to determine quantities
can also reveal water-table elevations, the of subsurface water:
strength of the soils, and rock conditions. See 1. Coefficient of permeability, or K factor, de-
Figure 4-13.
fined as gallons (liters) of water per day Information derived from borings include tex-
through 1 square foot (0.09 m2) of soil, with ture and strata of soils, water, rock and samples
an increasing head of 1 foot (0.3 m) every of specimens encountered. Direction of the flow
linear foot (0.3 m). See Figure 4-14. can be determined by the elevation of the water
table in the various borings.
2. Coefficient of transmissibility, or Q factor,
defined as gallons (liters) of water per day Knowing the various strata and the texture
through the entire area, with the actual in- of the soil, an average K factor can be determined.
creasing head every linear foot (0.3 m). A cross-section sketch of the strata information
Excavation prior to testing is considered the obtained from the borings can be drawn and the
most accurate method for determining subsur- area of each layer determined. Laboratory tests
face water flows, as the excavation largely elimi- or published charts will indicate the K factor for
nates the resistance of the soil to flow. This method each texture of soil, and the average K factor of
can easily be the most expensive: when contrac- the cross section can be obtained.
tors are chosen before the design of the subsur- If the table is flowing, it is important to choose
face drainage system, the advantage of competitive the proper cross section in relation to the direc-
bidding is lost. With Q directly determined, K can tion of flow. If the water is a deposit (not flow-
be estimated by using the following relationship, ing), an average K for two cross sections, at right
which will enable the design of the pipe and trench angles to each other, must be determined and
system (see also Figure 4-14). the larger one used.
Equation 4-6 The following industry standards for K fac-
tors are used:
velocity
K = × 7.5 gal/ft3 K Factors of Various Soil Textures,
slope
gal/day/ ft2/ ft of head/l ft (L/day/m2/m of head/l m)
velocity
K = × 1002.4 L/m3
slope Clean gravel 100,000–1,000,000
(43 852 977–438 529 774)
where
Mixture, sand and gravel 100–10,000
Velocity = Q/area, ft2/day (m2/day)
(43 853–4 385 298)
Slope = Head per length, ft/ft (m/m)
Mixture, sand, silt, 0.01–10
The term “slope” refers to the hydraulic gra- clay, fine sand (4.38–4385)
dient in the soil. It is difficult to determine; for
Clay 0.0001–0.001
most purposes, however, the slope is 1. (0.044–0.438)
It can readily be observed from the above

table that the chance of error with this method
is great. To eliminate as much error as possible,
samples of the soils, taken during borings, should
be taken to a laboratory to obtain the proper K
factor. The possibility of error will then be lim-
ited to calculating an average K for the proper
cross section of the site area. It must be realized
that the K factor measures the capacity of the
soil to conduct water not the actual amount flow-
ing. The quantity of water infiltrating the soil
may be less than K but is never more. Thus, the
K factor is a safe criterion for use with the bor-
ing method.
After the average K is determined, Q must
be established.
Equation 4-7
Figure 4-14 Cross Section Illustrating
the Concept of the K Factor Q = K × area × slope
Q should not be modified to reflect local and allows less soil seepage. This pipe should be
weather conditions because K reflects the peak used where a large quantity of drainage is required
flow possible. and the soil is not too coarse. The allowable infil-
tration rate of this material ranges from 15,000 to
Drainage pipe Drainage pipe is rated accord- 20,000 gal/day/ft2 of pipe surface/ft of head/l ft
ing to its allowable infiltration rate, in gal/min/ (6 577 500 to 8 770 000 L/day/m2/m/l m), de-
in. of diameter/ft of length (L/s/mm of diam- pending upon the size of the perforations. Wash-
eter/m of length). The total infiltration rate of out of base soil is also common with this method,
the piping system must exceed Q. and carefully chosen graduations of filter materi-
The selection of a piping system becomes a als must be used. The pipe can be obtained with
matter of economics, with due consideration various size perforations and the filter material
given to subsoil conditions, cost of materials, and must be selected to satisfy the diameters of the
labor. The following piping systems are available perforations. See Figure 4-16.
for use as subsurface drainage systems:
Porous pipe This pipe is the easiest of the three
Open joint pipe This pipe uses a 4-in. (100 to clog. It is used when it is imperative that wash-
mm) minimum separation between the pipe sec- out be prevented and the length of trenching is
tions. Care in the bedding of the pipe is required not a major consideration. The infiltration rate
to prevent soil seepage into the piping. This pipe is 9000 to 10,000 gal/day/ft2 of pipe surface/ft
should be used when a large quantity of drain- of head/l ft (3 946 500 to 4 385 000 L/day/m2/
age is desired and the soil consists of relatively m/l m). A filter material is not necessary to pre-
large particles. The infiltration rate of this mate- vent washout. The value of this piping material
rial can be as high as 25,000 gal/day/ft2 of pipe is its ability to prevent washout; however, its K
surface/ft of head/l ft (10 962 500 L/day/m2/ factor may necessitate almost twice the length
m/l m), depending upon the opening of the joints. of trenching or pipe diameter used with others.
The amount of soil that can enter the open joint
Trenching The purpose of trenching is to per-
and, ultimately, render the system useless by
mit ground water to be transmitted to the drain-
clogging the pipe is great. To prevent washout,
age piping with the least amount of resistance
several layers of filter material, carefully gradu-
possible and to accommodate the filter material.
ated in size, must be installed between the base
The location of all drainage systems must be
soil and the pipe. See Figure 4-15.
coordinated with the foundation/structural en-
Perforated pipe This is the most commonly gineer and other underground utilities. It is im-
used method; it provides good drainage capability portant in the system design to give consideration
to trench loading on the pipe, which requires
proper bedding, backfill, and tamping. Refer to
the Concrete Pipe Handbook by the American
Figure 4-15 Open Joint Pipe Surrounded

by Filter Material Figure 4-16 Perforated Pipe in Trench
Concrete Institute and Data Book, Volume 1,

Chapter 2.
To enable the greatest amount of water to
flow into the piping, a filter material is placed
between the pipe and the wall of the trench. If
no filter material were installed between the pipe
and the base soil material, the amount of water
entering the pipe would be only as great as the
amount of water coming through the soil adja-
cent to the pipe, which depends on the K factor
of the soil. The amount of water filtering through
1 linear foot (0.3 m) of trench should be less than
the amount of water 1 linear foot (0.3 m) of pipe
can receive.
The foundation drainage piping should be
placed at the same elevation as the lowest floor
and should be a minimum of 3 ft (0.9 m) from Figure 4-17 Pipe and Footing Locations
the foundation wall. The foundation drainage
system should be placed on all sides of the build-
ing, or at least on all sides from which ground
water is expected. the footing (see Figure 4-17). To prevent under-
A basic rule of spacing between trenches for mining the footing, piping should not be placed
below-slab drainage is that this distance should within this zone—unless the foundation/struc-
be no greater than twice the vertical distance of tural engineer’s approval to do so is obtained.
the adjacent trenches but should not exceed 10–
Filter materials The piping must be sur-
15 ft (3.0–4.5 m) on center. The more porous the
rounded with gravel or another loose, non- absor-
soil, the farther apart and the deeper the trenches
bent material and should be backfilled with a
should be.
similar material to at least 1 ft (0.3 m) below the
The vertical distance is measured from the pipe. Porous materials should be used above the
bottom of the pipe to the top of the filter mate- pipe to direct ground water to the drain and should
rial, normally a few inches (mm) to 18 in. (0.45 be extended up as close as possible to grade.
m) below the slab. This rule is designed to pre-
Filter materials can be obtained in mixtures
vent the water table from rising above the eleva-
ranging from coarse gravel to fine sand and in
tion required for safety between the trenches.
any composition. With each mixture, a grain size
During trenching, care must be observed not curve can be developed to determine the general
to undermine the building footings. A “no-man size of the mixture, at various percentages, by
zone” exists from the lower edge of a footing in a weight. The filter material must be tamped to
45° angle (angle of repose) down and away from reduce washout of the base material.
Table 4-7 Size Ranges for Filter Material
Filter Material Size Range, 15% Size, 85% Size, K factora

in. (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm)
Pea gravel 0.04–0.40 (1.–10.2) 0.09 (2.3) 0.25 (6.4) 29,000 (12.7)
Coarse sand 0.05–0.30 (1.3–7.6) 0.07 (1.8) 0.20 (5.1) 18,000 (7.9)
Fine sand and medium gravel 0.03–0.35 (0.8–8.9) 0.055 (1.4) 0.25 (6.4) 17,000 (7.5)
Coarse sand and medium gravel 0.025–0.35 (0.6–8.9) 0.03 (0.8) 0.24 (6.1) 14,000 (6.1)
Concrete sand 0.03–0.30 (0.8–7.6) 0.05 (1.3) 0.20 (5.1) 10,000 (4.4)
aIn gal/day/ft2 of pipe surface/ft of head/l ft (L/day/m2/m/m x 106).
Figure 4-18 Pipe in Trench with Dimensions of Filter Layers
For open-joint and perforated pipe, the filter For example, assume a soil to have a K fac-
material must be carefully selected to graduate tor of 1000 gal/day/ft2 of pipe surface/ft of head/
from twice the size of the pipe openings to the l ft (438 500 L/day/m2/m/l m) and a trench with
fine size of the base material at the site. 8 ft2 of surface (sides and bottom)/l ft (0.74 m2/
0.3 l m) of trench . Assuming a hydraulic slope
The thickness of each layer of filter material
of 1, the infiltration rate will be 8000 gal/day/ft
around the pipe and in the trench should be at
(99345 L/day/m) of trench .
least 4 in. (101.6 mm). It is sometimes used as
the criterion of trench width, if the K factor of Using a trial-and-error method of solution,
the soil does not require the width to be broader. assume a 4-in. (101.6-mm) pipe. The pipe sur-
See Figure 4-18. face is approximately 1 ft2/l ft (0.3 m2/l m) for a
4-in. (101.6-mm) porous pipe. Assume an infil-
Table 4-7 includes some common filtering
tration capability of 10,000 gal/day/ft2/l ft of
materials and their size ranges.
pipe (4 385 000 L/day/m2/l m), then the pipe
Selecting pipe diameter Pipe diameter affects infiltration rate will be 10,000 gal/day/l ft (4 385
the functioning of the subsurface drain in two 000 L/day/l m) of pipe. This is greater than the
ways. First, there must be sufficient surface to required infiltration rate of 8000 gal/day/l ft (99
permit the required infiltration, and second, the 345 L/day/m).
pipe must be large enough to convey the infiltrated Now it must be determined whether this 4-
water but not smaller than 4 in. (101.6 mm). in. (101.6-mm) pipe is able to convey the water.
In order to solve the problem, certain simplify-
ing assumptions must be made. In most cases, the floor, and loose fitting, or, if used as an area
the drainage piping will be installed flat. How- drain, it can be open grating. The sump con-
ever, water will flow in a flat pipe if the end of struction should be tile, plastic, fiberglass, steel,
that pipe is open to atmospheric pressure. A con- cast iron, concrete, or another approved mate-
servative assumption is that the water acts as if rial. The pump should be a duplex unit and, if
the pipe had a slope of 0.01 ft/ft (0.01 m/m) or considered critical, may require emergency power
1%. This enables the use of standard charts for or a diesel backup pump. The capacity and head
the discharge of circular pipes based on the for the pump must meet the anticipated require-
Manning formula. Such a pipe chart would show ments. Subsurface water often contains sand and
that at a 0.01 ft/ft (0.01) slope, a 4-in. (101.6- silt sediment. Pumps must be designed to ac-
mm) pipe will accommodate 150,000 gal/day cept some sediment, or damage to the pump com-
(567 750 L/day). With an infiltration rate of 8000 ponents will occur.
gal/day/l ft (99 345 L/day/m), the 4-in. (101.6-
The pump head must be sufficient to lift the
mm) pipe will be flowing full in 150,000/8000 or
water from the low-water pump-off level in the
20 ft (6.1 m). If the trench were 100 ft (30.5 m),
pit (normally 6 in. [127 mm] above the sump
requiring a capacity of 800,000 gal/day (3 028
bottom) to the necessary elevation to tie into the
000 L/day), then the chart would indicate that
gravity storm main, plus make up for the fric-
an 8-in. (203-mm) pipe would be required.
tion losses in the pump discharge piping, includ-
Disposal of ground water Ground water very ing fittings and valves. A full-flow check valve is
often becomes surface borne and a source of required in the pump discharge piping and an
supply to streams, brooks, and rivers. If the natu- isolation valve should be provided for servicing
ral flow of ground water is disrupted, a water- the check valve. If the lift is 35–40 ft (10.7–12.2
way, important to some individuals, may be m), the check valve should be the spring-loaded
deprived of its supply. After the contours of the type. The discharge piping should be the same
land and the adjacent property are studied, the size as the pump connection, or larger to reduce
ground water may be directed to daylight, a the friction losses, and should be of galvanized
stream, a ditch, or another natural waterway; or steel with cast-iron, screwed fittings. An indi-
put back into the ground with diffusion wells, vidual branch electrical circuit should be pro-
which may defeat the purpose of the drainage vided for the pump, with proper waterproof
system. provisions. See Figure 4-19.
For many installations, it is neither feasible Some subsoil drainage water can have offen-
nor desirable to return the water into the ground. sive odors or can carry pollutants. Under these
The effect of additional ground water on an ad- conditions, discharge to the sanitary sewer may
jacent structure may be deleterious. be preferable, or required, and the sump may be
required to be upright. However, directing the
Discharge of subsurface water into munici- discharge to the sanitary sewer may overload the
pal storm sewers requires permission from the public sewer. The designed system should be
authorities having jurisdiction. Storm sewers are reviewed by the jurisdictional authority.
often available and, if the capacity allows it, dis-
charge into them is usually approved. It is a good
Storm-Water Detention
practice to install a sediment pit to prevent wash-
out material from entering municipal sewers and Within the drainage basins of streams with a
to provide an acceptable backwater valve in the history of flooding, along outfalls with limited
discharge to the public storm sewer. If the sub- capacities, and in areas where the discharge
soil drainage system is lower than the public could cause overloading of the public storm
storm sewer, pumping may be required. sewer, the local authority may require an on-
If the drainage must be pumped, the sub- site storm water detention system with an es-
surface drainage pipe should terminate with a tablished slow release rate as part of the drainage
¼ bend down into a sump (minimum 18 in. [0.45 plan for a proposed development.
m] diameter and 24 in. [0.6 m] deep) with the A change in the use of a site, from a wooded
end submerged 3 in. (76.2 mm) or less. Venting or grassy area to a paved commercial or indus-
of the sump is not required. The sump cover trial area, causes a severe impact to natural
should be of proper traffic loading, flush with waterways including a decrease in infiltration and
Figure 4-19 Sump-Pump Discharge to the Storm-Drainage System
overland travel time and an increase in peak dis- undisturbed and developed conditions, and the
charges and rainwater runoff. The increase in rate of release from the site is limited to the run-
runoff also causes problems with soil erosion and off rate for the undisturbed conditions. The ex-
sedimentation. Natural waterways are replaced cess runoff created by the development must be
or supplemented by paved gutters, storm sew- detained with a storage system acceptable to the
ers, channels with predetermined widths and local authority, the owner, and the designer.
depths, or other elements of artificial drainage.
The intent of a detention system is to mini-
This urbanization causes higher peak flow mize the discharge rate and consequent flooding
rates, which necessitate that either the munici- by controlling the release rate. Rainwater can be
pality install a drainage system with a higher held passively by shallow ponding in grassy strips
capacity or the developer install a detention sys- of land, in parking areas if appropriate, and on
tem. Because of the significant costs involved the roofs of buildings (see the discussion in Part
and ever-increasing development, improvement One of “Controlled-Flow Drainage System”). Wa-
of the drainage systems may be impractical. ter can also be held in the piping system by the
Therefore, on-site detention systems are required installation of weirs or orifices at inlet points such
in many instances. as manholes, etc.
The theory of a detention system is that peak Three variables in the design require calcu-
runoff rates for a site are determined for both lation:
1. Outflow from the basin (varies as a function Equation 4-9

of time).
Gravity outflow, Vo = 40 × Qo × T
2. Inflow to the basin (varies as a function of
time). where
3. Storage (the difference between items 1 and Vo = Outlet flow per acre imperviousness
2 above). (based on the water level rising at a
constant rate), ft3/s/acre (m3/s/
There are basically two design approaches acre)
to the design of detention basins. The Rational
Method should be utilized for sites that are less Qo = Maximum outflow per acre impervi-
than 1 acre (4046.724 m2) (some designers use ousness, ft3/s/acre (m3/s/acre)
it for 10 acres [40,467.24 m2] or less), using a T = Storage time, from time storage
10-year frequency design rainfall rate. For larger begins until the peak storage is
areas, the Soil Conservation Service (SCS) Tech- attained, min
nical Release Number 55 (TR-55) Method should
be used for calculating runoff rates and storage Equation 4-10
capacity requirements.
Allowable outflow
Qo =
The detention basin is installed at or below acreage × runoff coefficient
ground level, with the depth limited by either
the invert of the public storm sewer that is being Note: For runoff coefficient, see Table 4-6.
tied to or by the depth of the stream or ditch. A
pond may be used in an area of the site that is Equation 4-11
less obtrusive. Detention basins may require
paved overflow spillways and small-diameter de-
watering drains. Trash guards should be pro-
T = −25 + √ 6562.5
Q o
vided on the outlet pipe(s) from the basin. Fences Once the outflow rate has been determined,
are often required around ponds and basins for the volume of storage required can be calculated,
security and the protection of the public. as follows:
One problem with calculating the required Equation 4-12
storage is that the gravity outflow rate is depen-
dent upon the amount and the depth of the water Vs = Vn − Vo
in the pond. The outflow changes instantaneously therefore
as the head varies, and the peak outflow only
occurs when the basin is at peak volume. A con- 10,500T
Vs = − 40 QoT
stant outflow, such as that provided by a pump, T + 25
is much easier to calculate: the storage is sim-
where
ply the inflow to the basin minus the pumped
outflow. Vs = Maximum water volume stored per
acre imperviousness, ft3/s/acre
(m3/s/acre)
STANDARD EQUATIONS
Equation 4-13
Equation 4-8 Vt = Vs × A × C
10,500T where
Gravity inflow, Vn =
T + 25
Vt = Maximum total water volume
where stored, ft3 (m3)
Vn = Inlet flow per acre imperviousness, A = Area, acres
ft3/s/acre (m3/s/acre) C = Runoff coefficient (see Table 4-6)
T = Storage time, from time storage If the outlet is to be an orifice operating un-
begins until the peak storage is der a head, select a depth of retention and a cor-
attained, min responding outflow pipe that will yield an outflow
in ft3/s (m3/s) equal to the maximum allowable

operating condition under the head as deter-
mined by the depth of retention.
Equation 4-14
Q
Orifice area, A =
0.62 × 2GH
where
A = Area of outlet orifice or pipe, ft2 (m3)
Q = Allowable outflow rate, ft3/s (m3/s)
G = Acceleration due to gravity = 32.2
ft/s2 (9.8 m/s2)
H = Head, distance of water level to
centerline of the outflow pipe, ft (m).
If the outlet flow is constant, select a depth
of retention and a pump that will yield an out-
flow in ft3/s (m3/s) equal to the maximum al-
lowable. The constant outflow rate implies that
the total outflow is the outflow rate multiplied
by the duration of the storm.
Equation 4-15
Pumped outflow, Vo = 60 QoT
Once the pumped (constant) outflow rate has
been determined, the volume of storage required
can be calculated, as follows:
Equation 4-16
Vs = Vn − Vo
therefore
10,500T
Vs = − 60 QoT
T + 25
Equation 4-17
T = − 25 + √ 4375
Q o
All systems should be permitted and should

be submitted to the local authority for approval.
APPENDIX
Form 4-1 Storm-Drainage Calculations for Roof Drains and Vertical Leaders
Form 4-2 Storm-Drainage System Sizing Sheet

Form 4-3 Storm-Water Drainage Worksheet 1



REFERENCES 18. Yrjanainen, Glen, and Alan W. Warren. 1973. A

simple method for retention basin design. Water
1. American Concrete Institute. Concrete pipe hand- and Sewage Works December.
book. Washington, DC.
2. American Society of Civil Engineers. n.d. Manual
on the design and construction of sanitary and
storm sewers.
3. Ballanco, Julius, and Eugene R. Shumann. 1987.
The illustrated national plumbing code design
manual. Ballanco and Shumann—Illustrated
Plumbing Codes, Inc.
4. Building Officials and Code Administration
(BOCA). 1981. BOCA basic plumbing code.
5. Cast-Iron Soil Pipe Institute. 1976. Cast-iron soil
pipe and fittings engineering manual. Vol. 1.
Washington, DC.
6. Church, James C. 1979. Practical plumbing de-
sign guide. New York: McGraw-Hill.
7. Frankel, Michael. 1981. Storm water retention
methods. Plumbing Engineer March/April and
May/June.
8. Frederick, Ralph H., Vance A. Meyers, and
Eugene P. Auciello. NOAA, National weather ser-
vice 5-60 minute precipitation frequency for the
eastern and central United States. NWS tech.
memo. HYDRO-35. NTIS Publication PB-272 112.
Silver Spring, MD: National Technical Informa-
tion Service.
9. Hicks, Tyler G., ed. 1986. Plumbing design and
installation reference guide. New York: McGraw-
Hill.
10. Manas, Vincent T. 1968. National plumbing code,
illustrated. St. Petersburg, FL: Manas Publica-
tions.
11. Sansone, John R. 1978. Storm drainage design
and detention using the rational method. Plumb-
ing Engineer July/ August.
12. SBCCI. 1988. Standard plumbing code. Birming-
ham, AL.
13. Soil Conservation Service, Engineering Division.
1986. Urban hydrology for small watersheds.
Technical release no. 55, June. NTIS publication
PB87-101580. Silver Spring, MD: National Tech-
nical Information Service.
14. Steele, Alfred. 1982. Engineered plumbing design.
Chicago: Delta Communications. (Now available
through ASPE.)
15. Steele, Alfred. High-rise plumbing. Plumbing En-
gineer. Chicago: Delta Communications.
16. US War Department. Engineering manual of the
War Department. Misc. publication no. 204.
17. US Department of the Army. Plumbing design
manual no. 3.01.
Chapter 5 — Cold-Water Systems 115
5
Cold-Water
Systems
INTRODUCTION (The accepted maximum velocity is 8 fps

[2.4 m/s].)
Proper design of a building’s water-distribution
system is necessary so that the various fixtures
function properly, that excessive pressure and DOMESTIC COLD-WATER METERS
pressure fluctuations are prevented, and that
supply failure under normal conditions is Many major municipalities furnish and/or in-
avoided. The amount of cold water used in a stall a particular type of water meter. In such
building is a function of structure type, usage, locations, the meter characteristics (type, size,
occupancy, and time of day. It is necessary to flow, pressure drops, remote readouts, costs, etc.)
provide the most economical pipe sizes to meet can be obtained through the local water depart-
the peak demand without wasteful excess in pip- ment. Depending on the type of project being
ing or cost. There are at least five reasons why contemplated, a utility may request a particular
proper sizing of the piping in a water-distribu- meter (e.g., compound meter vs. turbine meter.)
tion system is essential: Whether a utility company’s meter or a meter
1. Health. This factor is of great importance. In- from another source is used, the above-men-
adequate sizing can cause negative pressures tioned characteristics must be taken into con-
in a piping system and lead to contamina- sideration. The location of the meter is of prime
tion of the water supply by backflow or back- importance. The meter shall not be subjected to
siphonage. freezing or submerged conditions. To discour-
age tapping of the piping ahead of the meter, it
2. Pressure. If adequate residual pressure can- may be required that the meter be located di-
not be maintained at equipment and fixtures rectly inside the building wall. Some jurisdictions
because of inadequate pipe sizing, improper want the meter immediately adjacent to the tap
operation will result. Excessive pressures will to prevent illegal connections between the meter
cause erosion and noise problems in the pip- and the tap. Where job conditions mandate such
ing and accelerate deterioration of the seals a location, a meter in an outside pit or manhole
in faucets. should be watertight against both surface and
3. Flow. If flow rates cannot be maintained at ground-water conditions. A reduced-pressure
adequate levels because of inadequate pipe backflow preventer is recommended at the build-
sizing, equipment performance will deteriorate. ing meter and is required by some codes and
municipalities.
4. Water service. Improper sizing can acceler-
ate erosion, corrosion, and scale buildup. Water meters for plumbing use are usually
classified as the positive-displacement type,
5. Noise. High velocities cause noise and in-
which indicate direct flow and record water pas-
crease the danger of surge pressure shock.
sage in gal (L) or ft3 (m3).
Meter Types 3. Water pressure available.
1. Disc meter. These meters are normally s, w, 4. Size of building service.

1, 1½, and 2 in. (16, 19.1, 25, 40, and 50 5. Piping, valve, meter, and elevation losses.
mm) in size; are manufactured to meet the
6. Meter costs and tap fees.
requirements of AWWA Standard C700; have
a 150 psi (1034 kPa) maximum working pres- 7. Maintenance costs and fees.
sure; and measure flow in one direction. This Tables 5-1 to 5-3 from AWWA Standard M22
type of meter is common to residential and are reprinted as additional guidelines for water
small commercial installations and is adapt- meters.
able for remote readout systems.
2. Compound meter. These meters are normally
2, 3, 4, and 6 in. (50, 80, 100, and 150 mm) SIZING THE WATER LINE
in size; are manufactured to meet the require-
ments of AWWA Standard C700; have a 150 In practically all cases, water can be regarded as
psi (1034 kPa) maximum working pressure; an incompressible fluid and, for calculations at
and measure flow in one direction. This type approximately atmospheric temperature, it is
of meter is used when most of the flow is low customary to assume that water has a uniform
but high flows are anticipated. It is capable density of 62.4 lb/ft3 (1 kg/L), which holds nearly
of recording low flows and has the capacity constant through a temperature range of 32–60°F
for high flow rates. (0–15.6°C).
3. Turbine meter. The sizes of this meter are 2, For calculations involving water-heating sys-
3, 4, 6, and 10 in. (50, 80, 100, 150, and 250 tems such as boiler-feed pump discharge heads,
mm). This type of meter has the characteris- it is necessary to take into account the changes
tics of a compound meter but is more suit- in density, vapor pressure, and viscosity with
able for encountering a variety of flows. (A temperature. Application of the common empiri-
strainer should be installed upstream of the cal equations for water flow is limited to water at
meter.) usual atmospheric temperatures in the 32–l00°F
(0–37.8°C) range. At higher temperatures, the
4. Propeller meter. The sizes of this meter are
changes in density and viscosity have a consid-
2–72 in. (51–1829 mm). Propeller meters are
erable bearing on flow relations; where accurate
used where low flows never occur.
results are desired, use of the common empiri-
5. Fire-line meters or detector-check meters. This cal formulae is not recommended.
type of meter may be required by local codes
in a water service that feeds a fire-protection Hazen-Williams Formula
sprinkler system or fire-hydrant system. In
such a case, the installation must meet the Among the many empirical formulae for friction
requirements of the local fire official and the losses that have been proposed, the Hazen-Wil-
appropriate insurance company. The design
liams equation is the most widely used. In a con-
should include a minimum of 8 pipe diam-
venient form, it reads as follows:
eters of straight pipe upstream of the meter
before any change in direction or connections. Equation 5-1
Various types of meter can be equipped with 100 1.85 q1.85
optional accessories. Remote-readout systems, f = 0.2082  
strip-chart recorders, etc. are available for spe- C d4.8655
cific applications. where
f = Friction head, ft of liquid/100 ft
Sizing the Water Meter of pipe (m/100 m)
The following design criteria may be used as a C = Surface roughness constant
guide for selecting the proper meter: q = Fluid flow, gpm (L/s)
1. Building occupancy type. d = Inside diameter of pipe, in. (mm)
2. Minimum and maximum demand.
Table 5-1 Displacement-Type Meters Meeting AWWA Specifications—

Flow-Pressure Loss Averages
Recommended for Brands
Recommended Design Continuous Flow— of
Size, Maximum Capacity— Criteria—80% 50% of Meters
in. AWWA Flow Criteria of Maximum Capacity Maximum Capacity Avgs.
(mm) gpm (L/s) psi (kPa) gpm (L/s) psi (kPa) gpm (L/s) psi (kPa)
s×w
(16 × 19.1) 20 (1.26) 10.4 (71.76) 16 (1.00) 6.1 (42.19) 10 (0.63) 1.0 (6.9) 6
w (19.1) 30 (1.89) 10.6 (73.13) 24 (1.51) 6.9 (47.61) 15 (0.95) 1.05 (7.24) 6
1 (25.4) 50 (3.15) 9.3 (64.14) 40 (2.52) 6.3 (43.47) 25 (1.58) 1.0 (6.9) 6
1½ (38.1) 100 (6.30) 11.3 (77.10) 80 (5.05) 8.6 (59.34) 50 (3.15) 0.9 (6.21) 6
2 (50.8) 160 (10.08) 10.4 (71.76) 128 (8.08) 6.5 (44.85) 80 (5.04) 0.5 (3.45) 6
3 (76.2) 300 (18.93) 13.1 (90.39) 240 (15.14) 8.3 (57.27) 150 (9.46) 1.1 (7.59) 3
Source:AWWA Standard M22.
Table 5-2 Compound-Type Meters Meeting AWWA Specifications—

Size Maximum Capacity— Criteria—80% 50% of Meters
2 (30) 160 (10.08) 9.2 (63.48) 128 (8.07) 6.1 (42.09) 80 (5.04) 2.6 (17.94) 3
3 (80) 320 (20.19) 13.4 (92.46) 250 (15.77) 8.9 (61.36) 160 (10.08) 4.2 (28.98) 5
4 (100) 500 (31.54) 9.6 (66.24) 400 (25.23) 6.3 (43.47) 250 (15.77) 3.5 (24.15) 5
6 (150) 1000 (63.09) 9.4 (64.86) 800 (50.46) 5.8 (40.02) 500 (31.54) 2.5 (17.25) 4
8 (203) 1600 (100.94) 12.0 (82.8) 1280 (80.75) 7.8 (53.82) 800 (50.46) 4.0 (27.60) 3
Table 5-3 Turbine-Type Meters Meeting AWWA Specifications—

Size Maximum Capacity— Criteria—80% 50% of Meters
2 (50) 160 (10.08) 4.5 (31.05) 128 (7.57) 2.8 (19.32) 80 (5.04) 1.0 (6.9) 5
3 (80) 350 (22.37) 4.6 (31.74) 280 (17.66) 3.0 (20.69) 175 (11.04) 1.2 (8.3) 4
4 (100) 600 (37.85) 3.5 (24.15) 480 (30.28) 2.1 (14.5) 300 (18.93) 0.8 (5.5) 4
6 (150) 1250 (78.86) 3.5 (24.15) 1000 (69.09) 2.0 (13.8) 625 (39.43) 0.7 (4.9) 4

118
Figure 5-1 Friction Loss of Head Chart, Coefficient of Flow (C) = 140 (derived from the Hazen and Williams Formula)
ASPE Data Book — Volume 2
Chapter 5 — Cold-Water Systems
Figure 5-1 (M) Friction Loss of Head Chart, Coefficient of flow (C) = 140 (derived from the Hazen and Williams Formula)
119
Figure 5-2 Conversion of Fixture Units, fu, to gpm (L/s)

This formula is most accurate for the flow of quently used fixtures should not be reflected in
water in pipes larger than 2 in. (5 cm) and at the total demand.
velocities less than 10 fps (3 m/s).
After the designer has determined which fix-
Equation 5-1 yields accurate results only tures to include in the water demand calcula-
when the kinematic viscosity of the liquid is about tion, the maximum demand can be obtained.
1.1 centistokes, which is the case of water at Fixture unit (fu) values for each fixture can be
60°F (15.6°C). However, the kinematic viscosity assigned by using Table 5-5 and a total fu value
of water varies with temperature, from 1.8 can be obtained by adding the fu values of all
centistokes at 32°F (0°C) to 0.29 centistokes at water-using fixtures with a normal domestic di-
212°F (100°C); therefore, the tables are subject versity. The total fu value can be converted into
to this error, which may increase the friction loss a gpm (L/s) flow rate by using Table 5-6 or Fig-
by as much as 20% at 32°F (0°C) and decrease it ures 5-2 or 5-3, each of which includes a diver-
by as much as 20% at 212°F (100°C). Values of sity factor.
C, for various types of pipe, are shown in Table
The demand flow rates of all constant-use
5-4, together with the corresponding multipliers
fixtures must be added to this flow rate. A con-
that should apply to the values of the head loss, f.
stant-use fixture uses water continuously and
Figure 5-1 shows the friction loss of head does not have normal diversity. Air-conditioning
chart, C = 140, derived from the Hazen-Williams cooling towers, booster pumps, commercial laun-
formula (Equation 5-1). Figure 5-2 illustrates the dry or dishwashing equipment, lawn sprinklers,
conversion of fixture units to gallons per minute and industrial processes are examples of con-
(liters per second). stant-use fixtures. Any such equipment must be
figured separately and added to the gpm (L/s)
Factors Affecting Sizing flow rate obtained from the conversion of all fix-
ture units. This combined figure is the peak de-
The three factors affecting the sizing of a water mand flow rate for the project. (Note: Fixtures
line are the demand flow rate (gpm) (L/s), the that are timed to operate during “off” hours
velocity (fps) (m/s), and the pressure available should not be added.)
for friction loss. The fixture-unit listings in Table 5-5 are for
Demand The first factor, flow rate, is the water the total water consumption of the fixture. For
demand of the system, in gpm (L/s). There is a the purposes of sizing either the hot or cold-wa-
vast difference in the water demand flow rates of ter line, the fixture-unit loading for a fixture that
flush valves in different types of occupancy. For uses both hot and cold water would be 75% of
example, ten water closets with flush valves in the total value. The 75% figure applies only to
an apartment building may have a demand flow fixtures served by hot and cold water. It does
rate of 60 gpm (3.8 L/s), while ten water closets not apply to single-service fixtures, such as wa-
with flush valves in a public school may have a ter closets, urinals, and dishwashers.
demand flow rate of 90 gpm (5.7 L/s). The judg-
Velocity The second factor affecting the sizing
ment and experience of the designer plays an
of a water line is velocity. A maximum velocity of
important part in accommodating such differ- 15 fps (4.6 m/s), which is suggested by some
ences in the design of water systems. model plumbing codes, is much too high for many
Another problem encountered in establish- installations. A velocity above 6 or 7 fps (1.8 or
ing flow rates is the practice of counting fixtures 2.1 m/s) normally creates noise. Also, depend-
that are not normally in use. For example, a ser- ing on the piping material used and the tem-
vice sink in an office building is normally used perature, hardness, and pH of the water,
only by the janitors at night; therefore, it should velocities above 4 fps (1.2 m/s) can cause ero-
not be counted as a fixture in the total demand. sion of the piping material.
Hose bibbs are other fixtures that should not be
Another justification for lower velocities in a
figured at 100% of their number. For example,
system is water hammer. Water hammer is the
the systems of large buildings may have many
pounding force created by the sudden starting
hose bibbs installed but only a few will be oper-
or stopping of water flow, which can be caused
ated simultaneously. Individual branch lines by quick-opening or closing valves. The impact
should be sized to handle all the fixtures on the of water hammer is directly proportional to the
branch; however, the presence of these infre-
change in velocity and is equal to approximately
60 times the velocity change. For instance, if
water traveling at 15 fps (4.6 m/s) is stopped sure. If the maximum pressure is above 80 psi,
suddenly, the increase in pressure within the and a pressure-regulating device is installed, the
pipe line will be approximately 900 psi (6205.3 pressure regulator will introduce an additional loss
kPa). This increased pressure can do consider- in the piping system when the water system is at
able damage to piping systems and connected minimum pressure. The water pressure should
equipment. be determined from a fire-hydrant flow test, which
is taken as close to the site as possible and in-
Pressure The third factor affecting the sizing of a cludes static and residual pressures at a flow rate.
water line is the pressure available for friction
loss. The first step in ascertaining pressure avail- Many model plumbing codes state that, if a
able for friction loss is determining (from the lo- pressure-regulating device is installed, the avail-
cal water department) the maximum and able pressure must be considered as 80% of the
minimum water pressures and flow rate to be reduced pressure setting. Spring-operated, pres-
encountered at the project site. The maximum sure-regulating devices have a fall-off pressure
and minimum pressures may be nearly the same that is below the system pressure setting. Many
or they may vary greatly; care must be taken to engineers design a system incorporating the fall-
handle the high pressure as well as the low pres- off pressure of the equipment they are using;
Table 5-4 Surface Roughness Coefficient (C) Values for Various Types of Pipe
Values of C
Range Average Value Value Commonly
(High = Best, smooth, well-laid for Good, Used for
Type of Pipe Low = Poor or corroded) Clean, New Pipe Design Purposes
Asbestos cement 160–140 150 140

Fiber — 150 140
Bitumastic-enamel-lined iron or steel
centrifugally applied 160–130 148 140
Cement-lined iron or steel centrifugally applied — 150 140
Copper, brass, lead, tin or glass pipe and tubing 150–120 140 130
Wood stave 145–110 120 110
Welded and seamless steel 150–80 140 100
Continuous-interior, riveted steel
(no projecting rivets or joints) — 139 100
Wrought iron 150–80 130 100
Cast iron 150–80 130 100
Tar-coated cast iron 145–80 130 100
Girth-riveted steel (projecting rivets
in girth seams only) — 130 100
Concrete 152–85 120 100
Full-riveted steel (projecting rivets in
girth and horizontal seams) — 115 100
Vitrified clay — 115 100
Spiral-riveted steel (flow with lap) — 110 100
Spiral-riveted steel (flow against lap) — 110 90
Corrugated steel — 60 60
Value of C 150 140 130 120 110 100 90 80 70 60

Multiplier to Correct Tables 0.47 0.54 0.62 0.71 0.84 1.0 1.22 1.50 1.93 2.57
Table 5-5 Demand Weight of Fixtures, however, the 80% factor is a rule of thumb that
in Fixture Unitsa should not apply to an engineered system.
If the available water pressure at a project
Weight Minimum
site is high enough to require the use of a
(fixture units)c Connections,
in. (mm) pressure-regulating device, the pressure-regulat-
ing valve is considered the starting point of the
Fixture Typeb Cold Hot
system for the purposes of calculation.
Private Public Water Water
The next step in obtaining the pressure avail-
Bathtubd 2 4 2 (13) 2 (13) able for friction loss is to determine the residual
pressure required at the governing fixture or
Bedpan washer — 10 1 (25) — appliance (not necessarily the farthest fixture).
Bidet 2 4 2 (13) 2 (13) “Residual pressure” is the pressure required at
the fixture for it to operate properly with water
Combination sink flowing. Normally, but not always, 8 psi (55.2
and tray 3 — 2 (13) 2 (13) kPa) is required for a flush-tank system and 15
Dental unit or cuspidor — 1 a (10) — psi (103.4 kPa) is required for a flush-valve sys-
tem. Some flush-valve fixtures require 20 or 25
Dental lavatory 1 2 2 (13) 2 (13) psi (137.9 or 172.4 kPa); some water closets re-
Drinking fountain 1 2 a (10) — quire 40 psi (275.8 kPa); commercial dishwash-
ers require 20 or 25 psi (137.9 or 172.4 kPa). It
Kitchen sink 2 4 2 (13) 2 (13) is evident, then, that the residual pressure
Lavatory 1 2 a (10) a (10) should be figured as the actual pressure needed
at the governing fixture.
Laundry tray (1 or 2
compartments) 2 4 2 (13) 2 (13) The third step is to determine the static pres-
sure loss required to reach the governing fixture
Shower, each headd 2 4 2 (13) 2 (13) or appliance. The static loss (or gain) is figured
Sink, service 2 4 2 (13) 2 (13) at 0.433 psi/ft (9.8 kPa/m) of elevation differ-
ence, above or below the water main. The differ-
Urinal, pedestal — 10 1 (25) — ence in elevation is usually a pressure loss to
Urinal (wall lip) — 5 2 (13) — the system, as fixtures are normally at a higher
elevation than the source. If the fixture is lower
Urinal stall — 5 w (20) — than the source, there will be an increase in pres-
Urinal with flush tank — 3 — — sure and the static pressure is added to the ini-
tial pressure.
Wash sink, circular or
multiple (each set of Another pressure loss is created by the wa-
faucets) — 2 2 (13) 2 (13) ter meter. This loss of pressure, for a disc type
meter, can be determined from Figure 5-4 or from
Water closet: the manufacturer’s flow charts. The flow is de-
Flush valve 6 10 1 (25) — termined from charts indicating the total flow
rate, in gpm (L/s), the size and type of the meter,
Tank 3 5 a (10) — and the pressure drop for the corresponding flow.
The loss is given in pounds per square inch (psi)
a For supply outlets likely to impose continuous demands, esti-
and kilopascals (kPa). The selection of meter size
mate the continuous supply separately and add to the total demand
for fixtures. is very important in the final sizing of the piping
b For fixtures not listed, weights may be assumed by comparing system and is one variable the designer can con-
the fixture to a listed one then using water in similar quantities and trol. Many other factors, such as the height of
at similar rates. the building, city water pressure, and require-
c The given weights are for the total demand of fixtures with both ments for backflow protection or water treatment,
hot and cold-water supplies. The weights for maximum separate are dictated by codes or by the particular situa-
demands may be taken as 75% of the listed demand for the sup-
ply. tion. The designer must review the system very
d A shower over a bathtub does not add a fixture unit to the group. closely prior to the selection of a meter size. Usu-
ally, the larger the meter, the higher the initial
installation price and monthly charge. On the
Table 5-6 Conversions—Gallons per Minute (Liters per Second) to Fixture Units
Flow, Fixture Units Flow, Fixture Units Flow, Fixture Units

gpm Flush Flush gpm Flush Flush gpm Flush Flush
(L/s) Tank Valve (L/s) Tank Valve (L/s) Tank Valve
1 (0.06) 0 — 45 (2.84) 107 37 145 (9.14) 611 521

2 (0.13) 1 — 46 (2.90) 111 39 150 (9.45) 638 559
3 (0.19) 3 — 47 (2.96) 115 42 155 (9.77) 665 596
4 (0.25) 4 — 48 (3.02) 119 44 160 (10.08) 692 631
5 (0.32) 6 — 49 (3.09) 123 46 165 (10.40) 719 666
6 (0.38) 7 — 50 (3.15) 127 48 170 (10.71) 748 700
7 (0.44) 8 — 51 (3.21) 130 50 175 (11.03) 778 739
8 (0.50) 10 — 52 (3.28) 135 52 180 (11.34) 809 775
9 (0.57) 12 — 53 (3.34) 141 54 185 (11.66) 840 811
10 (0.63) 13 — 54 (3.40) 146 57 190 (11.97) 874 850
11 (0.69) 15 — 55 (3.47) 151 60 200 (12.60) 945 931
12 (0.76) 16 — 56 (3.53) 155 63 210 (13.23) 1018 1009
13 (0.82) 18 — 57 (3.59) 160 66 220 (13.86) 1091 1091
14 (0.88) 20 — 58 (3.65) 165 69 230 (14.49) 1173 1173
15 (0.95) 21 — 59 (3.72) 170 73 240 (15.12) 1254 1254
16 (1.01) 23 — 60 (3.78) 175 76 250 (15.75) 1335 1335
17 (1.07) 24 — 62 (3.91) 185 82 260 (16.38) 1418 1418
18 (1.13) 26 — 64 (4.03) 195 88 270 (17.01) 1500 1500
19 (1.20) 28 — 66 (4.16) 205 95 280 (17.64) 1583 1583
20 (1.26) 30 — 68 (4.28) 215 102 290 (18.27) 1668 1668
21 (1.32) 32 — 70 (4.41) 225 108 300 (18.90) 1755 1755
22 (1.39) 34 5 72 (4.54) 236 116 310 (19.53) 1845 1845
23 (1.45) 36 6 74 (4.66) 245 124 320 (20.16) 1926 1926
24 (1.51) 39 7 76 (4.79) 254 132 330 (20.79) 2018 2018
25 (1.58) 42 8 78 (4.91) 264 140 340 (21.42) 2110 2110
26 (1.64) 44 9 80 (5.04) 275 148 350 (22.05) 2204 2204
27 (1.70) 46 10 82 (5.17) 284 158 360 (22.68) 2298 2298
28 (1.76) 49 11 84 (5.29) 294 168 370 (23.31) 2388 2388
29 (1.83) 51 12 86 (5.42) 305 176 380 (23.94) 2480 2480
30 (1.89) 54 13 88 (5.54) 315 186 390 (24.57) 2575 2575
31 (1.95) 56 14 90 (5.67) 326 195 400 (25.20) 2670 2670
32 (2.02) 58 15 92 (5.80) 337 205 410 (25.83) 2765 2765
33 (2.08) 60 16 94 (5.92) 348 214 420 (26.46) 2862 2862
34 (2.14) 63 18 96 (6.05) 359 223 430 (27.09) 2960 2960
35 (2.21) 66 20 98 (6.17) 370 234 440 (27.72) 3060 3060
36 (2.27) 69 21 100 (6.30) 380 245 450 (28.35) 3150 3150
37 (2.33) 74 23 105 (6.62) 406 270 500 (31.50) 3620 3620
38 (2.39) 78 25 110 (6.93) 431 295 550 (34.65) 4070 4070
39 (2.46) 83 26 115 (7.25) 455 329 600 (37.80) 4480 4480
40 (2.52) 86 28 120 (7.56) 479 365 700 (44.10) 5380 5380
41 (2.58) 90 30 125 (7.88) 506 396 800 (50.40) 6280 6280
42 (2.65) 95 31 130 (8.19) 533 430 900 (56.70) 7280 7280
43 (2.71) 99 33 135 (8.51) 559 460 1000 (63) 8300 8300
44 (2.77) 103 35 140 (8.82) 585 490
other hand, a larger meter may mean a smaller- in available water supply pressures as an area
sized piping system, which might prove to be incurs growth.
more economical in the long run. These two fac-
As previously determined, the governing ap-
tors are evaluated by the designer and economic
pliance in the example in Figure 5-5 is the dish-
considerations guide the selection. Furthermore,
washer. For the same example, assume that the
if a system does not have ample pressure, a
minimum incoming water pressure is 60 psi
means of preserving the available pressure is to
(413.7 kPa). To determine the pressure available
use a larger meter, thereby decreasing pressure
for friction, start with 60 psi (413.7 kPa) and
loss. This fact may well enable the designer to
subtract 3 psi (20.7 kPa) for the meter loss, 10
eliminate the use of a water-pressure booster
psi 69 kPa) for the softener, 5 psi (34.5 kPa) for
system, thereby substantially reducing the
the water-heater coil, and 25 psi (172.4 kPa) re-
plumbing system costs.
sidual for the dishwasher. This leaves a remain-
The last step is to determine the other pres- der of 17 psi (117.2 kPa), which is the pressure
sure losses encountered between the meter and available for friction. The losses for the backflow
the governing fixture. These could be caused by preventer and the static do not occur on the line
a water softener, a backflow preventer, a filter, between the meter and the governing fixture or
or any other device that creates a pressure loss appliance; therefore, they are not included in the
in the system. calculations at this time. Only losses that occur
on the line between the meter and the governing
The “governing fixture” or appliance is the
fixture or appliance are to be included in the ini-
device that has the highest total when the re-
tial calculations to determine the pressure avail-
sidual pressure, static pressure, and all other
able for friction. The other losses will enter into
pressure losses are added. Take, for example,
subsequent calculations.
the system shown in Figure 5-5. To find the gov-
erning fixture or appliance, determine which After obtaining the pressure available for fric-
device requires the most pressure. Knowing that tion, the next step is to calculate the “average
the meter loss is the same for all parts of the pressure drop.” This is the pressure available for
system, it can be temporarily ignored. Going from friction divided by the equivalent length of the
the meter to the flush-valve water closet, there run. The quotient is multiplied by l00 to obtain
are 15 psi (103.4 kPa) residual and no static loss an answer in terms of loss in psi/100 ft (kPa/
for a total of 15 psi (103.4 kPa). As a total going l00 m). In determining the equivalent length of
through the backflow preventer, there are 16 psi run, an allowance must be made for fittings. This
(110.3 kPa) residual and 8.66 psi (59.7 kPa) static can be determined from Table 5-7 or by adding a
for a total loss of 24.66 psi (170 kPa). Going to percentage to the developed length. The average
the dishwasher, there is a total of 40 psi (275.8 pressure drop is an average loss over the system
kPa)—25 psi (172.4 kPa) residual plus 5 psi (34.5 and should be used only as a guide in sizing
kPa) loss through the water heater plus 10 psi piping.
(69 kPa) loss through the softener. Therefore, the
Part of the system can be designed to exceed
dishwasher is the governing fixture, for it has
the average pressure drop, while another part is
the highest total when the residual, static, and
designed to be less than the average. The aver-
other losses are added.
age pressure drop can be exceeded—as long as
Summarizing the steps, all the system needs the total pressure available for friction is not
or losses are subtracted from the minimum wa- exceeded. The average pressure drop calculation,
ter pressure. The remainder is the pressure avail- which is made initially, pertains only to the line
able for friction, defined as the total energy (or from the meter to the governing fixture or appli-
force) available to push the water through the ance. Care should be taken to account for the
pipes to the governing fixture or appliance. How average pressure drop calculations for the other
this force is used is up to the designer, who may lines. The branches off the main line should be
decide to use it evenly over the entire system, as sized on a different pressure-loss basis, or the
an average pressure loss, or unevenly over the branches closest to the meter may take pres-
system. In designing the system, as long as the sure away from the farthest branches. Table 5-8
designer does not exceed the pressure available shows typical flow and pressure required during
for friction, the system will work. A certain flow for various fixtures.
amount of pressure may be held in reserve, how-
ever, to allow for aging of the piping or decreases
Figure 5-3 Conversion of Fixture Units, fu, to gpm (L/s),

Design Load vs. Fixture Units, Mixed System
Example 5-1 line is equivalent to 10 ft (3.1 m) in length. This

includes an allowance for fittings. The allowable
Figure 5-6 illustrates how to determine the pres-
pressure drop for friction is 10 psi (69 kPa). The
sure available for friction.
first tabulation is the friction loss in the system.
In the system shown (with a main line run-
Section A–B has an equivalent length of 10
ning from the meter, point A, to the governing
ft (3.1 m). The average pressure drop is 10 psi/
fixture or appliance, point L), each section of the
100 ft (226.2 kPa/100 m). If it is assumed that
precisely sized pipe is obtained to give a pres- each fixture is used up as friction loss, it tends
sure loss (due to friction) of exactly 10 psi/100 ft to cause more water than necessary to flow
(226.2 kPa/l00 m), the pressure loss in this sec- through the branches to use the excess avail-
tion is 1 psi (6.9 kPa) and the pressure for fric- able pressure.
tion at point B is 9 psi (62.1 kPa). In section
Method B illustrates the ideal system. All the
K–L, at point L, there is 0 pressure left for fric-
available frictional pressure in each of the
tion. This is the governing fixture.
branches is used. In actual practice, this method
The next tabulation illustrates the sizing of can not be utilized. The average pressure loss in
branches (using a different friction-loss basis each section is very high, far higher than is nor-
than was used for the main). mally accepted in modern construction. Many
engineers and designers would be concerned with
10 psi (69 kPa) available for friction loss; long-
the high pressure loss as well as with the high
est run: A–L, 100 ft (30.5 m); average pressure
velocity shown by this example.
drop: (10 × 100)/100 = 10 psi/100 ft (226.2 kPa/
100 m). Method C is a modified header system. The
main was sized on the average pressure drop of
Method A uses the same average pressure
the system and the branches sized on their al-
loss in the branches as was used in the line to
lowable frictional pressure drop. At section M–J,
the governing fixture. The pressure available for
the total allowable pressure drop over the entire
friction at the end of each branch is not 0. At
system (point A to point M) is 10 psi (69 kPa).
point M, it is 1 psi (6.9 kPa); at point R, it is 5 psi
Point M has an equivalent length of 90 ft (27.4
(34.5 kPa); and at point U, it reaches a maxi-
m) from point A. This gives an average pressure
mum of 8 psi (55.2 kPa). Unless the pressure to
Flow, liters per second

0.25
0.32
0.38
0.44
0.50
0.57
0.63
1.26
1.89
2.52
3.15
3.78
5.04
6.30
12.6
18.9
25.2
37.8
50.4
63.0
20 137.9
Pressure Loss, pounds per inch squared
16 110.3
/2"
3"
"
"
2"
6"
5/8
3/4
4"
1-1
1"
Pressure Loss, kiloPascals

10 69.0
9 62.1
8 55.2
7 48.3
6 41.4
5 34.5
4 27.6
3 20.7
2 13.8
1 6.9
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 60 80 100 200 300 400 600 800 1000
Flow, gallons per minute
Figure 5-4 Typical Friction Losses for Disk-Type Water Meters

Table 5-7 Allowance for Friction Loss in Valves and Threaded Fittings
Equivalent Length of Pipe for Various Fittings (ft)
Diameter 90° 45° Coupling
of Fitting Standard Standard Standard or Straight Gate Globe Angle
(in.) Elbow Elbow T 90° Run of T Valve Valve Valve
a 1 0.6 1.5 0.3 0.2 8 4

½ 2 1.2 3 0.6 0.4 15 8
¾ 2.5 1.5 4 0.8 0.5 20 12
1 3 1.8 5 0.9 0.6 25 15
1¼ 4 2.4 6 1.2 0.8 35 18
1½ 5 3 7 1.5 1 45 22
2 7 4 10 2 1.3 55 28
2½ 8 5 12 2.5 1.6 65 34
3 10 6 15 3 2 80 40
4 14 8 21 4 2.7 125 55
5 17 10 25 5 3.3 140 70
6 20 12 30 6 4 165 80
Note: Allowances based on nonrecessed threaded fittings. Use ½ the allowances for recessed threaded fittings or streamline solder fittings.
Table 5-7 (M) Allowance for Friction Loss in Valves and Threaded Fittings
Equivalent Length of Pipe for Various Fittings (m)
Diameter 90° 45° Coupling
of Fitting Standard Standard Standard or Straight Gate Globe Angle
(mm) Elbow Elbow T 90° Run of T Valve Valve Valve
9.5 0.3 0.2 0.5 0.09 0.06 2.4 1.2

12.7 0.6 0.4 0.9 0.18 0.12 4.6 2.4
19.1 0.8 0.5 1.2 0.24 0.15 6.1 3.7
25.4 0.9 0.6 1.5 0.27 0.18 7.6 4.6
31.8 1.2 0.7 1.8 0.4 0.24 10.7 5.5
38.1 1.5 0.9 2.1 0.5 0.3 13.7 6.7
50.8 2.1 1.2 3.1 0.6 0.4 16.8 8.5
63.5 2.4 1.5 3.7 0.8 0.5 19.8 10.4
76.2 3.1 1.8 4.6 0.9 0.6 24.4 12.2
101.6 4.3 2.4 6.4 1.2 0.8 38.1 16.8
127 5.2 3.1 7.6 1.5 1.0 42.7 21.3
152.4 6.1 3.7 9.1 1.8 1.2 50.3 24.4
Note: Allowances based on nonrecessed threaded fittings. Use ½ the allowances for recessed threaded fittings or streamline solder fittings.
Table 5-8 Flow and Pressure Required for Various Fixtures during Flow
Fixture Pressure, psi (kPa)a Flow, gpm (L/s)
Basin faucet 8 (55.2) 3 (0.19)

Basin faucet, self-closing 12 (82.7) 2.5 (0.16)
Sink faucet, a in. (9.5 mm) 10 (69) 4.5 (0.28)
Sink faucet, ½ in. (12.7 mm) 5 (34.5) 4.5 (0.28)
Dishwasher 15–25 (103.4–172.4) b
Bathtub faucet 5 (34.5) 6 (0.38)

Laundry tub cock, ¼ in. (6.4 mm) 5 (34.5) 5 (0.32)
Shower 12 (82.7) 3–10 (0.19–0.6)
Water closet, ball cock 15 (103.4) 3 (0.19)
Water closet, flush valve 10–20 (69–137.9) 15–40 (0.95–2.5)
Urinal flush valve 15 (103.4) 15 (0.95)
Garden hose, 50 ft (15.2 m), and sill cock 30 (206.8) 5 (0.32)
aResidual pressure in the pipe at the entrance of the fixture considered.
bSee manufacturer’s data.
Figure 5-5 Establishing the Governing Fixture or Appliance

METHOD A
Developed Developed Friction Friction Loss Total Pressure Pressure at End
Length in Section, Length from Loss, psi/100 ft in Section, Loss from Friction, of Section for
Section ft (m) Point A, ft (m) (kPa/100 m) psi (kPa) psi (kPa) Friction, psi (kPa)
A–B 10 (3.1) 10 (3.l) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 1 (6.9) 9 (62.1)

B–C 10 (3.1) 20 (6.1) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 2 (13.8) 8 (552)
C–D 10 (3.1) 30 (9.1) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 3 (20.7) 7 (48.3)
D–E 10 (3.1) 40 (12.2) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 4 (27.6) 6 (41.4)
E–F 10 (3.1) 50 (15 2) 10 (226.2) 1 (6 9) 5 (34.5) 5 (34.5)
F–G 10 (3.1) 60 (18.3) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 6 (41.4) 4 (27.6)
G–H 10 (3.1) 70 (21.3) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 7 (48.3) 3 (20.7)
H–J 10 (3.1) 80 (24.4) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 8 (55.2) 2 (13.8)
J–K 10 (3.1) 90 (27.4) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 9 (62.1) 1 (6.9)
K–L 10 (3.1) 100 (30.5) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 10 (69) 0 (0)
METHOD B
Developed Developed Pressure Friction Friction Pressure
Length in Section, Length from at Start, Loss, psi/100 ft in Section, at End,
Section ft (m) Point A, ft (m) psi (kPa) (kPa/100 m) psi (kPa) psi (kPa)
M–J 10 (3.1) 90 (27.4) 2 (13.8) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 1 (6.9)

N–H 10 (3.1) 80 (24.4) 3 (20.7) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 2 (13.8)
P–G 10 (3.1) 70 (21.3) 4 (27.6) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 3 (20.7)
Q–F 10 (3.1) 60 (18.3) 5 (34.5) 10 (226.2) 1 (6 9) 4 (27.6)
R–E 10 (3.1) 50 (15.2) 6 (41.4) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 5 (34 5)
S–D 10 (3.1) 40 (12.2) 7 (48.3) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 6 (41.4)
T–C 10 (3.1) 30 (9.1) 8 (55.2) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 7 (48.3)
U–B 10 (3.1) 20 (6.1) 9 (62.1) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 8 (55.2)
METHOD C
Friction Friction Pressure Friction Friction Pressure
Loss, psi/100 ft in Section, at End, Loss, psi/100 ft in Section, at End,
Section (kPa/100 m) psi (kPa) psi (kPa) (kPa/100 m) psi (kPa) psi (kPa)
M–J 20 (452.4) 2 (13.8) 0 (0) 11.1 (251.1) 1.1 (7.6) 0.90 (6.2)
N–H 30 (678.6) 3 (20.7) 0 (0) 12.5 (282.8) 1.25 (8.6) 1.75 (12.1)
P–G 40 (904.8) 4 (27.6) 0 (0) 14.3 (323.5) 1.43 (9.9) 2.57 (17.7)
Q–F 50 (1131) 5 (34.5) 0 (0) 16.6 (375.5) 1.66 (11.5) 3.34 (23)
R–E 60 (1357.2) 6 (41.4) 0 (0) 20 (452.4) 2 (13.8) 4 (27.6)
S–D 70 (1583.5) 7 (48.3) 0 (0) 25 (565.5) 2.5 (17.2) 4.5 (31)
T–C 80 (1809.7) 8 (55.2) 0 (0) 33.3 (753.3) 3.33 (23) 4.66 (32.1)
U–B 90 (2035.9) 9 (62.1) 0 (0) 50 (1131) 5 (34.5) 4 (27.6)
Figure 5-6 Determining Pressure Available for Friction

drop of 11.1 psi (7.6 kPa) and an unused fric- erning fixture or appliance.
tional pressure of 0.9 psi (6.2 kPa). By going 4. The static pressure loss to get to the govern-
through all the branches in the same manner,
ing fixture or appliance.
one can see that the unused frictional pressure
varies from 0.9 psi (6.2 kPa) to a maximum of 5. The meter loss.
4.66 psi (32.1 kPa). These pressures are far less 6. Other losses between the meter and the gov-
than those resulting from Method A and the av- erning fixture or appliance.
erage pressure drops are far less than those re-
sulting from Method B. Consequently, Method C 7. The pressure available for friction.
is the one most widely used by designers. In ac- 8. The average pressure drop from the meter to
tual practice, it is not necessary to calculate the the governing fixture or appliance.
average pressure drop for each branch; usually,
the branches are close together and the changes 9. The average pressure drop for the other sys-
in the average pressure drop are very small. tems.
10. The size of the line from the meter to the
The last step is to take advantage of all avail-
governing fixture or appliance.
able pressure. For example, a water heater could
be located on the roof of a building. If the water 11. The size of the branch line.
system was designed to have a residual pres- For the convenience of the designer in sizing
sure on the roof of 15 psi (103.4 kPa), then the water systems, the following tables and figures
hot water piping system can be sized with a static are provided:
pressure gain available, to be used for friction
loss in the hot water piping. Another example of • Table 5-9. Water pipe sizing, fixture units vs.
utilizing available pressure is an installation with psi/100 ft (kPa/100 m), Type L copper tub-
a combination of flush valves and flush-tank ing.
water closets sized on the basis of a flush-valve • Table 5-10. Water pipe sizing, fixture units
system having a residual pressure of 15 psi vs. psi/100 ft (kPa/l00 m), galvanized, fairly
(103.4 kPa). Within this system, the branches rough pipe.
that have only flush-tank fixtures have an addi-
tional 7 psi (48.3 kPa) of pressure, which can be • Figure 5-7. Pipe sizing data, copper tubing,
used for friction. The 7 psi (48.3 kPa) is the dif- smooth pipe.
ference between the 15 psi (103.4 kPa) and 8 psi • Figure 5-8. Pipe sizing data, fairly smooth
(55.2 kPa) residual pressures. pipe.
• Figure 5-9. Pipe sizing data, fairly rough pipe.
Velocity Method Another method designers
use to size water piping is the velocity method. • Figure 5-10. Pipe sizing data, rough pipe.
The average pressure drop available for friction
is calculated and, if it is greater than 7 or 8 psi/
100 ft (158.4 or 181 kPa/100 m), the lines are
WATER HAMMER
sized on the basis of a 5 or 6-fps (1.5 or 1.8 m/s)
velocity. In this method, the main line is conser- “Water hammer” is the term used to define the
vatively sized and the short branches may slightly destructive forces, pounding noises, and vibra-
exceed the average pressure drop. However, the tions that develop in a piping system when a
total pressure drop of the system does not ex- column of noncompressible liquid (water) flow-
ceed the allowable pressure loss for friction. ing through a pipeline at a given pressure and
velocity is stopped abruptly. The surge pressure
(or pressure wave) generated at the point of im-
Summary pact or stoppage travels back and forth through
the piping system until the destructive energy is
The following items must be determined and cal-
dissipated in the piping system. This violent ac-
culated when sizing a system:
tion accounts for the piping noise and vibration.
1. The maximum flow rate of the system.
The common cause of shock is the quick clos-
2. The maximum and minimum water pressure ing of electrical, pneumatic, spring-loaded valves
in the main. or devices, as well as the quick, hand closure of
3. The residual pressure required at the gov- valves or fixture trim. The valve closure time is
directly related to the intensity of the surge System Protection and Control
pressure.
Water hammer arresters prolong the life and
service of piping, valves, fittings, trim, equipment,
Shock Intensity
apparatus, and other devices that are part of, or
Quick valve closure may be defined as a closure connected to, a water-distribution system.
time equal to or less than 2L/a seconds, where To reduce shock pressure and confine its
“L” is the length of pipe (ft) (m) from the point of action to the section of piping in which it oc-
closure to the point of relief (the point of relief is curs, a suitable means of control must be pro-
usually a larger pipe riser or main or a water vided to absorb and dissipate the energy causing
tank), and “a” is the velocity of propagation of the shock. Water hammer arresters provide a
elastic vibration in the pipe (fps). The expression diaphragm that moves with the pressure fluc-
“2L/a” is the time interval required for the pres- tuations, absorbing the shock wave. Air or an-
sure wave to travel from the point of closure to other gas is the most effective medium to use for
the relief point and back to the point of closure. this purpose since it is highly compressible,
Maximum pressure rise can be calculated by thereby offering the maximum displacement
the following, known as Joukowsky’s formula: cushion for absorbing the shock.
Equation 5-2 Air chambers The air chamber has been uti-
lized for controlling shock for many years. The
wav unit consists of a capped piece of pipe having
Pr =
144g the same diameter as the line it serves; its length
where ranges from 12 in. to 24 ft (304.8–609.6 mm).
The air chamber is constructed in several differ-
Pr = Pressure rise above flow pressure, psi ent shapes.
(kPa)
Figure 5-11 shows a few examples of air
w = Specific weight of liquid, lb/ft3 (kg/m3)
chambers. Plain air chambers, Figure 5-11(a) and
a = Velocity of pressure wave, fps (4000– (b), are generally placed on the supply lines to
4500 average for water) (m/s [1219– fixtures or equipment. A standpipe type of air
1372 average]) chamber, Figure 5-11(c), is generally placed on
v = Change in flow velocity, fps (m/s) a piping main. A rechargeable type of air cham-
ber, Figure 5-11(d), is generally placed at the end
g = Acceleration due to gravity, 32 ft/s2
of a branch line or on a piping main.
(10 m/s2)
The air chambers shown are made of pipe
This action produces a pressure rise of ap- and fittings. Unless devices are of the correct
proximately 60 times the change in velocity. En- size and contain a prescribed volume of air, how-
gineers generally employ a velocity between 5 and
ever, they cannot be regarded as suitable even
10 fps (1.5 and 3.1 m/s), which may produce a
for the temporary control of shock.
shock pressure of 300–600 psi (2068–4137 kPa).
The resultant water-hammer shock wave trav- Most valves and fittings used in plumbing
els back and forth in the piping, between the water-distribution systems are designed and con-
point of quick closure and the point of relief, at a structed for normal maximum working pressures
rate of 4000–4500 fps (1219–1372 m/s). of 150 psig (1034 kPa). Therefore, unless an air
chamber can reduce shock pressures to some
Although noise is generally associated with
degree less than 250 psig (1724 kPa), serious
the occurrence of water hammer, water hammer
damage to the valves, fittings, and other compo-
can occur without audible sound. Quick closure
nents of the piping system may result. The com-
always creates some degree of shock—with or monly used air chamber, even when correctly
without noise. Therefore, the absence of noise sized, controls shocks only temporarily after its
does not indicate that water hammer or shock is
initial installation.
nonexistent in a water-distribution system.
Although a correctly sized air chamber tem-
porarily controls shock to within safe limits of
pressure, its performance is effective only while
Table 5-9 Water Pipe Sizing—Fixture Units vs. psi/100 ft (kPa/100 m),
Type L Copper Tubing
Pipe Size, Pipe Size,

in. (mm) in. (mm)
Pressure Pressure
Loss, ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ Loss, ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½
psi/100 ft (12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5) psi/100 ft (12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5)
(kPa/100 m) Fixture Unitsa (kPa/100 m) Fixture Unitsa
15 69 11 81 285
1.0 0 2 6 12 21 58 155 3.2 1 6 14 26 50 183 421
(22.6) (72.4)
17 73 12 87 309
1.1 0 2 7 13 22 62 170 3.4 1 6 15 28 52 194 441
(24.9) (76.9)
20 82 13 95 336
1.2 0 3 7 14 23 67 185 3.6 1 6 15 29 55 205 460
(27.2) (81.4)
23 91 14 102 365
1.3 0 3 7 15 24 74 199 3.8 1 6 16 30 57 215 479
(29.4) (86)
26 100 15 106 390
1.4 0 3 8 15 25 81 213 4.0 1 6 16 31 58 225 500
(31.7) (90.5)
28 109 16 116 410
1.5 0 3 8 16 27 86 226 4.2 1 7 16 32 61 236 517
(33.9) (95)
31 120 18 124 430
1.6 0 3 8 17 28 93 241 4.4 1 7 17 34 63 245 533
(36.2) (99.5)
33 130 5 20 131 448
1.7 0 4 9 17 30 98 252 4.6 2 7 18 35 65 253 549
(38.5) (104.1)
36 140 6 21 139 466
1.8 0 4 9 18 31 105 264 4.8 2 7 19 36 68 263 564
(40.7) (108.6)
39 150 6 22 145 484
1.9 0 4 10 19 32 111 277 5.0 2 7 19 37 72 271 580
(43) (113.1)
42 161 7 24 153 504
2.0 0 4 10 20 33 115 287 5.2 2 8 19 38 75 280 597
(45.2) (117.6)
6 48 183 7 25 163 526
2.2 0 4 11 21 36 127 312 5.4 2 8 20 40 79 289 614
(49.8) (122.2)
7 53 205 8 26 171 *549
2.4 1 4 12 22 39 138 337 5.6 2 8 20 42 83 298 630
(54.3) (126.7)
8 59 225 8 27 177 *570
2.6 1 4 12 23 42 150 360 5.8 2 8 21 43 85 306 646
(58.8) (131.2)
9 66 245 9 29 185 *591
2.8 1 5 13 24 45 160 380 6.0 2 8 21 44 88 314 662
(63.3) (135.7)
10 74 265 9 30 199 *610
3.0 1 5 13 25 47 171 401 6.2 2 9 22 45 92 323 676
(67.9) (140.3)
Note: Velocities at 5 ( ), 6 ( ), 8 ( ), and 10 ( * ) fps.

a Numbers in small type are flush-valve fixture units; numbers in large type are flush-tank fixture units.
(Continued)
(Table 5-9 continued)

in. (mm) in. (mm)
Pressure Pressure
Loss, ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ Loss, ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½
psi/100 ft (12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5) psi/100 ft (12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5)
10 31 202 *631 18 *56 *336 *970

6.4 2 9 22 46 95 333 692 9.8 3 12 29 64 145 460 982
(144.8) (221.7)
10 32 210 *652 19 *58 *346 *993
6.6 3 9 23 47 97 343 709 10.0 4 13 30 65 148 467 1003
(149.3) (226.2)
11 34 216 *673 20 *61 *366 *1022
6.8 3 9 23 49 101 351 725 10.4 4 13 31 67 153 480 1030
(153.8) (235.3)
11 35 *223 *693 21 *63 *374 *1039
7.0 3 9 23 50 104 359 742 10.6 4 13 31 68 155 487 1044
(158.4) (239.8)
12 37 *231 *713 22 *66 *390 *1068
7.2 3 10 24 51 106 367 758 11.0 4 13 32 71 160 500 1072
(162.9) (248.8)
12 38 *241 *732 23 *70 *405 *1089
7.4 3 10 24 52 109 375 775 11.4 4 14 33 74 166 513 1099
(167.4) (257.9)
13 40 *250 *754 24 *72 *414 *1124
7.6 3 10 24 53 112 385 791 11.6 4 14 34 76 169 520 1124
(171.9) (262.4)
13 41 *259 *774 5 25 *76 *430 *1124
7.8 3 11 25 54 114 394 808 12.0 4 14 34 79 175 533 1124
(176.4) (271.5)
14 43 *265 *793 5 *26 *80 *444 *1124
8.0 3 11 25 55 117 401 824 12.4 4 14 35 82 181 545 1124
(181) (280.5)
14 44 *273 *811 6 *27 *81 *452 *1124
8.2 3 11 26 56 120 409 840 12.6 4 15 36 84 184 552 1124
(185.5) (285)
14 46 *280 *829 6 *28 *85 *466 *1124
8.4 3 11 26 57 123 416 856 13.0 4 15 37 86 190 564 1124
(190) (294.1)
15 47 *286 *848 6 *29 *88 *480 *1124
8.6 3 11 27 57 126 423 872 13.4 4 15 37 89 195 577 1124
(194.5) (303.1)
15 48 *295 *867 6 *30 *90 *488 *1124
8.8 3 11 27 58 128 431 889 13.6 4 15 38 91 199 583 1124
(199.1) (307.6)
16 50 *305 *887 7 *31 *94 *502 *1124
9.0 3 12 27 59 130 437 906 14.0 5 16 40 94 204 595 1124
(203.6) (316.7)
16 51 *314 *908 7 *32 *98 *517 *1124
9.2 3 12 28 60 133 444 925 14.4 5 16 41 98 208 608 1124
(208.1) (325.7)
17 52 *323 *930 8 *33 *99 *526 *1124
9.4 3 12 29 61 136 450 944 14.6 5 16 41 99 210 614 1124
(212.6) (330.3)
17 54 *329 *950 8 *34 *102 *536 *1124
9.6 3 12 29 62 140 455 963 15.0 5 16 42 101 215 622 1124
(217.2) (339.3)

(Continued)

in. (mm) in. (mm)
Pressure Pressure
Loss, ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ Loss, ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½
psi/100 ft (12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5) psi/100 ft (12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5)
8 *35 *106 *536 *1124 * * *23 *71 *160 *536 *1124

15.5 5 16 43 104 221 622 1124 30 8 26 75 168 286 622 1124
(350.6) (678.6)
9 *37 *110 *536 *1124 * * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
16.0 5 17 44 107 227 622 1124 32 8 27 81 168 286 622 1124
(361.9) (723.9)
9 *39 *114 *536 *1124 * * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
16.5 5 17 45 110 233 622 1124 34 8 28 82 168 286 622 1124
(373.2) (769.1)
*10 *41 *119 *536 *1124 * * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
17.0 5 18 46 114 239 622 1124 36 9 29 82 168 286 622 1124
(384.6) (814.4)
*10 *43 *124 *536 *1124 * * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
17.5 5 18 47 117 245 622 1124 38 9 31 82 168 286 622 1124
(395.9) (859.6)
*11 *44 *129 *536 *1124 * * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
18.0 6 19 49 120 250 622 1124 40 9 32 82 168 286 622 1124
(407.2) (904.8)
*11 *46 *134 *536 *1124 * * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
18.5 6 19 50 123 257 622 1124 42 10 33 82 168 286 622 1124
(418.5) (950.1)
*12 *48 *139 *536 *1124 * * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
19.0 6 19 51 126 263 622 1124 44 10 34 82 168 286 622 1124
(429.8) (995.3)
*12 *49 *144 *536 *1124 * * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
19.5 6 20 52 129 270 622 1124 44 11 35 82 168 286 622 1124
(441.1) (1040.6)
*13 *51 *149 *536 *1124 * * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
20 6 20 53 132 276 622 1124 48 11 35 82 168 286 622 1124
(452.4) (1085.8)
* *13 *53 *160 *536 *1124 * * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
21 6 21 54 138 286 622 1124 50 11 35 82 168 286 622 1124
(475) (1131)
* *14 *57 *160 *536 *1124 * * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
22 6 21 56 145 286 622 1124 55 12 35 82 168 286 622 1124
(497.7) (1244.1)
* *15 *61 *160 *536 *1124 * * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
23 7 21 58 152 286 622 1124 60 13 35 82 168 286 622 1124
(520.3) (1357.2)
* *16 *65 *160 *536 *1124 * * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
24 7 22 60 158 286 622 1124 80 14 35 82 168 286 622 1124
(542.9) (1809.7)
* *16 *68 *160 *536 *1124 * * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
25 7 23 62 164 286 622 1124 100 14 35 82 168 286 622 1124
(565.5) (2262.1)
* *19 *71 *160 *536 *1124
26 7 23 65 168 286 622 1124
(588.1)
* *21 *71 *160 *536 *1124
28 7 24 68 168 286 622 1124
(633.4)

Table 5-10 Water pipe sizing fixture units versus psi/100 ft. (kPa/100 m),
Galvanized fairly-rough pipe
in. (mm) in. (mm)
Pressure Pressure
Loss, ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ Loss, ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½
psi/100 ft (12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5) psi/100 ft (12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5)
8 37 40 162
1.0 0 1 4 8 16 42 107 3.2 0 3 9 19 35 112 288
(22.6) (72.4)
9 42 6 43 174
1.1 0 1 5 9 17 45 115 3.4 0 3 10 20 36 118 302
(24.9) (76.9)
11 46 7 46 186
1.2 0 1 5 10 19 48 124 3.6 0 4 10 20 38 123 315
(27.2) (81.4)
12 51 7 49 198
1.3 0 1 6 11 20 51 133 3.8 0 4 11 21 40 129 329
(29.4) (86)
13 55 8 52 210
1.4 0 2 6 11 20 54 143 4.0 1 4 11 21 42 135 343
(31.7) (90.5)
14 62 9 54 221
1.5 0 2 6 12 21 56 153 4.2 1 4 12 22 43 141 356
(33.9) (95)
15 67 10 58 238
1.6 0 2 6 12 22 58 162 4.4 1 5 12 23 45 147 369
(36.2) (99.5)
16 74 10 62 345
1.7 0 2 6 12 23 60 171 4.6 1 5 12 23 46 153 380
(38.5) (104.1)
18 80 10 66 256
1.8 0 2 6 13 23 63 180 4.8 1 5 12 24 48 160 391
(40.7) (108.6)
20 85 11 71 265
1.9 0 2 7 13 24 66 189 5.0 1 5 13 24 49 167 403
(43) (113.1)
22 90 12 75 278
2.0 0 3 7 14 25 70 190 5.2 1 6 13 25 51 174 415
(45.2) (117.6)
25 102 13 79 290
2.2 0 3 7 15 26 77 215 5.4 1 6 13 26 52 180 426
(49.8) (122.2)
27 112 13 82 302
2.4 0 3 7 15 28 85 231 5.6 1 6 14 27 54 185 436
(54.3) (126.7)
30 124 14 85 314
2.6 0 3 8 16 30 92 245 5.8 1 6 14 27 55 191 446
(58.8) (131.2)
33 136 14 89 329
2.8 0 3 8 17 32 99 259 6.0 1 6 15 28 56 197 455
(63.3) (135.7)
36 148 15 93 343
3.0 0 3 9 18 33 105 275 6.2 1 6 15 29 57 202 465
(67.9) (140.3)

(Continued)

in. (mm) in. (mm)
Pressure Pressure
Loss, ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ Loss, ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½
psi/100 ft (12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5) psi/100 ft (12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5)
15 96 358 8 28 164 557

6.4 1 6 15 29 58 208 474 9.8 1 8 20 41 87 291 636
(144.8) (221.7)
16 100 372 8 29 170 *570
6.6 1 6 15 30 59 213 484 10.0 1 8 20 42 88 297 646
(149.3) (226.2)
17 104 384 8 31 175 *592
6.8 1 7 16 31 61 219 495 10.4 2 8 20 43 93 304 663
(153.8) (235.3)
18 107 395 9 31 177 *603
7.0 1 7 16 32 62 224 505 10.6 2 9 21 44 95 307 669
(158.4) (239.8)
19 112 407 9 33 186 *620
7.2 1 7 16 32 64 230 515 11.0 2 9 21 45 66 315 684
(162.9) (248.8)
20 116 420 10 34 193 *638
7.4 1 7 17 33 66 236 525 11.4 2 9 22 46 101 323 697
(167.4) (257.9)
20 119 432 10 35 197 *647
7.6 1 7 17 33 67 240 535 11.6 2 9 22 47 104 327 704
(171.9) (262.4)
5 20 123 443 11 37 208 *666
7.8 1 7 17 34 68 244 544 12.0 2 9 23 48 107 334 719
(176.4) (271.5)
5 22 127 454 11 39 213 *687
8.0 1 7 18 34 71 249 554 12.4 2 9 23 49 110 348 737
(181) (280.5)
6 23 131 465 11 40 218 *698
8.2 1 7 18 35 73 253 563 12.6 3 10 23 50 112 242 746
(185.5) (285)
6 24 134 475 12 41 *226 *724
8.4 1 7 18 36 75 257 572 13.0 3 10 24 51 114 362 766
(190) (294.1)
6 25 138 487 12 43 *234 *745
8.6 1 7 19 37 77 262 582 13.4 3 10 24 52 118 370 783
(194.5) (303.1)
7 25 142 498 13 44 *239 *754
8.8 1 8 19 38 79 267 591 13.6 3 10 24 53 128 374 791
(199.1) (307.6)
7 26 146 508 13 46 *247 *775
9.0 1 8 19 39 81 272 600 14.0 3 10 24 53 122 382 809
(203.6) (316.7)
7 26 150 519 13 47 *255 *795
9.2 1 8 19 39 83 277 609 14.4 3 11 25 54 125 290 826
(208.1) (325.7)
7 27 154 532 14 48 *258 *805
9.4 1 8 20 40 85 281 618 14.6 3 11 25 55 126 394 834
(212.6) (330.3)
8 28 160 545
9.6 1 8 20 41 86 286 627
(217.2)

(Continued)

in. (mm) in. (mm)
Pressure Pressure
Loss, ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ Loss, ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½
psi/100 ft (12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5) psi/100 ft (12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5)
14 50 *265 *827 * *33 *100 *515 *1173

15.0 3 11 26 56 129 401 854 28 4 16 41 98 225 606 1173
(339.3) (633.4)
14 52 *275 *851 * *35 *118 *521 *1173
15.5 3 11 26 57 134 411 875 30 5 17 43 104 238 611 1173
(350.6) (678.6)
15 53 *284 *875 * *40 *128 *521 *1173
16.0 3 12 27 58 138 420 896 32 5 17 45 112 250 611 1173
(361.9) (723.9)
16 54 *292 *900 * *43 *138 *521 *1173
16.5 3 12 27 59 142 428 918 34 5 18 47 117 262 611 1173
(373.2) (769.1)
16 57 *302 *924 * * *46 *148 *521 *1173
17.0 3 12 28 61 146 436 939 36 6 19 49 123 275 611 1173
(384.6) (814.4)
17 *60 *315 *947 * * *49 *159 *521 *1173
17.5 3 13 29 62 150 444 960 38 6 20 51 128 285 611 1173
(395.9) (859.6)
18 *62 *325 *969 * * *52 *160 *521 *1173
18.0 3 13 29 64 153 452 981 40 6 20 53 134 286 611 1173
(407.2) (904.8)
19 *64 *336 *992 * * *54 *160 *521 *1173
18.5 3 13 30 65 157 460 1002 42 6 21 55 141 286 611 1173
(418.5) (950.1)
20 *66 *350 *1015 * * *59 *160 *521 *1173
19.0 3 13 30 66 160 469 1023 44 6 21 56 148 286 611 1173
(429.8) (995.3)
21 *69 *362 *1040 * * *63 *160 *521 *1173
19.5 3 13 31 68 166 477 1045 46 6 22 58 154 286 611 1173
(441.1) (1040.6)
21 *72 *371 *1066 * * * *64 *160 *521 *1173
20 4 13 31 69 169 484 1066 48 7 23 60 156 286 611 1173
(452.4) (1085.8)
23 *76 *390 *1116 * * * *64 *160 *521 *1173
21 4 13 32 74 175 500 1116 50 7 23 61 156 286 611 1173
(475) (1131)
*25 *81 *410 *1165 * * * *64 *160 *521 *1173
22 4 14 34 77 183 517 1165 55 7 24 66 156 286 611 1173
(497.7) (1244.1)
*26 *85 *430 *1173 * * * *64 *160 *521 *1173
23 4 14 34 82 190 533 1173 60 7 25 72 156 286 611 1173
(520.3) (1357.2)
*27 *90 *448 *1173 * * * *64 *160 *521 *1173
24 4 15 35 85 198 549 1173 80 9 31 72 156 286 611 1173
(542.9) (1809.7)
*28 *95 *466 *1173 * * * *64 *160 *521 *1173
25 4 15 37 87 205 564 1173 100 10 31 72 156 286 611 1173
(565.5) (2262.1)
*30 *99 *484 *1173
26 4 15 39 91 211 580 1173
(588.1)

Figure 5-7 Pipe Sizing Data, Smooth Pipe

Figure 5-8 Pipe Sizing Data, Fairly Smooth Pipe

Figure 5-9 Pipe Sizing Data, Fairly Rough Pipe

Figure 5-10 Pipe Sizing Data, Rough Pipe

Table 5-11 Required Air Chambers

Nominal Pipe Flow Velocity, Required Air Chamber
Pipe Diam., Length, Pressure, fps Volume, Phys. Size,
in. (mm) ft (m) psig (kPa) (m/s) in.3 (cm3) in. (cm)
½ (12.71) 25 (7.62) 30 (0.79) 10 (3.04) 8 (1.3) ¾ × 15 (1.9 × 38.1)

½ (12.71) 100 (30.5) 60 (1.57) 10 (3.04) 60 (9.8) 1 × 69½ (2.5 × 176.5)
¾ (19.1) 50 (15.25) 60 (1.57) 5 (1.52) 13 (2.1) 1 × 5 (2.5 × 12.7)
¾ (19.1) 200 (61.0) 30 (0.79) 10 (3.04) 108 (17.7) 1¼ × 72½ (3.2 × 184.2)
1 (25.4) 100 (30.5) 60 (1.57) 5 (1.52) 19 (3.1) 1¼ × 127/10 (3.2 × 32.3)
1 (25.4) 50 (15.25) 30 (0.79) 10 (3.04) 40 (6.6) 1¼ × 27 (3.2 × 68.6)
1¼ (31.8) 50 (15.25) 60 (1.57) 10 (3.04) 110 (18.0) 1¼ × 54 (3.2 × 137.2)
1½ (38.1) 200 (61.0) 30 (0.79) 5 (1.52) 90 (14.8) 2 × 27 (5.1 × 68.6)
1½ (38.1) 50 (15.25) 60 (1.57) 10 (3.04) 170 (27.9) 2 × 50½ (5.1 × 128.3)
2 (50.8) 100 (30.5) 30 (0.79) 10 (3.04) 329 (53.9) 3 × 44½ (7.6 × 113.0)
2 (50.8) 25 (7.62) 60 (1.57) 10 (3.04) 150 (24.6) 2½ × 31 (6.4 × 78.7)
2 (50.8) 200 (61.0) 60 (1.57) 5 (1.52) 300 (49.2) 3 × 40½ (7.6 × 102.9)
it retains its initial charge of air. Air-chamber In most installations where there are several
requirements are shown in Table 5-11. fixtures, usually only one fixture valve will be closed
The air charge can be depleted during the at a time. Occasionally, however, two or more fix-
flow cycle since water is drawn from all direc- ture valves may be closed at the same instant.
tions during flow. Moreover, the entrapped air is Table 5-12, “Sizing and Selection of Water-Hammer
also diminished by turbulence. During this pro-
cess the water absorbs the air, and as the unit
becomes waterlogged, it loses its ability to ab-
sorb shock.
Water hammer arresters
Symbols There are six manufactured sizes of

water hammer arrester, each having a different
capacity to control shock in piping systems of
varied sizes and scopes. The following symbols,
recommended by the Plumbing and Drainage
Institute (PDI), were devised to denote the range
in size of water hammer arrester:
A–B–C–D–E–F
“A” is the smallest-sized unit and “F” represents a b c d
the largest.
Figure 5-11 Air Chambers: (a, b) Plain Air
Sizing and placement Sizing is based on fix- Chambers, (c) Standpipe Air Chamber,
ture units for single and multiple-fixture branch (d) Rechargeable Air Chamber
lines and on pipe size.
Arresters,” takes into consideration all design fac- To prevent the harboring of Legionella
tors, including simultaneous usage, pipe size, pneumophila, bellows containing rubber should
length, flow, pressure, and velocity. not be used.
Table 5-12 Sizing and Selection of

BACKFLOW PREVENTION
Water-Hammer Arresters
Theoretically, a well-designed and operated wa-
PDI Units A B C D E F
ter-supply system should always be under a con-
Fixture Units 1–11 12–32 33–60 61–113 114–154 155–330 stant positive pressure, and contamination via
backflow or back-siphonage should never be able
In the sizing of cold and hot-water branch to enter the distribution mains. Unfortunately,
lines, it is usual practice to obtain the total num- accidents do occur when excessive water de-
ber of fixture units on each branch line. This mands for fire protection, operation of booster
information is then applied to sizing charts to pumps, flushing of water mains, repairs, modi-
determine the required size of the branch line. fications, and maintenance to the distribution
system cause the water pressure to drop.
The properly sized water-hammer arresters
can be selected once the total number of fixture Whenever the pressure in the distribution
units for a cold or hot-water branch line is system becomes low or negative, a condition de-
known. It is only necessary to apply the fixture velops that allows contamination to enter the
units to Table 5-12 and select the appropriate distribution system through connections with
water-hammer arrester. fixtures, equipment, or tanks that contain toxic,
unsafe, or unpleasant liquids or gases. These
Note the following: physical connections by which a water supply
• When water pressure in the line exceeds 65 may be contaminated are known as “cross con-
psig, select the next larger size water-ham- nections.” There are numerous, well-documented
mer arrester. cases where cross connections have been respon-
sible for contaminating drinking water and, as a
• If the fixture-unit total includes a fraction, it result, sometimes contributing to the spread of
should be rounded up to the next larger whole fatal disease.
number. Thus, if the total is 11½ fixture units,
the unit should be sized for 12 fixture units. The contamination of a water system through
cross connections can be avoided. This section
• All sizing data in this chapter are based on describes the current recommended practice for
flow velocities of 10 fps (3 m/s) or less. the detection and elimination of unprotected
It is suggested that the engineer employ PDI cross connections.
symbols for the riser diagrams for sizing water-
hammer arresters. This practice will enable Types of Cross-Connection Control
manufacturers to furnish the correct units. Device
The location of the water-hammer arresters
from the start of the horizontal branch line to When plumbing fixtures and equipment in wa-
the last fixture supply on the branch line should ter-supply systems are subject to backflow con-
not exceed 20 ft (6.1 m) in length. When the ditions, approved air gaps, backflow preventers,
branch lines exceed the 20-ft (6.10-m) length, or vacuum breakers should be used. The follow-
an additional water-hammer arrester should be ing methods or devices can be used to protect
used and each should be sized for half the fix- against backflow or back-siphonage:
ture-unit load. It has been established that the • Approved air-gap separation.
preferred location for the water-hammer arrester
• Barometric loop.
is at the end of the branch line between the last
two fixtures served. Units for branches serving • Mechanical protection devices.
pieces of equipment with quick-closing valves • Reduced-pressure-principle backflow devices
should be placed within a few ft (m) of the equip- (RPBD).
ment isolation valve.
• Double-check valve assemblies (DCVA).
• Atmospheric vacuum breakers (AVB).
• Pressure vacuum breakers (PVB). vacuum breaker should be used only to isolate a
• Check valves with vent port (CVB). severe hazard if area isolation is provided. Where
a moderate hazard exists, a double-check valve
The theory of backflow and back-siphonage assembly, or pressure or atmospheric vacuum
and the devices for their prevention are described breaker may be used. Where a minor hazard ex-
in Volume 4, Chapter 9, of the ASPE Data Book ists, a pressure or atmospheric vacuum breaker
(forthcoming). Refer to local codes and standards or check valves with vent port (no test cocks)
before making selections. may need to be installed.
Toxicity and probability of occurrence illus-
Assessment of Hazard
trate the relationship between assessment of
The correct application of devices depends on the hazard and application of devices. Because of
correct assessment of the degree of hazard, on the subjective nature of assessing hazard, such
whether back pressure or back-siphonage will oc- illustrations cannot be used as a strict guide,
cur, and on knowledge of the operation of various providing a fixed answer for all circumstances.
types of approved backflow-prevention device. Instead, past experience and local code require-
ments must also be used as guides. Such past
In applying the recommendations outlined experience was the basis of Tables 5-13 and 5-14.
in this section, three degrees of hazard must be
considered: severe, moderate, and minor. They The requirement of protection increases as a
are defined as follows: function of both an increase in the probability
that backflow or back-siphonage will occur and
1. Severe. A cross connection or probable cross an increase in the toxicity or possible toxicity of
connection involving any substance in suffi- a potential source of contamination. Where it is
cient concentration to cause death or spread highly probable that backflow or back-siphon-
disease or illness or containing any substance age will occur, say from a standpipe in a tall
that has a high probability of causing such apartment building, the need for a backflow-pre-
an effect. vention device is low if the hazard of the poten-
2. Moderate. A cross connection or probable tial source of contamination (sinks, water closets,
cross connection involving any substance etc.) becoming toxic is very low. The converse is
that has a low probability of becoming a se- also true, however, where a known health haz-
vere hazard and would constitute a nuisance ard exists, the tendency is to be conservative
or be aesthetically objectionable if introduced when selecting a backflow-prevention device
into the domestic water supply. (RPBD used in place of DVC). The risk factor for
a health hazard is usually of greater concern than
3. Minor. An existing connection, or a high prob- the probability of backflow or back-siphonage in
ability of a connection being made, between the selection of a device.
the domestic water pipe and any pipe, equip-
ment, vat, or tank intended for carrying or
holding potable water that has a low prob- Premise Isolation
ability of becoming contaminated with any
In addition to installing backflow-prevention de-
substance.
vices at the source of potential contamination, it
The application of backflow and back-sipho- may be necessary, or required by code, to install
nage prevention devices is related to the prob- a backflow-prevention device on the water-ser-
ability of contamination as well as the recognition vice pipe to isolate an entire area or premise.
of an existing health hazard. For the assessment This additional protection for the purveyor’s wa-
of probability, consideration must be given to the ter system is warranted if the potential health
possibility of changes being made to piping, im- hazard is severe, or if a high probability exists
proper use of equipment, negligence of the cus- that piping within a premise will be changed. If
tomer, etc. inspection on private property is restricted, the
only protection for the purveyor’s water system
Where a severe hazard exists, an air-gap
is the installation of a backflow-prevention de-
separation or a reduced-pressure-principle,
vice on the water-service pipe.
backflow-prevention device should be used be-
cause these two devices offer the highest known Whenever possible, in-plant isolation is pre-
degree of protection. An atmospheric or pressure ferred over premise isolation because it protects
Table 5-13 Guide to the Assessment of Hazard and Application of Devices—

Isolation at the Fixture
Recommended Additional
Description of Assessment of Recommended Device for Area of
Cross Connection Hazard Device at Fixture Premise Isolation
Aspirator (medical) Severe DCAP, AVB or PVB RPBD

Bed pan washers Severe DCAP, AVB or PVB RPBD
Autoclaves Severe DCAP, AVB or PVB RPBD
Specimen tanks Severe DCAP, AVB or PVB RPBD
Sterilizers Severe DCAP, AVB or PVB RPBD
Cuspidors Severe DCAP, AVB or PVB RPBD
Lab bench equipment Severe DCAP, AVB or PVB RPBD
Autopsy & mortuary equip. Severe AVB or PVB
Sewage pump Severe RPBD
Sewage ejectors Severe RPBD
Firefighting system (toxic-foamite) Severe RPBD
Connection to sewer pipe Severe AG
Connection to plating tanks Severe RPBD RPBD
Irrigation system or
chemical injectors or pumps Severe RPBD
Connection to salt-water cooling system Severe RPBD
Tank vats or other vessels containing
toxic substances Severe RPBD
Connection to industrial fluid systems Severe RPBD
Dye vats or machines Severe RPBD
Cooling towers with chemical additives Severe RPBD
Trap primer Severe AG
Steam generators Moderatea DCV
Heating equipment Moderatea DCV
Irrigation systems Moderatea DCV, AVB or PVB
Swimming pools Moderatea DCV or AG
Vending machines Moderatea DCV or PVB
Ornamental fountains Moderatea DCV or AVB or PVB
Degreasing equipment Moderatea DCV
Lab bench equipment Minora AVB, PVB or CVP
Hose bibbs and yard hydrants Minora AVB
Trap primers Minora AG
Flexible shower heads Minora AVB
Steam tables Minora AVB
Washing equipment Minora AVB
Shampoo basins Minora AVB
Kitchen equipment Minora AVB
Aspirators Minora AVB
Domestic heating boiler Minora CVP
aWhere a higher hazard exists (due to toxicity or health hazard), additional area protection with RPBD is required. See Table 5-14 for
additional information.
in-plant personnel and, in most cases, the de- 4. Laboratories.

vice can be sized smaller because in-plant pip- 5. Piers, docks, and other waterfront facilities.
ing is smaller. However, even with in-plant
isolation, the purveyor may still require premise 6. Sewage-treatment plants.
isolation. 7. Food and beverage-processing plants.
The choice of devices for in-plant or premise 8. Chemical plants using a water process.
isolation depends on the degree of hazard. Sev-
eral premises that fall into the severe hazard clas- 9. Metal-plating plants.
sification and should be considered for isolation 10. Petroleum-processing or storage plants.
from the purveyor’s system are noted in Tables
11. Radioactive-material-processing plants and
5-13 and 5-14 and on the following list.
nuclear reactors.
1. Premises with unapproved auxiliary water
12. Car-washing facilities.
supplies.
13. Animal-research, care, and processing
2. Premises where inspection is restricted.
plants.
3. Hospitals, mortuaries, clinics, etc.
Table 5-14 Guide to the Assessment of Facility Hazard and Application of Devices—
Containment of Premise
Recommended Device
Description of Premise Assessment ot Hazard on Water-Service Pipe
Hospital building with operating,

mortuary, or laboratory facilities Severe RPBD
Plants using radioactive material Severe RPBD
Petroleum-processing or stage facilities Severe RPBD
Premise where inspection is restricted Severe RPBD
Sewage-treatment plant Severe RPBD
Commercial laundry Severe RPBD
Plating or chemical plants Severe RPBD
Docks, dockside facilities Severe RPBD

(if no protection at fixture)
DCV
(if protection at fixture)
Food & beverage-processing plants Severe RPBD
Pleasure boat marina Severe RPBD
Tall buildings (protection against

excessive head of water) Moderate DCV
Steam plants Moderate DCV
Fire or sprinkler system to tall building

(protection against excessive head of water) Moderate DCV
Installation Requirements B. The relief-valve outlet of the reduced-

pressure device shall not be directly con-
1. All backflow devices should be installed in nected to the drain. An air gap of not less
an accessible area to facilitate inspection, than 2 diameters of the relief valve outlet
semiannual or annual testing, and mainte- or 1 in. (2.5 cm), whichever is greater,
nance. Some municipalities now require li- must separate the drain from the outlet.
censed inspectors to test and report on each
C. A funnel type collector or splash screen
device on an annual basis. Consideration
should be used to direct the discharge to
should be given to future changes that may
take place in the plumbing system. The de- the drain to prevent objectionable spillage
vices should be installed so that they will re- or splashing.
main accessible regardless of new or future 3. Pressure and atmospheric vacuum breakers
piping. Check the manufacturer’s literature may also “split” or spill water. Spillage may
for minimum clearances required for the re- occur during the testing of devices. Care must
moval of parts. be taken in choosing the location of devices
so that spillage will not cause damage or be
2. Adequate drainage should be provided for the
a nuisance.
discharge from the reduced-pressure-device,
relief-valve port. Minimum flow rates and 4. Do not install a reduced-pressure device in a
diameters of relief-valve porting are given in pit below ground unless a drain to the sur-
Table 5-15 as a guide in the sizing of drain face is provided. If the atmospheric vent is
pipes. submerged in groundwater, a cross connec-
tion is created that may be more serious than
A. In the case of a reduced-pressure de-
the hazard the device isolates.
vice installed in a hut, the “bore-sighted”
daylight drain must be capable of han- 5. Before the installion of a backflow-preven-
dling the volumes discharged from the tion device, pipelines should be thoroughly
relief valve. flushed to remove all foreign material that
could foul the operation of the device.
Table 5-15 Minimum Flow Rates and Size of Minimum Area of RPBD
Minimum Flow Rate Minimum Diameter of

Size of Device Past Relief Valve Relief Valve Porting (IPS)
in. mm gpm L/s in. mm
½ and s 15 and 17 2.5 0.19 a 10

¾ and 1 20 and 25 4.15 0.31 ½ 15
I¼ and 1½ 32 and 40 8.30 0.63 ¾ 20
2 50 16.70 1.27 1 25
2½ 65 16.70 1.27 1 25
3 80 25.00 1.89 1¼ 32
4 100 33.40 2.53 1½ 32
6 150 33.40 2.53 1½ 32
8 200 50.00 3.79 2 50
10 250 50.00 3.79 2 50
12 300 62.50 4.74 2½ 65
14 350 75.00 5.68 3 80
16 400 83.00 6.29 3 80
6. Use of an in-line strainer may be required if water-service and backflow-prevention

the condition is such that foreign material is device.
continually collecting in the line and lodging
15. Adequate support should be provided for de-
under seating surfaces. No strainer is to be
vices 6 in. (150 mm) and larger to prevent
used in a fire line without the approval of
damage to connected pipe.
the insurance underwriters or fire marshal.
16. Backflow-prevention devices should be pro-
7. Isolating valves are necessary on reduced-
tected against damage. Units placed in work
pressure backflow devices, double-check
areas, areas with public access, or areas with
valve assemblies, and pressure vacuum
vehicular traffic should be protected by
breakers to permit replacement, testing, and
fenced enclosures, stanchions, or some other
maintenance. means.
8. Internally weighted double-check valve as-
17. The possibility of vandalism and theft should
semblies must be installed in the horizontal
be considered when choosing a location for a
position. Some brands of spring-loaded,
backflow-prevention device.
double-check valve devices also must be in-
stalled in the horizontal position. Check the 18. For reduced-pressure-principle and double-
list of approved devices issued in each juris- check-valve devices located outside of build-
diction and the manufacturer’s recommen- ings, consideration should be given to the
dations. use of landscaping, etc., to obtain an aes-
thetically pleasing installation.
9. All reduced-pressure-principle devices must
be installed in the horizontal position, un- 19. In a device installed in a deep chamber, the
less it is specifically noted otherwise in the chamber should be self venting. Workers
manufacturer’s data. Compensation Board regulations require that
the air within a chamber be checked for com-
10. Check with the authority having jurisdiction bustible gas and adequate oxygen content
and the manufacturer before installing any
before a workman enters the chamber.
backflow device in hot-water lines.
20. A coupling should be installed in the line to
11. Backflow preventers are not to be installed allow flexibility for alignment during instal-
in corrosive or polluted atmospheres. The lation.
surrounding atmosphere can enter the pipe-
line through the open vent port of atmo- 21. When installing a double-check-valve, check-
spheric and pressure vacuum breakers, valve-with-vent-port, or reduced-pressure-
check valves with vent ports and reduced- principle device on the feed waterline to a
pressure-principle devices. pressure vessel, always install the pressure-
relief valve between the backflow device and
12. Reduced-pressure-principle devices, double-
the pressure vessel.
check valves, and vacuum breakers installed
in regions subject to freezing must be pro- 22. If possible, a reduced-pressure-principle or
tected by the insulation of the units in above- double-check-assembly device should be in-
ground, heated structures. Care should be stalled no more than 3 ft (1 m) above the
taken to enure that the testing and mainte- floor to facilitate access.
nance of the unit is not hindered by the ap-
plication of the insulating material.
INADEQUATE WATER PRESSURE
13. For installations where 24-hour, uninter-
rupted service is a necessity, a parallel de- When pressure in public water mains is not great
vice should be provided to permit annual enough to satisfy building requirements, there
testing and maintenance. The bypass or par- are three ways to boost pressure to an accept-
allel device must provide the same degree of able level: with a hydropneumatic tank, a grav-
protection as the main-line device. ity tank, or a booster pump. These systems can
14. For 8-in. (200-mm) and larger units, a be used singly or in combination.
method of lifting and installation is required.
Existing crane facilities should be taken ad-
vantage of when determining a location for a
Hydropneumatic-Tank System Typical installation details for hydro-

pneumatic-tank systems are shown in Figure
A hydropneumatic tank is not a storage tank. 5-13.
Its sole purpose is to boost inadequate pressure,
though it operates between predetermined pres- Three factors are considered in the selection
sure limits and always contains a minimum of a hydropneumatic tank: water–air ratio, pump
amount of water. capacity, and desired water withdrawal. Assume
the system demand is 100 gpm (6.3 L/s) con-
It was the storage concept that led to the stant, the maximum number of pumping cycles
establishment of many wholly incorrect water- is 6/h (5 min on, 5 min off), and withdrawal of
air ratios, which are still in use today. Formerly, 25% of the total tank capacity is desired. Tank
a 50% tank volume was split into 25% water and size can be determined by equating ½ of the pump
25% air. This resulted in a total of 75% water capacity (limited to no more than 6 pumping
and 25% air in the tank. Later, this was “re- cycles/h) to the 25% withdrawal capacity. For
fined” to 66Q% water and 333% air. example, 100 gpm/2 = 50 gpm, and 5 min × 50
Figure 5-12 illustrates that water remaining gpm = 250 gal. Thus, 250 gal should equal 25%
in a tank after a given pressure drop cannot be withdrawal. Tank capacity, then, is 100% or 250
used as a reserve. Assume that a sufficient sup- × 4 = 1000 gal.
ply of water is available and that it must be de- Selecting capacity on this basis results in a
livered to all water-service outlets at a minimum minimum size tank and maintenance of efficient
pressure of 15 psi (103.4 kPa). A 1000-gal (3785- cycling operation of the pumps.
L) capacity tank is selected and filled using the
rule-of -thumb ratio: q water, 3 air. A minimum
Gravity-Tank System
tank pressure of 40 psi (275.8 kPa) is required
to overcome static head and friction losses if a Basically, a gravity-tank system consists of an
pressure of 15 psi (103.4 kPa) is required at the elevated tank and a pump or pumps for raising
highest and farthest outlet. The maximum pres- water to fill the tank. Controls in the tank start
sure differential in the tank is limited by how and stop the pumps to maintain fluid level and
much pressure variation the piping system can
tolerate. Usually, a variation of 20 psi (137.9 kPa)
is acceptable. On this basis, the tank high pres-
sure is set at 60 psi (413.7 kPa), and the system
is ready for operation.
Figure 5-12 Hydropneumatic Pressure

System Layout that Determines Figure 5-13 Typical
the Minimum Tank Pressure Hydropneumatic Supply System
capacity. Water then flows from the tank to the taining the water level in this way ensures a rela-
waterlines by gravity action. tively constant water pressure regardless of
whether demand is at a low or peak condition.
Three approaches may be used to determine
The following piping connections are required at
tank capacity for a building:
the tank:
1. Rule of thumb. An arbitrary tank capacity
• Water supply to the tank.
equal to 30 times pump capacity (gpm) (L/s)
is recommended by some authorities. This • Water supply to the system.
criterion theoretically provides a building • Overflow line.
with a 30-min emergency reserve supply of
• Tank drain.
water in case of power failure or disruption
of the source of water supply. The locations of these connections on the
tank are illustrated in Figure 5-14. The system
2. Empirical. With this method, the quantity of shown is also equipped with fire-standpipe and
water required for emergency conditions is
sprinkler connections to meet local code require-
arbitrarily fixed. Based on this determina-
ments. The tank connections shown in Figure
tion, the length of time needed for pumping
5-14 provide the required water supply for each
the water before safe shutdown can be esti-
system, with the sprinkler reserve at the bot-
mated. tom, the fire-standpipe reserve at the next level,
3. Cycling of pumps. The capacity of the tank and the water storage at the top. Piping connec-
is sized so that cycling of pumps will not oc- tions to the standpipe and sprinkler systems
cur more than 6 times per hour. This trans- should be fitted with bronze strainers within the
lates to 5 min off, 5 min on. The fewer the tank to prevent any debris from entering those
cycles per hour, the less the wear and tear systems.
on motors and the less maintenance required.
Level controls are installed in the tank to start
Reducing the number of cycles, however, will
and stop pumps at low and high levels. The level
produce greater fluctuations in tank-water
control can be a float switch, pressure switch,
reserve.
electric prober, or any other acceptable device.
Selecting a tank that provides a large water
surface relative to its capacity makes it possible Tanks should be equipped with both high and
to withdraw a considerable volume of water with- low-level alarms. The low-level alarm indicates
out appreciably lowering the liquid level. Main- that the pumps are not keeping up with demand.
Figure 5-14 Piping Connections for a

Gravity Water-Storage Tank with Reserve Capacity for Firefighting
The high-level alarm warns that water has Dead-end service The type of service in which
reached the overflow level and is spilling to waste. the PRV is required to close bottle-tight when
When storage tanks are used for gravity feed, there is no demand on the system.
consideration must be given to the weight of the
Fall-off The amount that pressure is decreased
tank and water so proper support can be
from set pressure to meet demand. The amount
provided.
of fall-off depends on the quantity of flow—the
greater the flow, the greater the fall-off. A fall-off
Booster-Pump System of 20 psi (137.9 kPa) is considered to be the maxi-
mum allowable fall-off.
There are two ways to make a continuously run
system deliver a relatively constant system pres- No-flow pressure The pressure maintained in
sure under varying load conditions. One way is the system when the PRV is shut tight so that
to use a constant-speed pump with a pressure- high pressure at the inlet of the valve is not per-
regulating valve in the discharge piping. The mitted to enter the system.
other way is to vary the speed of the pump shaft
Reduced-flow pressure The pressure main-
either at the motor or in the coupling.
tained at the PRV outlet when water is flowing.
A variety of booster-pump systems are cur- The no-flow (closed), set-point pressure of a PRV
rently in use, with more being introduced all the is always higher than the reduced-flow (open)
time. Detailed information on the design criteria pressure. A PRV that is set to open at 45 psi
and operational characteristics of water-pressure (310.3 kPa) pressure (no-flow) would deliver a
boosting systems is given in the ASPE Pumps reduced-flow pressure of 30 psi (206.8 kPa) at
and Pump Systems Handbook. peak demand if a 15 psi (103.4 kPa) fall-off had
been selected. Then the reduced-flow pressure
at peak flow would be 30 psi (206.8 kPa).
EXCESS WATER PRESSURE
Response The capability of a PRV to respond
One of the main sources of trouble in a water- to change in outlet pressure.
distribution system is excessive pressure. Un- Sensitivity The ability of a PRV to sense a
less a piece of equipment, fixture, or operation change in pressure. If the valve is too sensitive
requires a specified high pressure, a water sys- and quick to respond, the results are over-con-
tem should not exceed a maximum of 80 psi trol and a hunting effect. Not enough sensitivity
(551.6 kPa) (check local code). To ensure this, a results in operation that is sluggish and great
pressure-regulating valve (PRV) should be in- variations in the outlet pressure.
stalled.
Set pressure That pressure, at the outlet of
The purpose of a pressure-regulating valve the PRV, at which the valve will start to open.
is to reduce water pressure from higher, supply-
main pressures to desirable and adequate flow Types of pressure-regulating valve All pres-
pressures when water is required at fixtures, sure-regulating valves fall into the following gen-
appliances, or equipment. eral categories:
• Single-seated—direct-operated or pilot-oper-
Pressure-Regulating Valves ated.
• Double-seated—direct-operated or pilot-oper-
Definitions The following are definitions of ated.
terms used in discussing, sizing, and ordering
pressure-regulating valves: Single-seated pressure-regulating valves are
used for dead-end service and when the flow to
Accuracy The degree of fall-off in the outlet be regulated is intermittent. For dead-end ser-
pressure from the set pressure at full-flow ca- vice, the valve must be able to shut tight and
pacity. Also, the capability of producing the same not permit the passage of any water when there
results for repetitive operations with identical is no demand. Double-seated PRVs are used for
conditions of flow. continuous-flow conditions. They are not suited
for dead-end service and should never be used
for this purpose.
Direct-operated PRVs tend to have a reduc- mance. Also, this type of installation reduces the
tion of the outlet pressure in direct proportion velocity of flow (there’s less pressure drop across
with the increase of the flow rate. Pilot-operated two regulators than across one), providing longer
PRVs will maintain a close fluctuation of the valve life.
outlet pressure independent of the flow rate as-
Selection of PRVs and pressure settings is
suming that the valve was sized properly.
fairly simple. The first PRV could reduce from
Sizing, selection, and installation Initial cost, 250 to 150 lb (1723.7 to 1034.2 kPa) and the
maintenance cost, and specific project require- second from 150 to approximately 50 lb (1034.2
ments regarding flow rates and pressure should to 344.7 kPa) or there could be some similar di-
determine which PRV is recommended for a par- vision. PRV size can be selected according to the
ticular application. manufacturer’s capacity tables if it is remem-
bered that each PRV should exceed the total ca-
Sizing and selection of a pressure-regulating pacity of the system.
valve can be performed after the following crite-
ria are estimated: inlet pressure, outlet pressure, Where there is a wide variation of demand
and capacity (flow rate). “Inlet pressure” is the requirements and where it is vital to maintain a
maximum pressure expected upstream of the continuous water supply as well as provide
regulating valve. “Outlet pressure” is the pres- greater capacity, “parallel installation” is recom-
sure required downstream of the regulating valve. mended. Parallel installation is the use of two or
For large-capacity systems, which may also ex- more smaller size pressure-regulating valves
perience periods of low flow, or when extreme serving a larger size supply-pipe main. This type
pressure reductions are expected, it is not ad- of installation should be employed wherever there
visable to have only one regulating valve. is a wide variation of reduced-pressure require-
ments and where it is vital to maintain a con-
A PRV sized to accommodate both small and tinuous water supply. It also has the advantage
large flows has, in general, a high noise level of providing increased capacity beyond that pro-
during operation. In addition, small flows will vided by a single valve where needed. Multiple
produce wire-drawing of the seat and possible installation improves valve performance for
chatter. widely variable demands and permits the ser-
In addition to having economic advantages, vicing of an individual valve without the com-
the proper application of pressure-regulating plete shutdown of the line, thus preventing costly
valves can greatly influence the overall perfor- shutdowns.
mance of the system. Under most circumstances, For a two-valve parallel installation, the to-
a good application can increase system perfor- tal capacity of the valves should equal or exceed
mance, reduce operating costs, and ensure a the capacity required by the system. One valve
longer life expectancy for regulators. should be set at 10 psi (69.0 kPa) higher delivery
For example, where initial pressures exceed pressure than the other. For example, assume
200 psi (1379.0 kPa) or where there is a wide that the system requires 400 gpm (25.2 L/s) and
variation between the initial pressure and the the reduced-flow pressure required is 50 psi
reduced pressure, or where the initial pressure (344.7 kPa). Select two valves, each rated at 200
varies considerably, “two-stage reduction” is ben- gpm (12.6 L/s), with one valve set at 50 psi (344.7
eficial. Two-stage reduction is the use of two PRVs kPa) and the other valve set 10 psi (69.0 kPa)
to reduce high service pressure proportionately higher at 60 psi (413.7 kPa). Thus, when low
and to eliminate an extremely wide variance be- volume is required, the higher-set valve oper-
tween the initial and reduced pressure. It is rec- ates alone. When a larger volume is demanded,
ommended where the initial pressure is 200 lb both valves open, delivering full-line capacity.
(1379.0 kPa) or more and where the ratio of ini- Another possible choice is to install two PRV
tial to reduced pressure is more than 4 to 1 (e.g., combinations of different sizes. This is practical
200 to 50 lb [1379.0 to 344.7 kPa]), or where the on larger installations where supply lines are 2
initial pressure fluctuates greatly. The advan- in. (50 mm) and larger and where there are fre-
tage of this installation is that neither valve is quent periods of small demand. The smaller PRV
subjected to an excessive range of pressure re- would have the 10-psi (69.0-kPa) higher delivery
ductions. This seems to stabilize the final reduced pressure and thus operate alone to satisfy small
pressure, ensuring close and accurate perfor- demands, such as urinals and drinking foun-
tains. When a larger volume is demanded, the as follows (or as required by the administrative
main PRV would open to satisfy the system de- authority):
mand. For example, take an apartment building
1. Cleaning and disinfection applies to both hot
requiring 300 gpm (18.9 L/s) at 60 psi (413.7
and cold, domestic (potable) water systems
kPa). The selection might be a 4-in. (100-mm)
and should be performed after all pipes,
PRV rated for 240 gpm (15.1 L/s) (80% of total
valves, fixtures, and other components of the
maximum flow rate) and set at 60 psi (413.7 kPa)
systems are installed, tested, and ready for
and a 1½-in. (40-mm) PRV rated for 60 gpm (3.8
operation.
L/s) and set at 70 psi (472.7 kPa).
2. All domestic yard, hot and cold-water piping
Manufacturers have tables indicating recom-
should be thoroughly flushed with clean, po-
mended capacities and valve sizes for use in par-
table water prior to disinfection to remove
allel installations.
dirt and other contaminants. Screens of fau-
cets and strainers should be removed before
TESTING, CLEANING, AND flushing and reinstalled after completion of
disinfection.
DISINFECTION OF DOMESTIC,
WATER-SUPPLY SYSTEMS 3. Disinfection should be done using chlorine,
either gas or liquid. Calcium or sodium hy-
Testing pochlorite or another approved disinfectant
may be used.
Prior to disinfection, connection to faucets and
4. A service cock should be provided and lo-
equipment, and installation of pipe insulation,
cated at the water-service entrance. The dis-
the domestic water system should be hydrostati-
infecting agent should be injected into and
cally tested for leakage. A typical test for interior
through the system from this cock only.
piping is accomplished by capping all system
openings, filling the system with water, and then 5. The disinfecting agent should be injected by
pumping a static head into the system at a mini- a proportioning pump or device through the
mum of 1½ times the working pressure (100 psi service cock slowly and continuously at an
[689.5 kPa] minimum) for a period of not less even rate. During disinfection, flow of the dis-
than 2 hours. The aforementioned test require- infecting agent into the main connected to
ments are acceptable to most inspectors, but note the public water supply is not permitted.
that 80 psi (551.6 kPa) is the maximum pres- 6. All sectional valves should be opened during
sure allowed by most designs and codes. disinfection. All outlets should be fully opened
Under conditions where systems are subject at least twice during injection and the re-
to freezing, and with the approval of the author- sidual checked with orthotolidin solution.
ity having jurisdiction, an air test may be sub- 7. If chlorine is used, when the chlorine residual
stituted for the water test. This can be concentration, calculated on the volume of
accomplished by connecting an air compressor water the piping will contain, indicates not
to the system, bringing the system up to 40 psi less than 50 parts per million (ppm) or milli-
(275.8 kPa), checking for leaks with liquid soap, grams per liter (mg/L) at all outlets, then all
repairing any leaks, and then subjecting the sys- valves should be closed and secured.
tem to a minimum of 1½ times the working pres-
sure (100 psi [689.5 kPa] minimum) for a 8. The residual chlorine should be retained in
minimum of 2 hours. the piping systems for a period of not less
than 24 hours.
Any equipment that may be damaged by
these tests should be disconnected from the 9. After the retention, the residual should be
system. not less than 5 ppm. If less, then the pro-
cess should be repeated as described above.
Cleaning and Disinfecting 10. If satisfactory, then all fixtures should be
flushed with clean, potable water until re-
New or repaired potable water systems shall be sidual chlorine by orthotolidin test is not
cleaned and disinfected prior to use whenever greater than that of the incoming water sup-
required by the administrative authority. The ply (this may be zero).
method to be followed should be per AWWA or
11. All work and certification of performance NOTE: It should be understood that local code
should be performed by approved applica- requirements, if more stringent than above sug-
tors or qualified personnel with chemical and gested procedures, shall be included in the speci-
laboratory experience. Certification of perfor- fications.
mance should indicate:
• Name and location of the job and date REFERENCES
when disinfection was performed.
• Material used for disinfection. 1. American Water Works Association (AWWA).
AWWA cross connection control manual. New York.
• Retention period of disinfectant in pip-
ing system. 2. AWWA. AWWA standard for disinfecting water
mains, AWWA C601.
• Ppm (mg/L) chlorine during retention.
3. AWWA. AWWA standard for disinfection of water
• Ppm (mg/L) chlorine after flushing. storage facilities, AWWAD105.
• Statement that disinfection was per- 4. AWWA. Standard for hypochlorites, AWWA B300,
formed as specified. AWWA M22.
• Signature and address of company/per- 5. AWWA. Standard for liquid chlorine, AWWAB301.
son performing disinfection.
6. Manas, V.T. National plumbing code illustrated
12. Upon completion of final flushing (after re- handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill.
tention period) the contractor should obtain 7. n.a. 1978. Piping systems fundamentals and ap-
a minimum of one water sample from each plication. Plant Engineer Magazine.
hot and cold-water line and submit samples
to a state/province and/or local, approved 8. US Department of Commerce, National Bureau
of Standards. BMS 65, Methods of estimating
laboratory. Samples should be taken from loads in plumbing systems, by R.B. Hunter.
faucets located at the highest floor and fur- Washington, DC.
thest from the meter or main water supply.
The laboratory report should show the fol- 9. US Department of Commerce, National Bureau
of Standards. BMS 66, Plumbing manual. Wash-
lowing: ington, DC.
• Name and address of approved labora- 10. US Department of Commerce, National Bureau
tory testing the sample. of Standards. BMS 79, Water distributing sys-
• Name and location of job and date the tems for buildings, by R.B. Hunter. Washington,
DC.
samples were obtained.
• The coliform organism count. An accept- 11. White, George Clifford. 1972. Handbook of chlo-
rination. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
able test shall show the absence of
coliform organisms. (Some codes require
an acceptable test for 2 consecutive days.)
• Any other tests required by local code
authorities.
13. If analysis does not satisfy the above mini-
mum requirements, the disinfection proce-
dure must be repeated.
14. Before acceptance of the systems, the con-
tractor should submit to the architect (engi-
neer) for his review 3 copies of the laboratory
report and 3 copies of the certification of per-
formance as specified above.
15. Under no circumstances should the contrac-
tor permit the use of any portion of domestic
water systems until they are properly disin-
fected, flushed, and certified.
Chapter 6 — Domestic Water Heating Systems 157
6
Domestic
Water-
Heating
Systems
INTRODUCTION scalding water at fixtures must be prevented in

the design stage.
Proper design of the domestic hot-water supply An economic heat source is of prime impor-
system for any building is extremely important. tance in conserving energy. Various sources
Careful planning on the basis of all available data
include coal, gas, oil, steam, condensate, waste
will ensure an adequate supply of water at the
hot water, and solar energy. The availability and
desired temperature to each fixture at all times.
cost of any of these sources or combinations of
A properly designed system must, of course, con-
these sources will dictate selection. If an espe-
form with all the regulations of the authorities cially economical source is not adequate to satisfy
having jurisdiction. the total demand, then it can be used to preheat
The design objectives for an efficient hot- the cold-water supply to the heater.
water distribution system include:
An economical and durable installation can
1. Providing adequate amounts of water at the be achieved by judicious selection of the proper
prescribed temperature to all fixtures and materials and equipment. The piping layout also
equipment at all times. has a marked effect on this objective and will
later determine the ease of replacement and
2. A system that will perform its function safely.
repair.
3. The utilization of an economical heat source.
Cost-effective operation and maintenance
4. A cost-effective and durable installation. also depend upon the proper pre-selection of
5. An economical operating system with reason- materials and equipment. The choice of
able maintenance. instantaneous or storage type heaters, the se-
lection of insulation on heaters and piping, the
A brief discussion of each of these objectives location of piping (avoiding cold, unheated ar-
is warranted. Any well-designed system should eas), the ease of circulation (the avoidance of
deliver the prescribed temperature at the outlet drops and rises in piping), bypasses around
almost instantaneously to avoid the wasteful pumps and tanks, and adequate valving acces-
running of water until the desired temperature sibility are all items that affect the operation and
is achieved. The hot water should be available at maintenance of a system.
any time of the day or night and during low-
demand periods as well as peak flows. The design of a domestic water-heating sys-
tem begins with estimating the facility’s load
Safety must be built into any hot-water sys- profile and identifying the peak demand times.
tem, and the safety features must operate To accomplish these steps, the designer must
automatically. The two paramount dangers to be conduct discussions with the users of the space,
guarded against are excessive pressures and tem- determine the building type, and learn of any
peratures. Exploding hot-water heaters and owner requirements. The information thus gath-
ered will establish the required capacity of the 2.27 m3 4188.32 kJ

q = ___________ ______________ (333.15−283.15 K)
water heating equipment and the general type of 9 h m3/K
system to be used.
= 475 374 kJ/h
A
BASIC FORMULAE AND UNITS Note: The designer should be aware that water
heaters installed in high elevations must be de-
The equations in this chapter are based on the rated based on the elevation. The water heaters’
principle of energy conservation. The fundamen- manufacturers’ data should be consulted for in-
tal formula for this expresses a steady-state heat formation on required modifications.
balance for the heat input and output of the
system:
HEAT RECOVERY—ELECTRIC
Equation 6-1 WATER HEATERS
q = r w c ∆T
It takes 1 Btu of energy to raise 1 lb of water
where 1°F. Since 1 kW is equal to 3413 Btu and 1 gal of
water weighs 8.33 lb, then it would take 1 kW of
q = Time rate of heat transfer,
Btu/h (kJ/h) electrical power to raise 410 gal (1552.02 L) of
water 1°F. This can be expressed in a series of
r = Flow rate, gph (L/h) formulae, as follows:
w = Weight of heated water, lb (kg)
Equation 6-3
c = Specific heat of water,
Btu/lb/°F (kJ/kg/K) 410 gal
= gal of water per kW at ∆T
∆T = Change in heated water temperature ∆T
(temperature of leaving water minus
1552.02 L
temperature of incoming water, = L of water per kW at ∆T
represented as Th – Tc, °F [K]) ∆T
For the purposes of this discussion, the spe- Equation 6-4

cific heat of water is constant, c = 1 Btu/lb/°F
(c = 4.19 kJ/kg/K), and the weight of water is gph × ∆T
= kW required
constant at 8.33 lb/gal (999.6 kg/m3). 410 gal
Equation 6-2 L/h · ∆T

= kW required
1552.02 L
1 Btu 8.33 lb
q = gph (∆T)
lb/°F gal Equation 6-5
m3 4.188 kJ 999.6 kg gph

q = ____ ____________ ___________ (∆T) = kW required
9 h kg/K m3 A gal of water per kW at ∆T
L/h
Example 6-1 Calculate the heat output rate = kW required
L of water per kW at ∆T
required to heat 600 gph from 50 to 140°F (2.27
m3/h from 283.15 to 333.15K). where
Solution From Equation 6-2, ∆T = Temperature rise (temperature
differential), °F (°C)
8.33 Btu
q = 600 gph (140−50°F) = 449,820 Btu/h gph = Gallons per hour of hot water
gal /°F required
L/h = Liters per hour of hot water Table 6-1 Typical Hot-Water Temperatures
required for Plumbing Fixtures and Equipment
Equation 6-3 can be used to establish a
Use Temperature
simple table based on the required temperature
°F (°C)
rise.
Temperature Rise, ∆ T, Gal (L) of Water Lavatory
°F (°C) per kW
Hand washing 105 (40)
110 (43) 3.73 (14.12) Shaving 115 (45)
Showers and tubs 110 (43)
100 (38) 4.10 (15.52)
Therapeutic baths 95 (35)
90 (32) 4.55 (17.22) Surgical scrubbing 110 (43)
80 (27) 5.13 (19.42) Commercial and institutional

laundry 140–180 (60–82)
70 (21) 5.86 (22.18) Residential dishwashing
and laundry 140 (60)
60 (16) 6.83 (25.85)
Commercial, spray-type dishwashing
(as required by the NSF):
50 (10) 8.20 (31.04)
Single or multiple-tank hood
40 (4) 10.25 (38.8) or rack type:
This table can be used with Equation 6-5 to solve Wash 150 min. (66 min.)
for the kW electric element needed to heat the Final rinse 180–195 (82–91)
required recovery volume of water.
Single-tank conveyor type:
Example 6-2 An electric water heater must be Wash 160 min. (71 min.)
sized based on the following information: (a) 40
gph (151.42 L/h) of hot water at a temperature Final rinse 180–195 (82–91)
of 140°F (43°C) is required. (b) The incoming Single-tank rack or door type:
water supply during winter is 40°F (4°C).
Single-temperature
Solution Using Equation 6-5 and the above wash and rinse 165 min. (74 min.)
table, we find the following: Chemical sanitizing glassware:
40 gph Wash 140 (60)
= 9.8 kW required
4.1 gal (100°F) Rinse 75 min. (24 min.)
151.42 L/h
= 9.8 kW required Note: Be aware that temperatures, as dictated by codes, owners,
15.52 L (38°C) equipment manufacturers, or regulatory agencies, will occasion-
ally differ from those shown.
HOT-WATER TEMPERATURE MIXED-WATER TEMPERATURE

The generally accepted minimum hot-water tem-
Mixing water at different temperatures to make
peratures for various plumbing fixtures and
a desired mixed-water temperature is the main
equipment are given in Table 6-1. Both tempera-
purpose of domestic hot-water systems.
ture and pressure should be verified with the
client and checked against local codes and the “P” is a hot-water multiplier and can be used
manuals of equipment used. to determine the percentage of supply hot water
that will blend the hot and cold water to pro-
duce a desired mixed-water temperature.
Equation 6-6 consideration. Because of these high flow rates

and the typical on-off operation, the efficiencies
Tm – Tc of instantaneous heaters are lower than those of
P =
T h – Tc storage type heaters.
where “Booster heaters” are used to raise the tem-

perature of the regular hot-water supply to some
Th = Supply hot-water temperature higher-than-normal temperature needed to per-
Tc = Inlet cold-water temperature form special functions. Booster heaters are
Tm = Desired mixed-water temperature utilized in applications such as commercial dish-
washers where there is a limited use of very hot
Values of P for a range of hot and cold water water. They can be located near their point of
temperatures are given in Table 6-2. intended use and have simple controls, minimal
Example 6-3 A group of showers requires 25 waste, and smooth operation.
gpm (1.58 L/s) of 105°F (41°C) mixed-water tem- “Semi-instantaneous heaters” contain be-
perature. Determine how much 140°F (60°C) hot tween 10 and 20 s of domestic water storage,
water must be supplied to the showers when the according to their rated heating capacity. This
cold-water temperature is 50°F (10°C). small quantity of water is adequate to allow the
temperature-control system to react to sudden
Solution fluctuations in water flow and to maintain the
105 – 50°F outlet water temperature within ±5°F (2.7°C). The
P = = 0.61 temperature-control system is almost always
140 – 50°F
included with this type of heater as a package.
41 – 10°C
P = = 0.61
60 – 10°C Controls
Therefore, The purpose for having controls on a hot-water
0.61 (25 gpm) = 15.25 gpm of 140°F water required generator is to ensure that a sufficient volume
of hot water at the proper temperature for use is
[0.61 (1.58 L/s) = 0.96 L/s of 60°C water required]. provided to a facility. The control components
for water heaters differ depending on the type of
Table 6-2 may also be used to determine P.
heater and the manufacturer. Generally, water
heater controls should be checked with the equip-
WATER HEATERS ment manufacturer. Also, the various regulatory
and testing agencies have requirements for
controls that depend on the size and type of
The most commonly used type of water heater
for office buildings, multiple-unit dwellings, and equipment used.
other similar establishments is the “directly
heated, automatic storage heater.” Such heat- Stratification
ers are simple, inexpensive to install, and very
low maintenance. They are generally low-demand Because of its lighter density, warm water rises
heaters, with low Btu input so that the heating to the top of a storage tank. The result of this
of the water is spread over several hours. This rising action, known as “stratification,” occurs
reduces the amount of heating medium required. in all unrecirculated tanks. It has been found
Commonly used heating mediums are electric- that the amount of usable temperature water in
ity, fuel gas, and steam. stratified horizontal and vertical tanks is about
65% and 75%, respectively.
“Instantaneous” types of water heater must
have sufficient capacity to provide the maximum Stratification during recovery periods can be
flow rate of hot water at an adequate tempera- reduced significantly by mechanical circulation
ture. The instantaneous heater finds its best of the water in the tank. During periods of de-
application where water-heating demands are mand, however, it is useful to have good
constant, such as for swimming pools, certain stratification since this increases the availabil-
dishwasher booster requirements, and industrial ity of water at a usable temperature. If, for
processes, or where space conditions are a prime example, a tank were equally stratified between
Table 6-2 Hot-Water Multiplier, P
Th = 110°F Hot-Water System Temperature

Tm, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (°F)
Tc, CW
Temp. (°F) 110 105 100 95
45 1.00 0.92 0.85 0.77
50 1.00 0.92 0.83 0.75
55 1.00 0.91 0.82 0.73
60 1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70
65 1.00 0.89 0.78 0.67

Tc, CW
Temp. (°F) 120 115 110 105 100 95
45 1.00 0.93 0.87 0.80 0.73 0.67
50 1.00 0.93 0.86 0.79 0.71 0.64
55 1.00 0.92 0.85 0.77 0.69 0.62
60 1.00 0.92 0.83 0.75 0.67 0.58
65 1.00 0.91 0.82 0.73 0.64 0.55

Tc, CW
Temp. (°F) 130 125 120 115 110 105 100 95
45 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.82 0.76 0.71 0.65 0.59
50 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.81 0.75 0.69 0.63 0.56
55 1.00 0.93 0.87 0.80 0.73 0.67 0.60 0.53
60 1.00 0.93 0.86 0.79 0.71 0.64 0.57 0.50
65 1.00 0.92 0.85 0.77 0.69 0.62 0.54 0.46

Tc, CW
Temp. (°F) 140 135 130 125 120 115 110 105 100 95
45 1.00 0.95 0.89 0.84 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.53
50 1.00 0.94 0.89 0.83 0.78 0.72 0.67 0.61 0.56 0.50
55 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.82 0.76 0.71 0.65 0.59 0.53 0.47
60 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.81 0.75 0.69 0.63 0.56 0.50 0.44
65 1.00 0.93 0.87 0.80 0.73 0.67 0.60 0.53 0.47 0.40
(Continued)

Tc, CW
Temp. (°F) 150 145 140 135 130 125 120 115 110 105 100
45 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.86 0.81 0.76 0.71 0.67 0.62 0.57 0.52
50 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50
55 1.00 0.95 0.89 0.84 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.53 0.47
60 1.00 0.94 0.89 0.83 0.78 0.72 0.67 0.61 0.56 0.50 0.44
65 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.82 0.76 0.71 0.65 0.59 0.53 0.47 0.41

Tc, CW
Temp. (°F) 160 155 150 145 140 135 130 125 120 115 110
45 1.00 0.96 0.91 0.87 0.83 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.65 0.61 0.57
50 1.00 0.95 0.91 0.86 0.82 0.77 0.73 0.68 0.64 0.59 0.55
55 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.86 0.81 0.76 0.71 0.67 0.62 0.57 0.52
60 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50
65 1.00 0.95 0.89 0.84 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.53 0.47

Tc, CW
Temp. (°F) 180 175 170 165 160 155 150 145 140 135 130
45 1.00 0.96 0.93 0.89 0.85 0.81 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.67 0.63
50 1.00 0.96 0.92 0.88 0.85 0.81 0.77 0.73 0.69 0.65 0.62
55 1.00 0.96 0.92 0.88 0.84 0.80 0.76 0.72 0.68 0.64 0.60
60 1.00 0.96 0.92 0.88 0.83 0.79 0.75 0.71 0.67 0.63 0.58
65 1.00 0.96 0.91 0.87 0.83 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.65 0.61 0.57
110 1.00 0.93 0.86 0.79 0.71 0.64 0.57 0.50 0.43 0.36 0.29
120 1.00 0.92 0.83 0.75 0.67 0.58 0.50 0.42 0.33 0.25 0.17
130 1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10 ——
140 1.00 0.88 0.75 0.63 0.50 0.38 0.25 0.13 —— —— ——
150 1.00 0.83 0.67 0.50 0.33 0.17 —— —— —— —— ——
160 1.00 0.75 0.50 0.25 —— —— —— —— —— —— ——
Table 6-2 (M) Hot-Water Multiplier, P
Th = 43°C Hot-Water System Temperature

Tm, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (°C)
Tc, CW
Temp. (°C) 43 41 38 35
7 1.00 0.92 0.85 0.77
10 1.00 0.92 0.83 0.75
13 1.00 0.91 0.82 0.73
16 1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70
18 1.00 0.89 0.78 0.67

Tc, CW
Temp. (°C) 49 46 43 41 38 35
7 1.00 0.93 0.87 0.80 0.73 0.67
10 1.00 0.93 0.86 0.79 0.71 0.64
13 1.00 0.92 0.85 0.77 0.69 0.62
16 1.00 0.92 0.83 0.75 0.67 0.58
18 1.00 0.91 0.82 0.73 0.64 0.55

Tc, CW
Temp. (°C) 54 52 49 46 43 41 38 35
7 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.82 0.76 0.71 0.65 0.59
10 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.81 0.75 0.69 0.63 0.56
13 1.00 0.93 0.87 0.80 0.73 0.67 0.60 0.53
16 1.00 0.93 0.86 0.79 0.71 0.64 0.57 0.50
18 1.00 0.92 0.85 0.77 0.69 0.62 0.54 0.46

Tc, CW
Temp. (°C) 60 58 54 52 49 46 43 41 38 35
7 1.00 0.95 0.89 0.84 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.53
10 1.00 0.94 0.89 0.83 0.78 0.72 0.67 0.61 0.56 0.50
13 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.82 0.76 0.71 0.65 0.59 0.53 0.47
16 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.81 0.75 0.69 0.63 0.56 0.50 0.44
18 1.00 0.93 0.87 0.80 0.73 0.67 0.60 0.53 0.47 0.40
(Continued)

Tc, CW
Temp. (°C) 66 63 60 58 54 52 49 46 43 41 38
7 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.86 0.81 0.76 0.71 0.67 0.62 0.57 0.52
10 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50
13 1.00 0.95 0.89 0.84 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.53 0.47
16 1.00 0.94 0.89 0.83 0.78 0.72 0.67 0.61 0.56 0.50 0.44
18 1.00 0.94 0.88 0.82 0.76 0.71 0.65 0.59 0.53 0.47 0.41

Tc, CW
Temp. (°C) 71 68 66 63 60 58 54 52 49 46 43
7 1.00 0.96 0.91 0.87 0.83 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.65 0.61 0.57
10 1.00 0.95 0.91 0.86 0.82 0.77 0.73 0.68 0.64 0.59 0.55
13 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.86 0.81 0.76 0.71 0.67 0.62 0.57 0.52
16 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50
18 1.00 0.95 0.89 0.84 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.53 0.47

Tc, CW
Temp. (°C) 82 79 77 74 71 68 66 63 60 58 54
7 1.00 0.96 0.93 0.89 0.85 0.81 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.67 0.63
10 1.00 0.96 0.92 0.88 0.85 0.81 0.77 0.73 0.69 0.65 0.62
13 1.00 0.96 0.92 0.88 0.84 0.80 0.76 0.72 0.68 0.64 0.60
16 1.00 0.96 0.92 0.88 0.83 0.79 0.75 0.71 0.67 0.63 0.58
18 1.00 0.96 0.91 0.87 0.83 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.65 0.61 0.57
43 1.00 0.93 0.86 0.79 0.71 0.64 0.57 0.50 0.43 0.36 0.29
49 1.00 0.92 0.83 0.75 0.67 0.58 0.50 0.42 0.33 0.25 0.17
54 1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10 —
60 1.00 0.88 0.75 0.63 0.50 0.38 0.25 0.13 — — —
66 1.00 0.83 0.67 0.50 0.33 0.17 — — — — —
71 1.00 0.75 0.50 0.25 — — — — — — —
140°F (60°C) at the top and 40°F (4°C) at the 5. Calculate the rates of flow for various pipe
bottom, this tank, in theory, could still deliver sizes that will give the uniform pressure drop
half its volume at 140°F (60°C). But, if the two established in Step 4, and tabulate the re-
layers were completely mixed, the tank tempera- sults.
ture would drop to 90°F (32°C), which, in most
6. Size the system based upon the tabulation
cases, is an unusable temperature.
set up in Step 5.
7. With the sizes as established in Step 6, re-
HOT-WATER TEMPERATURE peat Steps 2 through 6 as a check on the
MAINTENANCE assumptions made.
As a guide to sizing circulation piping and
Hot water of a desired temperature should be circulation pumps, the following empirical meth-
readily available at any fixture. Either a hot-wa- ods are given but are not recommended in lieu
ter circulation system or an electronically heated of the more accurate procedures outlined above:
system shall be used to achieve this purpose.
1. An allowance of ½ gpm (0.23 L/min) is as-
signed for each small hot-water riser (¾–1
Hot-Water Circulation Systems
in. [1.9–2.54 cm]), 1 gpm (2.2 L/min) for each
Hot-water supply piping, whether insulated or medium-sized hot-water riser (1¼-1½ in.
not, transmits heat to the surrounding lower- [3.2–3.8 cm]), and 2 gpm (4.4 L/min) for each
temperature air by conduction, convection, and large-sized hot-water riser (2 in.[5 cm] and
radiation. The user wastes water while waiting larger).
for the desired temperature water to warm up 2. An allowance of 1 gpm (2.2 L/min) is assigned
the piping system. for each group of 20 hot-water-supplied fix-
The sizing of the circulation system includes tures.
selection of the pump, sizing the supply and re-
circulation piping, and selecting the insulation Self-Regulating Heat-Trace Systems
type and thickness. Recirculation systems may
not be practical for small systems but may be A heat-trace system is an economical, energy-
mandated for systems designed for such places efficient system for domestic hot-water tempera-
as food establishments. Proper sizing of the hot- ture maintenance. It is a self-regulating heating
water circulating system is essential for the cable installed on the hot-water supply pipes un-
efficient and economical operation of the hot-wa- derneath the standard pipe insulation. The cable
ter system. Oversizing will cause the system to adjusts its power output to compensate for varia-
lose additional heat and result in unnecessary tions in water and ambient temperatures. It
expenditures on equipment and installation. produces more heat if the temperature drops and
Undersizing will seriously hamper circulation and less heat if the temperature rises. The heating
thus starve the fixtures of the desired water tem- cable replaces supply-pipe heat losses at the
perature. point where heat loss occurs, thereby providing
continuous, energy-efficient hot-water tempera-
The procedure for sizing the hot-water cir- ture maintenance and eliminating the need for a
culating piping is as follows: recirculating system.
1. Calculate the heat-loss rates of the hot-wa- A one-pipe, heat-trace system design elimi-
ter supply piping. nates the need for designing complex re-
2. Calculate the heat-loss rates of the hot-wa- circulation systems with their pumps, piping net-
ter circulating piping. works, and complicated flow balancing, and
special cases, such as retrofits and multiple-pres-
3. Calculate the circulation rates for all parts sure zones, are simple to design.
of the circulating piping and the total circu-
lation rate required. The installation of a heat-trace system is
simple. The heating cable can be cut to length,
4. Determine the allowable uniform friction-head spliced, tee-branched, and terminated at the job
loss and the total head required to overcome site, which reduces installation costs. Also, fewer
friction losses in the piping when the water is plumbing components are needed; recirculating
flowing at the required circulation rate.
piping, pumps, and balancing valves are all elimi- 4. Long-term thermal stability (as determined by
nated. accelerated testing). The power retention of
the heating cable shall be at least 90%, after
The heat-trace system continuously main-
300 cycles, between 50 and 212°F (10 and
tains hot-water temperature at every point along
100°C).
the supply pipe. Unlike conventional recircula-
tion systems, the heat-trace system does not 5. High-temperature withstand. The heater shall
require the overheating of supply water to allow not decrease in resistance, overheat, or burn
for cooling; there is reduced heat loss from energy when powered at 208VAC and exposed to
supply piping, no heat loss from recirculation 499°F (205°C) in an oven for 30 min.
piping, and no pump to run. The heat-trace sys-
tem reduces the energy requirements of typical Selection Variables affecting the performance
domestic hot-water systems. of the heat-trace system include the system
range, time to tap, water wastages, and energy
Components All heating-cable components efficiency. The design engineer should consider
shall be UL listed for use as a part of the system these factors along with installation and life-cycle
to maintain hot-water temperature. Component costs when selecting the proper hot-water,
enclosures shall be rated NEMA 4X to prevent self-regulating, heat-trace system for a particu-
water ingress and corrosion. Installation shall lar building. The heat-trace system is a good
not require the installing contractor to cut into system, but it cannot be used in all applications.
heating cable core to expose the bus wires. For more complete design information, refer to
Connection systems requiring the installing con- the ASPE Domestic Water Heating Design Manual.
tractor to strip the bus wires, or that use crimps
or terminal blocks shall not be acceptable. All
components, except for the power connection, RELIEF VALVES
shall be re-enterable for servicing. No component
shall use silicone to seal the electrical connectors. Water-heating systems shall be protected from
excessive temperatures and pressures by relief
Performance valves. Temperature and pressure (T&P) relief
valves are available either separately or com-
1. Operating temperatures. The system shall
bined. A combination T&P relief valve is preferred
maintain a nominal temperature of 105°F
because it offers a more economical and yet ef-
(40°C), 115°F (45°C), 125°F (50°C), or 140°F
fective protective procedure.
(60°C), at 208VAC.
A relief valve on a water-supply system is
2. Maintenance temperature. Each hot-water
exposed to many elements that can affect its
system temperature shall be maintained by
performance, such as corrosive water that at-
specifying only one product. Temperature
tacks materials, and deposits of lime, which close
shall be maintained with heating cable on
up waterways and flow passages. For these rea-
the pipe.
sons, the minimum size of the valve should be
Insulation thickness shall be as follows: ¾ in. (19 mm) for inlet and outlet connections,
Pipe Size, Fiberglass Insulation with the waterways within the valve of an area
in. (mm) Thickness, in. (cm) not less than the area of the inlet connection.
Relief valves should be tested on a regular basis
½–1 (13–25) 1 (2.54) to ensure safe and proper operation.
1¼–2 (32–50) 1½ (3.81)
2½–6 (65–150) 2 (5.08) All valves should have a discharge pipe con-
nected to its outlet and terminate at a point where
Note: For pipe sizes 1¼ in. and smaller, use the discharge will cause no damage to property
¼-in. larger diameter insulation to allow for or injury to persons. The discharge pipe size shall
installation over cable. be at least the size of the valve discharge outlet,
3. Power control self-regulating index. The slope shall be as short as possible, and shall run down
of the power–temperature curve or graph to its terminal without sags or traps.
shall be such that the power of the heating Typically, T&P relief valves are tested to com-
cable shall increase as the temperature de- ply with the standards of the American Society
creases, at a rate of at least 0.028W/ft-°F of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), the American
(0.16 W/m-°C) from 50–100°F (10–39°C). Gas Association (AGA), or the National Board of
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors (NBBPVI) THERMAL EXPANSION

and are so labeled. The designer should verify
which agency’s standards are applicable to the Water expands as it is heated. This expansion
water-heating system being designed and follow shall be provided for in a domestic hot-water sys-
those standards for the sizes, types, and loca- tem to avoid damage to the piping. Use of a
tions of required relief valves. thermal expansion tank in the cold-water piping
to the water heater will accomplish this. It is
Sizing Pressure and recommended that the designer contact the
Temperature-Relief Valves manufacturer of the thermal expansion tank for
information on installation and sizing. Plumb-
The following information applies to heaters with ing codes require some type of thermal expansion
more than 200,000 Btu (211 000 kJ) input: compensation—expecially when there is either a
backflow-prevention device on the cold-water
Temperature relief valves These shall have the service to the building or a check valve in the
capacity to prevent water temperature from ex- system.
ceeding 210°F (99°C). They shall be water rated
on the basis of 1250 Btu (1319 kJ) for each gph Relying only on the T&P relief valve to relieve
of water discharged at 30 lb (13.6 kg) working the pressure is not good practice. Many local
pressure and a maximum temperature of 210°F codes now require expansion tanks for systems
(99°C). over 4-gal (8.8-L) capacity.
The temperature rating is the maximum rate The relevant properties of water are shown
of heat input to a heater on which a tempera- in Table 6-3.
ture-relief valve can be installed and is Example 6-4 Using Table 6-3, determine the
determined as follows: thermal expansion of a typical residence. Assume
the initial heating cycle has incoming water at
Equation 6-7
40°F (4°C) and a temperature rise of 100°F (38°C).
gph water heated × 8.33 × ∆T(°F) Btu valve The water heater is 50-gal (189-L) capacity and
= capacity req’d the piping system volume is 10 gal (38 L).
0.8
L/h water heated × 1 kg/L × ∆T(°C) Solution
kJ valve
= capacity req’d
0.8 Specific volume of water @ 40°F = 0.01602 ft3/lb
Specific volume of water @ 140°F = 0.01629 ft3/lb
Pressure relief valves These shall have the ca- Sv 40°F 0.01602
pacity to prevent a pressure rise in excess of 10% = = 1.66% increase in volume
of the set opening pressure. They shall be set at Sv 140°F 0.01629
a pressure not exceeding the working pressure Total volume = 50-gal tank + 10-gal system = 60 gal
of the tank or heater.
60 gal × 1.66% volume increase = 1-gal expansion
The pressure rating is the maximum output
of a boiler or heater on which a pressure-relief 1 gal × 8.33 lb/gal × 0.01628 ft3/lb = 0.1356 ft3 =
valve can be used and is determined as follows: 19.5 in.3
Equation 6-8 (Specific volume of water @ 4°C = 0.00100 m3/kg
gph water heated × 8.33 × ∆T (°F) = Btu valve Specific volume of water @ 60°C = 0.00102 m3/kg
capacity req’d
Sv 4°C 0.00100
[L/h water heated × 1.0 kg/L × ∆T (°C) = kJ valve = = 1.66% increase in volume
capacity req’d] Sv 60°C 0.00102
Determine the Btu capacity required, then refer Total volume = 189-L tank + 38-L system = 227 L
to a manufacturer’s catalog for valve size 227 L × 1.66% volume increase = 3.79-L expansion
selection.
3.79 L × 1 kg/L × 0.0010 m3/kg = 0.0038 m3 = 380
cm3 expansion)
Table 6-3 Thermal Properties of Water

Saturation Specific
Temperature Pressure Volume Density Weight Specific Heat
°F °C psig kPa ft3/lb m3/kg lb/ft3 kg/m3 lb/gal kg/m3 Btu/lb-°F-h J/kg-°C-h
32 0.0 29.8 3 019.6 0.01602 0.00100 62.42 999.87 8.345 1001.40 1.0093 4225.74
40 4.4 29.7 3 009.5 0.01602 0.00100 62.42 999.87 8.345 1001.40 1.0048 4206.90
50 10.0 29.6 2 999.4 0.01603 0.00100 62.38 999.23 8.340 1000.80 1.0015 4193.08
60 15.5 29.5 2 989.2 0.01604 0.00100 62.34 998.59 8.334 1000.08 0.9995 4184.71
70 21.1 29.3 2 969.0 0.01606 0.00100 62.27 997.47 8.325 999.00 0.9982 4179.26
80 26.7 28.9 2 928.4 0.01608 0.00100 62.19 996.19 8.314 997.68 0.9975 4176.33
90 32.2 28.6 2 898.0 0.01610 0.00100 62.11 994.91 8.303 996.36 0.9971 4174.66
100 37.8 28.1 2 847.4 0.01613 0.00101 62.00 993.14 8.289 994.68 0.9970 4174.24
110 43.3 27.4 2 776.4 0.01617 0.00101 61.84 990.58 8.267 992.04 0.9971 4174.66
120 48.9 26.6 2 695.4 0.01620 0.00101 61.73 988.82 8.253 990.36 0.9974 4175.91
130 54.4 25.5 2 583.9 0.01625 0.00101 61.54 985.78 8.227 987.24 0.9978 4177.59
140 60.0 24.1 2 442.1 0.01629 0.00102 61.39 983.37 8.207 984.84 0.9984 4180.10
150 65.6 22.4 2 269.8 0.01634 0.00102 61.20 980.33 8.182 981.84 0.9990 4182.61
160 71.1 20.3 2 057.0 0.01639 0.00102 61.01 977.29 8.156 978.72 0.9998 4185.96
170 76.7 17.8 1 803.7 0.01645 0.00103 60.79 973.76 8.127 975.24 1.0007 4189.73
180 82.2 14.7 1 489.6 0.01651 0.00103 60.57 970.24 8.098 971.76 1.0017 4193.92
190 87.8 10.9 1 104.5 0.01657 0.00103 60.35 966.71 8.068 968.16 1.0028 4198.52
200 93.3 6.5 658.6 0.01663 0.00104 60.13 963.19 8.039 964.68 1.0039 4203.13
210 98.9 1.2 121.6 0.01670 0.00104 59.88 959.19 8.005 960.60 1.0052 4208.57
212 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.01672 0.00104 59.81 958.06 7.996 959.52 1.0055 4209.83
220 104.4 2.5 253.3 0.01677 0.00105 59.63 955.18 7.972 956.64 1.0068 4215.27
240 115.6 10.3 1 043.7 0.01692 0.00106 59.10 946.69 7.901 948.12 1.0104 4230.34
260 126.7 20.7 2 097.5 0.01709 0.00107 58.51 937.24 7.822 938.64 1.0148 4248.76
280 137.8 34.5 3 495.9 0.01726 0.00108 57.94 928.11 7.746 929.52 1.0200 4270.54
300 148.9 52.3 5 299.6 0.01745 0.00109 57.31 918.02 7.662 919.44 1.0260 4295.66
350 176.7 119.9 12 149.5 0.01799 0.00112 55.59 890.47 7.432 891.84 1.0440 4371.02
400 204.4 232.6 23 569.4 0.01864 0.00116 55.63 891.11 7.172 860.64 1.0670 4467.32
450 232.2 407.9 41 332.5 0.01940 0.00121 51.55 825.75 6.892 827.04 1.0950 4584.55
500 260.0 666.1 67 495.9 0.02040 0.00127 49.02 785.22 6.553 786.36 1.1300 4731.08
550 287.8 1030.5 104 420.6 0.02180 0.00136 45.87 734.77 6.132 735.84 1.2000 5024.16
600 315.6 1528.2 154 852.5 0.02360 0.00147 42.37 678.70 5.664 679.68 1.3620 5702.42
THERMAL EFFICIENCY a number of American Legionnaires contracted

it during a convention. That outbreak was at-
When inefficiencies of the water-heating process tributed to the water vapor from the building’s
are considered, the actual input energy is higher cooling tower(s). The bacteria that cause Legion-
than the usable, or output, energy. Direct-fired naires’ disease are widespread in natural sources
water heaters (i.e., those that use gas, oil, etc.) of water, including rivers, lakes, streams, and
lose part of their total energy capability to such ponds. In warm water, the bacteria can grow and
things as heated flue gases, inefficiencies of com- multiply to high concentrations. Drinking water
bustion, and radiation at heated surfaces. Their containing the Legionella bacteria has no known
“thermal efficiency,” Et, is defined as the heat effects. However, inhalation of the bacteria into
actually transferred to the domestic water divided the lungs, e.g., while showering, can cause Le-
by the total heat input to the water heater. Ex- gionnaires’ disease. Much has been published
pressed as a percentage, this is about this problem, and yet there is still contro-
versy over the exact temperatures that foster the
Equation 6-9 growth of the bacteria. Further research is re-
quired, for there is still much to be learned. It is
q−B
Et = × 100% incumbent upon designers to familiarize them-
q selves with the latest information on the subject
and to take it into account when designing their
where
systems. Designers also must be familiar with
B = Internal heat loss of the water heater, and abide by the rules of all regulating agencies
Btu/h (kJ/h) with jurisdiction.
q = Time rate of heat transfer, Btu/h
(kJ/h) Scalding1
Refer to Equations 6-1 and 6-2 to determine q. A research project by Moritz and Henriques at
Many water heaters and boilers provide input Harvard Medical College2 looked at the relation-
and output energy information. ship between time and water temperature
Example 6-5 Calculate the heat input rate re- necessary to produce a first-degree burn. A first-
quired for the water heater in Example 6-1 if degree burn, the least serious type, results in no
this is a direct gas-fired water heater with a ther- irreversible damage. The results of the research
mal efficiency of 80%. show that it takes a 3-s exposure to 140°F (60°C)
water to produce a first-degree burn. At 130°F
Solution (54°C), it takes approximately 20 s, and at 120°F
(49°C), it takes 8 min to produce a first-degree
From Example 6-1, q = 449,820 Btu/h (475 374 kJ/h). burn.
Heat input =
q 449,820 Btu/h The normal threshold of pain is approxi-
= = 562,275 Btu/h mately 118°F (48°C). A person exposed to 120°F
Et 0.80 (49°C) water would immediately experience dis-
q 475 374 kJ/h comfort; it is unlikely then that the person would
= = 594 217.5 kJ/h be exposed for the 8 min required to produce a
Et 0.80 first-degree burn. People in some occupancies
(e. g., hospitals), as well as those over the age of
65 and under the age of 1, may not sense pain
SAFETY AND HEALTH CONCERNS or move quickly enough to avoid a burn once
pain is sensed. If such a possibility exists, scald-
Legionella Pneumophila ing protection should be considered. It is often
(Legionnaires’ Disease) required by code. (For more information on skin
damage caused by exposure to hot water, see
Legionnaires’ disease is a potentially fatal respi-
Table 6-4.)
ratory illness. The disease gained notoriety when
1For more information regarding “Scalding,” refer to ASPE

Research Foundation, 1989.
2Moritz and Henriques, 1947.
Table 6-4 Time/Water Temperature specific requirements that must be observed

Combinations Producing Skin Damage when designing projects and selecting equipment
for them.
Water Temperature
°F °C Time (s)
REFERENCES
Over 140 Over 60 Less than 1 1. ASPE Research Foundation. 1989. Temperature
140 60 2.6 limits in service hot water systems. Journal of
Environmental Health (June): 38-48.
135 58 5.5
130 54 15 2. Moritz, A. R., and F. C. Henriques, Jr. 1947. The
relative importance of time and surface tempera-
125 52 50 ture in the causation of cutaneous burns. American
120 49 290 Journal of Pathology 23: 695-720.
Source: Tom Byrley. 1979. 130 degrees F or 140 degrees F. Con-

tractor Magazine (September). First published in American Journal
of Pathology.
Note: The above data indicate conditions producing the first evi-
dence of skin damage in adult males.
CODES AND STANDARDS

The need to conform to various codes and stan-
dards determines many aspects of the design of
a domestic hot-water system as well as the se-
lection of components and equipment.
Some of the most often used codes and stan-
dards are:
1. Regional, state, and local plumbing codes.
2. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating,
and Air-Conditioning Engineers ASHRAE/
IES 90.1.
3. American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME) code for fired and unfired pressure
vessels.
4. ASME and American Gas Association (AGA)
codes for relief valves.
5. Underwriters’ Laboratory (UL) listing for elec-
trical components.
6. National Sanitation Foundation (NSF) listing.
7. AGA approval for gas-burning components.
8. National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
standards.
9. National Electrical Code (NEC).
10. Department of Health and Environmental
Control (DHEC).
In addition, the federal government, the agen-
cies with jurisdiction over public schools and
public housing, and many other agencies have
Chapter 7 — Fuel-Gas Piping Systems 173
7
Fuel-Gas
Piping
Systems
LOW AND MEDIUM-PRESSURE This chapter covers fuel-gas systems on con-

NATURAL GAS SYSTEMS sumers’ premises—that is, upstream and
downstream from the gas supplier’s meter set
The composition, specific gravity, and heating assembly—and includes system design and ap-
value of natural gas vary depending upon the pliance gas usage, gas train venting, ventilation,
well (or field) from which the gas is gathered. and combustion air requirements. Since natu-
Natural gas is a mixture of gases, most of which ral gas is a depletable energy resource, the
are hydrocarbons, and the predominant hydro- engineer should design for its efficient use. The
carbon is methane. Some natural gases contain direct utilization of natural gas is preferable to
significant quantities of nitrogen, carbon diox- the use of electrical energy when electricity is
ide, or sulfur (usually as H2S). Natural gases obtained from the combustion of gas or oil. How-
containing sulfur or carbon dioxide are apt to be ever, in many areas, the gas supplier and/or
corrosive. These corrosive substances are usu- governmental agencies may impose regulations
ally eliminated by treatment of the natural gas that restrict the use of natural gas. Refer to the
before it is transmitted to the customers. Readily chapter “Energy Conservation in Plumbing Sys-
condensable petroleum gases are also usually tems,” in Data Book Volume 1, for information
extracted before the natural gas is put into the on appliance efficiencies and energy conserva-
pipeline to prevent condensation during trans- tion recommendations.
mission.
The specific gravity of natural gas varies from Design Considerations
0.55 to 1.0 and the heating value varies from
900 to 1100 Btu/ft3 (33.9 to 41.5 mJ/m3). Natu- The energy available in 1 cubic foot (cubic meter)
ral gas is nominally rated at 1000 Btu/ft3 (37.7 of natural gas, at atmospheric pressure, is called
J/m3), manufactured gas is nominally rated at the “heating (or caloric) value.” The flow of gas,
520 Btu/ft3 (20 mJ/m3), and mixed gas is nomi- expressed in cubic feet per hour (cfh) or cubic
nally rated at 800 Btu/ft3 (30.1 mJ/m3). Liquefied meters per hour (m3/h), in the distribution pip-
petroleum gases (LPG) are nominally rated at ing depends on the amount of gas being
2500 Btu/ft3 (94.1 mJ/m3). Natural gas is trans- consumed by the appliances. This quantity of
mitted from the fields to the local marketing and gas depends on the requirements of the appli-
distribution systems at very high pressures, usu- ances. For example, 33,200 Btu/h (35 mJ/h) are
ally in the range of 500 to 1000 psi (3447.4 to required to raise the temperature of 40 gal (151.4
6894.8 kPa). Local distribution systems are at L) of water from 40 to 140°F (4.4 to 60°C) in 1
much lower pressures. The plumbing engineer hour. This value is obtained as follows:
should determine the specific gravity, pressure, Equation 7-1
and heating value of the gas from the utility com-
pany or LPG provider serving the project area. Q = m × Cp × ∆T
where Btu/ft3 (J/m3)

Q = Energy required, Btu/h (J/h) When the exact data on the appliance’s gas
m = Mass flow, gal/h (L/h) usage is unavailable from the equipment manu-
facturer, Table 7-1 can be used to obtain the
Cp = Specific heat of water, 1 Btu/°F (J/°C)
approximate requirements for common appli-
∆T = Temperature rise, °F (°C) ances.
Q = (40 gal/h)(8.33 lb/gal)(1 Btu/lb-°F)(100°F) = The gas pressure in the piping system down-
33,320 Btu/h stream of the meter is usually 5 to 14 in. (127 to
[Q = (151 L/h)(1 kg/L)(6.1 kJ/kg-°C)(38°C) = 355.6 mm) of water column (wc). Design prac-
35 MJ/h] tice limits the pressure losses in the piping to
0.5 in. (12.7 mm) wc, or less than 10%, when 5
If the water heater in this case is 80% effi- to 14 in. (127 to 355.6 mm) wc is available at the
cient, then 41,650 Btu/h (43.8 mJ/h) of gas will meter outlet. However, local codes may dictate a
be needed at the appliance’s burner (33,320 Btu/ more stringent pressure drop maximum; these
h/.80). If natural gas with a heating value of 1000 should be consulted before the system is sized.
Btu/ft3 (37.7 mJ/m3) serves the appliance, the Most appliances require approximately 5 in.
piping system must supply 41.7 cfh (1.2 m3/h) (127mm) wc; however, the designer must be
of gas to the appliance with adequate pressure aware that large appliances, such as boilers, may
to allow proper burner operation. The formula require higher gas pressures to operate properly.
for the flow rate of gas is shown below: Where appliances require higher pressures or
where long distribution lines are involved, it may
Equation 7-2
be necessary to use higher pressures at the meter
Output outlet to satisfy the appliance requirements or
Q =
(Eff × HV) provide for greater pressure losses in the piping
where system. If greater pressure at the meter outlet
can be attained, a greater pressure drop can be
Q = Gas flow rate, cfh (m3/h) allowed in the piping system. If the greater pres-
Output = Appliance’s output, Btu/h (J/h) sure drop design can be used, a more economical
piping system is possible. Systems are often de-
Eff = Appliance’s efficiency, %
signed with meter outlet pressures of 3 to 5 psi
HV = Heating value of the fuel gas, (20.7 to 34.5 kPa) and with pressure regulators
Btu/ft3 (J/m3) to reduce the pressure for appliances as required.
The difference between the input and the out- The designer has to allow for the venting of such
put is the heat lost in the burner, the heat regulators, often to the atmosphere, when they
exchanger, and the flue gases. Water heating and are installed within buildings.
space heating equipment is usually 75 to 85% When bottled gas is used, the tank can have
efficient, and ratings are given for both input and as much as 150 psi (1044.6 kPa) pressure, to be
output. Cooking and laundry equipment is usu- reduced to the burner design pressure of 11 in.
ally 75 to 85% efficient, and ratings are given for (279.4 mm) wc. The regulator is normally located
both input and output. However, cooking and at the tank for this pressure reduction.
laundry equipment is usually rated only by its
input requirements. When the input required for To size the gas piping for a distribution sys-
the appliance is known, Equation 7-2 is ex- tem, the designer must determine the following
pressed as follows: items:
1. The appliance requirements, including the
Equation 7-3
gas consumption, pressure, and pipe size re-
Input quired at the appliance connection (total
Q =
HV connected load). Is the appliance provided
where with a pressure regulator?
Q = Gas flow rate, cfh (m3/h) 2. The piping layout, showing the length of (hori-
zontal and vertical) piping, number of fittings
Input = Appliance’s input, Btu/h (J/h) and valves, and number of appliances.
HV = Heating value of the fuel gas,
Table 7-1 Approximate Gas Demand for Common Appliancesa

Appliance Input, Btu/h (mJ/h)
Commercial kitchen equipment

Small broiler 30,000 (31.7)
Large broiler 60,000 (63.3)
Combination broiler and roaster 66,000 (69.6)
Coffee maker, 3-burner 18,000 (19)
Coffee maker, 4-burner 24,000 (25.3)
Deep fat fryer, 45 lb (20.4 kg) of fat 50,000 (52.8)
Deep fat fryer, 75 lb (34.1 kg) of fat 75,000 (79.1)
Doughnut fryer, 200 lb (90.8 kg) of fat 72,000 (76)
2-deck baking and roasting oven 100,000 (105.5)
3-deck baking oven 96,000 (101.3)
Revolving oven, 4 or 5 trays 210,000 (221.6)
Range with hot top and oven 90,000 (95)
Range with hot top 45,000 (47.5)
Range with fry top and oven 100,000 (105.5)
Range with fry top 50,000 (52.8)
Coffee urn, single, 5-gal (18.9 L) 28,000 (29.5)
Coffee urn, twin, 10-gal. (37.9 L) 56,000 (59.1)
Coffee urn, twin, 15-gal (56.8 L) 84,000 (88.6)
Stackable convection oven, per section of oven 60,000 (63.3)
Residential equipment
Clothes dryer (Type I) 35,000 (36.9)
Range 65,000 (68.6)
Stove-top burners (each) 40,000 (42.2)
Oven 25,000 (26.4)
30-gal (113.6-L) water heater 30,000 (31.7)
40 to 50-gal (151.4 to 189.3-L) water heater 50,000 (52.8)
Log lighter 25,000 (26.4)
Barbecue 50,000 (52.8)
Miscellaneous equipment
Commercial log lighter 50,000 (52.8)
Bunsen burner 5,000 (5.3)
Gas engine, per horsepower (745.7 W) 10,000 (10.6)
Steam boiler, per horsepower (745.7 W) 50,000 (52.8)
Commercial clothes dryer (Type 2) See manufacturer’s data.
aThe values given in this table should be used only when the manufacturer’s data are not available.
3. The fuel gas to be supplied, where and by care should be taken so that, in the event of gas
whom; also the specific gravity and heating leakage, gas will not accumulate in the concealed
value of the fuel gas and the pressure to be space. The installation of gas piping in an
provided at the meter outlet. unventilated space under a building should be
avoided. Such conditions have resulted in disas-
4. The allowable pressure loss from the meter
trous explosions. A gas leak anywhere along the
to the appliances.
length of a buried pipe can flow in the annular
5. The diversity factor—the number of appli- space around the pipe and accumulate in a cavity
ances operating at one time compared to the under the building. Ignition of this accumulated
total number of connected appliances. This gas can result in an explosion. For this reason,
should be provided by the owner and/or user. it is best to try to locate the gas main above grade
Standard engineering methods may be used at the point of entrance into the building. If this
to determine pipe sizes for a system, or the ac- is not feasible, the main can be installed in a
ceptable capacity/pipe size tables may be used ventilated sleeve (containment pipe). The designer
when such tables are available for the specific should carefully detail this installation so that
operating conditions of the system under con- leaked gas will be harmlessly vented to the at-
sideration. The diversity factor is an important mosphere and not accumulated in the building.
item when determining the most practical pipe Gas piping should be located where it will not be
sizes to be used in occupancies such as mul- subject to damage by such things as vehicles,
tiple-family dwellings. It is dependent on the type forklifts, cranes, machinery, or occupants. Sup-
and number of gas appliances being installed. port of piping should be in accordance with codes
Refer to the “pipe sizing” section later in this and as described in the chapter “Hangers and
chapter. Supports,” in Data Book Volume 4 (forthcoming).
The most common material used for gas pip- Valves, controls, pressure regulators, and
ing is black steel; however, many other materials safety devices used in gas systems should be
are utilized, including copper, wrought iron, plas- designed and approved for such use. Shut-off
tic, brass, and aluminum alloy. The proper valves should be installed in accessible locations
material to be used depends on the specific and near each appliance, with a union between
installation conditions and local code limitations. the valve and the appliance. Shut-off valves
Any condition that could be detrimental to the should be of the plug or cock type with a lever
integrity of the piping system must be avoided. handle. Larger sizes should be of the lubricated
Corrosion and physical damage are the most ob- plug type. The quarter-turn lever handle provides
vious causes of pipe failure. The piping material visual indication of whether the valve is opened
itself and/or the provisions taken for the protec- or closed. An approved assembly of semirigid or
tion of the piping material must prevent the flexible tubing and fittings, referred to as an “ap-
possibility of pipe failure. Corrosion can occur pliance connector,” is sometimes used to connect
because of electrolysis or because a corrosive ma- the piping outlet to the appliance. Appliance con-
terial is in contact with either the exterior or the nectors are rated by capacity, based on a specified
interior surface of the piping. pressure, flow, and pressure drop.
Coatings are commonly applied to buried me-

Laboratory Gas
tallic pipe to prevent corrosion of the exterior
surface. The gas supplier should be contacted to Natural gas or propane gas is used in laborato-
determine if the gas contains any corrosive ma- ries at lab benches for Bunsen burners and other
terial, such as moisture, hydrogen sulfide (H2S), minor users. Typical Bunsen burners consume
or carbon dioxide (CO2). Due to the grave conse- either 5000 cfh (141.6 m3/h) (small burners) or
quences of leakage in the gas piping system, the 10,000 cfh (283.2 m3/h) (large burners). The
designer must carefully consider the piping ma- maximum pressure at the burner should not
terial to be used and the means to protect the exceed 14 in. wc (355.6 mm wc).
piping and protect against leaks.
The gas distribution piping should be sized
Gas piping should be installed only in safe in the manner discussed later in this chapter;
locations. Buried piping should be installed deep however, the following diversities may be applied:
enough to protect the pipe from physical dam-
age. When piping is installed in concealed spaces,
Minimum insurance underwriter. The plumbing designer

Flow, must be aware of the existence of these stan-
Number of Outlets Use Factor cfh (m3/h) dards—especially when designing piping for
boilers with input capacities of 2,500,000 Btu/h
1–8 100 9 (0.26)
(732 kW) or more that are not listed by a nation-
9–16 90 15 (0.43)
ally recognized testing laboratory agency, e.g.,
17–29 80 24 (0.68) equipment that does not bear a UL label or have
30–79 60 48 (1.36) Factory Mutual Research Corporation (FMRC)
80–162 50 82 (2.32) approval listing.
163–325 45 107 (3.03) Industrial-boiler gas trains often require
326–742 40 131 (3.71) multiple, piped, gas-train vents to the atmo-
743–1570 30 260 (7.36) sphere. These are usually ¾ in., and the material
1571–2900 25 472 (13.37) used should follow the classification as specified
2901 and up 20 726 (20.56) in NFPA 54 under the heading “Gas Piping Sys-
tem Design, Materials, and Components.” Where
Branch piping that serves one or two labora- multiple gas-train vents are indicated, each shall
tories should be sized for 100% usage regardless run independently to the atmosphere. Care must
of the number of outlets. Use factors should be be exercised in the location of the termination
modified to suit special conditions and must be points of these pipes. Vent pipes should termi-
used with judgment after consultation with the nate with 90° ells turned down vertically and be
owner and/or user. protected with an insect screen over the outlet.
Some local codes require that laboratory gas It should be noted that when the pressure
systems, especially those in schools or universi- regulators activate they can release large
ties, be supplied with emergency gas shut-off amounts of fuel gas. It is not uncommon for a
valves on the supply to each laboratory. The valve local fire department to be sumoned to investi-
should be normally closed and opened only when gate an odor of gas caused by a gas-train vent
the gas is being used. It should be located inside discharge. Every attempt should be made to lo-
the laboratory and used in conjunction with shut- cate the terminal point of the vents above the
off valves at the benches or equipment, which line of the roof and away from doors, windows,
may be required by other codes. The designer and fresh-air intakes. It should also be located
should ensure that locations meet local code re- on a side of the building that is not protected
quirements. from the wind. Refer to NFPA 54 and local codes
Where compressed air is also supplied to the for vent locations.
laboratory, aluminum check valves should be
provided on the supply to the laboratory to pre- Appliances
vent air from being injected back into the gas
system. An alternative to aluminum check valves Most manufacturers of gas appliances rate their
is gas turrets with integral check valves. equipment by the gas consumption values that
are used to determine the maximum gas flow
Gas Train Vents rate in the piping. Table 7-1 shows the approxi-
mate gas consumption for some common
Guidelines for the use of vents from pressure appliances.
regulators, also referred to as “gas-train vents,” The products of combustion from an appli-
can be found in the latest editions of NFPA 54 ance must be safely exhausted to the outside. This
and Factory Mutual (FM) Loss Prevention Data is accomplished with a gas vent system in most
Sheet 6-4, as well as in other publications of in- cases. Where an appliance has a very low rate of
dustry standards, such as those issued by gas consumption (e.g., Bunsen burner or counter-
Industrial Risk Insurers (IRI) and the American top coffee maker) or where an appliance has an
Gas Association (AGA). As a practical matter, exhaust system associated with the appliance
many boiler manufacturers can provide resource (e.g., gas clothes dryer or range), and the room
materials, such as gas-train venting schemes, size and ventilation are adequate, a gas vent sys-
that reference standards organizations. Factors tem may not be required. Current practice usually
that determine which standard to reference are dictates the use of factory-fabricated and listed
based upon the input (Btu/h) and the owner’s
vents for small to medium-sized appliances. Large approach is used, a great deal of care must be
appliances and equipment may require specially taken when designing vents that are horizontal.
designed venting or exhaust systems. It is recommended that every system be engi-
neered and checked for compliance with codes.
For proper operation, the gas vent system
A conservative design is warranted in light of
must satisfy the appliance draft and building
the hazards involved.
safety requirements. To meet these conditions,
consideration of combustion and ventilation air Combustion air is required for the proper
supplies, draft hood dilution, startup conditions, operation of gas appliances. In addition to the
flue gas temperatures, oxygen depletion, exter- theoretical amount of air required for combus-
nal wind conditions, and pollution dispersion is tion, excess air is necessary to assure complete
required. For example, appliances equipped with combustion. Approximately 1 ft3 (0.03 m3) of air
draft hoods need excess vent capacity to draw in at standard conditions is needed for each 100
the draft hood dilution air and prevent draft hood Btu (1055 J) of fuel burned. Air is also required
spillage. Inadequate combustion air supply can for the dilution of flue gases when draft hoods
cause oxygen depletion and inadequate firing. are provided. Some additional amount of air is
This condition can create a safety hazard because also needed for ventilation of the equipment
of a combination of draft hood spillage and inad- room. This air for combustion, dilution, and ven-
equate flue gas removal. The motive force tilation is usually supplied by permanent
exhausting flue gases from an appliance can be openings or ducts connected to the outdoors. Two
gravity (a natural draft due to the difference in openings should be supplied. One opening should
densities between hot flue gases and ambient be high (above the draft hood inlet) and the other
air) or mechanical (induced-draft fan or forced- opening should be low (below the combustion
draft fan). The motive force involved affects the air inlet to the appliance). The size of these open-
size and configurations that may safely be ap- ings can be determined by standard engineering
plied to a vent system. The designer is referred methods, based on the air balance in the equip-
to the chapter on gas vent systems of the local ment room and taking into account the energy
mechanical or plumbing code and to the data (natural draft or mechanical) available to draw
developed by the manufacturers of gas vents for air into the room; however, these must comply
sizing information. Due to the fact that many with codes, which usually give more conserva-
codes require that appliances conform to an ap- tive opening sizes, based on the area of the
proved standard, such as the American Gas opening required per Btu (J) of gas consumed.
Association (AGA), a simple approach to the de-
sign of vent systems can be as follows: Gas Boosters
1. The vent system conforms to the manu- Definition A “gas booster” is a mechanical piece
facturer’s instructions and the terms of the of equipment that increases the pressure of gas
listing. for the purpose of meeting equipment or func-
2. The gravity vents cannot exceed certain hori- tional demands. It is used when there is
zontal lengths, must exceed certain minimum insufficient pressure available from the gas utility
slopes upward to their vertical chimneys, and or LPG storage device to supply the necessary pres-
cannot terminate less than 5 ft (1.5 m) above sure to the equipment at hand. It is important to
the appliance outlet. note that the gas service must be capable of the
volumetric flow rate required at the boosted level.
3. The vent size cannot be smaller than the vent
A booster cannot overcome an inadequate volu-
connector collar size of the appliance.
metric supply. (See “Sizing a Gas Booster” below.)
4. The size of a single vent that services more
than one appliance must not be less than Gas boosters for natural or liquefied petroleum
the area of the largest vent connector served gas Boosters for natural or utility-supplied gas
plus 50% of the areas of the additional vent are hermetically sealed and are equipped to de-
connectors. liver a volumetric flow rate (user defined but within
the booster’s rated capacity) to an elevated pres-
Since vent chimney heights and flue gas tem-
sure beyond the supply pressure. The outlet
peratures determine the theoretical draft, there
pressure usually remains at a constant differen-
are many situations where the above approach
tial above the supply pressure within a reasonable
will produce oversized vent systems. Whatever
range. The discharge pressure is the sum of the
incoming gas pressure and the booster-added pres- equipped with an optional hi/low gas-pressure
sure at the chosen flow rate. The incoming gas switch. This feature equips the booster to run
pressure usually has an upper safety limit as stipu- only when adequate supply pressure is available.
lated by the hermetic gas booster manufacturer. The switch shuts the booster down at the maxi-
Therefore, in the engineering literature from the mum discharge set-point pressure at the output
manufacturer, the engineer may find cautions or line pressure.
warnings about the upper limits of incoming pres-
sure, usually about 5 psi (34.5 kPa). Minimum gas flow Gas boosters normally re-
quire a minimum gas flow that serves as an
Materials of construction internal cooling medium. For example, a booster
sized at a flow rate of 10,000 cfh (283.2 m3/h)
Housing and rotor Boosters used for fuel gas will have an inherent minimum turndown based
must be UL listed for the specific duty intended on the minimum flow required to cool the unit.
and shall be hermetically sealed. Casings on This rate, in the example, may be, say 2000 cfh
standard boosters are usually constructed of (566.3 m3/h) (see Figure 7-2). Should the unit
carbon steel, depending on the equipment sup- be required to run below this turndown rate, ad-
plier. Booster casings are also available in ditional supplemental cooling systems must be
stainless steel and aluminum. Inlet and outlet incorporated into the booster design. The heat
connections are threaded or flanged, depending exchangers normally rated for this use are wa-
on the pipe size connection and the manufac- ter cooled.
turer selected, and the casings are constructed
leak tight. Drive impellers are contained within Intrinsic safety Electrical connections are
the casing and always manufactured of a spark- made through a sealed, explosion-proof conduit
resistant material such as aluminum. to the XP junction box on the booster unit. Con-
Discharge type check valves are furnished on trol panels are rated NEMA 4 for outdoor use
the booster inlet and on the booster bypass. It is and NEMA 12 for indoor use unless the booster
important that these checks are listed and ap- system is to be located in a hazardous area, which
proved for use on the gas stream at hand. The may have additional requirements. The panel,
fan, control panel, valves, piping, and interelec- as an assembly, must display a UL label specific
trical connections can be specified as a for its intended use.
skid-mounted package at the discretion of the
Gas laws
designer. This allows for UL listing of the entire
package rather than of individual components. Pressure-volume relationships The gas laws
apply to the relationship of the incoming gas sup-
Electrical components Motor housings for
ply and the boosted service. The standard law for
gas-booster systems are designed for explosion- compressed gas relationships is as follows:
proof (XP) construction and are rated per NEMA
Class 1, Division 1, Group D classification with Equation 7-4
thermal overload protection. A factory UL listed
junction box with a protected, sealed inlet is nec- PV = RT
essary for wiring connections. where
P = Pressure, psi or in. wc
Other electrical ancillary equipment Boost-
(kPa or mm wc)
ers are equipped with low-pressure switches that
monitor the incoming gas pressure. The switch V = Volume, cfh (m3/h)
is designed to shut down the booster should the R = Constant for the gas-air mixture
utility-supplied pressure fall below a preset limit. used
The set point is usually about 3 in. (80 mm) wa-
ter column (wc), but the designer should verify T = Temperature, °F (°C)
the limit with the local gas provider. The switch Usually the temperature of the gas remains
must be UL listed for use with the gas service at relatively constant and can therefore be ignored
hand. When the switch opens, it de-energizes in the relationship. Therefore, the pressure times
the motor control circuit and simultaneously the volume is proportional to a constant R. Fur-
outputs both audible and visual signals, which ther, the pressure/volume ratios before and after
require manual resetting. The booster can be the booster are proportional, that is:
Equation 7-5 level and a boiler in the penthouse of a 50-story

building, it may be necessary to boost the sup-
P1V1 = P2V2
ply to the kitchen but not to the boiler. The gas
where rises to the penthouse through the piping sys-
P1 = Pressure at a point prior to the tem because of the density differential, its rising
booster is dependent on this stack effect, which is di-
rectly related to the piping system layout.
P2 = Pressure at a point after the booster
For almost every case, the volumetric rating Design considerations Although a gas booster
of gas-fired equipment is in Btu/h, which can is a basic mechanical piece of equipment, there
readily be converted to cfh. In the booster appli- are significant design considerations that should
cation, sizing criteria should be approached from be taken into account when applying it:
a “standard” cfh (scfh) not an “actual” cfh (acfh)
1. Indoor vs. outdoor location. This may be
rating.
driven by local code or the end user. An in-
Gas temperatures and density As stated, the door location involves a lower initial cost and
temperature of the gas is usually constant. How- lower costs for long-term maintenance. Out-
ever, in the event that the gas is to be heated or door locations are inherently safer.
cooled, the above gas laws are affected by tem- 2. Access. The location should be accessible for
perature. Gas-density changes affect the constant installation, inspection, and maintenance. The
but usually do not affect the relationship since unit should not be so accessible as to create a
the same mixture is boosted across the fan. security issue. Keep the equipment out of
traffic patterns and protect it from heavy equip-
High-rise building issues It should be noted ment.
that consideration must be given to the rise ef-
fect in available gas pressure as gas rises in the 3. Minimum and maximum flow rates. Boosters
piping through a high-rise building. Therefore, usually have a minumum flow rate that must
if the gas system supplies a kitchen on the first be maintained so that the booster’s motor is
(A)
(B)
(C)
Figure 7-1 Variations of a Basic Simplex Booster System: (A) Standby Generator
Application with Accumulator Tank Having a Limitation on Maximum Pressure,
(B) Dual Booster System for Critical Systems Like Those in Hospitals,
(C) Heat Exchanger Loop Example—Required for High Flow Range with Low Minimum Flow.
kept cool. When specifying a booster, always Minimum design flow (Qmin) The minimum
indicate the minimum flow required in addi- volumetric flow that could exist while the booster
tion to other design parameters. Cooling is operating. This flow is not always associated
devices and bypass loops may be required if with the smallest Btu/h rated piece of equipment.
the application requires a turndown in flow For example, when evaluating a 75,000,000 Btu/
(lowest flow expected) that is higher than the h (7.5 mmBtu/h) boiler with a 10:1 turndown ratio
booster’s minimum flow. in comparison to 1.0 mmBtu/h (0.3 mmW) hot-
4. Controls and interlocking. Determine how the water heater that is on/off in operation, the larger
Btu/h (W) rated boiler has the smaller flow of 0.75
application should be controlled and what
mmBtu/h (0.2 mmW) at its minimum firing rate.
demands the application will put on the sys-
tem. The control philosophy, method of Turndown (TD) ratio The ratio of the MCR in-
electrically interlocking the system to the gas- put to the equipment’s minimum or “low-fire”
fired equipment, and physical hardware will input. For example, a 100 mmBtu/h (29.3 mmW)
vary based on the application. burner that can fire at a minimum rate of 20
For some specific examples, see the schemat- mmBtu/h (5.9 mmW) has a TD ratio of 5:1.
ics in Figure 7-1, which shows variations of a
basic simplex booster system for an emergency Pressure “droop” and peak consumption
generator. In Figure 7-1(A), the regulator con- “Pressure droop” is the inability of a supply sys-
trols maximum delivered pressure, and a tem to maintain a steady or consistent inlet
combination high/low pressure switch on the pressure as an increase in volumetric flow is de-
tank cycles the booster to ensure emergency manded. Often, in areas where boosters are
startup pressure within a design deadband for applied, the supply pressure in off-peak months
the generator. Oversized piping, in this case, when gas is not in such demand can be suffi-
can be substituted for the tank itself. Provide cient to run a system. As the local demand for
adequate volume so that the generator can fire gas increases, the supply system can no longer
and deliver standby power back to the booster provide the gas efficiently and the pressure falls
system to continue operation during main off or droops. It is the booster’s function to over-
power interrupt. In Figure 7-1(B), a dual come the droop (or excessive pressure drop) of
booster system, the booster is controlled in a the supply system during such times.
lead/lag control scenario. Should one booster
Flow rate relationships Do your flows for
fail, the second is started automatically. Unit
separate pieces of equipment relate to each other?
operation is rotated automatically via the con-
In other words, do the three boilers always oper-
trol panel to share the duty and to keep both
ate in unison while another process machine
units in operating order. The booster with a
always operates off peak and alone? Relation-
heat-exchanger loop shown in Figure 7-1(C)
ships among the equipment can significantly
has a potential of up to 15 psi (103.4 kPa),
affect both maximum and minimum flow rates.
and down to 28 in. wc (711.2 mm wc) supply
pressure. The system automatically diverts gas Test block A factor of safety added to design
around the booster if there is sufficient sup- criteria. Typically, a minimum of 5% added vol-
ply pressure. While these illustrations ume and 10% added static pressure should be
obviously do not cover all the potential appli- applied to the design criteria. When specifying
cations, they are provided to give the system the equipment, ensure that you note both the
designer some guidance. design and test block conditions. This makes
other people working on the system aware and
Sizing a gas booster A gas booster’s main pur-
pose is to elevate the pressure of a volume of gas ensures that safety factors are not applied to
to overcome a supply-pressure deficiency. When criteria that already include safety factors.
sizing a booster, an engineer needs to under- Minimum inlet pressure (PI-min) What is the
stand the following terms and issues: minimum supply pressure in in. (mm) wc gage?
This must be evaluated during peak flow de-
Maximum design flow (Qmax) The sum of all gas
mands both for the equipment and for the local
loads at the maximum capacity rating (MCR) for
all equipment downstream of the booster that could area! Always evaluate during flow, not static, con-
possibly be required to operate simultaneously. ditions! It is also important to know how high
the inlet pressure is expected to rise during off-
peak periods. A booster is typically rated to about 7. Test block flow (QTB) = (1.05 × Qmin) to (1.05 ×
5 psi (34.5 kPa). It may be possible to exceed Qmax)
this rating during off-peak demand periods,
8. Test block pressure boost: 1.10 × ∆P = PI-eq +
therefore, a bypass system or other means of pro-
PPL – PI-min
tection is required. Often this pressure can be
specified by the local gas company as the mini- where
mum guaranteed gas pressure from their supply PPL = Pressure losses, psi (kPa)
system. Also, the maximum inlet pressure (PI-
max
) must be determined. Pipe Sizing
Maximum outlet pressure (PO-max) List all maxi- A number of formulae can be used to calculate
mum and required supply pressures for the the capacity of natural gas piping based on such
various pieces of equipment being supplied gas variables as delivery pressure, pressure drop
from the booster. Determine the differential be- through the piping system, pipe size, pipe mate-
tween the highest expected gas pressure supply rial, and length of piping. Most of these formulae
to the booster (e.g., 8 in. wc [203.2 mm wc]) and are referenced in numerous current model codes,
the lowest maximum supply pressure rating to as well as in the NFPA standards. The most com-
a piece of equipment (e.g., 18 in. wc [457.2 mm monly referenced formula for gas pressures
wc]). The booster’s pressure gain should not ex- under 1½ psi (10.3 kPa), the NFPA formula listed
ceed this differential (for the above example, 18 in the National Fuel Gas Code, NFPA 54, was used
– 8 = 10 in. wc [457.2 – 203.2 = 254 mm wc]) as the basis for Tables 7-3 and 7-4. The other
unless other means of protecting the downstream commonly referenced equation, the Weymouth
equipment are provided. formula, was used as the basis for Table 7-5 and
Appendix Tables 7-A1 through 7-A6. The
Outlet pressure protection There are several Weymouth formula, referenced within these
ways to protect equipment downstream of a tables, is applicable only for initial gas pressures
booster should it be necessary due to potential greater than 1 psi (6.9 kPa). A third formula, the
over-pressurization during off-peak periods. If all Spitzglass formula, which is shown in Table 7-
the equipment being serviced operates at nomi- A7, is limited to gas pressures under 1 psi (6.9
nally the same pressure, install a regulator on kPa).
the inlet or outlet of the booster to maintain a
controlled maximum outlet pressure. If the equip- The design of piping systems for gas flow is a
ment being serviced operates at various inlet basic fluid flow problem and its solution is simi-
pressures, it may be best to supply a regulator lar to that for any other pipe sizing problem. The
for each piece of equipment. Most often, pack- required flow rate can easily be determined, the
aged equipment is supplied with its own pressure losses due to friction can be calculated,
regulator. If this is the case, review the equip- and the required residual pressure at each ap-
ment regulator’s maximum inlet pressure. pliance is usually known. Using basic engineering
formulae, the engineer can tabulate the various
To perform an evaluation of system require- quantities, establish the pipe sizes for each sec-
ments: tion of piping, and demonstrate the pressure and
1. Establish design Qmin and Qmax per the above flow rate at any point in the system. The flow of
definitions while evaluating TD requirements. gas in a pipe with pressures not exceeding 1 psi
(6.9 kPa) is often computed using the Spitzglass
2. Establish PI-min and PI-max per the above defi- formula, as shown below:
nitions.
3. Define maximum inlet pressure requirements Equation 7-6
to equipment (PI-eq).
h
Q = 3550 K
4. Define piping pressure losses (PPL) from gas q SL
booster location to each piece of equipment.
h ½
Q = 3550 K
5. Design flow rate (QD) = Qmin to Qmax, SL
cfh (m3/h) d5h ½
Q = 3550 3.6
6. Design pressure boost (∆P) = PI-eq + PPL –
PI-min SL 1 + d + 0.03d
where ing the capacities for the various pipe sizes and
Q = The gas at standard conditions, cfh (m /h) 3 lengths give solutions that are quickly and eas-
ily obtained and generally adequate for most situ-
K = Constant for a given pipe size ations. These tables are in many model codes
h = The pressure drop, in. (mm) wc and in National Fire Protection Association
(NFPA) Standard 54. The lengths shown are de-
S = Specific gravity of the gas veloped lengths (lengths measured along the cen-
L = Length of pipe, ft (m) ter line of the piping plus a fitting allowance).
The pressure drops include an allowance for a
The constant for a given pipe size (K) may be
nominal amount of valves and fittings.
calculated by using the following relation:
To determine the size of each section of pipe
Equation 7-7 in a gas-supply system using the gas pipe-sizing
D5 ½ tables, the following method should be used:
K =
1 + 3.6 + 0.03 × D 1. Measure the length of the pipe from the gas
D
meter location to the most remote outlet on
where the system. Add a fitting allowance.
K = Constant for a given pipe size 2. Select the column showing that distance (or
the next longer distance, if the table does not
D = Inside diameter of the pipe, in. (mm) give the exact length).
The length used in the above formula should 3. Use the vertical column to locate all gas de-
be corrected to allow for the added resistance to mand figures for this particular system.
flow caused by valves and fittings in the piping.
4. Starting at the most remote outlet, find in
This corrected length is called the “equiva- the vertical column the selected gas demand
lent length.” Table 7-2 gives the equivalent for that outlet. If the exact figure is not
lengths for various valve and fitting sizes. The shown, choose the next larger figure below
designer is cautioned to conform to applicable in the column.
codes for the project location.
5. Opposite this demand figure, in the first col-
The above method is accurate and gives a umn at the left, the correct size of pipe will
solution that has a definite technical basis. How- be found.
ever, in actual practice, published tables show-
Table 7-2 Equivalent Lengths for Various Valve and Fitting Sizes
Pipe Size, in. (mm)
Fitting ¾ (19.1) 1 (25.4) 1½ (38.1) 2 (50.8) 2½ (63.5) 3 (76.2) 4 (101.6) 5 (127) 6 (152.4) 8 (203.2)
Equivalent Lengths, ft (m)
90° elbow 1.00 2.00 2.50 3.00 4.00 5.50 6.50 9.00 12.0 15.0
(0.3) (0.61) (0.76) (0.91) (1.22) (1.68) (1.98) (2.74) (3.66) (4.57)
Tee (run) 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.50 2.00 3.00 3.50 4.50 6.00 7.00
(0.15) (0.23) (0.3) (0.46) (0.61) (0.91) (1.07) (1.37) (1.83) (2.13)
Tee (branch) 2.50 3.50 4.50 5.00 6.00 11.0 13.0 18.0 24.0 30.0
(0.76) (1.07) (1.37) (1.52) (1.83) (3.35) (3.96) (5.49) (7.32) (9.14)
Gas cock 4.00 5.00 7.50 9.00 12.0 17.0 20.0 28.0 37.0 46.0
(approx.) (1.22) (1.52) (2.29) (2.74) (3.66) (5.18) (6.1) (8.53) (11.28) (14.02)
Note: The pressure drop through valves should be taken from manufacturers’ published data rather than using the equivalent lengths, since
the various patterns of gas cocks can vary greatly.
6. Proceed in a similar manner for each outlet 1. The distance from the gas meter to outlet “A”
and each section of pipe. For each section of is 600 ft (182.9 m).
pipe, determine the total gas demand sup-
2. For sizing the pipe from outlet A to the meter,
plied by that section.
use Table 7-3:
7. To size all branches, other than the branch • Section 1: 400-ft (123-m) length, carry-
to the most remote outlet, measure the length ing 150 cfh (1.2 L/s)—using the 400-ft
of pipe from the outlet to the meter and fol-
(123 m) column, the size would be 1¼
low steps 1 through 6 above utilizing the new
in. (31.8 mm).
length.
• Section 2: 550-ft (168-m) length, carry-
For conditions other than those covered ing 600 cfh (4.7 L/s)—using an
above, the size of each gas piping system may be interpolation between the 500-ft (153.8-
determined by standard engineering methods ac- m) column and the 750-ft (230.7-m)
ceptable to the authority having jurisdiction. The column, the size would be 2½ in. (63.5
maximum allowable pressure drop through a mm).
system should not exceed 10% of the supply pres-
sure, which must be verified with the locally • Section 3: 600-ft (183-m) length, carry-
referenced code and the authority having juris- ing 2400 cfh (18.9 L/s)—using an
diction. interpolation between the 500-ft (153.8-
m) column and the 750-ft (230.7-m)
Where a gas of a different specific gravity is column, the size would be 4 in. (101.6
delivered or where the pressure differs from what mm).
the referenced gas tables in the local code show,
3. For sizing Section 4: from Table 7-3 on the
the size of the piping required must be calcu-
300-ft (91.4-m) column, carrying 450 cfh (3.5
lated by means of standard engineering methods
L/s), size would be 2 in. (50.8 mm)
acceptable to the authority having jurisdiction.
As an example, calculate the following pro- 4. For sizing Section 5: from Table 7-3 on the
posed system’s pipe size (see Figure 7-2): 100-ft (30.5-m) column, carrying 1800 cfh
(14.2 L/s), size would be 2½ in. (63.5 mm)
Figure 7-2
NFPA Formula:
186
h 0.541
Q = 2313 × D2.623 ×
Cr × L
Where: Q = Flow (ft3/h)
D = Internal pipe diameter (in.)
h = Pressure drop (in. wc)
Cr = Correction factor of 0.61
L = Total equivalent length of system piping (ft)
Given: h = 0.5 The pressure drop through the system
Cr = 0.61 Correction Factor ( = 0.61 if initial pressure < 1.5 psi)
S = 0.6 The specific gravity of the natural gas
Table 7-3 Natural Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressure < 1.5 psi
Total Equivalent Length of Longest Run of Piping in System (ft)
Pipe Actual
Size I.D.a 10 25 50 75 100 150 175 200 250 300 400 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 3000
(in.) (in.) Capacities (cfh)
½ 0.622 172 105 72 58 49 40 37 34 30 27 23 21 17 14 13 11 11 10 8

¾ 0.824 360 219 151 121 103 83 76 71 63 57 49 43 35 30 26 24 22 20 16
1 1.049 678 413 284 228 195 157 144 134 119 108 92 82 66 56 50 45 41 39 31
1¼ 1.38 1,391 847 582 468 400 321 296 275 244 221 189 168 135 115 102 92 85 79 64
1½ 1.61 2,084 1,270 873 701 600 482 443 412 365 331 283 251 202 173 153 139 127 119 95
2 2.067 4,014 2,445 1,681 1,350 1,155 928 853 794 704 637 546 484 388 332 295 267 246 228 183
2½ 2.469 6,398 3,897 2,679 2,151 1,841 1,478 1,360 1,265 1,121 1,016 870 771 619 530 469 425 391 364 292
3 3.068 11,310 6,890 4,735 3,802 3,254 2,613 2,404 2,237 1,982 1,796 1,537 1,362 1,094 936 830 752 692 644 517
4 4.026 23,070 14,052 9,658 7,756 6,638 5,331 4,904 4,562 4,043 3,664 3,136 2,779 2,232 1,910 1,693 1,534 1,411 1,313 1,054
5 5.047 41,736 25,423 17,473 14,031 12,009 9,644 8,872 8,254 7,315 6,628 5,673 5,028 4,037 3,456 3,063 2,775 2,553 2,375 1,907
6 6.065 67,580 41,166 28,293 22,720 19,446 15,615 14,366 13,365 11,845 10,732 9,186 8,141 6,538 5,595 4,959 4,493 4,134 3,846 3,088
8 7.981 138,852 84,580 58,131 46,681 39,953 32,084 29,517 27,460 24,337 22,051 18,873 16,727 13,432 11,496 10,189 9,232 8,493 7,901 6,345
10 10.02 252,192 153,619 105,582 84,786 72,566 58,273 53,610 49,874 44,202 40,051 34,278 30,380 24,396 20,880 18,506 16,767 15,426 14,351 1,524
12 11.938 399,251 243,199 167,149 134,227 114,881 92,253 84,872 78,957 69,978 63,405 54,267 48,095 38,622 33,056 29,297 26,545 24,421 22,719 18,244
Source: Reprinted, with permission, from data developed by the Boston chapter of ASPE.
a I.D. (internal diameter) based on schedule 40 steel pipe.
NFPA Formula:
h 0.541
Q = 0.00787 2313 × D2.623 ×
Cr × L
Where: Q = Flow (L/s)
D = Internal pipe diameter (mm)
h = Pressure drop (kPa or mm wc)
L = Total equivalent length of system piping (m)
Given: h = 12.7 The pressure drop through the system (mm wc)
Cr = 0.61 Correction factor ( = 0.61 if initial pressure < 10.3 kPa)
Table 7-3(M) Natural Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressure < 10.3 kPa
Total Equivalent Length of Longest Run of Piping in System (m)
Pipe Actual
Chapter 7 — Fuel-Gas Piping Systems
Size I.D.a 3.1 7.6 15.2 22.9 30.5 45.7 53.4 61.0 76.2 91.4 121.9 152.4 228.6 304.8 381 457.2 533.4 609.6 914.4
(mm) (mm) Capacities (L/s)
15 15.8 1.35 0.82 0.57 0.46 0.39 0.31 0.29 0.27 0.24 0.21 0.18 0.16 0.13 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.08 0.06
20 20.9 2.83 1.72 1.19 0.95 0.81 0.65 0.60 0.56 0.50 0.45 0.38 0.34 0.27 0.23 0.21 0.19 0.17 0.16 0.13
25 26.6 5.33 3.25 2.23 1.79 1.53 1.23 1.13 1.05 0.93 0.85 0.72 0.64 0.52 0.44 0.39 0.35 0.33 0.30 0.24
35 35.1 10.95 6.67 4.58 3.68 3.15 2.53 2.33 2.17 1.92 1.74 1.49 1.32 1.06 0.91 0.80 0.73 0.67 0.62 0.50
40 40.9 16.40 9.99 6.87 5.51 4.72 3.79 3.49 3.24 2.88 2.61 2.23 1.98 1.59 1.36 1.20 1.09 1.00 0.93 0.75
50 52.5 31.59 19.24 13.23 10.62 9.09 7.30 6.72 6.25 5.54 5.02 4.29 3.81 3.06 2.62 2.32 2.10 1.93 1.80 1.44
65 62.7 50.35 30.67 21.08 16.93 14.49 11.63 10.70 9.96 8.83 8.00 6.84 6.07 4.87 4.17 3.69 3.35 3.08 2.87 2.30
75 77.9 89.01 54.22 37.27 29.93 25.61 20.57 18.92 17.60 15.60 14.14 12.10 10.72 8.61 7.37 6.53 5.92 5.44 5.07 4.07
100 102.2 181.56 110.59 76.01 61.04 52.24 41.95 38.59 35.91 31.82 28.83 24.68 21.87 17.56 15.03 13.32 12.07 11.11 10.33 8.30
125 128.2 328.46 200.08 137.51 110.43 94.51 75.90 69.82 64.96 57.57 52.16 44.64 39.57 31.77 27.19 24.10 21.84 20.09 18.69 15.01
150 154.1 531.86 323.97 222.67 178.81 153.04 122.89 113.06 105.18 93.22 84.46 72.29 64.07 51.45 44.03 39.03 35.36 32.53 30.26 24.30
200 202.7 1092.76 665.64 457.49 367.38 314.43 252.50 232.30 216.11 191.53 173.54 148.53 131.64 105.71 90.47 80.19 72.65 66.84 62.18 49.93
250 254.5 1984.75 1208.98 830.93 667.26 571.09 458.61 421.91 392.51 347.87 315.20 269.77 239.09 192.00 164.33 145.64 131.96 121.40 112.94 90.69
300 303.2 3142.11 1913.97 1315.46 1056.36 904.11 726.03 667.94 621.39 550.73 499.00 427.08 378.51 303.96 260.15 230.56 208.91 192.19 178.80 143.58
187
NFPA Formula:
188
h 0.541
Q = 2313 × D2.623 ×
Cr × L
Where: Q = Flow (ft3/h)
D = Internal pipe diameter (in.)
Given: h = 0.3 The pressure drop through the system
Cr = 0.61 Correction factor ( = 0.61 if initial pressure < 1.5 psi)
Table 7-4 Natural Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressure < 1.5 psi
Total Equivalent Length of Longest Run of Piping in System (ft)
Pipe Actual
Size I.D.a 10 25 50 75 100 150 175 200 250 300 400 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 3000
(in.) (in.) Capacities (cfh)
½ 0.622 130 79 55 44 38 30 28 26 23 21 18 16 13 11 10 9 8 7 6
¾ 0.824 273 166 114 92 79 63 58 54 48 43 37 33 26 23 20 18 17 16 12
1 1.049 514 313 215 173 148 119 109 102 90 82 70 62 50 43 38 34 31 29 23
1¼ 1.38 1,055 643 442 355 304 244 224 209 185 168 143 127 102 87 77 70 65 60 48
1½ 1.61 1,581 963 662 532 455 365 336 313 277 251 215 190 153 131 116 105 97 90 72
2 2.067 3,045 1,855 1,275 1,024 876 704 647 602 534 484 414 367 295 252 223 202 186 173 139
2½ 2.469 4,853 2,956 2,032 1,632 1,396 1,121 1,032 960 851 771 660 585 469 402 356 323 297 276 222
3 3.068 8,579 5,226 3,592 2,884 2,469 1,982 1,824 1,697 1,504 1,362 1,166 1,034 830 710 630 570 525 488 392
4 4.026 17,499 10,659 7,326 5,883 5,035 4,043 3,720 3,461 3,067 2,779 2,379 2,108 1,693 1,449 1,284 1,163 1,070 996 800
5 5.047 31,659 19,284 13,254 10,643 9,109 7,315 6,730 6,261 5,549 5,028 4,303 3,814 3,063 2,621 2,323 2,105 1,936 1,801 1,447
6 6.065 51,263 31,226 21,461 17,234 14,750 11,845 10,897 10,138 8,985 8,141 6,968 6,175 4,959 4,244 3,762 3,408 3,136 2,917 2,342
8 7.981 105,325 64,157 44,095 35,410 30,306 24,337 22,390 20,829 18,461 16,727 14,316 12,688 10,189 8,720 7,729 7,003 6,442 5,993 4,813
10 10.02 191,298 116,527 80,088 64,314 55,044 44,202 40,666 37,832 33,529 30,380 26,001 23,045 18,506 15,838 14,037 12,719 11,701 10,886 8,742
12 11.938 302,849 184,476 126,790 101,817 87,142 69,978 64,379 59,892 53,081 48,095 41,163 36,482 29,297 25,074 22,223 20,135 18,524 17,233 13,839
NFPA Formula:
h 0.541
Q = 0.00787 2313 × D2.623 ×
Cr × L
Where: Q = Flow (L/s)
D = Internal pipe diameter (mm)
h = Pressure drop (kPa or mm wc)
Given: h = 12.7 The pressure drop through the system (mm wc)
Cr = 0.61 Correction factor ( = 0.61 if initial pressure < 10.3 kPa)
Table 7-4(M) Natural Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressure < 10.3 kPa
Total Equivalent Length of Longest Run of Piping in System (m)
Pipe Actual
Size I.D.a 3.1 7.6 15.2 22.9 30.5 45.7 53.4 61.0 76.2 91.4 121.9 152.4 228.6 304.8 381 457.2 533.4 609.6 914.4
(mm) (mm) Capacities (L/s)
15 15.8 1.03 0.63 0.43 0.35 0.30 0.24 0.22 0.20 0.18 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.05
20 20.9 2.15 1.31 0.90 0.72 0.62 0.50 0.46 0.42 0.38 0.34 0.29 0.26 0.21 0.18 0.16 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.10
25 26.6 4.04 2.46 1.69 1.36 1.16 0.93 0.86 0.80 0.71 0.64 0.55 0.49 0.39 0.33 0.30 0.27 0.25 0.23 0.18
35 35.1 8.30 5.06 3.48 2.79 2.39 1.92 1.77 1.64 1.46 1.32 1.13 1.00 0.80 0.69 0.61 0.55 0.51 0.47 0.38
40 40.9 12.44 7.58 5.21 4.18 3.58 2.88 2.65 2.46 2.18 1.98 1.69 1.50 1.20 1.03 0.91 0.83 0.76 0.71 0.57
50 52.5 23.96 14.60 10.03 8.06 6.90 5.54 5.09 4.74 4.20 3.81 3.26 2.89 2.32 1.98 1.76 1.59 1.47 1.36 1.10
65 62.7 38.19 23.27 15.99 12.84 10.99 8.83 8.12 7.55 6.69 6.07 5.19 4.60 3.69 3.16 2.80 2.54 2.34 2.17 1.75
75 77.9 67.52 41.13 28.27 22.70 19.43 15.60 14.35 13.35 11.83 10.72 9.18 8.13 6.53 5.59 4.95 4.49 4.13 3.84 3.09
100 102.2 137.72 83.89 57.66 46.30 39.63 31.82 29.28 27.24 24.14 21.87 18.72 16.59 13.32 11.40 10.11 9.16 8.42 7.84 6.29
125 128.2 249.15 151.77 104.31 83.76 71.69 57.57 52.96 49.27 43.67 39.57 33.87 30.01 24.10 20.63 18.28 16.57 15.24 14.18 11.39
150 154.1 403.44 245.75 168.90 135.63 116.08 93.22 85.76 79.78 70.71 64.07 54.84 48.60 39.03 33.40 29.60 26.82 24.68 22.96 18.44
200 202.7 828.91 504.92 347.03 278.67 238.51 191.53 176.21 163.93 145.28 131.64 112.67 99.85 80.19 68.63 60.82 55.11 50.70 47.17 37.88
250 254.5 1505.52 917.06 630.29 506.15 433.20 347.87 320.04 297.73 263.88 239.09 204.63 181.36 145.64 124.65 110.47 100.10 92.09 85.67 68.80
300 303.2 2383.42 1451.83 997.83 801.30 685.81 550.73 506.66 471.35 417.75 378.51 323.96 287.12 230.56 197.33 174.89 158.47 145.79 135.63 108.91
189
Weymouth Formula:
190
(P12 – P22) × D16/3 ½

Q = 2038.1
LS
Where: Q = Gas flow (cfh) Given: P1 = 2 Initial pressure in system (psi)

D = Internal pipe diameter (in.) P2 = 1 Final pressure in system (psi)
L = Total equivalent length, longest run of pipe (ft) S = 0.6 The specific gravity of the natural gas
S = Specific gravity of the gas
P1 = Initial pressure in the system (psi)
P2 = Final pressure of the system (psi)
Table 7-5 Natural Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressure > 1 psi
Pipe Size—Inside Diameter (in.)a
Nominal ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ 3 4 5 6 8 10 12
Total
Equivalent Actual 0.622 0.824 1.049 1.380 1.610 2.067 2.469 3.068 4.026 5.047 6.065 7.981 10.02 11.94
Length (ft) Capacities (cfh)
10 406 860 1,637 3,402 5,132 9,991 16,048 28,641 59,116 108,010 176,303 366,604 672,498 1,072,823
25 257 544 1,035 2,152 3,245 6,319 10,150 18,114 37,388 68,312 111,504 231,860 425,325 678,513
50 182 385 732 1,521 2,295 4,468 7,177 12,809 26,438 48,304 78,845 163,950 300,750 479,781
75 148 314 598 1,242 1,874 3,648 5,860 10,458 21,586 39,440 64,377 133,865 245,562 391,740
100 128 272 518 1,076 1,623 3,160 5,075 9,057 18,694 34,156 55,752 115,930 212,663 339,256
150 105 222 423 878 1,325 2,580 4,144 7,395 15,264 27,888 45,521 94,657 173,638 277,002
175 97 206 391 813 1,227 2,388 3,836 6,847 14,131 25,819 42,144 87,635 160,758 256,454
200 91 192 366 761 1,147 2,234 3,589 6,404 13,219 24,152 39,423 81,975 150,375 239,890
250 81 172 327 680 1,026 1,998 3,210 5,728 11,823 21,602 35,261 73,321 134,500 214,565
300 74 157 299 621 937 1,824 2,930 5,229 10,793 19,720 32,188 66,932 122,781 195,870
400 64 136 259 538 811 1,580 2,537 4,529 9,347 17,078 27,876 57,965 106,331 169,628
500 57 122 232 481 726 1,413 2,270 4,050 8,360 15,275 24,933 51,846 95,106 151,720
600 52 111 211 439 662 1,290 2,072 3,698 7,632 13,944 22,761 47,328 86,819 138,501
750 47 99 189 393 593 1,154 1,853 3,307 6,826 12,472 20,358 42,332 77,653 123,879
1000 41 86 164 340 513 999 1,605 2,864 5,912 10,801 17,630 36,660 67,250 107,282
1250 36 77 146 304 459 894 1,435 2,562 5,288 9,661 15,769 32,790 60,150 95,956
1500 33 70 134 278 419 816 1,310 2,339 4,827 8,819 14,395 29,933 54,909 87,596
1750 31 65 124 257 388 755 1,213 2,165 4,469 8,165 13,327 27,713 50,836 81,098
2000 29 61 116 241 363 706 1,135 2,025 4,180 7,637 12,466 25,923 47,553 75,860
2500 26 54 104 215 325 632 1,015 1,811 3,739 6,831 11,150 23,186 42,533 67,851
3000 23 50 95 196 296 577 927 1,654 3,413 6,236 10,179 21,166 38,827 61,939
4000 20 43 82 170 257 500 802 1,432 2,956 5,401 8,815 18,330 33,625 53,641
Weymouth Formula:
(P12 – P22) × D16/3 ½
Q = 16.04
LS
Where: Q = Gas flow (L3/s) Given: P1 = 13.8 Initial pressure of the system (kPa)
D = Internal pipe diameter (mm) P2 = 6.89 Final pressure of the system (kPa)
L = Total equivalent length, longest run of piping (m) S = 0.6 The specific gravity of the natural gas
P1 = Initial pressure in system (kPa)
P2 = Final pressure in system (kPa)
Table 7-5(M) Natural Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressure > 6.895 kPa
Pipe Size—Inside Diameter (mm)a
Nominal 15 20 25 35 40 50 65 75 100 125 150 200 250 300
Total
Length (m) Capacities (L/s)
3.1 3.20 6.77 12.9 26.8 40.4 78.6 126.3 225.4 465.2 850.0 1387.5 2885.2 5292.6 8443.1
7.6 2.02 4.28 8.15 16.9 25.5 49.7 79.9 142.6 294.2 537.6 877.5 1824.7 3347.3 5339.9
15.2 1.43 3.03 5.76 12.0 18.1 35.2 56.5 100.8 208.1 380.2 620.5 1290.3 2366.9 3775.9
22.9 1.17 2.47 4.70 9.78 14.7 28.7 46.1 82.3 169.9 310.4 506.6 1053.5 1932.6 3083.0
30.5 1.01 2.14 4.07 8.47 12.8 24.9 39.9 71.3 147.1 268.8 438.8 912.4 1673.7 2669.9
45.7 0.83 1.75 3.33 6.91 10.4 20.3 32.6 58.2 120.1 219.5 358.3 744.9 1366.5 2180.0
53.4 0.76 1.62 3.08 6.40 9.65 18.8 30.2 53.9 111.2 203.2 331.7 689.7 1265.2 2018.3
61.0 0.71 1.51 2.88 5.99 9.03 17.6 28.2 50.4 104.0 190.1 310.3 645.1 1183.5 1887.9
76.2 0.64 1.35 2.58 5.35 8.08 15.7 25.3 45.1 93.0 170.0 277.5 577.0 1058.5 1688.6
91.4 0.58 1.24 2.35 4.89 7.37 14.4 23.1 41.2 84.9 155.2 253.3 526.8 966.3 1541.5
121.9 0.51 1.07 2.04 4.23 6.39 12.4 20.0 35.6 73.6 134.4 219.4 456.2 836.8 1335.0
152.4 0.45 0.96 1.82 3.79 5.71 11.1 17.9 31.9 65.8 120.2 196.2 408.0 748.5 1194.0
182.9 0.41 0.87 1.66 3.46 5.21 10.2 16.3 29.1 60.1 109.7 179.1 372.5 683.3 1090.0
228.6 0.37 0.78 1.49 3.09 4.66 9.08 14.6 26.0 53.7 98.2 160.2 333.2 611.1 974.9
304.8 0.32 0.68 1.29 2.68 4.04 7.86 12.6 22.5 46.5 85.0 138.8 288.5 529.3 844.3
381.0 0.29 0.61 1.15 2.39 3.61 7.03 11.3 20.2 41.6 76.0 124.1 258.1 473.4 755.2
457.2 0.26 0.55 1.05 2.19 3.30 6.42 10.3 18.4 38.0 69.4 113.3 235.6 432.1 689.4
533.4 0.24 0.51 0.97 2.02 3.05 5.94 9.55 17.0 35.2 64.3 104.9 218.1 400.1 638.2
609.6 0.23 0.48 0.91 1.89 2.86 5.56 8.93 15.9 32.9 60.1 98.1 204.0 374.2 597.0
762.0 0.20 0.43 0.81 1.69 2.55 4.97 7.99 14.3 29.4 53.8 87.8 182.5 334.7 534.0
914.4 0.18 0.39 0.74 1.55 2.33 4.54 7.29 13.0 26.9 49.1 80.1 166.6 305.6 487.5
1219.2 0.16 0.34 0.64 1.34 2.02 3.93 6.32 11.3 23.3 42.5 69.4 144.3 264.6 422.2
191
Enter chart at left, with cubic feet per hour (liters per second), move horizontally to pipe diameter line, drop perpendicularly to length line and move
horizontally to read pressure drop at right.
Figure 7-3 Pipe Sizing, Low Pressure System with an Initial Pressure Up to 1 psi (6.9 kPa)
Source: Reprinted from data developed by the Pacific Gas and Electric Company.
Enter chart at left, with cubic feet per hour (liters per second), move horizontally to pipe diameter line, drop perpendicu-
larly to length line and move horizontally to read pressure drop at right.
Figure 7-4 Pipe Sizing, Any System with an Initial Pressure

Between 1 and 20 psi (6.9 and 137.8 kPa)
Source: Reprinted from data developed by the Pacific Gas and Electric Company.
Many codes, including American National LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS

Standards Institute (ANSI) Z223.1 and NFPA 54,
recommend the same procedures detailed above, Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is a refined natu-
except for Step 7. These codes recommend uti- ral gas developed mainly for use beyond the
lizing the same maximum distance column for utilities’ gas mains, but it has proven to be com-
all branch lines regardless of the exact distance petitive within the areas not covered by mains
from the meter. Steps 3 and 4 of the example in rural areas. It is chiefly a blend of propane
would be, from Table 7-3 on the 750-ft (230.7- and butane with traces of other hydrocarbons
m) column carrying 450 cfh (3.5 L/s) for Section remaining from the various production methods.
4 and 1800 cfh (14.2 L/s) for section 5, pipe sizes The exact blend is controlled by the LPG dis-
of 2½ in. (63.5 mm) and 4 in. (91.2 mm), respec- tributor to match the climatic conditions of the
tively. The designer should investigate the local area served. For this reason, the engineer must
code and apply the appropriate sizing procedure. confirm the heat value of the supplied gas. Un-
like natural gas, LPG has a specific gravity of
Therefore, for gas pressures less than 1 psi
(6.895 kPa), use Appendix Table 7-A7 and for 1.53 and a rating of 2500 Btu/cf (93 MJ/cm3).
gas pressures less than 1.5 psi (10.3 kPa), use The compact storage for relatively large quan-
Tables 7-3 or 7-4. For sizing systems with more tities of energy has led to widespread acceptance
than 1 psi (6.9 kPa) supply pressure, Tables 7-4 and usage of LPG in all areas previously served
and 7-5 and Appendix Tables 7-A1–A6 may be by utilities providing other gas to users, includ-
used. For sizing systems with less than 1 psi ing automotive users.
(6.9 kPa) pressure, Table 7-A7 may be used. The
use of these tables is similar to that described Storage
for Table 7-3.
Occasionally, it is necessary to size a natu- The LPG storage tanks can be provided by the
ral gas distribution system for pressures other vendor or the customer and are subject to the
than the conventional low and medium pressures regulations of the US Department of Transpor-
already discussed. Figures 7-3 and 7-4 are in- tation (DOT) and the local authority, as well as
cluded for such applications. (Proprietary pipe NFPA standards, so the plumbing designer has
sizing calculators are available which also solve little opportunity to design storage tanks and
the applicable equations.) piping, per se. Normally, the designer starts at
the storage supply outlet, and the piping system
Figure 7-3 is for any low-pressure system is generally in the low-pressure, 11 in. (279 mm)
with an initial pressure up to 1 psi (6.9 kPa) or wc, range. Piping must be designed so that there
28 in. (711.2 mm) wc, and Figure 7-4 is for any is no more than 2 in. (50 mm) wc pressure drop
system with an initial pressure between 1 and at any outlet in the system. Gas pipes may be
20 psi (6.9 and 137.8 kPa). These graphs can be sized in accordance with NFPA 54, which is ac-
used in two ways: one, to determine the pres- cepted by most jurisdictions.
sure drop, and the other, to determine the pipe
size. Small tanks (for example, those for residen-
tial cooking and heating) are allowed to be located
Essentially, diversity can only be used to in close proximity to buildings. Large tanks (e.g.,
determine the gas flow rate for a system when for industrial or multiple building use), however,
such a system serves laboratories, as previously have strict requirements governing their loca-
discussed, or cooking appliances. Diversity can- tion in relation to buildings, public use areas,
not be applied to water heating or space heating and property lines. If large leaks occur, the
appliances because these appliances will, at heavier-than-air gas will hug the ground and
times, simultaneously demand full capacity gas form a fog. The potential for a hazardous condi-
flows. For more than 25 years, however, many tion could exist. Proper safety precautions and
codes have recognized that, in multifamily build- equipment, as well as good judgment, must be
ings, the demand is always less than the total utilized when locating large LPG storage tanks.
connected load when gas is used for cooking.
Figures 7-5 and 7-6 indicate the percentage of Note: The following is only a very brief out-
the maximum possible demand (diversity) that line and is not intended to be used in lieu of
can be expected, based on the number of units NFPA 54. The designer must use the current ac-
in the system. cepted edition.
Figure 7-5 Typical Diversity Curves for Gas Supply to High-Rise Apartments
Figure 7-6 Diversity Percentage for Multifamily Buildings (Average)

Material Tubing joints For pressures normally encoun-

tered in the utilization of LPG, the following
Pipe Wrought iron, modular iron, steel (galva- requirement is applicable to the methods of join-
nized, plastic-wrapped, or black), brass, and ing tubing:
copper. Aluminum alloy pipe may be used if pres- Metallic tubing joints must either be made
sure is not in excess of ½ psi (34 kPa). To qualify, with approved gas tubing fittings or be soldered
aluminum piping must be factory coated for ex- or brazed with a material having a melting point
ternal, outdoor use. Cast-iron pipe shall not be in excess of 1000ºF (537.8ºC). Metallic, ball
used. sleeve, compression type tubing fittings must not
be used for this purpose. NFPA 54, Par. 2.6.8(b).
Tubing Copper (K&L), steel, and aluminum al-
loy with same restrictions as in pipe. NFPA 54, Flared fittings are commonly used in connec-
Par. 2.6.3. tion with tube working and are generally less
expensive to use than those involving high-tem-
Plastic pipe and tubing Plastic pipe and tub- perature soldering. While sleeve type fittings are
ing may be used outside underground only. NFPA used in some appliances, their use in piping sys-
54, Par. 2.6.4. tems is not approved. Flare nuts used out of doors
in areas where freezing temperatures are encoun-
Fittings Whenever pipe lines are run, joints and tered should be of a heavier weight than those
fittings are involved. Since these are the weak used indoors. These are sometimes referred to
points in the system where leaks are most likely as “frost proof” and are preferable to the lighter
to occur, their selection and installation should fittings, which are apt to crack and cause a gas
be made with care and NFPA recommendations leak.
should be followed. The following listing includes
some of the more important points to be consid-
ered regarding these connections. Flexible Gas Hose
Pipe joints For low-pressure piping (½ psi [3.45 The practice of connecting hot plates and por-
kPa] or less) with LPG, the following standards table space heaters with flexible hose is no longer
apply: considered a safe practice. The current require-
ment regarding their use covers both indoor and
Metallic pipe joints may be threaded, flanged, outdoor applications:
or welded, and nonferrous metallic pipe may also
be soldered or brazed with material having a melt- Indoor Indoor gas hose connectors may be used
ing point in excess of 1000ºF (537.8ºC). Corrosion with laboratory shop or ironing equipment that
of the piping must be prevented and the pipe must requires mobility during operation, if listed for
not be in contact with plaster, cement, or damp this application. A shut-off valve must be in-
insulators and may not be used underground. stalled where the connector is attached to the
Brazing alloy must not contain phosphorous. building piping. The connector must be of mini-
Metallic fittings (except valves, strainers, or fil- mum length but shall not exceed 6 ft (1.8 m).
ters) must be steel, brass, or malleable or ductile The connector must not be concealed and must
iron when used with steel or wrought-iron pipe, not extend from one room to another nor pass
and must be copper or brass when used with cop- through wall partitions, ceilings, or floors.
per or brass pipe. NFPA 54, Par. 2-6-8(a)-(e).
Outdoor Outdoor gas hose connectors may be
Cast-iron fittings, in pipe sizes normally used used to connect portable outdoor gas-fired
in LPG installations serving domestic and com- appliances, if listed for this application. A shut-
mercial users, may be authorized by the off valve or a listed quick-disconnect device must
authority having jurisdiction for either low or be installed where the connector is attached to
high-pressure piping. (NFPA 54, Par. 2.6.2.) De- the supply piping and in such a manner as to
fective fittings for either pipe or tubing should prevent the accumulation of water or foreign
be replaced and not repaired. It is not good prac- matter. This connection must be made only in
tice to use second-hand or used fittings unless the outdoor area where the appliance is to be
they are cleaned, carefully inspected, and de- used. NFPA 54, Par. 5.5.2
termined to be the equivalent of new before being
reused.
Warning APPENDIX A
The fact that LPG vapors are heavier than air The following gas pipe sizing tables (Tables 7-A1
has a practical bearing on several items. For one through 7-A7) are for varying gas pressures in
thing, LPG systems are located in such a man- both inch-pound (IP) and international standard
ner that the hazard of escaping gas is kept at a (SI) units.
minimum.
These tables are based on the use of sched-
Since the heavier-than-air gas tends to settle ule 40 black steel pipe with threaded joints.
in low places, the vent termination of relief valves
must be located at a safe distance from open-
ings into buildings that are below the level of
such valves. With many gas systems, for ex-
ample, both the gas pressure regulator and the
fuel containers are installed adjacently to the
building they serve. This distance must be a least
3 ft (0.91 m) measured horizontally. However,
the required clearances vary according to the
tank size and the adjacent activities. The designer
should refer to the local code and NFPA 54 for
these clearances.
The slope of flash tubes used in connection
with lighting devices is determined by the spe-
cific gravity of the gas. With propane, for example,
the tubes are slanted downward from the burner
to the ignition source as the heavier-than-air gas
tends to flow downward when released. Auto-
matic appliances are normally equipped with
safety pilots, which shut off the flow of gas in
the event of pilot failure. With lighter-than-air
gases, the automatic shut-off valve usually cuts
off the gas to the main burner only, leaving the
pilot burner unprotected. The small amount of
gas that is released is discharged through the
vent or otherwise dissipated. With LPG, however,
gas escaping from the pilot would tend to collect
in a low place and be a hazard. For this reason,
LPG appliances are normally equipped with 100%
safety pilots, which shut off the gas to both the
main burner and the pilot in the event of pilot
failure.
When LPG piping is installed in crawl spaces
or in pipe tunnels, the engineer may consider a
“sniffer” system, which automatically shuts down
the gas supply, sounds an alarm, and activates
an exhaust system to purge the escaping gas from
the area.
Leak Test
Prior to charging the new piping with LPG, a
satisfactory leak test must be conducted. The
designer should refer to the applicable local code
and NFPA 54 for test requirements.
Weymouth Formula:
198
(P12 – P22) × D16/3 ½

Q = 2038.1
LS
Where: Q = Gas flow (cfh) Given: P1 = 3 Initial pressure of the system (psi)
D = Internal pipe diameter (in.) P2 = 1 Final pressure of the system (psi)
Table 7-A1 Natural Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressure > 1 psi
Nominal ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ 3 4 5 6 8 10 12
Total
10 663 1,404 2,674 5,555 8,380 16,316 26,207 46,771 96,537 176,380 287,901 598,661 1,098,185 1,751,912
25 420 888 1,691 3,513 5,300 10,319 16,575 29,581 61,055 111,553 182,085 378,627 694,553 1,108,007
50 297 628 1,196 2,484 3,748 7,297 11,720 20,917 43,172 78,880 128,753 267,729 491,123 783,479
75 242 513 976 2,029 3,060 5,958 9,569 17,078 35,250 64,405 105,127 218,600 401,000 639,708
100 210 444 845 1,757 2,650 5,159 8,287 14,790 30,528 55,776 91,042 189,313 347,277 554,003
150 171 363 690 1,434 2,164 4,213 6,767 12,076 24,926 45,541 74,336 154,574 283,550 452,342
175 159 336 639 1,328 2,003 3,900 6,265 11,180 23,077 42,163 68,822 143,107 262,516 418,787
200 148 314 598 1,242 1,874 3,648 5,860 10,458 21,586 39,440 64,377 133,865 245,562 391,740
250 133 281 535 1,111 1,676 3,263 5,241 9,354 19,307 35,276 57,580 119,732 219,637 350,382
300 121 256 488 1,014 1,530 2,979 4,785 8,539 17,625 32,203 52,563 109,300 200,500 319,854
400 105 222 423 878 1,325 2,580 4,144 7,395 15,264 27,888 45,521 94,657 173,638 277,002
500 94 199 378 786 1,185 2,307 3,706 6,614 13,652 24,944 40,715 84,663 155,307 247,758
600 86 181 345 717 1,082 2,106 3,383 6,038 12,463 22,771 37,168 77,287 141,775 226,171
750 77 162 309 641 968 1,884 3,026 5,401 11,147 20,367 33,244 69,127 126,807 202,293
1000 66 140 267 556 838 1,632 2,621 4,677 9,654 17,638 28,790 59,866 109,818 175,191
1250 59 126 239 497 750 1,459 2,344 4,183 8,634 15,776 25,751 53,546 98,225 156,696
1500 54 115 218 454 684 1,332 2,140 3,819 7,882 14,401 23,507 48,880 89,666 143,043
1750 50 106 202 420 633 1,233 1,981 3,536 7,297 13,333 21,763 45,255 83,015 132,432
2000 47 99 189 393 593 1,154 1,853 3,307 6,826 12,472 20,358 42,332 77,653 123,879
2500 42 89 169 351 530 1,032 1,657 2,958 6,106 11,155 18,208 37,863 69,455 110,801
3000 38 81 154 321 484 942 1,513 2,700 5,574 10,183 16,622 34,564 63,404 101,147
4000 33 70 134 278 419 816 1,310 2,339 4,827 8,819 14,395 29,933 54,909 87,596
Weymouth Formula:
(P12 – P22) × D16/3 ½
Q = 16.04
LS
Table 7-A1(M) Natural Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressure > 6.895 kPa
Nominal 15 20 25 35 40 50 65 75 100 125 150 200 250 300
Total
3.1 5.22 11.05 21.0 43.7 65.9 128.4 206.2 368.1 759.7 1388.1 2265.8 4711.5 8642.7 13 787.6
7.6 3.30 6.99 13.31 27.7 41.7 81.2 130.4 232.8 480.5 877.9 1433.0 2979.8 5466.1 8 720.0
15.2 2.34 4.94 9.41 19.6 29.5 57.4 92.2 164.6 339.8 620.8 1013.3 2107.0 3865.1 6 166.0
22.9 1.91 4.04 7.68 15.96 24.1 46.9 75.3 134.4 277.4 506.9 827.3 1720.4 3155.9 5 034.5
30.5 1.65 3.50 6.65 13.83 20.9 40.6 65.2 116.4 240.3 439.0 716.5 1489.9 2733.1 4 360.0
45.7 1.35 2.85 5.43 11.29 17.0 33.2 53.3 95.0 196.2 358.4 585.0 1216.5 2231.5 3 559.9
53.4 1.25 2.64 5.03 10.45 15.76 30.7 49.3 88.0 181.6 331.8 541.6 1126.3 2066.0 3 295.9
61.0 1.17 2.47 4.70 9.78 14.75 28.7 46.1 82.3 169.9 310.4 506.6 1053.5 1932.6 3 083.0
76.2 1.04 2.21 4.21 8.74 13.19 25.7 41.2 73.6 151.9 277.6 453.2 942.3 1728.5 2 757.5
91.4 0.95 2.02 3.84 7.98 12.04 23.4 37.7 67.2 138.7 253.4 413.7 860.2 1577.9 2 517.3
121.9 0.83 1.75 3.33 6.91 10.43 20.3 32.6 58.2 120.1 219.5 358.3 744.9 1366.5 2 180.0
152.4 0.74 1.56 2.98 6.18 9.33 18.2 29.2 52.1 107.4 196.3 320.4 666.3 1222.3 1 949.9
182.9 0.67 1.43 2.72 5.64 8.51 16.6 26.6 47.5 98.1 179.2 292.5 608.2 1115.8 1 780.0
228.6 0.6 1.28 2.43 5.05 7.62 14.83 23.8 42.5 87.7 160.3 261.6 544.0 998.0 1 592.0
304.8 0.52 1.11 2.10 4.37 6.59 12.84 20.6 36.8 76.0 138.8 226.6 471.1 864.3 1 378.8
381.0 0.47 0.99 1.88 3.91 5.90 11.48 18.4 32.9 68.0 124.2 202.7 421.4 773.0 1 233.2
457.2 0.43 0.90 1.72 3.57 5.38 10.48 16.8 30.1 62.0 113.3 185.0 384.7 705.7 1 125.7
533.4 0.39 0.84 1.59 3.30 4.99 9.71 15.59 27.8 57.4 104.9 171.3 356.2 653.3 1 042.2
609.6 0.37 0.78 1.49 3.09 4.66 9.08 14.58 26.0 53.7 98.2 160.2 333.2 611.1 974.9
762.0 0.33 0.70 1.33 2.77 4.17 8.12 13.04 23.3 48.1 87.8 143.3 298.0 546.6 872.0
914.4 0.30 0.64 1.21 2.52 3.81 7.41 11.91 21.3 43.9 80.1 130.8 272.0 499.0 796.0
1219.2 0.26 0.55 1.05 2.19 3.30 6.42 10.31 18.4 38.0 69.4 113.3 235.6 432.1 689.4
199
Weymouth Formula:
200
(P12 – P22) × D16/3 ½

Q = 2038.1
LS
D = Internal pipe diameter (in.) P2 = 2.7 Final pressure of the system (psi)
Nominal ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ 3 4 5 6 8 10 12
Total
10 307 649 1,236 2,568 3,874 7,543 12,116 21,624 44,632 81,546 133,106 276,780 507,725 809,964
25 194 411 782 1,624 2,450 4,771 7,663 13,676 28,228 51,574 84,183 175,051 321,113 512,266
50 137 290 553 1,149 1,733 3,373 5,419 9,670 19,960 36,469 59,527 123,780 227,062 362,227
75 112 237 451 938 1,415 2,754 4,424 7,896 16,297 29,776 48,603 101,066 185,395 295,757
100 97 205 391 812 1,225 2,385 3,832 6,838 14,114 25,787 42,092 87,525 160,557 256,133
150 79 168 319 663 1,000 1,948 3,128 5,583 11,524 21,055 34,368 71,464 131,094 209,132
175 73 155 295 614 926 1,803 2,896 5,169 10,669 19,493 31,818 66,163 121,369 193,618
200 69 145 276 574 866 1,687 2,709 4,835 9,980 18,234 29,763 61,890 113,531 181,113
250 61 130 247 514 775 1,509 2,423 4,325 8,926 16,309 26,621 55,356 101,545 161,993
300 56 119 226 469 707 1,377 2,212 3,948 8,149 14,888 24,302 50,533 92,697 147,878
400 48 103 195 406 613 1,193 1,916 3,419 7,057 12,894 21,046 43,763 80,278 128,066
500 43 92 175 363 548 1,067 1,714 3,058 6,312 11,532 18,824 39,143 71,803 114,546
600 40 84 160 332 500 974 1,564 2,792 5,762 10,528 17,184 35,732 65,547 104,566
750 35 75 143 297 447 871 1,399 2,497 5,154 9,416 15,370 31,960 58,627 93,527
1000 31 65 124 257 387 754 1,212 2,162 4,463 8,155 13,311 27,678 50,772 80,996
1250 27 58 111 230 347 675 1,084 1,934 3,992 7,294 11,905 24,756 45,412 72,445
1500 25 53 101 210 316 616 989 1,766 3,644 6,658 10,868 22,599 41,456 66,133
1750 23 49 93 194 293 570 916 1,635 3,374 6,164 10,062 20,923 38,380 61,227
2000 22 46 87 182 274 533 857 1,529 3,156 5,766 9,412 19,571 35,902 57,273
2500 19 41 78 162 245 477 766 1,368 2,823 5,157 8,418 17,505 32,111 51,227
3000 18 37 71 148 224 436 700 1,248 2,577 4,708 7,685 15,980 29,314 46,763
4000 15 32 62 128 194 377 606 1,081 2,232 4,077 6,655 13,839 25,386 40,498
Weymouth Formula:
(P12 – P22) × D16/3 ½
Q = 16.04
LS
Nominal 15 20 25 35 40 50 65 75 100 125 150 200 250 300
Total
3.1 2.41 5.11 9.7 20.2 30.5 59.4 95.4 170.2 351.3 641.8 1047.5 2178.3 3995.8 6374.4
7.6 1.53 3.23 6.15 12.8 19.3 37.5 60.3 107.6 222.2 405.9 662.5 1377.6 2527.2 4031.5
15.2 1.08 2.29 4.35 9.0 13.6 26.5 42.6 76.1 157.1 287.0 468.5 974.1 1787.0 2850.7
22.9 0.88 1.87 3.55 7.38 11.1 21.7 34.8 62.1 128.3 234.3 382.5 795.4 1459.1 2327.6
30.5 0.76 1.62 3.08 6.39 9.6 18.8 30.2 53.8 111.1 202.9 331.3 688.8 1263.6 2015.8
45.7 0.62 1.32 2.51 5.22 7.9 15.3 24.6 43.9 90.7 165.7 270.5 562.4 1031.7 1645.9
53.4 0.58 1.22 2.33 4.83 7.29 14.2 22.8 40.7 84.0 153.4 250.4 520.7 955.2 1523.8
61.0 0.54 1.14 2.18 4.52 6.82 13.3 21.3 38.1 78.5 143.5 234.2 487.1 893.5 1425.4
76.2 0.48 1.02 1.95 4.04 6.10 11.9 19.1 34.0 70.3 128.4 209.5 435.7 799.2 1274.9
91.4 0.44 0.93 1.78 3.69 5.57 10.8 17.4 31.1 64.1 117.2 191.3 397.7 729.5 1163.8
121.9 0.38 0.81 1.54 3.2 4.82 9.4 15.1 26.9 55.5 101.5 165.6 344.4 631.8 1007.9
152.4 0.34 0.72 1.38 2.86 4.31 8.4 13.5 24.1 49.7 90.8 148.1 308.1 565.1 901.5
182.9 0.31 0.66 1.26 2.61 3.94 7.7 12.3 22.0 45.3 82.9 135.2 281.2 515.9 822.9
228.6 0.28 0.59 1.12 2.33 3.52 6.85 11.0 19.7 40.6 74.1 121.0 251.5 461.4 736.1
304.8 0.24 0.51 0.97 2.02 3.05 5.94 9.5 17.0 35.1 64.2 104.8 217.8 399.6 637.4
381.0 0.22 0.46 0.87 1.81 2.73 5.31 8.5 15.2 31.4 57.4 93.7 194.8 357.4 570.1
457.2 0.20 0.42 0.79 1.65 2.49 4.85 7.8 13.9 28.7 52.4 85.5 177.9 326.3 520.5
533.4 0.18 0.39 0.74 1.53 2.30 4.49 7.21 12.9 26.6 48.5 79.2 164.7 302.1 481.9
609.6 0.17 0.36 0.69 1.43 2.16 4.2 6.74 12.0 24.8 45.4 74.1 154.0 282.5 450.7
762.0 0.15 0.32 0.62 1.28 1.93 3.75 6.03 10.8 22.2 40.6 66.3 137.8 252.7 403.2
914.4 0.14 0.30 0.56 1.17 1.76 3.43 5.51 9.8 20.3 37.1 60.5 125.8 230.7 368.0
1219.2 0.12 0.26 0.49 1.01 1.52 2.97 4.77 8.5 17.6 32.1 52.4 108.9 199.8 318.7
201
Weymouth Formula:
202
(P12 – P22) × D16/3 ½

Q = 2038.1
LS
Nominal ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ 3 4 5 6 8 10 12
Total
10 1,149 2,433 4,631 9,622 14,514 28,259 45,392 81,010 167,206 305,500 498,660 1,036,911 1,902,112 3,034,401
25 727 1,538 2,929 6,086 9,180 17,873 28,708 51,235 105,750 193,215 315,380 655,800 1,203,001 1,919,124
50 514 1,088 2,071 4,303 6,491 12,638 20,300 36,229 74,777 136,624 223,007 463,721 850,650 1,357,026
75 420 888 1,691 3,513 5,300 10,319 16,575 29,581 61,055 111,553 182,085 378,627 694,553 1,108,007
100 363 769 1,464 3,043 4,590 8,936 14,354 25,617 52,875 96,608 157,690 327,900 601,501 959,562
150 297 628 1,196 2,484 3,748 7,297 11,720 20,917 43,172 78,880 128,753 267,729 491,123 783,479
175 275 581 1,107 2,300 3,470 6,755 10,851 19,365 39,970 73,028 119,202 247,869 454,692 725,361
200 257 544 1,035 2,152 3,245 6,319 10,150 18,114 37,388 68,312 111,504 231,860 425,325 678,513
250 230 487 926 1,924 2,903 5,652 9,078 16,202 33,441 61,100 99,732 207,382 380,422 606,880
300 210 444 845 1,757 2,650 5,159 8,287 14,790 30,528 55,776 91,042 189,313 347,277 554,003
400 182 385 732 1,521 2,295 4,468 7,177 12,809 26,438 48,304 78,845 163,950 300,750 479,781
500 163 344 655 1,361 2,053 3,996 6,419 11,456 23,647 43,204 70,521 146,641 268,999 429,129
600 148 314 598 1,242 1,874 3,648 5,860 10,458 21,586 39,440 64,377 133,865 245,562 391,740
750 133 281 535 1,111 1,676 3,263 5,241 9,354 19,307 35,276 57,580 119,732 219,637 350,382
1000 115 243 463 962 1,451 2,826 4,539 8,101 16,721 30,550 49,866 103,691 190,211 303,440
1250 103 218 414 861 1,298 2,528 4,060 7,246 14,955 27,325 44,601 92,744 170,130 271,405
1500 94 199 378 786 1,185 2,307 3,706 6,614 13,652 24,944 40,715 84,663 155,307 247,758
1750 87 184 350 727 1,097 2,136 3,431 6,124 12,640 23,094 37,695 78,383 143,786 229,379
2000 81 172 327 680 1,026 1,998 3,210 5,728 11,823 21,602 35,261 73,321 134,500 214,565
2500 73 154 293 609 918 1,787 2,871 5,123 10,575 19,322 31,538 65,580 120,300 191,912
3000 66 140 267 556 838 1,632 2,621 4,677 9,654 17,638 28,790 59,866 109,818 175,191
4000 57 122 232 481 726 1,413 2,270 4,050 8,360 15,275 24,933 51,846 95,106 151,720
Weymouth Formula:
(P12 – P22) × D16/3 ½
Q = 16.04
LS
Nominal 15 20 25 35 40 50 65 75 100 125 150 200 250 300
Total
3.1 9.04 19.14 36.4 75.7 114.2 222.4 357.2 637.5 1315.90 2404.30 3924.50 8160.50 14 969.60 23 880.7
7.6 5.72 12.11 23.05 47.9 72.2 140.7 225.9 403.2 832.3 1520.60 2482.00 5161.10 9 467.60 15 103.5
15.2 4.04 8.56 16.30 33.9 51.1 99.5 159.8 285.1 588.5 1075.20 1755.10 3649.50 6 694.60 10 679.8
22.9 3.30 6.99 13.31 27.65 41.7 81.2 130.4 232.8 480.5 877.9 1433.00 2979.80 5 466.10 8 720.0
30.5 2.86 6.05 11.52 23.95 36.1 70.3 113.0 201.6 416.1 760.3 1241.00 2580.60 4 733.80 7 551.8
45.7 2.34 4.94 9.41 19.55 29.5 57.4 92.2 164.6 339.8 620.8 1013.30 2107.00 3 865.10 6 166.0
53.4 2.16 4.58 8.71 18.10 27.31 53.2 85.4 152.4 314.6 574.7 938.1 1950.70 3 578.40 5 708.6
61.0 2.02 4.28 8.15 16.93 25.54 49.7 79.9 142.6 294.2 537.6 877.5 1824.70 3 347.30 5 339.9
76.2 1.81 3.83 7.29 15.15 22.85 44.5 71.4 127.5 263.2 480.9 784.9 1632.10 2 993.90 4 776.1
91.4 1.65 3.50 6.65 13.83 20.85 40.6 65.2 116.4 240.3 439.0 716.5 1489.90 2 733.10 4 360.0
121.9 1.43 3.03 5.76 11.97 18.06 35.2 56.5 100.8 208.1 380.2 620.5 1290.30 2 366.90 3 775.9
152.4 1.28 2.71 5.15 10.71 16.15 31.5 50.5 90.2 186.1 340.0 555.0 1154.10 2 117.00 3 377.2
182.9 1.17 2.47 4.70 9.78 14.75 28.7 46.1 82.3 169.9 310.4 506.6 1053.50 1 932.60 3 083.0
228.6 1.04 2.21 4.21 8.74 13.19 25.68 41.2 73.6 151.9 277.6 453.2 942.3 1 728.50 2 757.5
304.8 0.90 1.91 3.64 7.57 11.42 22.24 35.7 63.8 131.6 240.4 392.4 816.0 1 497.00 2 388.1
381.0 0.81 1.71 3.26 6.77 10.22 19.89 32.0 57.0 117.7 215.0 351.0 729.9 1 338.90 2 136.0
457.2 0.74 1.56 2.98 6.18 9.33 18.16 29.2 52.1 107.4 196.3 320.4 666.3 1 222.30 1 949.9
533.4 0.68 1.45 2.75 5.72 8.63 16.81 27.0 48.2 99.5 181.7 296.7 616.9 1 131.60 1 805.2
609.6 0.64 1.35 2.58 5.35 8.08 15.73 25.26 45.1 93.0 170.0 277.5 577.0 1 058.50 1 688.6
762.0 0.57 1.21 2.30 4.79 7.22 14.07 22.59 40.3 83.2 152.1 248.2 516.1 946.8 1 510.4
914.4 0.52 1.11 2.10 4.37 6.59 12.84 20.62 36.8 76.0 138.8 226.6 471.1 864.3 1 378.8
1219.2 0.45 0.96 1.82 3.79 5.71 11.12 17.86 31.9 65.8 120.2 196.2 408.0 748.5 1 194.0
203
Weymouth Formula:
204
(P12 – P22) × D16/3 ½

Q = 2038.1
LS
D = Internal pipe diameter (in.) P2 = 4.5 Final pressure of the system (psi)
Nominal ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ 3 4 5 6 8 10 12
Total
10 511 1,082 2,060 4,281 6,457 12,572 20,194 36,039 74,386 135,910 221,843 461,299 846,208 1,349,939
25 323 684 1,303 2,707 4,084 7,951 12,772 22,793 47,046 85,957 140,306 291,751 535,189 853,776
50 229 484 921 1,914 2,888 5,622 9,031 16,117 33,267 60,781 99,211 206,299 378,436 603,711
75 187 395 752 1,563 2,358 4,591 7,374 13,160 27,162 49,627 81,006 168,443 308,992 492,928
100 162 342 651 1,354 2,042 3,976 6,386 11,397 23,523 42,979 70,153 145,876 267,595 426,888
150 132 279 532 1,105 1,667 3,246 5,214 9,305 19,206 35,092 57,280 119,107 218,490 348,553
175 122 259 492 1,023 1,544 3,005 4,827 8,615 17,782 32,489 53,031 110,272 202,282 322,697
200 114 242 461 957 1,444 2,811 4,515 8,059 16,633 30,390 49,606 103,150 189,218 301,856
250 102 216 412 856 1,291 2,514 4,039 7,208 14,877 27,182 44,369 92,260 169,242 269,988
300 93 198 376 782 1,179 2,295 3,687 6,580 13,581 24,814 40,503 84,221 154,496 246,464
400 81 171 326 677 1,021 1,988 3,193 5,698 11,762 21,489 35,076 72,938 133,797 213,444
500 72 153 291 605 913 1,778 2,856 5,097 10,520 19,221 31,373 65,238 119,672 190,910
600 66 140 266 553 834 1,623 2,607 4,653 9,603 17,546 28,640 59,553 109,245 174,276
750 59 125 238 494 746 1,452 2,332 4,161 8,589 15,694 25,616 53,266 97,712 155,878
1000 51 108 206 428 646 1,257 2,019 3,604 7,439 13,591 22,184 46,130 84,621 134,994
1250 46 97 184 383 578 1,124 1,806 3,223 6,653 12,156 19,842 41,260 75,687 120,742
1500 42 88 168 350 527 1,027 1,649 2,943 6,074 11,097 18,113 37,665 69,093 110,222
1750 39 82 156 324 488 950 1,527 2,724 5,623 10,274 16,770 34,871 63,967 102,046
2000 36 77 146 303 457 889 1,428 2,548 5,260 9,610 15,687 32,619 59,836 95,455
2500 32 68 130 271 408 795 1,277 2,279 4,705 8,596 14,031 29,175 53,519 85,378
3000 30 62 119 247 373 726 1,166 2,081 4,295 7,847 12,808 26,633 48,856 77,939
4000 26 54 103 214 323 629 1,010 1,802 3,719 6,796 11,092 23,065 42,310 67,497
Weymouth Formula:
(P12 – P22) × D16/3 ½
Q = 16.04
LS
Nominal 15 20 25 35 40 50 65 75 100 125 150 200 250 300
Total
3.1 4.02 8.52 16.2 33.7 50.8 98.9 158.9 283.6 585.4 1069.60 1745.9 3630.4 6659.7 10 624.0
7.6 2.54 5.39 10.25 21.3 32.1 62.6 100.5 179.4 370.3 676.5 1104.2 2296.1 4211.9 6 719.2
15.2 1.80 3.81 7.25 15.1 22.7 44.2 71.1 126.8 261.8 478.3 780.8 1623.6 2978.3 4 751.2
22.9 1.47 3.11 5.92 12.3 18.6 36.1 58 103.6 213.8 390.6 637.5 1325.6 2431.8 3 879.3
30.5 1.27 2.69 5.13 10.65 16.1 31.3 50.3 89.7 185.1 338.2 552.1 1148.0 2106.0 3 359.6
45.7 1.04 2.2 4.19 8.70 13.1 25.5 41 73.2 151.2 276.2 450.8 937.4 1719.5 2 743.1
53.4 0.96 2.04 3.88 8.05 12.15 23.7 38 67.8 139.9 255.7 417.4 867.8 1592.0 2 539.6
61.0 0.90 1.9 3.63 7.53 11.36 22.1 35.5 63.4 130.9 239.2 390.4 811.8 1489.1 2 375.6
76.2 0.80 1.7 3.24 6.74 10.16 19.8 31.8 56.7 117.1 213.9 349.2 726.1 1331.9 2 124.8
91.4 0.73 1.55 2.96 6.15 9.28 18.1 29 51.8 106.9 195.3 318.8 662.8 1215.9 1 939.7
121.9 0.64 1.35 2.56 5.33 8.03 15.6 25.1 44.8 92.6 169.1 276.1 574.0 1053.0 1 679.8
152.4 0.57 1.2 2.29 4.76 7.19 14.0 22.5 40.1 82.8 151.3 246.9 513.4 941.8 1 502.5
182.9 0.52 1.1 2.09 4.35 6.56 12.8 20.5 36.6 75.6 138.1 225.4 468.7 859.8 1 371.6
228.6 0.46 0.98 1.87 3.89 5.87 11.42 18.4 32.8 67.6 123.5 201.6 419.2 769.0 1 226.8
304.8 0.40 0.85 1.62 3.37 5.08 9.89 15.9 28.4 58.5 107.0 174.6 363.0 666.0 1 062.4
381.0 0.36 0.76 1.45 3.01 4.55 8.85 14.2 25.4 52.4 95.7 156.2 324.7 595.7 950.2
457.2 0.33 0.7 1.32 2.75 4.15 8.08 13.0 23.2 47.8 87.3 142.6 296.4 543.8 867.4
533.4 0.30 0.64 1.23 2.55 3.84 7.48 12.01 21.4 44.3 80.9 132 274.4 503.4 803.1
609.6 0.28 0.60 1.15 2.38 3.59 7.00 11.24 20.1 41.4 75.6 123.5 256.7 470.9 751.2
762.0 0.25 0.54 1.03 2.13 3.21 6.26 10.05 17.9 37.0 67.6 110.4 229.6 421.2 671.9
914.4 0.23 0.49 0.94 1.95 2.93 5.71 9.18 16.4 33.8 61.8 100.8 209.6 384.5 613.4
1219.2 0.20 0.43 0.81 1.68 2.54 4.95 7.95 14.2 29.3 53.5 87.3 181.5 333.0 531.2
205
Weymouth Formula
206
(P12 – P22) × D16/3 ½

Q = 2038.1
LS
Nominal ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ 3 4 5 6 8 10 12
Total
10 2,334 4,941 9,405 19,542 29,478 57,395 92,191 164,531 339,597 620,473 1,012,783 2,105,977 3,863,208 6,162,898
25 1,476 3,125 5,948 12,360 18,644 36,300 58,307 104,059 214,780 392,422 640,540 1,331,937 2,443,307 3,897,759
50 1,044 2,209 4,206 8,740 13,183 25,668 41,229 73,581 151,873 277,484 452,930 941,822 1,727,679 2,756,132
75 852 1,804 3,434 7,136 10,764 20,958 33,664 60,078 124,003 226,565 369,816 768,994 1,410,644 2,250,372
100 738 1,562 2,974 6,180 9,322 18,150 29,153 52,029 107,390 196,211 320,270 665,968 1,221,654 1,948,880
150 603 1,276 2,428 5,046 7,611 14,819 23,804 42,482 87,684 160,205 261,499 543,761 997,476 1,591,253
175 558 1,181 2,248 4,672 7,047 13,720 22,038 39,330 81,179 148,321 242,101 503,425 923,483 1,473,214
200 522 1,105 2,103 4,370 6,592 12,834 20,615 36,790 75,936 138,742 226,465 470,911 863,839 1,378,066
250 467 988 1,881 3,908 5,896 11,479 18,438 32,906 67,919 124,095 202,557 421,195 772,642 1,232,580
300 426 902 1,717 3,568 5,382 10,479 16,832 30,039 62,002 113,282 184,908 384,497 705,322 1,125,186
400 369 781 1,487 3,090 4,661 9,075 14,577 26,015 53,695 98,105 160,135 332,984 610,827 974,440
500 330 699 1,330 2,764 4,169 8,117 13,038 23,268 48,026 87,748 143,229 297,830 546,340 871,565
600 301 638 1,214 2,523 3,806 7,410 11,902 21,241 43,842 80,103 130,750 271,880 498,738 795,627
750 269 570 1,086 2,257 3,404 6,627 10,645 18,998 39,213 71,646 116,946 243,177 446,085 711,630
1000 233 494 941 1,954 2,948 5,740 9,219 16,453 33,960 62,047 101,278 210,598 386,321 616,290
1250 209 442 841 1,748 2,637 5,134 8,246 14,716 30,375 55,497 90,586 188,364 345,536 551,226
1500 191 403 768 1,596 2,407 4,686 7,527 13,434 27,728 50,661 82,693 171,952 315,430 503,199
1750 176 373 711 1,477 2,228 4,339 6,969 12,437 25,671 46,903 76,559 159,197 292,031 465,871
2000 165 349 665 1,382 2,084 4,058 6,519 11,634 24,013 43,874 71,615 148,915 273,170 435,783
2500 148 312 595 1,236 1,864 3,630 5,831 10,406 21,478 39,242 64,054 133,194 244,331 389,776
3000 135 285 543 1,128 1,702 3,314 5,323 9,499 19,607 35,823 58,473 121,589 223,042 355,815
4000 117 247 470 977 1,474 2,870 4,610 8,227 16,980 31,024 50,639 105,299 193,160 308,145
Weymouth Formula
(P12 – P22) × D16/3 ½
Q = 16.04
LS
Nominal 15 20 25 35 40 50 65 75 100 125 150 200 250 300
Total
3.1 18.37 38.88 74.0 153.8 232 451.7 725.5 1294.90 2672.6 4883.1 7970.6 16 574.0 30 403.4 48 502.0
7.6 11.62 24.59 46.81 97.3 146.7 285.7 458.9 818.9 1690.3 3088.4 5041.0 10 482.3 19 228.8 30 675.4
15.2 8.21 17.39 33.10 68.8 103.8 202.0 324.5 579.1 1195.2 2183.8 3564.6 7 412.1 13 596.8 21 690.8
22.9 6.71 14.20 27.03 56.16 84.7 164.9 264.9 472.8 975.9 1783.1 2910.5 6 052.0 11 101.8 17 710.4
30.5 5.81 12.30 23.41 48.64 73.40 142.8 229.4 409.5 845.2 1544.2 2520.5 5 241.2 9 614.4 15 337.7
45.7 4.74 10.04 19.11 39.71 59.90 116.6 187.3 334.3 690.1 1260.8 2058.0 4 279.4 7 850.1 12 523.2
53.4 4.39 9.29 17.69 36.76 55.46 108.0 173.4 309.5 638.9 1167.3 1905.3 3 962.0 7 267.8 11 594.2
61.0 4.11 8.69 16.55 34.39 51.88 101.0 162.2 289.5 597.6 1091.9 1782.3 3 706.1 6 798.4 10 845.4
76.2 3.67 7.78 14.80 30.76 46.40 90.3 145.1 259 534.5 976.6 1594.1 3 314.8 6 080.7 9 700.4
91.4 3.35 7.10 13.51 28.08 42.36 82.5 132.5 236.4 488.0 891.5 1455.2 3 026.0 5 550.9 8 855.2
121.9 2.90 6.15 11.70 24.32 36.68 71.4 114.7 204.7 422.6 772.1 1260.3 2 620.6 4 807.2 7 668.8
152.4 2.60 5.50 10.47 21.75 32.81 63.9 102.6 183.1 378 690.6 1127.2 2 343.9 4 299.7 6 859.2
182.9 2.37 5.02 9.56 19.86 29.95 58.3 93.7 167.2 345 630.4 1029.0 2 139.7 3 925.1 6 261.6
228.6 2.12 4.49 8.55 17.76 26.79 52.16 83.8 149.5 308.6 563.9 920.4 1 913.8 3 510.7 5 600.5
304.8 1.84 3.89 7.40 15.38 23.20 45.17 72.6 129.5 267.3 488.3 797.1 1 657.4 3 040.3 4 850.2
381.0 1.64 3.48 6.62 13.76 20.75 40.4 64.9 115.8 239.0 436.8 712.9 1 482.4 2 719.4 4 338.2
457.2 1.50 3.17 6.04 12.56 18.94 36.88 59.2 105.7 218.2 398.7 650.8 1 353.3 2 482.4 3 960.2
533.4 1.39 2.94 5.60 11.63 17.54 34.15 54.85 97.9 202.0 369.1 602.5 1 252.9 2 298.3 3 666.4
609.6 1.30 2.75 5.23 10.88 16.40 31.94 51.3 91.6 189.0 345.3 563.6 1 172.0 2 149.8 3 429.6
762.0 1.16 2.46 4.68 9.73 14.67 28.57 45.89 81.9 169.0 308.8 504.1 1 048.2 1 922.9 3 067.5
914.4 1.06 2.24 4.27 8.88 13.39 26.08 41.89 74.8 154.3 281.9 460.2 956.9 1 755.3 2 800.3
1219.2 0.92 1.94 3.70 7.69 11.60 22.59 36.28 64.7 133.6 244.2 398.5 828.7 1 520.2 2 425.1
207
Weymouth Formula:
208
(P12 – P22) × D16/3 ½

Q = 2038.1
LS
Nominal ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ 3 4 5 6 8 10 12
Total
10 1,022 2,164 4,120 8,561 12,914 25,144 40,388 72,079 148,773 271,820 443,686 922,599 1,692,417 2,699,878
25 647 1,369 2,606 5,415 8,168 15,902 25,543 45,587 94,092 171,914 280,612 583,503 1,070,378 1,707,553
50 457 968 1,843 3,829 5,775 11,245 18,062 32,235 66,533 121,562 198,422 412,599 756,872 1,207,422
75 373 790 1,505 3,126 4,716 9,181 14,748 26,319 54,324 99,255 162,011 336,885 617,983 985,856
100 323 684 1,303 2,707 4,084 7,951 12,772 22,793 47,046 85,957 140,306 291,751 535,189 853,776
150 264 559 1,064 2,211 3,334 6,492 10,428 18,611 38,413 70,184 114,559 238,214 436,980 697,106
175 244 517 985 2,047 3,087 6,011 9,655 17,230 35,563 64,978 106,061 220,543 404,565 645,394
200 229 484 921 1,914 2,888 5,622 9,031 16,117 33,267 60,781 99,211 206,299 378,436 603,711
250 204 433 824 1,712 2,583 5,029 8,078 14,416 29,755 54,364 88,737 184,520 338,483 539,976
300 187 395 752 1,563 2,358 4,591 7,374 13,160 27,162 49,627 81,006 168,443 308,992 492,928
400 162 342 651 1,354 2,042 3,976 6,386 11,397 23,523 42,979 70,153 145,876 267,595 426,888
500 145 306 583 1,211 1,826 3,556 5,712 10,193 21,040 38,441 62,747 130,475 239,344 381,820
600 132 279 532 1,105 1,667 3,246 5,214 9,305 19,206 35,092 57,280 119,107 218,490 348,553
750 118 250 476 989 1,491 2,903 4,664 8,323 17,179 31,387 51,232 106,533 195,423 311,755
1000 102 216 412 856 1,291 2,514 4,039 7,208 14,877 27,182 44,369 92,260 169,242 269,988
1250 91 194 369 766 1,155 2,249 3,612 6,447 13,307 24,312 39,684 82,520 151,374 241,484
1500 83 177 336 699 1,054 2,053 3,298 5,885 12,147 22,194 36,227 75,330 138,185 220,444
1750 77 164 311 647 976 1,901 3,053 5,449 11,246 20,548 33,539 69,742 127,935 204,092
2000 72 153 291 605 913 1,778 2,856 5,097 10,520 19,221 31,373 65,238 119,672 190,910
2500 65 137 261 541 817 1,590 2,554 4,559 9,409 17,191 28,061 58,350 107,038 170,755
3000 59 125 238 494 746 1,452 2,332 4,161 8,589 15,694 25,616 53,266 97,712 155,878
4000 51 108 206 428 646 1,257 2,019 3,604 7,439 13,591 22,184 46,130 84,621 134,994
Weymouth Formula:
(P12 – P22) × D16/3 ½
Q = 16.04
LS
Nominal 15 20 25 35 40 50 65 75 100 125 150 200 250 300
Total
3.1 8.05 17.03 32.4 67.4 101.6 197.9 317.9 567.3 1170.80 2139.20 3491.8 7260.9 13 319.3 21 248.0
7.6 5.09 10.77 20.51 42.6 64.3 125.2 201 358.8 740.5 1353.00 2208.4 4592.2 8 423.9 13 438.4
15.2 3.6 7.62 14.5 30.1 45.5 88.5 142.1 253.7 523.6 956.7 1561.6 3247.2 5 956.6 9 502.4
22.9 2.94 6.22 11.84 24.6 37.1 72.3 116.1 207.1 427.5 781.1 1275.0 2651.3 4 863.5 7 758.7
30.5 2.54 5.39 10.25 21.31 32.1 62.6 100.5 179.4 370.3 676.5 1104.2 2296.1 4 211.9 6 719.2
45.7 2.08 4.4 8.37 17.4 26.2 51.1 82.1 146.5 302.3 552.3 901.6 1874.7 3 439.0 5 486.2
53.4 1.92 4.07 7.75 16.11 24.3 47.3 76.0 135.6 279.9 511.4 834.7 1735.7 3 183.9 5 079.3
61.0 1.8 3.81 7.25 15.07 22.73 44.2 71.1 126.8 261.8 478.3 780.8 1623.6 2 978.3 4 751.2
76.2 1.61 3.41 6.49 13.48 20.33 39.6 63.6 113.5 234.2 427.8 698.4 1452.2 2 663.9 4 249.6
91.4 1.47 3.11 5.92 12.3 18.56 36.1 58.0 103.6 213.8 390.6 637.5 1325.6 2 431.8 3 879.3
121.9 1.27 2.69 5.13 10.65 16.07 31.3 50.3 89.7 185.1 338.2 552.1 1148.0 2 106.0 3 359.6
152.4 1.14 2.41 4.59 9.53 14.37 28 45.0 80.2 165.6 302.5 493.8 1026.8 1 883.6 3 004.9
182.9 1.04 2.2 4.19 8.7 13.12 25.5 41.0 73.2 151.2 276.2 450.8 937.4 1 719.5 2 743.1
228.6 0.93 1.97 3.74 7.78 11.74 22.85 36.7 65.5 135.2 247.0 403.2 838.4 1 538.0 2 453.5
304.8 0.8 1.7 3.24 6.74 10.16 19.79 31.8 56.7 117.1 213.9 349.2 726.1 1 331.9 2 124.8
381.0 0.72 1.52 2.9 6.03 9.09 17.7 28.4 50.7 104.7 191.3 312.3 649.4 1 191.3 1 900.5
457.2 0.66 1.39 2.65 5.5 8.3 16.16 26.0 46.3 95.6 174.7 285.1 592.8 1 087.5 1 734.9
533.4 0.61 1.29 2.45 5.09 7.68 14.96 24.03 42.9 88.5 161.7 264.0 548.9 1 006.8 1 606.2
609.6 0.57 1.2 2.29 4.76 7.19 13.99 22.48 40.1 82.8 151.3 246.9 513.4 941.8 1 502.5
762.0 0.51 1.08 2.05 4.26 6.43 12.52 20.1 35.9 74.1 135.3 220.8 459.2 842.4 1 343.8
914.4 0.46 0.98 1.87 3.89 5.87 11.42 18.35 32.8 67.6 123.5 201.6 419.2 769.0 1 226.8
1219.2 0.4 0.85 1.62 3.37 5.08 9.89 15.89 28.4 58.5 107.0 174.6 363.0 666.0 1 062.4
209
Spitzglass Formula:
210
d5h ½
Q = 3550
SL (1 + 3.6/d + 0.03d)
Where: Q = Flow (ft3/h) Given: h = 3 The pressure drop through the system (in. wc)
d = Internal pipe diameter (in.) S = 0.6 The specific gravity of the natural gas
S = Specific gravity of the natural gas
Table 7-A7 Natural Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressure < 1 psi
Nominal ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ 3 4 5 6 8 10 12
Total
Length (ft) Capacities (ft3/h)
10 294 666 1,339 2,939 4,556 9,209 15,110 27,496 57,513 105,194 170,658 347,415 619,219 959,462
20 208 471 947 2,078 3,221 6,512 10,685 19,443 40,668 74,383 120,674 245,660 437,854 678,442
25 186 421 847 1,859 2,881 5,824 9,557 17,390 36,374 66,531 107,934 219,725 391,628 606,817
30 169 385 773 1,697 2,630 5,317 8,724 15,875 33,205 60,734 98,530 200,580 357,506 553,946
35 157 356 716 1,571 2,435 4,922 8,077 14,697 30,742 56,229 91,221 185,701 330,986 512,854
40 147 333 670 1,470 2,278 4,604 7,555 13,748 28,756 52,597 85,329 173,708 309,609 479,731
45 138 314 631 1,386 2,148 4,341 7,123 12,962 27,112 49,589 80,449 163,773 291,903 452,295
50 131 298 599 1,315 2,037 4,118 6,758 12,297 25,720 47,044 76,321 155,369 276,923 429,084
60 120 272 547 1,200 1,860 3,759 6,169 11,225 23,479 42,945 69,671 141,832 252,795 391,699
70 111 252 506 1,111 1,722 3,481 5,711 10,393 21,738 39,760 64,503 131,311 234,043 362,643
80 104 236 473 1,039 1,611 3,256 5,342 9,721 20,334 37,192 60,337 122,830 218,927 339,221
90 98 222 446 980 1,519 3,070 5,037 9,165 19,171 35,065 56,886 115,805 206,406 319,821
100 93 211 423 930 1,441 2,912 4,778 8,695 18,187 33,265 53,967 109,862 195,814 303,409
125 83 188 379 831 1,289 2,605 4,274 7,777 16,267 29,753 48,269 98,264 175,142 271,377
150 76 172 346 759 1,176 2,378 3,901 7,100 14,850 27,161 44,064 89,702 159,882 247,732
225 62 140 282 620 960 1,941 3,186 5,797 12,125 22,177 35,978 73,242 130,543 202,272
300 54 122 244 537 832 1,681 2,759 5,020 10,500 19,206 31,158 63,429 113,053 175,173
400 46 105 212 465 720 1,456 2,389 4,348 9,094 16,633 26,983 54,931 97,907 151,704
500 42 94 189 416 644 1,302 2,137 3,889 8,134 14,877 24,135 49,132 87,571 135,688
1000 29 67 134 294 456 921 1,511 2,750 5,751 10,519 17,066 34,742 61,922 95,946
1500 24 54 109 240 372 752 1,234 2,245 4,696 8,589 13,934 28,366 50,559 78,340
2000 21 47 95 208 322 651 1,068 1,944 4,067 7,438 12,067 24,566 43,785 67,844
Spitzglass Formula:
d5h ½
Q = 100.536
SL (1 + 3.6/d + 0.03d)
Where: Q = Flow (m3/h) Given: h = 76.2 The pressure drop through the system (mm wc)
d = Internal pipe diameter (mm) S = 0.6 The specific gravity of the natural gas
h = Pressure drop (mm wc)
S = Specific gravity of the natural gas
Table 7-A7(M) Natural Gas Pipe Sizing Table for Gas Pressure < 6.9 kPa
Nominal 15 20 25 35 40 50 65 75 100 125 150 200 250 300
Total
Length (m) Capacities (m3/h)
3 8 19 38 83 129 261 428 779 1629 2979 4833 9839 17 536 27 172
6 6 13 27 59 91 184 303 551 1152 2107 3417 6957 12 400 19 213
8 5 12 24 53 82 165 271 492 1030 1884 3057 6223 11 091 17 185
9 5 11 22 48 74 151 247 450 940 1720 2790 5680 10 125 15 688
11 4 10 20 44 69 139 229 416 871 1592 2583 5259 9 374 14 524
12 4 9 19 42 65 130 214 389 814 1490 2417 4919 8 768 13 586
14 4 9 18 39 61 123 202 367 768 1404 2278 4638 8 267 12 809
15 4 8 17 37 58 117 191 348 728 1332 2161 4400 7 842 12 152
18 3 8 15 34 53 106 175 318 665 1216 1973 4017 7 159 11 093
21 3 7 14 31 49 99 162 294 616 1126 1827 3719 6 628 10 270
24 3 7 13 29 46 92 151 275 576 1053 1709 3479 6 200 9 607
27 3 6 13 28 43 87 143 260 543 993 1611 3280 5 845 9 057
30 3 6 12 26 41 82 135 246 515 942 1528 3111 5 545 8 593
38 2 5 11 24 36 74 121 220 461 843 1367 2783 4 960 7 685
46 2 5 10 21 33 67 110 201 421 769 1248 2540 4 528 7 016
69 2 4 8 18 27 55 90 164 343 628 1019 2074 3 697 5 728
91 2 3 7 15 24 48 78 142 297 544 882 1796 3 202 4 961
122 1 3 6 13 20 41 68 123 258 471 764 1556 2 773 4 296
152 1 3 5 12 18 37 61 110 230 421 683 1391 2 480 3 843
305 1 2 4 8 13 26 43 78 163 298 483 984 1 754 2 717
457 1 2 3 7 11 21 35 64 133 243 395 803 1 432 2 219
610 1 1 3 6 9 18 30 55 115 211 342 696 1 240 1 921
211
APPENDIX B—VALUES OF FUEL GAS Table 7-B1 Typical Heating Values

1000 Btu/h/ft3 (11 357 000 J/m3) Natural gas
Given: Specific gravity, minimum 1.00 Natural gas
520 Btu/h/ft3 (5 905 640 J/m3) Manufactured gas
Specific gravity, normal 0.60 Natural gas
800 Btu/h/ft3 (9 085 600 J/m3) Mixed gas
Specific gravity, max. 0.55 Natural gas
2500 Btu/h/ft3 (28 392 500 J/m3) LPG (Propane)
Specific gravity, standard 1.53 LPG
3175 Btu/h/ft3 (36 058 475 J/m3) LPG (Butane)
Table 7-B2 Typical Working Pressures

Low NG pressure Minimum 0 in. wc
Max. 14.0 in. wc (3.5 kPa)
Medium NG pressure Minimum 14.1 in. wc (3.6 kPa)
Max. 5.00 psig (34.5 kPa)
High NG pressure Minimum 5.01 psig (96.6 kPa)
Table 7-B3 Conversion Factors

Units Multiply by To obtain
Btu per cubic foot (Btu/ft3) 37,260 Joules per cubic centimeter (J/cm3)
Cubic feet (ft3) 0.028317 Cubic meters (m3)
Cubic feet (ft3) 28.316 Liters (L)
°F 9/5 (+32) °C
Gallons (gal) 3.785 Liters (L)
Inches (in.) 25.40 Millimeters (mm)
Inches of mercury (in. Hg) @ 60°F 3.3769 kPa
Inches of water (in. wc) @ 62°F 0.03613 Pounds per sq. in. (psi)
Inches of water (in. wc) @ 62°F 0.57808 Ounces per sq. in.
Inches of water (in. wc) @ 62°F 0.073692 Inches of mercury (in. Hg) @ 60 °F
Inches of water (in. wc) @ 60°F 0.2488 kPa
Pounds per sq. in. (psi) 6.964 kPa
Table 7-B4 Specific Gravity Multipliers

Specific Capacity Specific Capacity Specific Capacity
Gravity Multiplier Gravity Multiplier Gravity Multiplier
0.35 1.310 0.75 0.895 1.40 0.655

0.40 1.230 0.80 0.867 1.50 0.633
0.45 1.160 0.85 0.841 1.60 0.612
0.50 1.100 0.90 0.817 1.70 0.594
0.55 1.040 1.00 0.775 1.80 0.577
0.60 1.000 1.10 0.740 1.90 0.565
0.65 0.962 1.20 0.707 2.00 0.547
0.70 0.926 1.30 0.680 2.10 0.535
GLOSSARY 1. Provide for the ready escape of the flue gases

from the appliance in the event of no draft,
Appliance A device that utilizes fuel gas to pro- back draft, or stoppage beyond the draft hood.
duce light, heat, power, refrigeration, or air 2. Prevent a back draft from entering the
conditioning. appliance.
Btu Abbreviation for “British thermal unit,” the 3. Neutralize the effect of stack action of the
quantity of heat required to raise the tempera- chimney or gas vent upon the operation of
ture of one pound of water by one degree the appliance.
Fahrenheit. Excess air Air that passes through the com-
Boiling point The temperature of a liquid at bustion chamber and the appliance flues in
which the internal vapor pressure is equal to the excess of that which is theoretically required for
external pressure exerted on the surface of the complete combustion.
liquid.
Flue gases The products of combustion plus
Burner A device for the final conveyance of the the excess air in appliance flues or heat exchang-
gas, or a mixture of gas and air, to the combus- ers (before the draft hood or draft regulator).
tion zone. Fuel gas A gaseous compound used as fuel to
Butane (C4H10) A saturated aliphatic hydro- generate heat. It may be known variously as “util-
carbon existing in two isomeric forms and used ity gas,” “natural gas,” “liquefied peteroleum gas,”
as a fuel and a chemical intermediate. “propane,” “butane,” “methane,” or a combina-
tion of the above. It has a caloric value that
Caloric value See “heating value.” corresponds to the specific compound or combi-
nation of compounds. Care must be exercised in
Chimney A vertical shaft enclosing one or more determining the caloric value for design purposes.
flues for conveying flue gases to the outside at- (See Appendix B.)
mosphere.
Gas log An unvented, open-flame type room
Condensate The liquid that separates from a heater consisting of a metal frame or base sup-
gas (including flue gas) due to a reduction in tem- porting simulated logs designed for installation
perature. in a fireplace.
Cubic foot (meter) of gas The amount of gas Gas train A series of devices pertaining to a
that would occupy 1 cubic foot (cubic meter) fuel-gas appliance located on the upstream side
when at a temperature of 60°F (15.6°C), satu- of the unit. Typically, it consists of a combina-
rated with water vapor and under a pressure tion of devices and may include pipe, fittings,
equivalent to that of 30.0 inches of mercury fuel, air-supervisory switches (e.g., pressure
(101.3 kPa). regulators), and safety shut-off valves (SSOVs).
Demand The maximum amount of gas per unit Gas-train vent A piped vent to atmosphere
time, usually expressed in cubic feet per hour from a device on a gas train.
(liters per minute) or Btu (watts) per hour, re-
quired for the operation of the appliance(s) Gas vents Factory-built vent piping and vent
supplied. fittings listed by a nationally recognized testing
agency, assembled and used in accordance with
Dilution air Air that enters a draft hood or draft the terms of their listings, used for conveying
regulator and mixes with the flue gases. flue gases to the outside atmosphere.
Diversity factor The ratio of the maximum 1. Type B gas vent. A gas vent for venting gas
probable demand to the maximum possible de- appliances with draft hoods and other gas
mand. appliances listed for use with type B gas
vents.
Draft hood A device built into an appliance,
2. Type B-W gas vent. A gas vent for venting
or made a part of the vent connector from an
listed gas-fired vented wall furnaces.
appliance, that is designed to:
3. Type L vent. A gas vent for venting gas appli- Vent gases The products of combustion from
ances listed for use with type L vents. a gas appliance plus the excess air, plus the di-
lution air in the venting system above the draft
Heating value (total) The number of British hood or draft regulator.
thermal units produced by the combustion, at
constant pressure, of one cubic foot (cubic meter)
of gas when the products of combustion are REFERENCES
cooled to the initial temperature of the gas and
air, the water vapor formed during combustion 1. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and
is condensed, and all the necessary corrections Air Conditioning Engineers. Handbooks. Funda-
have been applied. mentals and Equipment Vols. Latest ed. New York.
LPG Liquefied petroleum gas, a mixture of pro- 2. American Society of Mechanical Engineers
pane and butane. (ASME). Fuel gas piping. ASME B31.2.
3. Ingersoll-Rand Company. 1969. Compressed air
Loads, connected The sum of the rated Btu
and gas data. New York.
input to individual gas utilization equipment
connected to a piping system, may be expressed 4. International Association of Plumbing and
in cubic feet (cubic meters) per hour. Mechanical Officials (IAPMO). Uniform plumbing
code.
Meter set assembly The piping and fittings
installed by the serving gas supplier to connect 5. n.a. 1994. Mechanical engineering reference
the inlet side of the meter to the gas service and manual. 9th ed. Professional Publications.
the outlet side of the meter to the customer’s 6. n.a. 1967. Piping handbook. New York: McGraw-
building or yard piping. Hill.
Pipe, equivalent length The resistance of 7. National Fire Protection Association. Cutting and
valves, controls, and fittings to gas flow, ex- welding processes. NFPA 51B. Boston.
pressed as equivalent length of straight pipe.
8. National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). LP-
Pressure drop The loss in static pressure due gases at utility gas plants. NFPA 59. Boston.
to friction or obstruction during flow through 9. National Fire Protection Association. National fuel
pipe, valves, fittings, regulators, and burners. gas code. NFPA 54. Boston.
Propane (C3H8) A gaseous hydrocarbon of the 10. National Fire Protection Association. Oxygen-fuel
methane series, found in petroleum. gas systems for weldings and cuttings. NFPA 51.
Boston.
Regulator, gas pressure A device for control-
ling and maintaining a uniform gas pressure. 11. National Fire Protection Association. Powered
This pressure is always lower than the supply industrial trucks. NFPA 505. Boston.
pressure at the inlet of the regulator. 12. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers manual. EM-1110-
34-166.
Safety shut-off device A device that is de-
signed to shut off the gas supply to the controlled
burner(s) or appliance(s) in the event that the
source of ignition fails. This device may inter-
rupt the flow of gas to the main burner(s) only or
to the pilot(s) and main burner(s) under its su-
pervision.
Specific gravity The ratio of the weight of a

given volume of gas to that of the same volume
of air, both measured under the same conditions.
Vent connector That portion of the venting

system that connects the gas appliance to the
gas vent, chimney, or single-wall metal pipe.
NOTES
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
This page was previously an advertisement. It has been intentionally converted to a notes page for your convenience.
Chapter 8 — Private Sewage-Disposal Systems 217
8
Private
Sewage-
Disposal
Systems
INTRODUCTION system receives the liquid discharge from the

septic tank and, by means of gravity-supply pip-
This chapter discusses private sewage-disposal ing, distributes the liquid into excavated trenches
systems, which are required if a public sewer is designed and sized to adequately disperse that
not available. The primary emphasis is on resi- liquid to the earth, where it is absorbed.
dential, gravity-supply, soil-absorption systems;
soil evaluation; septic-tank selection; and the de-
sign of the soil-absorption distribution system. SOIL-ABSORPTION SYSTEMS
Most areas of the country have local regula- The successful operation of a subsurface waste-
tions regarding the design of sewage-disposal disposal system requires a comprehensive site
systems, which must be followed. Most areas evaluation, good design criteria, and careful in-
have extension offices that may provide valuable stallation.
information, including soil surveys and soil maps
of the region. The examples given in this chapter When evaluating a site, the engineer must
are only general guidelines and illustrations of cri- consider the following: lot size, soil composition,
teria and methods and are not to be used for slope, topography, surface water, and the sea-
actual project-design purposes. sonal high-water table. Residential lots must be
large enough to accommodate the projected area
The waste-water discharge to septic tanks of seepage beds while maintaining minimum
and absorption fields must be controlled. These clearances for surface waters and wells, as man-
systems are not adaptable to handle solids, such dated by local codes. In the absence of code
as disposable diapers, feminine products, food- specifications, Table 8-1 may be used as a guide
disposal wastes, oils, fats, and greases. for residential properties. It is common for pri-
vate sewage-disposal codes to have separate
formulas and absorption areas for multifamily
PRIMARY COLLECTION AND dwellings and institutional, industrial, and other
TREATMENT SYSTEMS types of facilities to allow for varying minimum
daily flows. However, the system must be de-
The collection and disposal of sanitary effluent signed for the life of the property.
where there are no sewers is done by means of a
private disposal system. The most commonly
used method uses a septic tank and a gravity- Guide for Estimating Soil
flow, soil-absorption system. The purpose of a Absorption Potential
septic tank is to collect sewage effluent, decom-
Tests of the hydraulic soil conditions are the only
pose fecal matter, and separate other solids from
known means of obtaining a quantitative ap-
the effluent stream. The discharge from the sep-
praisal of the soil-absorption capacity. However,
tic tank is mostly liquid. The soil-absorption
personal observation, evaluation, and assess-
ment of soil characteristics can also provide very color, depth (thickness) of the permeable strata,
useful clues to the relative capacity of a soil to and swelling characteristics.
absorb and treat a liquid. It should be noted that
the percolation rate of dry soil is greater than Texture Soil texture is generally defined as the
that of wet soil, so it is advisable to make tests relative proportion of sand, silt, and clay in the
at the worst conditions. Most soils can be iden- soil. It is the most common clue to the water-
tified as suitable or unsuitable without additional absorption capacity. The size and distribution of
testing. When determined by a soils engineer, the particles govern the size and the distribu-
the soil characteristics may permit further cat- tion of the pores, which, in turn, govern the
egorizing of suitable soils. This procedure has absorption capacity of the soil. The larger the
been followed in some areas and described in soil particles, the larger the pores and the faster
the soils reports mentioned below. the rate of absorption.
Soil texture can best be judged by feeling.
Lighter or sandier soils have a gritty feel when
Table 8-1 Minimum Absorption Area rubbed between the thumb and forefinger. Silty
for Private Dwellings soils have a floury feel and, when wet, have no
Seepage
cohesion. Heavier, clay type soils are dense and
Percolation Rate,a Trenches Seepage Beds, hard when dry and have a slick, greasy feel when
min/in. (s/mm) or Pits, ft2/bedroom wet.
ft2/bedroom (m2/bedroom) The use of soil texture in determining water-
(m2/bedroom) absorption capacity has its limitations. It is usually
reliable in the lighter soils. However, in the heavier
0–5 (0–12) 125 (11.6) 205 (19.0) soils (including sandy soils containing appreciable
10–15 (24–35) 190 (17.7) 315 (29.3) amounts of silt or clay), one must look for addi-
tional clues, such as structure and soil color, as
30–44 (71–104) 300 (27.9) 375 (34.8) indicators of the absorption capacity of the soil.
45–60 (106–142) 330 (30.7) 415 (38.6)
Structure Soil structure is characterized by the
aMinutes required for water to fall 1 in. (seconds to fall 1 mm). aggregation (or grouping together) of the textual
particles to form secondary particles of a larger
size. The structure can easily be recognized by
Soil maps The capacity of a soil to absorb and the manner in which a clod, or lump, breaks apart.
transmit water is an important consideration in If a soil has structure, a clod will break with very
agriculture, particularly in relation to irrigation, little force, along well-defined cleavage planes, into
drainage, and other land-management practices. uniformly sized units. If a soil has no structure, a
Through careful studies in these fields, a variety clod will require more force to break apart and
of aids have been developed for determining the will do so along irregular surfaces, with no unifor-
absorption and water-transmission properties of mity in the size or shape of the particles.
soil that could be helpful in the sewage field. Con-
siderable information on the relative absorption In general, there are four fundamental struc-
capacities of specific soils in many areas has been tural types, named according to the shape of the
accumulated. Much of this information is in- aggregate particles: platy, prism-like, block-like,
cluded in soil survey reports and maps published and spherical. A soil without structure is gener-
by the US Department of Agriculture. The gen- ally referred to as "massive." Spherical structure
eral suitability of specific soils for effluent tends to provide the most favorable absorption
disposal may often be interpreted from these re- properties, and platy structure the least. Al-
ports and maps. though other factors, such as the size and stability
of the aggregates in water, also influence the ab-
Clues to absorption capacity Information sorption capacity of the soil, recognition of the
about relative absorption capacities of soils may type of structure is probably sufficient for a gen-
also be obtained by a close visual inspection of eral appraisal.
the soil. The value of such an inspection depends
on the inspector's knowledge of the pertinent soil Color One of the most important practical clues
properties. The main properties indicative of ab- to the water-absorption capacity of the soil is
sorption capacity are soil texture, structure, color. Most soils contain some iron compounds.
This iron (like iron in a tool or piece of machin- Several types (procedures) of percolation test may
ery), if alternately exposed to air and water, be acceptable to the local jurisdictional author-
oxidizes and takes on a reddish-brown or yellow ity or there may be no standards. In the absence
color. Thus, if the soil has a uniform reddish- of standards, the following method of conduct-
brown to yellow oxidized color, it indicates that ing percolation tests may be used.
there has been a free alternating movement of
air and water in and through the soil. Such a soil Number and location of tests Six or more tests
has some desirable absorption characteristics. At should be made in separate test holes, spaced
the other extreme, if the soils are dull-gray or uniformly over the proposed absorption field site.
have mottled coloring, this indicates a lack of oxi-
dizing conditions or a very restricted movement Type of test hole Dig or bore a hole, with hori-
of air and water through the soil. These soils zontal dimensions varying from 4 to 12 in. (101.6
have poor absorption characteristics. to 304.8 mm) and vertical sides to the depth of
the proposed absorption trench. To save time,
Depth (or thickness) of permeable strata The labor, and water per test, the holes can be bored
quantity of water that may be absorbed by the with a 4-in. (101.6-mm) auger.
soil is directly proportional to the thickness (or
volume) of the absorbent stratum. In a soil having Preparation of the test hole Carefully scratch
1 ft (0.3 m) or more of permeable material above the bottom and sides of the hole with a knife
tight clay, the absorption capacity is far greater blade or sharp-pointed instrument to remove any
than it is in a soil having the same kind of mate- smeared soil surfaces and provide a natural soil
rial lying within 2 in. (50.8 mm) of tight clay. In interface into which water may percolate. Re-
examining soils or studying soil descriptions, the move all loose material from the hole. Add 2 in.
depth and thickness are important criteria for (50.8 mm) of coarse sand or fine gravel to pro-
determining the absorption capacity and must tect the bottom from scouring and sediment.
be kept in mind.
Saturation and swelling of the soil It is im-
Swelling characteristics Most clays swell portant to distinguish between "saturation" and
upon the addition of moisture. There are many "swelling." Saturation means that the void spaces
clays, however, particularly in the tropics, that do between soil particles are full of water. This can
not swell appreciably. Also, some soils do not swell be accomplished in a short period of time. Swell-
noticeably, while others have a very high percent- ing is caused by the intrusion of water into
age of swelling, as indicated by the relative number individual soil particles. This is a slow process,
of cracks that form. Soils with a high degree of especially in clay type soils, and is the reason
swelling shrink appreciably when dry and may give that a prolonged soaking period is required.
trouble in a tile field when they are wet. To conduct the test, carefully fill the hole with
Information obtained through visual inspection clear water to a minimum depth of 12 in. (304.8
or from soil maps and reports can be of particu- mm) over the gravel.
lar value to the engineer in the preliminary In most soils, it is necessary to refill the hole
appraisal of soils for sewage disposal. For instance, by supplying a surplus reservoir of water, possi-
in many cases, unsuitable soils can be immedi- bly by means of an automatic siphon, to keep
ately ruled out on the basis of such information. water in the hole for at least 4 hours and prefer-
In other cases, selection of the best of several sites ably overnight. This procedure ensures that the
may be done on the basis of this information. For soil is given ample opportunity to swell and to
quantitative information upon which to base a approach the condition it will have during the wet-
specific design, the engineer still must depend on test season of the year. Thus, tests of the same
a direct measurement, such as the water-absorp- soil give comparable results, whether they are
tion rate as measured by a percolation test. made in a dry or wet season.
In sandy soils containing little or no clay, the
Procedure for percolation tests1 The engineer
swelling procedure is not essential. Therefore,
should determine the percolation-test require-
in these soils there is no need to refill the hole
ments of the local jurisdictional authority.
with water.
1The procedure for percolation tests described in this chap- Percolation rate measurement With the ex-
ter was developed at the Robert A. Taft Co. ception of sandy soils, the percolation rate
measurement should be made on the day follow- plant, or the construction of a private waste-
ing the procedure described above, 24 hours after treatment plant.
water is first added to the hole. For sandy soils,
Selection of the appropriate absorption sys-
the percolation rate measurement may be taken
tem is dependent to some extent on the location
after the water from one filling of the hole has
of the system in the area under consideration. A
completely seeped away.
safe distance should be maintained between the
1. If the water remains in the test hole after the system site and any water supply source. Since
overnight swelling period, adjust the depth the distance that pollution may travel under-
to approximately 6 in. (304.8 mm) over the ground depends upon numerous factors,
gravel. From a fixed reference point, mea- including the characteristics of subsoil forma-
sure the drop in the water level over a 30-min tions and the quality of the sewage discharged,
period. This drop is used to calculate the no specified distance is absolutely safe in all lo-
percolation rate. calities. Ordinarily, the greater the distance the
2. If no water remains in the hole after the over- greater the safety provided. The location of the
components of sewage-disposal systems shall be
night swelling period, add clear water in order
as required by local codes. In their absence, Table
to bring the depth of the water in the hole to
8-2 may be used as a guide.
approximately 6 in. (304.8 mm) over the
gravel. From a fixed reference point, mea- Seepage pits should not be used in areas
sure the drop in the water level at where the domestic water supply is obtained from
approximately 30-min intervals for 4 hours, shallow wells or where there are limestone for-
refilling to 6 in. (304.8 mm) over the gravel mations and sinkholes with connections to
as necessary. The drop that occurs during underground channels through which pollution
the final 30-min period is used to calculate may travel to the water sources.
the percolation rate of the soil. Any drop dur-
ing the prior period provides the information
for a possible modification of the procedure Table 8-2 Recommended Distances
in order to suit any local circumstances. Between Soil-Absorption System
and Site Features
3. In sandy soils—and in types of soil in which
the first 6 in. (152.4 mm) of water seep away Distance,
Feature
in fewer than 30 minutes after the overnight ft (m)
swelling period—the time interval between
the measurements should be 10 min and the Cistern 50 (15.2)
test should be run for 1 hour. The drop that Habitable building,
occurs during the final 10 min is used to cal- below-grade foundation 25 (7.6)
culate the percolation rate.
Habitable building, slab on grade 15 (4.56)
Lake, high-water mark 50 (15.2)
Soil-Absorption System Selection Lot line 5 (1.52)
For areas where the percolation rates and soil Reservoir 50 (15.2)
characteristics are good, the next step after mak- Roadway ditch 10 (3.04)
ing the percolation tests is to determine the Spring 100 (30.4)
required absorption system that will be satisfac- Streams or watercourse 50 (15.2)
tory for the area.
Swimming pool 15 (4.56)
For areas where the percolation rates and Uninhabited building 10 (3.04)
soil characteristics are not good, and a typical Water main 50 (15.2)
soil-absorption system is determined to be un-
Water service 10 (3.04)
usable, the engineer should consider alternative
types of absorption system, such as: absorption Water well 50 (15.2)
trenches, seepage beds, seepage pits, and mound
systems. If none of these alternatives is accept- Details pertaining to the local water wells—
able, the engineer may have to consider the use such as depth, type of construction, and vertical
of a sewage lift station to pump the waste water zone of influence—together with data on geo-
to a public sewer system or waste-treatment logical formations and the porosity of the subsoil
strata, should be considered when determining Leaching Trenches

the safe allowable distance between wells and
subsurface disposal systems. A leaching field consists of assembled lengths,
called "laterals," of nominal 4-in. (100-mm) agri-
culture drain tile in 2 to 3-ft (0.6 to 0.9-m)
sections of vitrified clay sewer pipe or perforated
PVC pipe. In areas having unusual soil or water
characteristics, local experience should be taken
into consideration before selecting the piping ma-
terials. Individual laterals should not be over 100
ft (30.5 m) long, and the trench bottom and tile
distributing lines should be level. The use of more
and shorter laterals is preferred because then, if
something happens to disturb one line, most of
the field is still serviceable. From a theoretical
moisture-flow viewpoint, a spacing between lat-
erals of twice the depth of the gravel should
prevent taxing the absorption capacity of the
adjacent soil.
Many different engineering designs may be
used when laying out the subsurface disposal
fields. Typical layouts of absorption trenches are
Figure 8-1 Three Legs of Disposal Field shown in Figures 8-1, 8-2, and 8-3. The designer's
Fed from Cross Fitting Laid on Its Side choice may depend on the size and the shape of
the available disposal area, the capacity required,
or the topography of the disposal area.
Figure 8-2 Disposal Lines Connected by Headers to Circumvent Stoppages
Figure 8-3 Transverse and Lineal Sections of Drain Field

Showing Rock and Earth Backfill around Drain Tile
In order to provide the minimum required sealing. Trenches should be excavated when the
gravel depth and earth cover, absorption trenches soil is wet enough to smear or compact easily.
should be at least 24 in. (0.6 m) deep. Additional Open trenches should be protected from surface
depth may be needed for contour adjustment, runoff to prevent the entrance of silt and debris.
extra aggregate under the tile, or other design If it is necessary to walk in the trench, a tempo-
purposes. The possibility of the tile lines freez- rary board, laid on the bottom, will reduce the
ing during a prolonged cold period should be damage. Some smearing should be raked to a
considered when determining the depth of ab- depth of at least 1 in. (25.4 mm) and any loose
sorption field trenches. The designer should material removed before the gravel is placed in
determine the local frost depth. Freezing rarely the trench.
occurs in a carefully constructed system kept in
Pipe laid in a trench of sufficient width and
continuous operation. During construction of the
depth should be surrounded by clean, graded
system, it is important to ensure that the tile
gravel. The material may range in size from ¾ to
lines are surrounded by gravel.
1 ½ in. (19.1 to 38.1 mm). Cinders, broken shell,
The required absorption area is predicated and similar materials are not recommended be-
on the results of the soil percolation tests and cause they are usually too fine and may lead to
may be obtained from column 2 or 3 of Table 8- premature clogging. The material should extend
1. The area requirements are per bedroom. The from at least 2 in. (50.8 mm) above the top of the
area of the lot on which the house is to be built pipe to at least 6 in. (152.4 mm) below the bot-
should be large enough to allow room for an ad- tom of the pipe. If tile is used, the upper half of
ditional system if the first one fails. For example, the joint openings should be covered. The top of
for a 3-bedroom house on a lot where the mini- the stone should be covered with treated build-
mum percolation rate is 1 in./15 min (25.4 mm/ ing paper, a 2-in. (50.8-mm) layer of hay or straw,
15 min), the necessary absorption area is 3 bed- or a similar pervious material to prevent the
rooms x 190 ft2 (17.7 m2) per bedroom or 570 ft2 stone from becoming clogged by the earth back-
(53 m2). For trenches 2 ft (0.6 m) wide with 6 in. fill. An impervious covering should not be used
(152.4 mm) of gravel below the drain pipe, the because it will interfere with the evapotranspi-
required total length of the trench would be 570 ration at the surface. Although generally not
÷ 2, or 285 ft (86.9 m). If this length were divided figured in the engineering calculations, evapo-
into portions (e.g., 5 laterals), the length of each transpiration is often an important factor in the
line would be 285 ÷ 5, or 57 ft (17.1 m). operation of horizontal absorption systems.
The spacing of the trenches is generally gov- Drain tile connectors, collars, clips, or other
erned by practical construction considerations spaces with covers for the upper half of the joints
such as the type of equipment and safety. For are valuable in obtaining uniform spacing, proper
serial distribution on a sloping ground, the alignment, and protection of the tile joints; how-
trenches should be separated by at least 6 ft ever, their use is optional. They may be made of
(1.8 m) to prevent short-circuiting. Table 8-2 gives galvanized iron, copper, or plastic.
the recommended distances to be kept between It has been found that root problems may be
the disposal system and various site features, prevented by the liberal use of gravel or stone
such as wells and dwellings. around the tile. Clogging due to roots usually
Trenches shall be 2 ft (0.6 m) wide x 5 occurs in lines with insufficient gravel under the
trenches = 10 ft (3.1 m). Add to that 6 ft (1.8 m) tile. Furthermore, roots seek the location where
between trenches x 4 spaces = 24 ft (7.3 m). The moisture conditions are most favorable for
total width of 34 ft x the length of 57 ft (10.4 mm growth. In the small percentage of cases where
x 17.4 m) = 1938 ft2 (181.0 m2), plus additional they become troublesome in well-designed instal-
land required to keep the field separated from lations, there usually is an explanation involving
wells, property lines, etc. moisture conditions. When a residence is unin-
habited, roots penetrate only when the moisture
Construction considerations Careful consid- immediately below or around the gravel becomes
eration must be given to obtaining a satisfactory less plentiful than it is when the system is in
soil-absorption system. Attention also should be use. In general, trenches constructed within 10
given to the protection of the natural absorption ft (3.1 m) of large trees or dense shrubbery should
properties of the soil. The bottom and side sur- have at least 12 in. (0.3 m) of gravel or crushed
faces of the trenches should be prevented from stone beneath the tile.
If trees are located near the sewage-disposal paction of the soil with the consequent reduc-
system, difficulty with roots entering poorly tion in soil aeration.
jointed sewer lines can be anticipated. Lead-
caulked, cast-iron pipe; a sulfur base or Serial distribution Serial distribution is
bituminous pipe joint compound; mechanical, achieved by arranging the individual trenches of
clay pipe joints; copper rings over joints; and the absorption system so that each trench is
lump copper sulfate in pipe trenches have been forced to pond to the full depth of the gravel fill
found to be very effective in resisting the entrance before the liquid flows into the succeeding trench.
of roots into pipe joints. Roots penetrate into the Serial distribution has the following advan-
gravel in the tile field trenches rather than into tages:
the pipe. About 2 or 3 lb (0.9 or 1.4 kg) of copper
sulfate crystals flushed down the toilet bowl once 1. It minimizes the importance of variable ab-
a year will destroy any roots that the solution sorption rates by forcing each trench to
comes in contact with, but it will not prevent absorb the effluent until its complete capac-
new roots from entering the system. Application ity is reached. The variability of soils, even
of the chemical should be done at a time (such in the small area of an individual absorption
as late evening) when the maximum contact time field, raises a doubt about the desirability of
can be obtained before its dilution. Copper sul- uniform distribution. Any one factor or a com-
fate will corrode chrome, iron, and brass; hence, bination of factors may result in the trenches
it should not be allowed to come into contact of an absorption system having a nonuniform
with these metals. Cast iron is not affected to absorptive capacity. Varying physical and
any appreciable extent. Some time must elapse chemical characteristics of the soil, construc-
before the roots are killed and broken off. Cop- tion damage (such as soil interface smearing
per sulfate in the recommended dosage will not or excessive compaction), poor surface drain-
interfere with the operation of the septic tank; age, and variation in the depths of the
however, its use must be allowed by the local trenches are some possible factors.
jurisdictional authorities. 2. With serial distribution, successive trenches
The top of a new absorption trench should in the absorption system may be used to full
be hand tamped with 4 to 6 in. (100.6 to 152.4 capacity. Serial distribution has a distinct
mm) of earth. Unless this is done, the top of the advantage over a sloping or standard trench.
trench may settle to a point lower than the In a parallel system, the impact of dividing
ground. This condition will cause the collection the flow could cause one trench to become
of storm water in the trench, which can lead to overloaded, resulting in a surcharged trench
the premature saturation of the absorption field that receives more effluent than it can ab-
and, possibly, to a complete washout of the sorb. A local failure could occur before the
trench. Machine tamping or hydraulic backfill- full capacity of the absorption system is uti-
ing of the trench should not be used. lized.
Where sloping ground is used for the dis- 3. The cost of distribution boxes is eliminated
posal area, it is usually necessary to construct a in serial distribution. Also, long runs of closed
small temporary dike (or a surface diversion pipe connecting distribution boxes to the
ditch) above the field to prevent the disposal area trenches are unnecessary.
from being washed out by storm water. The dike
Fields in flat areas Where the slope of the
should be maintained (or the ditch kept free of
ground surface does not exceed 6 in.(152.4 mm)
obstructions) until the absorption field becomes
in any direction within the area utilized for the
covered with vegetation. absorption field, and where the system is a con-
A vehicle could possibly crush the tile in a tinuous one of interconnected tile lines and
shallow absorption field. For this reason, heavy trenches, the following specific criteria should
machinery should not be used on the disposal be followed:
area unless special provisions are made to sup-
1. A minimum of 12 in. (0.3 m) of earth cover
port its weight. All machine grading should be
should be provided over the gravel fill in all
completed before the absorption field is laid. trenches of the system.
The use of the field area should be restricted 2. The bottom of the trench and the distribu-
to activities that will not contribute to the com- tion lines should be level.
3. Construction considerations are the same as lines in the adjacent trenches or to a drop
those for standard trenches, and local code arrangement.
requirements should be met.
7. Extreme care should be exercised during the
Fields on sloping ground Serial distribution construction of the relief line to ensure that
may be used in any situation where a soil-absorp- there is an undisturbed block of earth be-
tion system is permitted and should be used where tween the trenches. The trench for the relief
the fall of the ground surface exceeds 6 in. (152.4 pipe, where it connects to the preceeding ab-
mm) in any direction within the area utilized for sorption trench, should be dug no deeper
the absorption field. The maximum ground slope than the top of the gravel. The relief line
suitable for a serial distribution system should should rest on the undisturbed earth and the
be determined by local factors affecting the ero- backfill should be carefully tamped.
sion of the ground used for the absorption field. 8. The relief lines connecting the individual
Sloping grounds typically are not protected from trenches should be as far from each other as
surface water runoff or do not have an adequate is practical in order to prevent short circu-
vegetation cover to prevent erosion. Also, the hori- lating.
zontal distance from the side of the trench to the
ground surface should be adequate to prevent a 9. The invert of the overflow pipe in the first
lateral flow of the effluent and a breakout on the relief line should be at least 4 in. (101.6 m)
surface. In no case should this distance be less lower than the invert of the septic tank
than 2 ft (0.6 m). outlet.
In serial distribution, each adjacent trench is
Seepage Beds
connected to the next by a closed pipe line laid
on an undisturbed section of ground. The arrange- Absorption systems having trenches wider than
ment is such that all effluent is discharged to 3 ft (0.9 m) are called "seepage beds." Variations
the first trench until it is filled. Any liquid is then of design practices utilizing an increased width
carried by means of a closed line to the succeed- are being used in some areas with the approval
ing or next lower trench. In that manner, each of the local jurisdictional authorities. The design
portion of the subsurface system is used in suc- of the trenches is based on an empirical rela-
cession. When serial distribution is used, the tionship between the percolation test and the
following design and construction procedures bottom area of the trenches. The use of seepage
should be followed: beds may be limited by the absence of design
1. The bottom of each trench and its distribu- criteria comparable to those for trenches.
tion line should be level. Studies have demonstrated that seepage beds
2. There should be a minimum of 12 in. (0.3 m) are a satisfactory means of disposing of effluent
of ground cover over the gravel fill in the in soils that are suitable for soil-absorption sys-
trenches. tems. These studies have further demonstrated that
3. The absorption trenches should follow the the empirical relationship between the
ground surface contours to minimize any percolation test and the bottom area required for
the trenches is also applicable for seepage beds.
variations in the trench depths.
4. There should be a minimum of 6 ft (1.8 m) of A seepage bed has three main elements: the
undisturbed earth between all adjacent absorption surface, the rock fill (or packing
trenches and between the septic tank and material), and the distribution system. The
the nearest trench. design of a seepage bed should be such that the
total intended absorption area is preserved,
5. Any adjacent trenches may be connected with sufficient packing material is provided in the
the relief line or a drop-box arrangement in proper place to allow for further treatment and
such a manner that each trench is completely storage of excess liquid, and the means for distrib-
filled with the septic tank effluent to the depth uting the effluent is protected against siltation
of the gravel before the effluent flows to any of earth backfill and from mechanical damage.
succeeding trenches. Construction details for a conventional seepage
6. All trench-connecting lines should be 4-in. bed are outlined below. The listing of these
(100-mm) diameter, tight-joint sewers with construction details is not intended to preclude
direct connections either to the distribution other acceptable designs which may provide the
essential features in an economical or otherwise 8. The applicable construction considerations

desirable manner. There are methods for distrib- for standard trenches given earlier should
uting the liquid other than by tile or perforated be heeded and local jurisdictional require-
pipe covered with gravel that are equally good ments met.
and usually acceptable to the local jurisdictional
authorities. Seepage Pits
The use of a seepage bed results in the fol-
Seepage pits are not recommended and are of-
lowing advantages:
ten prohibited by local health officials. When
1. A wide seepage bed makes more efficient use allowed, they are commonly used either to
of the land available for the absorption sys- supplement the subsurface disposal system or
tem than a series of long, narrow trenches in lieu of a system where conditions favor the
(with wasted land between the trenches). operation of seepage pits. A seepage pit may be
2. Efficient use may be made of various types deemed necessary by the designer. The seepage
of earth-moving equipment employed at pit should be sized in accordance with the rec-
projects for other purposes, such as base- ommendations provided in Table 8-1.
ment excavation and landscaping, resulting Construction considerations Extreme care
in savings on the cost of the system. should be taken in order to avoid extending the
seepage pit into the ground-water table. Where
Construction considerations When a seepage
the seepage pit is used to receive the septic tank
bed is used, the following design and construc-
effluent, care should be exercised in locating the
tion procedures should be observed in order to
pit. See the recommendations listed in Table 8-2.
provide for rock fill (or packing material), an
adequate distribution system, and the protec- Soil is susceptible to damage during excava-
tion of the absorption area: tion. Digging in wet soils should be avoided as
much as possible. Cutting teeth on mechanical
1. The required bottom absorption area should equipment should be kept sharp. Bucket-augured
be the same as that recommended in Table pits should be reamed to a diameter larger than
8-1. the bucket. All loose material should be removed
2. The percolation tests should be conducted in from the excavation.
accordance with acceptable practices. The pits should be backfilled with clean gravel
3. The seepage bed should have a minimum to a depth of 1 ft (0.3 m) above the pit bottom or
depth of 24 to 48 in. (0.6 to 1.2 m) below the 1 ft (0.3 m) above the reamed ledge in order to
natural ground level to provide for a mini- provide a sound foundation for the lining. Preferred
mum earth backfill cover of 12 in. (0.3 m). lining materials are clay, concrete, brick, block,
and rings. Rings should have weep holes or
4. The seepage bed should have a minimum notches to provide for seepage. Brick and block
depth of 12 in. (0.3 m) of rock fill (or packing should be laid with staggered joints. Standard
material extending at least 2 in. [50.8 mm]) bricks should be laid flat to form a 4-in. (101.6-
above and 6 in. (152.4 mm) below the distri- mm) wall. The outside diameter of the lining
bution pipe. should be at least 6 in. (152.4 mm) less than
5. The bottom of the seepage bed and distribu- the least excavation diameter. The annular space
tion tile (or perforated pipe) should be level. formed should be filled with clean, coarse gravel
to the top of the lining. When the seepage pit is
6. The lines for distributing the effluent should
located in close proximity to trees, it may be filled
be spaced less than 6 ft (1.8 m) apart and
with loose rock and the lining can be eliminated.
less than 3 ft (0.9 m) from the seepage bed
sidewall. Either brick dome or flat concrete covers,
preferably to within 8 in. (203.2 mm) of finished
7. When more than one seepage bed is used, grade, are satisfactory. They should be laid on
there should be a minimum of 6 ft (1.8 m) of
undisturbed earth and extend at least 12 in. (0.3
undisturbed earth between the adjacent
m) beyond the excavation and should not bear
seepage beds, and the seepage beds should
on the lining for structural support. Bricks
be connected in series in accordance with
should be either laid in cement mortar or have a
the recommendations given in this chapter. 2-in. (50.8-mm) covering of concrete mortar or
have a 2-in. (50.8-mm) covering of concrete. If flat 4. Where the mound system is to be located over
covers are used, a prefabricated type is preferred; previously compacted soil.
they should be reinforced to be equivalent in
5. Where the percolation rate is greater than
strength to an approved septic tank cover. A 9-in.
120 min/in. (4.7 min/mm).
(228.6-mm) capped opening in the pit cover is
convenient for pit inspection. If the cover is over Local codes must be used for all design and
30 in. (0.02 m), an access manhole or sectional installation requirements. Local code approval
cover should be provided. All concrete surfaces is required.
should be coated with a protective compound to
minimize corrosion.
COLLECTION AND TREATMENT
Connecting lines should be made of a sound,
ALTERNATIVES
durable material, the same used for the house
or septic tank connections. All connecting lines
Alternatives to Gravity Collection and
should be laid on a firm bed of undisturbed soil
Distribution
throughout their length. The grade of a connect-
ing line should be at least 2%. The pit inlet pipe If gravity collection and/or distribution are not
should be extended horizontally at least 1 ft (0.3 possible, pumped systems are used. Alternatives
m) into the pit with a tee or ell to divert the flow to the typical gravity collection and distribution
downward to prevent washing and eroding of the system that should be evaluated include: small-
sidewalls. If multiple pits are used, or in the event diameter gravity sewers, pressure sewers, and
that seepage pits are added to an existing sys- vacuum sewers. If the septic tank receives efflu-
tem, they should be connected in series. ent other than raw wastes, small-diameter pipe
Abandoned seepage pits should be filled with (4-in. [100-mm] nominal) may be used to reduce
earth or rock. the cost of conventional gravity sewers. The indi-
vidual septic tanks should partially treat the waste
Mound Systems water by decomposition of the larger particles and
permit sand and grit to settle. The 4-in. (100-mm)
When the area surrounding a facility is not suit- mains should be installed at a minimum gradient
able for excavated soil-absorption methods, a of 0.67% based on a minimum velocity of 1.5 ft/s
mound system must be used. This type of sys- (0.5 m/s) at half-pipe flow capacity. Under these
tem is used when there is not enough depth of conditions, using the Manning formula, a 4-in. (100-
naturally occurring soil over an impermeable for- mm) pipe can carry over 2000 gph (2.1 L/s),
mation or where high ground water exists. This sufficient to serve 670 persons (assuming a peak
usually requires the effluent to be pumped from flow of 3 gph [3.2 mL/s] per person).
the septic tank discharge to the soil-absorption Pressure sewer systems generally consist of
bed at a higher elevation. septic tanks at each facility, a small submers-
A mound type soil-absorption system is a last ible pump, and small-diameter plastic mains.
resort and should be used only when there is not Grinder pumps may be placed in the septic tank.
enough naturally occurring soil to provide the Construction costs are reduced because the sewer
required soil-absorption bed area on a site. In such main can follow the contour of the land just be-
a case, if a mound system cannot be installed, low the frost line.
the site is often considered unbuildable. In gen- Vacuum transport systems consist of a
eral, the following site conditions should be vacuum pump, a receiving tank (held at approxi-
considered unsuitable for a mound system: mately 7.5 psia [51.7 kPa]), and a vacuum valve.
1. Where the mound system is to be located over When there is sufficient sewage in the lateral
an existing, failing soil-absorption system. and the vacuum is at the proper level, the valve
will open and the sewage will enter as a slug.
2. Where less than 2 ft (610 mm) of unsatur- The slug of waste water will move toward the
ated soil is available over creviced or porous receiving tank until the spreading out of the slug
bedrock. results in a break in the seal, thus ending the
3. Where less than 2 ft (610 mm) of unsatur- vacuum effect. Traps should be placed at regu-
ated soil is available over high ground water. lar intervals in the mains to reshape the slugs.
When the trap fills, the vacuum effect is rees-
tablished, causing the slug to continue toward ral, bacterial processes. The bacteria present in
the receiving tank with the next operation of the the liquid are "anaerobic" (i.e., they thrive in the
valve. Vacuum sewers flow full and provide many absence of free oxygen). This decomposition, or
of the advantages of pressure sewers. treatment, of the sewage under anaerobic con-
ditions is termed "septic," hence, the name of
Alternatives to Conventional Primary- the tank.
and-Secondary Treatment
Solids removal "Sludge" is defined as an accu-
The alternatives to conventional primary-and- mulation of solids at the bottom of the septic
secondary treatment include sand filtration and tank. "Scum" is a partially submerged mat of
evapotranspiration. Sand filters have been used floating solids that forms at the surface of the
in sewage treatment for many years. More re- fluid in the septic tank. Some sludge and scum
cently, standard systems have been modified to are decomposed. The residual material, composed
recirculating sand filter systems, which have dem- of inert solid material, remain. After a period of
onstrated that, if properly designed, installed, and time, these solids, including all types of grease,
operated, they can produce effluents that meet have to be pumped out. Space must be provided
stringent effluent and stream-quality standards. in the septic tank to store this residue between
Evapotranspiration as a means of disposing of cleanings; otherwise, sludge and scum will even-
domestic wastes has been researched at several tually be scoured from the septic tank and may
locations, and its use has been accepted by vari- clog the disposal field.
ous local jurisdictions. This type of system is
If adequately designed, constructed, main-
rarely used, however.
tained, and operated, septic tanks accomplish
The use of self-contained sewage treatment their purpose very efficiently.
plants, particularly the tertiary treatment type,
The heavier sewage solids settle to the bottom
has found wide acceptance for facilities. Though
of the septic tank, forming a blanket of sludge.
this method is outside the scope of this chapter,
The lighter solids, including fat and grease, rise to
it is discussed briefly in the section "Individual
the surface and form a layer of scum. A consider-
Aerobic Waste-Water Treatment Plants."
able amount of the sludge and scum is liquefied
through decomposition or digestion. During this
process, gas is liberated from the sludge and car-
SEPTIC TANKS
ries some of the solids to the surface, where they
accumulate with the scum. Ordinarily, they un-
If the lot is large enough to accommodate one of
dergo further digestion in the scum layer and a
the previously discussed types of absorption sys- portion settles again to the sludge blanket at the
tem, and construction of the system is permitted bottom. This action is retarded if there is a consid-
by the local jurisdictional authority, the next step
erable amount of grease in the scum layer. The
is the selection of a suitable septic tank. The
settling is also retarded in smaller septic tanks
criteria for selection are as follows:
because of the gasification due to fluctuations of
flow, which are relatively wider in smaller septic
Functions of the Septic Tank tanks than in larger ones. This effect is reflected in
Table 8-3, which shows the recommended mini-
Untreated liquid household effluent consists of mum liquid capacities of household septic tanks.
both solids and liquids. If both were discharged
directly into the seepage beds or trenches, the Table 8-3 Liquid Capacity of Tanka
beds or trenches eventually would clog. The sep-
tic tank is a device that protects the beds by Recommended Equivalent
separating solids from liquids. The solids are re- Number of Minimum Tank Capacity per
Bedroomsb Capacity, gal (L) Bedroom, gal (L)
tained in the septic tank so that only liquid is
discharged to be percolated into the ground.
2 or fewer 1000 (3785.0) 300 (1135.6)
To provide this protection, two functions take 3 1000 (3785.0) 375 (1419.5)
place within the septic tank: 4 1500 (5678.1) 350 (1324.9)
aProvides for use of garbage grinders, automatic clothes wash-
Biological treatment Sewage effluent (fecal ers, and other household appliances.
matter) is subjected to decomposition by natu- bFor each additional bedroom beyond 4, add 350 gal (1324.9 L).
As waste water enters the septic tank, efflu- Invert The inlet invert should enter the septic
ent is forced out of the tank into the drain field. tank at least 3 in. (760.2 mm) above its liquid
Although the effluent is liquid, some solids re- level in order to allow for any momentary rises
main in suspension. These solids are further in the liquid level during the discharges to the
digested by the soil as the liquid effluent trickles unit. This free drop prevents backwater and
out of the drain piping into trenches and the sur- stranding of solid material in the house sewer
rounding absorption field. leading to the septic tank.
A vented inlet tee or baffle should be provided
Septic Tank Specifications to divert the incoming sewage downward. This
device should penetrate at least 6 in. (152.4 mm)
Materials Septic tanks should be watertight below the liquid level of the septic tank, but in
and constructed of materials not subject to ex- no case should the penetration be greater than
cessive corrosion or decay. Concrete, fiberglass, that allowed for the outlet device.
and coated metal are commonly used. Properly
cured, precast and cast-in-place, reinforced-con- Outlet It is very important that the outlet de-
crete septic tanks are acceptable by most vice penetrate just far enough below the liquid
jurisdictions. Special attention should be given level of the septic tank to provide balance be-
to job-built septic tanks to ensure their water- tween the sludge and scum storage volume;
tightness. Heavyweight concrete block should be otherwise, part of the advantage of the capacity
laid on a solid concrete foundation. Mortar joints is lost. A vertical section of a properly operating
should be surfaced with two ¼-in. (6.4-mm) coats septic tank would show it divided into three dis-
of portland cement/sand plaster. tinct layers: scum at the top, a middle zone free
of solids (called clear space) and a bottom layer
Precast septic tanks should have a minimum of sludge. The outlet device retains scum in the
wall thickness of 3 in. (76.2 mm) and should be septic tank, but at the same time it limits the
adequately reinforced to facilitate their handling.
amount of sludge that can be accommodated
When precast slabs are used as covers, they
without scouring (which results in the sludge
should be watertight, have a thickness of at least
discharging in the effluent from the septic tank).
4 in. (107.6 mm), and be adequately reinforced.
Observations of sludge accumulations in the field
All concrete surfaces should be coated with an indicate that the outlet device should be extended
acceptable compound to minimize corrosion, as to a distance below the surface equal to 40% of
approved by the local jurisdictional authority.
the liquid depth. For horizontal, cylindrical sep-
General Backfill around septic tanks should be tic tanks, this distance should be reduced to
made in thin layers thoroughly tamped in a man- 35%. For example, in a horizontal, cylindrical
ner that will not produce undue strain on the septic tank having a liquid depth of 42 in. (1.1
septic tank. Settlement of the backfill may be m), the outlet device should penetrate 42 x 0.35
done with the use of water, provided the mate- = 14.7 in. (0.4 m) below the liquid level.
rial is thoroughly wetted from the bottom The outlet device should be extended above
upwards and the septic tank is first filled with the liquid line to approximately 1 in. (25.4 mm)
water to prevent floating. from the top of the septic tank. The space be-
Adequate access to each compartment of the tween the top of the septic tank and the baffle
septic tank should be provided for inspection and will allow any gas to pass through the septic tank
cleaning. Both the inlet and the outlet devices into the house vent.
should be accessible. Access to each tank compart- Tank proportions The available data indicate
ment should be provided by means of a removable that, for septic tanks of a given capacity, shal-
cover or a 20-in. (0.5-m) manhole. Where the top low units function as well as deep ones. Also, for
of the septic tank is located more than 18 in. (457.2 septic tanks of a given capacity and depth, the
mm) below the finished grade, manholes and in- shape of the unit is not important. However, it is
spection holes should extend to the finished grade. recommended that the smallest plan dimension
In most instances, the extension can be made us- be a minimum of 2 ft (0.6 m). Liquid depths may
ing a clay or concrete pipe, but proper attention range between 30 and 60 in. (0.8 and 1.5 m).
must be given to the potential hazard involved (yard
maintenance equipment) when manholes are ex- Storage above liquid level Capacity is required
tended close to the ground surface. above the septic tank liquid line to provide for
that portion of the scum that floats above the An access manhole to each tank compartment
liquid. Although some variation is to be expected, shall be provided. Venting between the tank com-
on the average, about 30% of the total scum ac- partments should be provided to allow for the
cumulates above the liquid line. In addition to free passage of gas. Inlet and outlet fittings in
the provision for scum storage, 1 in. (25.4 mm) the septic tank should be proportioned (as they
is usually provided at the top of the septic tank are for a single tank). The same allowance should
to permit free passage of gas back to the inlet be made for storage above the liquid line (as is
and house vent pipe. made for a single tank).
For septic tanks having straight, vertical sides, An allowance should be made for sludge and
the distance between the top of the septic tank scum accumulation as indicated in Table 8-4.
and the liquid line should be equal to approxi-
mately 20% of the liquid depth. In horizontal, General Information on
cylindrical tanks, approximately 15% of the total Septic Tanks
circle should be provided above the liquid level.
This condition is met if the liquid depth (distance Cleaning Septic tanks should be cleaned be-
from outlet invert to bottom of tank) is equal to fore too much sludge or scum accumulates. If
79% of the diameter of the septic tank. the sludge or scum approaches the bottom too
Use of compartments Although a number of closely, solids will be discharged through the out-
let device into the sewage-disposal field and will
arrangements is possible, "compartments" refers
clog the system. When this condition occurs,
to the number of units in series. These compart-
eventually the liquid may break through to the
ments can be separate units linked together or
ground surface and the sewage may back up the
sections enclosed in one continuous shell, with
watertight portions separating the individual plumbing fixtures. When a disposal field is
compartments. clogged in this manner, not only is it necessary to
clean the septic tank, but also it may be neces-
A single-compartment septic tank provides sary to construct a new disposal field.
acceptable performance. The available data in-
With the tank capacities recommended in
dicate, however, that a two-compartment septic
Table 8-3, there is a reasonable time period of
tank (with the first compartment equal to one-
good operation before cleaning becomes neces-
half to two-thirds of the total volume) provides
sary. From one septic tank to the next, there are
better suspended-solids removal, which may be
especially valuable for the protection of the soil- wide differences in the rates at which sludge and
absorption system. Septic tanks with three or scum accumulate. In general, the tank should
be inspected at least once per year and cleaned
more equal compartments give performances that
out as necessary.
are at least as good as those of single-compart-
ment septic tanks of the same total capacity. Although it is a difficult task for most
Each tank compartment should have a minimum homeowners, actual inspection of the sludge and
length of 2 ft (0.6 m) with a liquid depth ranging scum accumulations is the only way to deter-
from 30 to 60 in. (0.8 to 1.5 m). mine definitely when a given septic tank needs
Table 8-4 Allowable Sludge Accumulation
Liquid Depth, ft (m)
Liquid Capacity 2½ 3 4 5
of Tank,a (0.8) (0.9) (1.2) (1.5)
gal (L) Distance from bottom of outlet device to top of sludge, in. (mm)
750 (2838.8) 5 (127) 6 (152.4) 10 (254) 13 (330.2)

900 (3406.5) 4 (101.6) 4 (101.6) 7 (177.8) 10 (254)
1000 (3785.0) 4 (101.6) 4 (101.6) 6 (152.4) 8 (203.2)
aTanks smaller than the capacities listed require more frequent cleaning.
to be pumped. When a septic tank is inspected, person in case of an accident or the person being
the depth of the sludge and scum should be mea- overcome by gas remaining in the septic tank.
sured in the vicinity of the outlet baffle. The septic
tank should be cleaned if: (a) the bottom of the Grease interceptors Grease interceptors (grease
scum mat is within 3 in. (76.2 mm) of the bot- traps) are not, ordinarily, considered necessary
tom of the outlet device or (b) the sludge comes on household sewage-disposal systems. The dis-
within the limits specified in Table 8-4. charge from a garbage grinder should not be
passed through these units. With the capacities
Scum can be measured with a stick to which recommended in this chapter, septic tanks can
a weighted flap has been hinged or with a device receive the grease normally discharged from a
used to feel the bottom of the scum mat. The residence.
stick is forced through the scum mat, and the
hinged flap falls into a horizontal position. The Chemicals The operation of a septic tank is not
stick is then raised until resistance from the improved by the addition of disinfectants or other
bottom of the scum is felt. With the same tool, chemicals. In general, the addition of chemicals
the distance to the bottom of the outlet device to a septic tank is not recommended and may
can be determined. actually have an adverse effect on the bacterial
A long stick wrapped with rough, white towel- processes necessary for digestion. Use of com-
ing and lowered to the bottom of the septic tank mercial products containing sodium hydroxide
will show the depth of sludge and the liquid level or potassium hydroxide as the active agent may
of the septic tank. The stick should be lowered result in the sludge bulking. A large increase in
behind the outlet device in order to avoid scum the alkalinity may interfere with digestion. The
particles. After several minutes, if the stick is resulting effluent may severely damage the soil
carefully removed, the sludge line can be distin- structure and cause accelerated clogging, though
guished by the sludge particles clinging to the temporary relief may be experienced immediately
toweling. after application of the product.
In most communities where septic tanks are Frequently, however, the harmful effects of
used, there are firms engaged in cleaning septic ordinary household chemicals are overemphasized.
tanks. The local health department can make Small amounts of chlorine bleaches, added ahead
suggestions on how to obtain this service. (In of the septic tank, may be used for odor control
some communities, the service is offered on a and will have no adverse effects on the system.
limited basis and paid for by property taxes.) Small quantities of lye or caustics commonly used
Cleaning is usually accomplished by pumping in the home, added to the plumbing fixtures, is
the contents of the septic tank into a truck. Sep- not objectionable as far as the operation of the
tic tanks should not be washed or disinfected septic tank is concerned. If the septic tanks are
after pumping. A small residue of sludge should as large as is recommended, the dilution of the
be left in the septic tank for seeding purposes. lye or caustics in the unit will offset any of the
The material removed from the septic tank is a harmful effects that might otherwise occur.
regulated waste requiring proper handling ac- Many commercial products containing en-
cording to laws and rules imposed by federal or zymes have been placed on the market for use
state agencies. The tank should never be emp- in septic tanks. As far as is known, none has
tied into storm drains or discharged directly into been proved, in properly controlled tests, to have
any stream or watercourse. All methods of sew- an advantage.
age disposal should first be approved by the local Soaps, detergents, bleaches, drain cleaners,
health authorities. or other materials, as commonly used in house-
When a large septic tank is cleaned, care holds, will have no appreciable adverse effects
should be taken not to enter the septic tank until on the sewage system. However, both the soil
it has been thoroughly ventilated and all gases and essential organisms might be susceptible to
have been removed to prevent the creation of large doses of chemicals, resulting from a hobby
explosion hazards and the asphyxiation of work- or an industry, discharged into the sewage
ers. Anyone entering the septic tank should wear system.
a self-contained breathing apparatus and have Bulk quantities of chemicals (paints, var-
one end of a stout rope tied around the waist nishes, pesticides, herbicides, etc.) should not be
with the other end held above ground by another introduced to the system as these may cause sig-
nificant problems in either overloading the sys- the ground surface will simplify maintenance and
tem, interrupting the digestion process, or cleaning. Records must be retained, including
placing harmful or toxic chemicals into the soil all performed maintenance.
or waterways. Abandoned tanks should be filled with earth
or rock.
Miscellaneous It is advisable to have all sani-
tary wastes from a household discharge into a
single septic tank and disposal system. For DISTRIBUTION BOXES
household installations, it is usually more eco-
nomical to provide a single disposal system rather It is recommended that distribution boxes not
than two (or more) with the same total capacity. be used for individual sewage-disposal systems
Normal household waste, including that from the for the following reasons:
laundry, bath, and kitchen, should pass into a
single system. 1. The distribution boxes may be eliminated
from septic tank–soil-absorption systems for
Roof drains, foundation drains, and drainage
other methods of distribution without induc-
from other sources producing large intermittent
ing an increased possibility of failure of the
or constant volumes of clear water should not
disposal field. Evidence indicates that distri-
be piped into the septic tank or absorption area.
bution boxes may be harmful to a system.
Such large volumes of water will exceed the tank
capacity, stir up the contents of the septic tank, 2. Data indicate that, on level ground, equal
and carry some of the solids into the outlet line. distribution is unnecessary if the system is
The disposal system following the septic tank will designed so that an overloaded trench drains
likewise become flooded or clogged, or both, and back to other trenches before a failure occurs.
may fail. Drainage from garage floors or other 3. On sloping ground, a method of distribution
sources of oily waste should also be excluded is needed to prevent an excessive buildup of
from the septic tank. head and the failure of any one trench be-
Toilet paper substitutes should not be flushed fore the capacity of the entire system is
into a septic tank. Paper towels, newspaper, reached. It is doubtful that distribution boxes
wrapping paper, rags, and sticks may not de- can provide an equal distribution.
compose in the septic tank and are likely to lead
to clogging of the plumbing and disposal systems.
SEPTIC TANK/SOIL-ABSORPTION
Waste brines from household water softener
SYSTEMS FOR INSTITUTIONS AND
units may have adverse effects on the action of
RECREATIONAL AND OTHER
the septic tank, causing a slight shortening of ESTABLISHMENTS
the life of a sewage-disposal field installed in a
structured clay type soil.
Septic tank systems are utilized for providing
Adequate venting is obtained through the sewage treatment and disposal in many types of
building plumbing system if the septic tank and smaller establishments—such as schools, small
the plumbing system are designed and installed institutions, motels, small hotels, small restau-
properly. A separate vent on a septic tank is not rants, trailer parks, housing projects, large private
necessary. estates, and camps—where the quantities of sew-
A chart showing the location of the septic tank age involved are larger than those discharged from
and disposal system should be placed in a suit- an individual home. In general, the usefulness
able location in the building(s) served by the of a septic tank system decreases as the size of
system. Whether furnished by the builder, sep- the facility served increases. The lack of sani-
tic tank installer, or local health department, the tary engineering advice during the design of such
chart should contain instructions as to the in- a system generally leads to failures, excessive
spection and maintenance required for the septic costs, and a multitude of other problems. Any-
tank. This chart will help acquaint homeowners one contemplating the use of such a system
with the necessary maintenance procedures sep- should employ an engineer qualified to design
tic tanks require, thus forestalling failures of the it. The first item to be determined from the
unit by ensuring a satisfactory operation. Ex- authorities having jurisdiction is whether or not
tension of the septic tank's manholes or this method of sewage disposal is suitable for
inspection holes to within 8 in. (203.2 mm) of the type of establishment under consideration.
Any institutional septic tank system should Some service stations and similar occupan-
incorporate appurtenances and supplemental cies utilize specially designed units that so
design features to meet the requirements of the effectively recycle waste water that some health
establishment and the varying site conditions. officials permit its reuse for toilet flushing.
Such systems can be successful when appropri-
ate experience, study, and planning are employed Alternative Systems
in their choice and development. This section de-
scribes the most generally successful procedures Institutional waste-water management for sites
and practices as a guide for engineers designing without sewers presents unusual challenges.
institutional systems. For occupancies covered Jurisdictional authorities should develop policies
by this section, under the federal Clean Water whereby innovative, alternative systems can be
act and related state water-quality regulations, evaluated to determine the conditions under
it is common that applications must be made which such systems may be accepted, based
for discharge requirements in addition to obtain- upon the various factors involved.
ing the normal approvals. For instance, for
restaurants, supermarkets, and other establish- Special Design
ments producing appreciable amounts of grease,
grease interceptors are commonly required, ei- Special design features are desirable for larger
ther as a central grease trap located outside the institutional type systems. Consideration should
building or, preferably, as separate grease inter- be given to providing larger-than-required tanks.
ceptors located at each grease-producing fixture. Often two or more properly designed baffles are
Because regulations at all levels are changing desirable rather than a dual-tank system.
rapidly, requiring greater clarity of effluent, en-
gineers should be sure they have contacted all Openings should be conveniently accessible
agencies that may be involved. for tank cleaning and maintenance.
Seepage systems also must be properly de-
Water Conservation signed. For gravity flow, each seepage trench
normally should not exceed 100 ft (30.5 m) in
In most institutional systems, an important fac- length. For systems designed for more than 2000
tor in preventing overload of waste-water gal (7570 L) per day, automatic dosing by siphon
disposal systems is water conservation. Means of or pump is desirable to ensure that the whole
conserving water include automatically closing system is effectively used. Special dosing nor-
faucets on all public wash basins; flow restrictors, mally should be designed to fill the entire seepage
where applicable; water closet and urinal fixtures trench piping to about ¾ capacity.
designed to minimize water consumption; pre-
ventive maintenance; and user-education Allowing for 100% expansion or having two
programs aimed at waste-water reduction. The separate absorption areas for alternating between
use of 1.6 gal (7.2 L) per flush water closets is seepage systems is a consideration for institu-
certainly a major factor in waste-water reduction. tions.
Numerous states and localities are imple-

menting, or studying the implementation of, INDIVIDUAL AEROBIC
water (gray and/or black) recycling programs. WASTE-WATER
TREATMENT PLANTS
Special Fixtures
Where surface discharge is authorized by the
A number of failing septic tank systems at high- authorities having jurisdiction, individual treat-
way safety rest stops, parks, and service stations ment plants can be used. Approval under
have been corrected by installing water closets National Sanitation Foundation (NSF) Standard
that use 2 qt (1.9 L) per flush or less. This option no. 40 may be required. This standard requires
should be evaluated in system design, especially compliance with class 1 effluent standards to meet
for occupancies where water closets and urinals EPA secondary-treatment guidelines. Septic
produce the majority of waste water at sites where tanks may require the installation of intermit-
soil porosity is limited. tent, conventional, or recirculating sand filters.
Stabilization ponds or lagoons, either conven-
tional or aerated, may be accepted by some ju- Table 8-5 Average Waste-Water Flows
risdictions when soil-absorption systems are from Residential Sources
contemplated. It is essential to determine the
characteristics and suitability of the area re- Flow,
served for the subsurface disposal system, gal (L) / unit / day
including, as required, room for future expan- Source Unit Range Typical
sion. This includes checking the required
separation from wells and surface waters, the to-
Apartment Person 53–90 (200–340) 69 (260)
pography, data on ground-water levels and
impermeable layers, and the soil evaluation and Hotel, residential Resident 40–58 (150–220) 50 (190)
percolation tests, as required. The design engi- Individual dwelling
neer should fully explore all technical and legal Average home Person 50–92 (190–350) 74 (280)
aspects of securing approval of an acceptable
Better home Person 66–106 (250–400) 82 (310)
method of sewage disposal before the site is de-
veloped. To do so, it is necessary to make a Luxury home Person 79–145 (300–550) 100 (380)
somewhat detailed plan of the total contemplated Semi-modern home Person 26–66 (100–250) 53 (200)
site occupancy to determine the size and capaci- Trailer park Person 32–53 (120–200) 40 (150)
ties of the disposal units.
When soil-absorption systems are contem-
plated, it is essential to determine the systems for apartments, mobile-home parks, and
characteristics and suitability of the soil as a first similar residential facilities. Refer to Tables 8-6
step toward design. The builder of the establish- through 8-8 for typical waste-water flows from
ment should explore this feature of a proposed commercial, institutional, and recreational
site before the site is purchased. After the perco- sources.
lation tests are completed, the quantity of the
sewage to be discharged should be estimated to Where measurements of water consumption
determine the size and capacity of the disposal are not possible, it is necessary to use other
units. methods of estimating the amount of sewage to
be discharged. One method is to base the esti-
mated flow on the number of bedrooms. A second
ESTIMATING SEWAGE QUANTITIES method is to calculate the flow on the basis of
the number and kinds of plumbing fixture. If the
Normally, disposal systems are designed prior to building is used as a restaurant, the number of
the actual construction of a facility. In estimating meals served may be the best criterion. The de-
the quantity of sewage, the first consideration sign engineer must use judgment and base an
must be given to local code requirements. These estimate upon a combination of the various in-
requirements usually result in design flows that fluencing factors. Refer to Table 8-9 for general
are considerably above average. If there are no establishments to estimate sewage quantities.
code requirements, the most reliable criteria are The quantities given in the table are merely the
readings from water meters at similar existing best averages available at this time; they should
buildings. This can usually be obtained from the be modified in localities or establishments where
water utility company. It is recommended that a experience indicates a need to do so.
safety factor of 10% be added to the quantity of
It is sometimes economically wise to con-
water obtained to account for any additional
struct separate disposal systems for different
unknown requirements. However, water flows that
types of waste at a given establishment. The de-
do not pass through the sewage system, e.g.,
cision regarding the number of disposal systems
irrigation, should be excluded.
may be influenced by topography, conditions of
Where codes and actual usage data are not terrain, and the locations of the buildings con-
available, it is necessary to use other methods of tributing to the wastes. For example, at large
estimating the amount of sewage to be dis- camps and some resorts, the kitchen and cen-
charged. For residential facilities refer to Table tral dining facilities may be located at appreciable
8-5 for average daily waste-water flows, including distances from the living quarters, cottages, and
minimum and maximum flow and frequency dis- cabins. Under such circumstances, the kitch-
tribution. These data are useful for the design of ens may be provided with separate disposal
Table 8-6 Typical Waste-Water Flows from Commercial Sources

Waste-Water Flow,
gpd/unit (L/d/unit)
Source Unit Range Typical
Airport Passenger 2.1–4.0 (8–15) 2.6 (10)

Automobile service station Vehicle serviced 7.9–13.2 (30–50) 10.6 (40)
Employee 9.2–15.8 (35–60) 13.2 (50)
Bar Customer 1.3–5.3 (5–20) 2.1 (8)
Employee 10.6–15.8 (40–60) 13.2 (50)
Hotel Guest 39.6–58.0 (150–220) 50.1 (190)
Employee 7.9–13.2 (30–50) 10.6 (40)
Industrial building Employee 7.9–17.2 (3–65) 14.5 (55)
(excluding industry and cafeteria)
Laundry (self-service) Machine 475.0–686.0 (1800–2595) 580.0 (2195)
Wash 47.5–52.8 (180–200) 50.1 (190)
Motel Person 23.8–39.6 (90–150) 31.7 (120)
Motel with kitchen Person 50.2–58.1 (190–220) 52.8 (200)
Office Employee 7.9–17.2 (30–65) 14.5 (55)
Restaurant Meal 2.1–4.0 (8–15) 2.6 (10)
Rooming house Resident 23.8-50.1 (90–190) 39.6 (150)
Store, department Toilet room 423.0–634.0 (1600–2400) 528.0 (2000)
Employee 7.9–13.2 (30–50) 10.6 (40)
Shopping center Parking space 0.5–2.1 (2–8) 1.1 (4)
Employee 7.9–13.2 (30–50) 10.6 (40)
Table 8-7 Typical Waste-Water Flows from Institutional Sources

Waste-Water Flow,
gpd/unit (L/d/unit)
Hospital, medical Bed 132.0–251.0 (500–950) 172.0 (650)

Employee 5.3–15.9 (20–60) 10.6 (40)
Hospital, mental Bed 79.3–172.0 (300–650) 106.0 (400)
Employee 5.3–15.9 (20–60) 10.6 (40)
Prison Inmate 79.3–159.0 (300–600) 119.0 (450)
Employee 5.3–15.9 (20–60) 10.6 (40)
Rest home Resident 52.8–119.0 (200–450) 92.5 (350)
Employee 5.3–15.9 (20–60) 10.6 (40)
School, day
With cafeteria, gym, showers Student 15.9–30.4 (60–115) 21.1 (80)
With cafeteria only Student 10.6–21.1 (40–80) 15.9 (60)
Without cafeteria, gym, showers Student 5.3–17.2 (20–65) 10.6 (40)
School, boarding Student 52.8–106.0 (200–400) 74.0 (280)
systems designed especially for kitchen waste. A plumbing fixture malfunctioning (constantly run-
major factor is grease interception. Also, while ning water closets, for instance).
many authorities discourage use of garbage dis-
posal units or disposals for occupancies served Separate systems may also be used for com-
by on-site disposal sytems, such disposers are still munity bathhouses. When this is done, the total
used. For such occupancies where disposers are per capita flow must be broken down into its
used, and for food processing and poultry or ani- component parts, and some allowance should
mal slaughtering establishments and other units be made for the amount of sewage tributary from
producing special types of liquid waste, separate the different disposal systems. Table 8-10 illus-
interceptors and pretreatment should be de- trates how this may be done where there are no
signed to meet the particular requirements of the definite data regarding exact distribution flow.
establishment. For a certain number of new establishments,
Some authorities favor placing limits on the the design engineer may be unable to obtain from
size and capacity of septic tank type disposal the client accurate estimates of the number of
systems. Under such circumstances, it may be patrons to be served by the disposal system. This
desirable to provide separate systems for groups is particularly true in the case of restaurants
of a limited number of dwellings, apartments, and recreational facilities, such as picnic areas,
mobile homes or other occupancies. Some favor country clubs, and the like. In such cases, the
limits approaching (not to exceed) 10 apartments following data should be considered: For restau-
per system. This has the advantage of limiting rants, seating capacity, type of menu, hours to
the number of units affected by temporary sys- be open per day and all available data can be
tem malfunctioning as by overloading due to considered in calculating waste-water quantities
Table 8-8 Typical Waste-Water Flows from Recreational Sources

Waste-Water Flow,
gpd/unit (L/d/unit)
Apartment, resort Person 52.8–74.0 (200–280) 58.1 (220)

Cabin, resort Person 34.3–50.2 (130–190) 42.3 (160)
Cafeteria Customer 1.1–2.6 (4–10) 1.6 (6)
Employee 7.9–13.2 (30–50) 10.6 (40)
Campground (developed) Person 21.1–39.6 (80–150) 31.7 (120)
Cocktail lounge Seat 13.2–26.4 (50–100) 19.8 (75)
Coffee shop Customer 4.0–7.9 (15–30) 5.3 (20)
Employee 7.9–13.2 (30–50) 10.6 (40)
Country club Member present 66.0–132.0 (250–500) 106.0 (400)
Employee 10.6–15.9 (40–60) 13.2 (50)
Day camp (no meals) Person 10.6–15.9 (40–60) 13.2 (50)
Dining hall Meal served 4.0–13.2 (15–50) 7.9 (30)
Dormitory, bunkhouse Person 19.8–46.2 (75–175) 39.6 (150)
Hotel, resort Person 39.6–63.4 (150–240) 52.8 (200)
Laundromat Machine 476.0–687.0 (1800–2600) 581.0 (2200)
Store resort Customer 1.3–5.3 (5–20) 2.6 (10)
Employee 7.9–13.2 (30–50) 10.6 (40)
Swimming pool Customer 5.3–13.2 (20–50) 10.6 (40)
Employee 7.9–13.2 (30–50) 10.6 (40)
Theater Seat 2.6–4.0 (10–15) 2.6 (10)
Visitor center Visitor 4.0–7.9 (15–30) 5.3 (20)
Table 8-9 Quantities of Sewage Flows

GPD/Person
Type of Establishment (L/D/Person)a
Airports (per passenger) 5 (20)

Apartments—multifamily (per resident) 60 (225)
Bathhouses and swimming pools 10 (40)
Camps
Campground with central comfort stations 35 (130)
With flush toilets, no showers 25 (95)
Construction camps (semipermanent) 50 (190)
Day camps (no meals served) 15 (60)
Resort camps (night and day) with limited plumbing 50 (190)
Luxury camps 100 (380)
Cottages and small dwellings with seasonal occupancy 50 (190)
Country clubs (per resident member) 100 (380)
Country clubs (per nonresident member present) 25 (95)
Dwellings
Boarding houses 50 (190)
additional for nonresident boarders 10 (40)
Luxury residences and estates 150 (570)
Multifamily dwellings (apartments) 60 (225)
Rooming houses 40 (150)
Single-family dwellings 75 (285)
Factories (gal [L] per person, per shift, exclusive of industrial wastes) 35 (130)
Hospitals (per bed space) 250 (945)b
Hotels with private baths (2 persons per room) 60 (225)
Hotels without private baths 50 (190)
Institutions other than hospitals (per bed space) 125 (475)
Laundries, self-service (gal [L] per wash, i.e., per customer) 50 (190)
Mobile home parks (per space) 250 (945)
Motels with bath, toilet, and kitchen wastes (per bed space) 50 (190)
Motels (per bed space) 40 (150)
Picnic parks (toilet wastes only) (per picnicker) 5 (20)
Picnic parks with bathhouses, showers, and flush toilets 10 (40)
Restaurants (toilet and kitchen wastes per patron) 10 (40)
Restaurants (kitchen wastes per meal served) 3 (10)
Restaurants, additional for bars and cocktail lounges 2 (8)
Schools
Boarding 100 (380)
Day, without gyms, cafeterias, or showers 15 (60)
Day, with gyms, cafeteria, and showers 25 (95)
Day, with cafeteria, but without gyms or showers 20 (80)
Service stations (per vehicle served) 10 (40)
Swimming pools and bathhouses 10 (40)
Theaters
Movie (per auditorium seat) 5 (20)
Drive-in (per car space) 5 (20)
Travel trailer parks without individual water and sewer hookups (per space) 50 (190)
Travel trailer parks with individual water and sewer hookups (per space) 100 (380)
Workers
Construction (at semipermanent camps) 50 (190)
Day, at schools and offices (per shift) 15 (60)
aUnless otherwise noted.
bIncludes cafeteria.
and characteristics. For recreational facilities like Figure 8-4 from the Manual of Septic Tank
picnic areas, country clubs, and similar occupan- Practice has long been used. However, modified
cies, a review of all proposed buildings, wording is suggested:
campsites, and methods of operation can pro-
“Where all pertinent factors are suitable for
vide valuable data. Computations and estimates
conventional soil-absorption systems, Figure 8-4
can be made from the number and types of fix-
and Table 8-10 may be used for sizing systems
ture installed, together with data from experience
where the percolation test is selected. However,
with similar facilities elsewhere.
where local experience, soil analysis results and
Estimates of sewage quantities from golf other data are available, such data should be
clubs should be checked and calculations based taken into consideration in the final design.”
on the weekend population. Allowances of 10 gal
(37.9 L) per person for showers and 7 gal (26.5 L) Table 8-11 and Figure 8-4 do not allow for
per person for toilet and kitchen wastes, both for waste from garbage grinders and automatic
the average weekend population, have been found washing machines. Discharges from these
reasonable. appliances to an institutional waste-disposal sys-
tem call for special design considerations.
Generally, garbage disposal units are not rec-
ommended for institutional occupancies that have
Table 8-10 Estimated Distribution
central kitchens. It is usually more efficient and
of Sewage Flows
economical to handle garbage through conven-
Type of Volume, tional garbage cans and disposal methods.
Waste gpd/person (L/d/person) However, where it is decided to use garbage dis-
posal units in central kitchens or food-processing
Total flow 30 40 50 75 100 plants, the system designer should especially de-
(115) (150) (190) (285) (380) sign the grease interceptor or a separate garbage
Kitchen wastes 0a 7 (26) 10 (40) 10 (40) 15 (60) separation tank on the basis of anticipated quan-
tities of garbage to be produced between normal
Toilet wastes 15 (60) 15 (60) 20 (80) 25 (95) 30 (115) tank cleanings. Then, special provisions should
Showers, be made for removal and disposal of garbage and
washbasins, etc. 15 (60) 18 (70) 20 (80) 25 (95) 35 (135) grease at sufficiently frequent intervals based upon
Laundry wastes 0a 0a 0a 15 (60) 20 (80) actual periodic inspection of such receptacles.
aNo waste from these uses.
Table 8-11 Allowable Rate of Sewage Application to a Soil-Absorption System
Percolation Rate Maximum Rate of Sewage Application Percolation Rate Maximum Rate of Sewage Application
(time in min for water for Absorption Trenches,a (time in min for water for Absorption Trenches,a
to fall 1 in. [25.4 mm]) Seepage Beds, and Seepage Pitsb, to fall 1 in. [25.4 mm]) Seepage Beds, and Seepage Pitsb,
g/ft2/d (L/m2/d)c g/ft2/d (L/m2/d)c
1 or less 5.0 (244.3) 10 1.6 (78.2)

2 3.5 (171.0) 15 1.3 (63.5)
3 2.9 (141.7) 30d 0.9 (44.0)
4 2.5 (122.2) 45d 0.8 (39.1)
5 2.2 (107.5) 60d,e 0.6 (29.3)
aAbsorption area is figured as trench bottom area and includes a statistical allowance for vertical sidewall area.
bAbsorption area for seepage pits is effective sidewall area.
cNot including effluents from septic tanks that receive wastes from garbage grinders and automatic washing machines.
dMore than 30 is unsuitable for seepage pits.
eMore than 60 is unsuitable for absorption systems.
REFERENCES
1. MacHatton, J.G. 1972. Vacuum sewage collection.
Mishawaka, IN: Joseph MacHatton Assoc.
2. Otis, Richard J. 1976. On site waste-water facili-
ties for small communities and subdivisions.
Proceedings of the Third National Conferece on In-
dividual On Site Waste-Water Systems. Ann Arbor:
Ann Arbor Science.
3. US Environmental Protection Agency. Pressure sewer
demonstration at the borough of Phoenixville, Pennsyl-
vania. Report EPA 2-73-270. Washington, DC.
4. US Public Health Service. Manual of septic tank
practice. Washington, DC.
5. What future role for pressure sewers? Civil En-
gineering 44: 52-3, 1974.
Figure 8-4 Graph Showing Relation
Between Percolation Rate and Allowable
Rate at Sewage Application BIBLIOGRAPHY
Source: Manual of Septic Tank Practice.
1. Bennett, E.R., and K.C. Linstedt. Individual home
waste-water characterization and treatment. Fort
The amount of additional flow of waste water
Collins, CO: Environmental Resources Center,
from garbage grinding can be estimated by deter-
Colorado State University.
mining the nature of the operation. Interpolating
from data in the Manual, an average design flow 2. Boegly, W. J., et al. MIUS technology evaluation:
of about 1 gal (4.54 L) per meal per day is estimated collection, treatment and disposal of liquid wastes.
when garbage grinders are used. ORNL-MIUS-16. Springfield, VA: National Tech-
nical Information Service.
For residential automatic laundries, the
Manual gives about 40 gal (180 L) per wash. An 3. McClelland, Nina I., Ed. 1976. Proceedings of the
estimate of the average number of wash loads per third national conference on individual on site waste-
day multiplied by 40 (180) would, therefore, give water systems. Ann Arbor: Ann Arbor Science.
the waste-water flow to attribute to an institutional 4. Metcalf and Eddy, Inc. 1979. Waste-water engi-
laundry. neering: Treatment/disposal/reuse. 2nd ed. New
York: McGraw-Hill.
5. US Environmental Protection Agency. Alternatives
INSPECTION
for small waste-water treatment systems: Cost-ef-
fectiveness analysis. EPA Publication 625/
After a soil-absorption system has been com-
4-77-011 (US Government Printing Office: 1977-
pletely installed, and before it is used, the entire
757-140/6602). Washington, DC: US Government
system should be tested and inspected. The sep-
Printing Office.
tic tank should be filled with water and allowed
to stand overnight to check for leaks. If any leaks 6. US Environmental Protection Agency. Alternatives
occur, they should be repaired immediately. The for small waste-water treatment systems: On-site
soil-absorption system should be inspected be- disposal/seepage treatment and disposal. EPA
fore it is covered to be sure that the disposal publication 625/4-77-011. (US Government Print-
system is installed properly. Prompt inspection ing Office: 1977-757-140/6604). Washington, DC:
before backfilling is usually required by local US Government Printing Office.
regulations, even where approval of plans for the 7. US Environmental Protection Agency. Alternatives
subsurface sewage-disposal system is required for small waste-water treatment systems: Pressure
before issuance of a permit. Backfill material sewers/vacuum sewers. EPA Publication 625/4-
should be free of large stones and other deleteri- 77-011 (US Government Printing Office:
ous material and should be over-filled a few 1977-757-140/6603). Washington, DC: US Govern-
inches (millimeters) to allow for settling. ment Printing Office.
Chapter 9 — Private Water Systems 239
9
Private Water
Systems
INTRODUCTION ity is questionable, independent sources of wa-

ter may have to be developed. In critical
Normally, a “private water system” is either a applications (such as hospitals) where an inter-
piped water supply that is generated and con- ruption of service is likely to occur, reserves or
tained on the user’s site to serve the buildings(s) an alternate source of supply should be provided.
on the site or that piping from the public water- Providing meters and backflow prevention de-
supply meter to the building(s) on the user’s site. vices at the point of connection to the public
This term covers any collection, treatment, stor- supply is essential design practice; such devices
age, or distribution facilities used primarily in are generally required by the utility company or
connection with such a system. The private wa- the local administrative authority. Backflow pre-
ter supply may be generated from a water-storage vention devices are usually required only when
tank, a private reservoir, or private wells. The the possibility of a cross connection exists. Where
private water system is installed, controlled, op- backflow prevention devices are installed, peri-
erated, and maintained by the user. Safe drinking odic (annual) inspection must be provided to
water is the ultimate goal, and the methods de- ensure proper operation. Note: Local codes may
scribed in this chapter are a means to that goal. require that backflow prevention devices be in-
spected by an individual certified by the state.
Engineering considerations in the design of Parallel backflow preventers may be needed to
private water systems include the following: avoid the necessity of shutting down the service
source, demand, quality, system elements, equip- for (annual) maintenance.
ment, construction, initial operation, and
maintenance procedures. In addition to address- As previously stated, where it is determined
ing each of these areas, the engineer should seek that present and projected future rates of de-
additional sources of local information and ref- mand for water cannot be met or if the reliability
erences, including geological surveys and is unacceptable, independent sources have to be
water-quality test results. developed. “Surface water”—water available on
the earth’s surface, such as that found in
Sources of Supply streams, rivers, or lakes—may be diverted and/
or impounded or otherwise stored and used
The local water utility or health department is where water rights are available and flood and
the preferred source of information on the water drought conditions are manageable. Water-stor-
supply and should be contacted as soon as pos- age tanks and ground water pumped from wells
sible in order to determine the adequacy and are often more reliable sources for private sup-
quality of the supply, the volume and cost of the plies. “Ground water” is subsurface water stored
service, pressures, and local regulations. In in- in a saturated state in materials beneath the
stances where the present and projected future earth’s surface. Aquifers store subsurface water
rates of demand cannot be met, or if the reliabil- that can be yielded in a usable quantity to a well
or spring. Ground water is generally available at is advanced into bedrock a few feet, a casing is
the point of use and is often of better quality installed, and the well is advanced into bedrock
than surface water. until water is encountered. The annulus be-
tween the casing and bore hole must be sealed
with an impervious material to prevent infiltra-
WELLS tion of surface water into the aquifer. Specific
state regulations provide minimum construc-
A “water well” is a cased hole, usually vertical, tion standards for the location of the well with
that is drilled in the earth to access water that regard to structures, surface features, and prop-
is stored in voids called “aquifers.” Aquifers oc- erty lines. Additionally, state regulations may
cur in both bedrock and regolith and are specify a minimum depth of the well, a mini-
saturated formations that yield water in suffi- mum amount of casing, the type of casing, and
cient quantities to be used. Precipitation and grouting specifications for the annulus of the
surface water recharge aquifers. Modern wells casing to prevent surface contamination. Often,
are generally drilled using a machine that ad- well permits are required before actual drilling
vances a bore hole to an aquifer, where a casing can begin.
is installed to prevent collapse of the boring.
This casing also prevents the aquifer from be- Dug Wells
ing contaminated by surface water or other
sources of surface pollution at or near the sur- Depths can be up to 65 ft (20 m) or more, de-
face of the ground infiltrating the aquifer pending on the position of the water table, while
through the boring. diameters are usually 3 to 30 ft (1 to l0 m). Dug
The use of the well will determine its size. wells can yield relatively large quantities of wa-
Residential wells providing water for a single ter from shallow sources; they are the most
dwelling generally range from 2 to 6 in. (5 to 15 common kind of well used for individual water
cm) in diameter and produce several hundred supplies. Their large diameters permit storage
gallons of water per day. High-capacity wells, of considerable quantities of water if the wells
such as wells for industry or municipal water extend some distance below the water table.
supplies, may range from 6 to 36 in. (15 to 91 Some large municipal wells called “collectors”
cm) in diameter or larger and may produce sev- are dug wells with lateral screened horizontal
eral million gallons of water per day. Shallow pipes.
wells of 50 ft (15 m) or less can be installed in In the past, all dug wells were excavated by
loose formations of sand by driving or jetting a hand; even today, the manual method is widely
2-in. (5-cm) pipe into the ground until an ad- employed. A pick and shovel are the basic imple-
equate depth is reached to provide the required ments. Loose material is hauled to the surface
water. Deep wells, over 50 ft (15 m) in depth, are in a container by means of pulleys and lines.
generally drilled using mud or air rotary. These Large dug wells can be constructed rapidly with
techniques use a fluid, such as water, drilling portable excavating equipment, such as
mud, or compressed air, to clean the soil cut- clamshell and orange-peel buckets. For safety,
tings from the bore hole as the well is drilled. and to prevent caving, a lining of wood or sheet
Water or drilling mud is used in loose forma- piling should be placed in the hole to brace the
tions of sand and gravel to stabilize the bore hole, walls.
whereas clay and bedrock are generally drilled
using air to clean the bore hole since these for- A dug well is permanently lined with a cas-
mations are fairly stable. ing of wood staves, brick, rock, concrete, or metal.
A properly constructed dug well penetrating a
The bore hole is advanced until either ad- permeable aquifer can yield approximately 462
equate water is encountered or bedrock is to 1392 gpm (1750 to 5269 L/min), although
reached. In either case, the bore hole must be most domestic dug wells yield less than 18,000
of a significant depth to isolate the well, so that ft3/day (500 m3/day). It is difficult to provide a
it is not contaminated from surface water. In proper sanitary seal on a dug well. Construction
porous formations of sand or gravel, casing is of dug wells is prohibited or at least discouraged
installed with a well screen to allow the water in some areas because of the increased possibil-
to easily enter the well from the aquifer. If bed- ity of surface contamination compared to deeper
rock is encountered before water, the bore hole wells constructed by other means.
Bored Wells Driven wells are best suited for domestic

water supplies, for temporary water supplies
Where a water table exists at a shallow depth in (such as those required on a remotely located
an unconsolidated aquifer, bored wells can fur- construction project), and for exploration and
nish small quantities of water at minimum cost. observation. Driven wells are limited to uncon-
Bored wells are constructed with hand-operated solidated formations containing no large gravel
or power-driven earth augers up to approximately or rocks that might damage the drive point. Driv-
48 in. (1.3 m) in diameter. Hand augers are avail- ing can be done with a manual sledge, ram driver,
able in several shapes and sizes, all operating with drop hammer, or air hammer. Important advan-
cutting blades at the bottom that bore into the tages of driven wells are that they can be
ground with a rotary motion. When the blades constructed in a short time, at minimum cost,
are full of loose earth, the auger is removed from and by just one person.
the hole and emptied; the operation is repeated
until the desired hole depth is reached. Hand-
Jetted Wells
bored wells seldom exceed approximately 8 in. (20
cm) in diameter and approx. 50 ft (l5 m) in depth. Jetted wells are constructed by the cutting ac-
Power-driven augers bore holes up to 4 ft (l.3 m) tion of a downward directed stream of water. The
in diameter and, under favorable conditions, to high-velocity stream washes the earth away,
depths exceeding approximately 100 ft (30 m). Like while the casing, which is lowered into the deep-
dug wells, bored wells are subject to surface con- ening hole, conducts the water and cuttings up
tamination because of their comparatively shallow and out of the well. Small-diameter holes of 2 to
depths. Inasmuch as water-saturated sands will 4 in. (5 to l0 cm) to depths greater than 50 ft (l5
cave into the bored hole, the annular space be- m) can be formed in this manner. Jetted wells
tween the outside of the well casing and the typically have only small yields of water and are
bore-hole wall often cannot be adequately grouted best suited to unconsolidated formations. Dur-
to prevent the possibility of future contamination ing the jetting operation, the drill pipe is turned
seeping down from the ground surface. slowly to ensure a straight hole. To complete a
shallow jetted well after the casing extends to
Driven Wells below the water table, the well pipe with screen
attached is lowered to the bottom of the hole in-
A driven well consists of a series of connected side the casing. The outer casing is then pulled,
lengths of pipe driven by repeated impacts into gravel is inserted between the interior casing and
the ground to below the water table. Water en- the bore hole, and the well is ready for pumping.
ters the well through a drive (or sand) point at
the lower end of the well. This consists of a The above procedure can be simplified by the
screened cylindrical section protected during use of a self-jetting well point. This consists of a
driving by a steel cone at the bottom. Diameters tube of brass screen ending in a jetting nozzle,
of driven wells are small, most falling in the range which is screwed to the well pipe. As soon as the
of 2 to 4 in. (5 to l0 cm). Standard-weight steel well point is jetted to the required depth, the well
and galvanized steel pipe having threaded cou- is completed and ready for pumping. Gravel
plings serves for casing. Most depths are less should be added around the drill pipe for per-
than 50 ft (l5 m), although a few exceed 65 ft (20 manent installation. Construction of jetted wells
m). As suction-type or jet pumps extract water is prohibited in some areas because of the in-
from driven wells, the water table must be near ability to grout the annular space and the
the ground surface if a continuous water supply consequent exposure of the well to surface con-
is to be obtained. The practical suction limit (that tamination.
is, the vertical distance between the suction in-
take of the pump and the pumping level in the Hydraulics of Wells
well) for a single pipe installation is about 25 ft
(7.6 m). However, two-pipe venturi suction de- Figure 9-1 shows a well under two conditions:
signs can remove water from deeper depths. (A) static, or nonpumping, and (B) pumping. Once
Yields from driven wells are small, with dis- the pumping of the well starts, the water table
charges of about 3,500 to 8,800 ft3/day (100 to (or, in the case of a confined aquifer, the po-
250 m3/day). Jet pumps can be utilized for wa- tentiometric surface) is lowered in the vicinity of
ter depths from 25 to 50 ft (7.6 to 15 m). the well, and the resulting water-table surface is
(A) (B)
Figure 9-1 Well under (A) Static and (B) Pumping Conditions
known as the “cone of depression.” The decrease Equation 9-2

in the water level at and in the vicinity of the
well is known as the “drawdown.” r2
1055QLog10
r1
The basic equilibrium equation for an un- Kf =
(h22 – h12)
confined aquifer can be derived using the
notations indicated in Figure 9-1. In this case, Where Loge has been converted to Logl0, Kf
the flow is assumed to be radial; the original (flow velocity) is in gal/day/ft2 (L/day/m2), Q
water table is considered to be horizontal; the (discharge) is in gpm (L/min), and r and h are
well is considered to fully penetrate the aquifer, measured in feet (meters). If the drawdown is
which has an infinite area; and steady-state con- small compared with the total aquifer thickness,
ditions must prevail. Using Darcy’s law, this an approximate formula for the discharge of the
becomes: pumped well can be obtained by inserting wall
height (hw) for h1 and the height of the aquifer
Equation 9-1 for h2 in Equation 9-l.
Kf (h22 – h12) The basic equilibrium equation for a confined
Q =
r aquifer can be obtained in a similar manner,
1055 Loge 2 using the notation indicated in Figure 9-1. The
r1
same assumptions apply. Mathematically, the
where
flow in ft3/s (m3/s) may be determined as fol-
Q = Discharge, gpm (L/min) lows:
Kf = Permeability (flow velocity), g/day/ft2
Equation 9-3
(L/day/m2)
h2 = Static head measured from bottom of 2Kf m (h2 – h1)
Q =
aquifer, ft (m) r
Loge 2
h1 = Depth of water in well while pump- r1
ing, ft (m) where
r2 = Radius of cone of depression, ft (m) m = Inside diameter of well shaft, ft (m)
r1 = Radius of well, ft (m) The coefficient of permeability may be deter-
This equation may then be solved for Kf, mined by rearranging Equation 9-3 as follows:
yielding:
Equation 9-4 the water, a sample should be collected and sent

to a certified testing laboratory for bacteriologi-
r2 cal examination.
528QLog10
r1
Kf = In regions where winter frost occurs, it is
m(h2 – h1)
important to protect pumps and water lines from
freezing. Pitless adapters are the most common
Protection of Wells method used to protect the well head from freez-
ing and pollution.
Whenever ground water pumped from a well is
intended for human consumption, proper sani- When a well is abandoned it should be sealed
tary precautions must be taken to protect the by filling with clay, cement grout, or bentonite.
water quality. (See discussion of “Water Quality” Not only does sealing prevent surface contamina-
below.) Pollution sources may exist either above tion from entering the well, it also prevents
or below the ground surface. Submersible pump accidents, prevents the possible movement of in-
installations are often equipped with a pitless ferior water from one aquifer to another, and
adapter, which provides an excellent sanitary seal conserves water in flowing wells. As necessary,
as well as frost protection for the discharge piping. other sealing measures may be needed to ensure
that contaminants do not migrate within the
Surface pollution can enter wells either aquifer(s) by movement in the annular space be-
through the annular space outside the casing or tween the well casing and the bore hole. In order
through the top of the well itself. To close av- to ensure that the well is completely sealed, the
enues of access outside the casing, the annular cement or bentonite should be pumped under
space should be filled with a sealing grout—ei- pressure through a tremie pipe or other means to
ther a cement or a bentonite grout. Entry through discharge at the bottom of the well, forcing its
the top of the well can be prevented by the provi- way upward until it reaches the surface.
sion of a watertight cover to seal the top of the
casing. Some pumps are available with close
metal bases that provide the necessary closure. WATER DEMAND
For pumps with an open-type base, or where the
pump is not placed directly over the well, a seal The demand for water in any system is deter-
is required for the annular opening between the mined by the consumer. While the consumer’s
discharge pipe and the casing. It is desirable to use may be estimated on an area basis, the pre-
provide a small (sealed) opening in or below the ferred method for a small system is to consider
pump base to allow for periodic water-level mea- the dynamic and static requirements. The de-
surements. Covers around the well should be signer should refer to other ASPE Data Book
made of concrete, should be elevated above the chapters that describe the methods for estimat-
level of the adjacent land, and should slope away ing water demands. The engineer should consult
from the well. Where possible, pitless adapters with the local administrative authority regard-
should be used in preference to buried well seals ing local codes and regulations. Irrigation loads
or seals located in a concrete pit. can usually be connected to time clocks to avoid
Subsurface pollution may be introduced by simultaneous demands. Air-conditioning system
nearby septic systems, adjacent industry, or loads should be based on the highest expected
numerous types of current and past land uses. temperatures; however, using water (to waste)
A contaminated plume can extend a long dis- for the thermal cooling of condenser equipment
tance in an underground stream or aquifer. is not recommended and may be considered
Regular bacteriological and chemical testing of wasteful. In this case, a closed-circuit cooling
the water quality is required to ensure potabil- system, e.g., cooling towers, or geothermal heat
ity. Whenever a new well is completed or an old pumps that return the water to the ground
well repaired, contamination from equipment, through discharge wells, conserving water us-
well materials, or surface water may be intro- age, should be investigated.
duced to the well. The addition and agitation of Designing water systems for firefighting pur-
a chlorine compound will disinfect the well. Fol- poses requires knowledge of a building’s
lowing the disinfection, the well should be construction, occupancy, and use. Nationally rec-
pumped to waste until all traces of chlorine are ognized standards, acceptable to the local
removed. As a final check on the potability of administrative authority under the applicable
code(s), should be followed. The flow from a l8- Coarse sand is less effective in the removal of
in. (3-cm) nominal size nozzle at 45 psig (3l0.3 turbidity and bacteria, while fine sand requires
kPa) can be as much as 250 gpm (l5.8 L/s). In a shorter period between washings. Filters may
general, the minimum fire demands for residen- use layers of various grades of sand and gravel
tial areas start at 500 gpm (3l.5 L/s) and require to minimize filter gravel upset and loss of sand.
an 8-in. (20-cm) nominal size main. These units may include anthracite coal particles
or activated carbon, both of which are often ef-
During the initial stages of a fire, domestic
fective in removing objectionable tastes, odors,
use may be at the peak levels. As the occupants
and other impurities. Filters should be disin-
become aware of the fire, usage will drop. Irriga-
fected before being placed in service.
tion demands, as well as certain process-water
and air-conditioning (makeup) demands, if au-
tomatically controlled, will continue regardless Softening
of any fires. The maximum fire demand could
The two methods of reducing any dissolved cal-
occur at any time. Also, completely fire-
sprinklered buildings may have concurrent cium and magnesium that are suitable for large
maximum fire hydrant and sprinkler demands. water supplies are the zeolite process and the
lime-soda method. The zeolite process replaces
the calcium and magnesium chlorides, and all
WATER QUALITY residues (backwash) must be disposed of in lo-
cations where the ground water will not be
The Safe Drinking Water Act of l974, subse- contaminated. Zeolite systems may be automated
quently revised in 1996, requires that the or manual systems. When iron is removed by
administrator of the US Environmental Protec- this process, the oxides may clog the filter beds.
tion Agency (EPA) promulgate national standards Cleaning the beds requires high-velocity washing.
for the purity of the drinking water and corre- The lime-soda method removes calcium, mag-
sponding regulations to enforce them. Current nesium, manganese, iron, and carbon dioxide. The
EPA manuals include standards establishing pH is raised, and most units effectively destroy
maximum contamination levels. States have any harmful organisms. This method produces
adopted these standards or other, more strin- considerable quantities of sludge, which require
gent standards. Efforts must be made to conform proper disposal. The lime-soda method involves a
with these regulations in all systems. large installation and skilled operation. Equipment
Well water is usually satisfactory for drink- is needed to mix and feed chemicals and for floc-
ing because of the natural filtration created as culation and settling, recarbonating and filtering.
the water passes through the soil. However, when When iron is not removed, it may be held in solu-
there is an excess of dissolved minerals or gases, tion in cool water up to 72 hours by the addition
treatment of the water is necessary. Selection of of hexametaphosphate. This chemical may pre-
the appropriate treatment process must be made vent incrustation in water with a high pH.
based on a thorough knowledge of the water and
its chemical composition. The processes em- Scale and Corrosion Control
ployed include: filtration, softening, coagulation
and flocculation, taste and odor control, prophy- Elimination of any excessive scale and corrosion
laxis, and disinfection. These treatment processes of the piping system is important. This may be
are described below. accomplished by the proper choice of piping ma-
terials or by chemical treatment of the water.
Specifying a plastic distribution system will not
Filtration protect the metallic piping and equipment in build-
Where the water is not of an adequate purity, ings. The control of hardness, dissolved oxygen
filters are required. Filters may be either gravity and carbon dioxide, and acidity may be neces-
or pressure type and usually include automatic sary. Sodium hexametaphosphate is commonly
controls for all functions. These devices may be used for corrosion control, scale prevention, and
sand (provided that when aggressive or low pH removal of hardness.
water is processed, the sand does not contain
excessive amounts of limestone or shells). The
grade of the sand depends on local conditions.
Taste and Odor Control The pump most commonly installed today is the
submersible pump.
Potassium permanganate oxidizes iron and man-
ganese, forming a precipitate. This compound also A cross section of a vertical turbine pump is
acts as an algaecide. Oxygenation is another way illustrated in Figure 9-2. The designer should
to “treat” the water, which may (in some cases) give more attention to the pump base (or foun-
be more effective than treating it with potassium dation) than is shown in this figure. If the pump
permanganate. Activated carbon has been found is in an unheated building, the foundation must
to be effective in removing phenolic compounds be below the frost line in order to avoid any move-
as well as certain other undesirable materials. So- ment and there must be sufficient mass to
dium thiosulfate or sodium bisulfate has been eliminate any vibration. Also, extreme care must
used to remove chlorine from water, and copper be taken in setting the anchor bolts and in align-
sulfate will destroy living organic matter. ing the pump and the shaft to prevent any
misalignment. The engineer is referred to ASPE
Data Book, Volume 4, Chapter 4, “Pumps” (forth-
Prophylaxis coming), for additional information.
Fluoride is sometimes added to the water with The vertical turbine pump shown in Figure
the intent of reducing dental cavities. Where 9-2 is very practical for large-capacity, relatively
amounts of fluoride are excessive, tooth enamel straight and plumb, shallow wells. Where deep
will become mottled. Some waters have adequate wells or misaligned wells are encountered, it may
or even excessive fluoride in their natural state. be more practical to use a submersible pump.
These units can be fitted with almost any num-
Disinfection ber of stages (sections) and, depending upon the
size of the well, can come close to matching the
Disinfection should be the last step in the wa- capacity of the surface-mounted pump.
ter-treatment process. Chlorination has been
shown to prevent epidemics of waterborne dis- When the water supply is not from a well
ease; it also destroys ammonia. It is an but from surface water, such as a pond or stream,
inexpensive method compared to ultraviolet ra- if the pump (or pumps) can be located below the
diation and ozone treatment. Gaseous chlorine surface of the water, a split-case, horizontal, end-
is used in large installations while calcium and suction pump may be used. In this case, multiple
sodium hypochlorite are satisfactory for small pumps are an advantage and would receive the
systems. Well water from a properly constructed water through an intake header or manifold.
modern well seldom needs to be disinfected once Well pumps Well pumps produce flow by trans-
the well and pumping equipment are initially forming mechanical energy to hydraulic energy.
disinfected. Manufacturers produce a wide variety of pumps.
The selection of a particular size and type of pump
depends on several factors, including: (l) required
SYSTEM ELEMENTS
pumping capacity, (2) well diameter and depth,
(3) depth and variability of pumping level, (4) the
Pumps straightness of the well, (5) sand pumping, (6)
total pumping head, (7) duration of pumping, (8)
The design of a pumping system should take into the type of power available, and (9) costs.
consideration maintenance and the possible fail-
The total pumping head, or total dynamic
ure of one pump in the system. Because this is
head, of a pump represents the total vertical lift
not possible in the case of a well, it is sometimes
and pumped distance of the water from the well.
necessary to have a backup (second) well. While The total head consists of three components: (l)
this can be expensive, if the system serves fire the drawdown inside the well (including aquifer
hydrants or fire-protection equipment within a
and well losses), (2) “static head,” being the dif-
building without the use of a storage tank, it may
ference between the static ground-water level and
be essential. Where the demand is primarily from
the static discharge elevation, and (3) friction
domestic fixtures, a system that will provide 70%
losses due to flow through the intake and dis-
of the calculated demand at the required pres- charge pipes. The total pumping head increases
sures during maintenance or anticipated failure with the discharge rate.
should be adequate for a short period of time.
Figure 9-2 Typical Gravel Filter Well with a Vertical Turbine Pump
(Note the Concrete Seal Adjacent to the Outer Well Casing.)
For shallow wells where only small discharges of the storage tank. Taking soil-bearing tests prior
are needed, submersible pumps, vertical turbine to designing the foundation is extremely impor-
pumps (Figure 9-2), or gear pumps may be in- tant; it is better to over design than to have a
stalled. Discharges range up to approximately portion of the foundation settle and allow the
18,000 ft3/day (500 m3/day). Suction lifts should storage tank to become warped or possibly leak.
not exceed approximately 23 ft (7 m) for efficient
Prefabricated storage tanks are available in
and continuous service. (Available suction lift for
sections and constructed of steel with a glass
the selected pump is critical in this determina-
lining. If a steel tank is field-erected, after its
tion.)
construction it must be coated on the inside with
Where a larger discharge is required from a an epoxy-base paint, and it is suggested that the
shallow well, a centrifugal pump is commonly em- same coating be applied on the outside for
ployed. The assembly may be mounted with a weather protection. There are several different
horizontal or vertical shaft. The horizontal design suppliers of this type of material; it is recom-
is efficient, easy to install and maintain, and usu- mended that the engineer consult an expert
ally connected directly to an electric motor. before specifying the coating.
Because of the low suction head, the pump is of-
In flat-land areas, where the terrain does not
ten placed a short distance above the water level
allow for a ground-mounted storage tank, it is
in a large-diameter well. (The available NPSH [net
necessary to install an elevated tank on legs or
positive suction head] for the selected pump must
use a standpipe. The foundation in such installa-
meet the design requirements.)
tions is just as critical as it is with ground-
mounted tanks.
Storage Tanks
This condition raises the question of ice form-
Storage tanks are useful as emergency sources ing in the storage tank itself. If the water level
and to prevent overtaxing the water-supply sys- within the storage tank is allowed to fluctuate
tem in firefighting situations. Elevated storage over a broad range, the changes in the water
tanks will provide uniform pressures and reduce level will break up the ice so that it is not neces-
energy and pump costs. Storage tanks should sary to heat the unit. Control of the water level
be constructed of materials that are nontoxic and is discussed later in this chapter.
corrosion-resistant. The detailed construction re-
For a small private system (for instance, that
quirements for water-storage tanks intended for
for a remotely located school), the use of a
firefighting purposes are outlined in National Fire
hydropneumatic storage tank is recommended
Protection Association (NFPA) Standard 22, Water
because it is relatively inexpensive compared with
Tanks for Fire Protection. Storage-tank supports
an elevated storage tank. In sizing such a unit,
are usually designed to resist seismic movement;
the designer should assume that only one third
the tanks must have provisions for cleaning.
of the capacity will be available for peak demands,
Rainwater cisterns can also be used for an emer-
excluding the capacity of the well pump. Also, a
gency supply of drinking water if the water is
compressed-air supply to the top of the storage
appropriately treated prior to use.
tank should be provided to recharge the unit since
Storage-tank capacity and the size of the the large water surface can gradually absorb the
pump system are related. Without storage, the air and reduce the volume of the air cushion.
pumps must be large enough to supply instan- Generally, hydropneumatic tank systems do not
taneous demand with due allowance for at least provide sufficient storage for fire protection or for
one pump to be out of service. As the size of the extended outages of the well pump.
storage tanks increase, the fill rate of gravity
The minimum size of storage, regardless of
tanks can decrease with the reduction, or elimi-
the type of tank, may be determined graphically
nation, of peak loads to reduce costs and
(see Figure 9-3). The first diagram denotes the
equipment size. This also allows continuous op-
hourly water demand throughout a typical peak
eration of the pumps at maximum efficiency.
day. Also shown, as line A-B, is the average pump-
Ground-mounted storage tanks located on ing rate, which is exceeded during the morning
the side of a hill must be installed on a concrete period from 5:00 to l0:00 am and again in the
foundation with the footing below the frost line afternoon from 2:00 to 3:00 pm. During these pe-
and adequate support under the entire bottom riods, water is drawn from the storage tank. The
the instantaneous demand of the water system.

The well, therefore, must have the same capac-
ity as the pumps. These pumps must operate
continuously, even when there is no demand. In
such a case, it is recommended that a pump with
a relatively flat pump curve be used. It is also
suggested that, except for well pumps, there be
a small bypass from the pump discharge to the
pump suction (0.5-0.75 in. [1.3–1.9 cm] nomi-
nal diameter) to avoid overheating the pump and
the water should the pump run for some time
without any circulation.
A system such as the one just described (a
well and pump without a storage tank) has been
used successfully for plant fire protection. A
gravel-packed well with a capacity of l500 gpm
(94.5 L/s) and a pump to match, driven by a
gasoline engine with emergency start capability,
will most probably satisfy consumer and fire-pro-
tection requirements. Note that this system is
completely separate from the plant water sys-
tem, which is also a l500-gpm (94.5-L/s) well
and ground-mounted turbine pump without a
storage tank. The plant water pump must be
fitted with a variable-speed drive and/or pres-
sure-relief valve to accommodate changing
system demands and protect the pump.
While the initial cost of the well and pump
Figure 9-3 Graph Indicating Minimum
is higher than that for a system with a storage
Storage-Tank Size
tank, the design eliminates the problem of a
tower-mounted storage tank and associated
maintenance problems and costs. Such a sys-
second diagram denotes the cumulative water contem should always be considered if the aquifer
sumption for the day. Again the pumping volume is capable of yielding sufficient water for such
(a constant rate) is shown as line A-B. The quan- an installation.
tity “S” represents the total storage volume
required with the supply rate A-B. Alternate sup- Pressure Regulators
ply rates can be drawn and the corresponding
storage volume requirement determined. Pressures in excess of 80 psi (55l.6 kPa) in the
water mains should be avoided whenever pos-
sible; in some cases, they are restricted by local
Suction Piping
codes. If this is so, pressure-regulating devices
The minimum distance below the water level that do not have to be installed in buildings. Pres-
a suction inlet must be to avoid drawing any air sure regulators, as most devices, are subject to
into the suction pipe is illustrated in Figure 9-4. wear and may create noisy conditions, and relief
Minimum submergence is highly desirable in valves are required to be used in conjunction
order to develop a full pump output. In addition, with them.
the suction pipe should be a few inches (centi- This condition determines the height of the
meters) above the bottom of the storage tank to elevated storage tank from the lowest point of
avoid drawing any sediment into the suction pipe. use. The fluctuation of the water level from the
Gravity storage tanks must be screened and ad- top of the storage tank to the bottom is not criti-
equately vented. When pumps pressurize the cal. If a well pump‘s starting and stopping is
water system directly without storage tanks, controlled by the storage tank level, the reduced-
these units must have sufficient capacity to meet
(A) (B)
Figure 9-4 Storage-Tank Suction Piping Detail: (A) Sump Suction Alternate,
(B) Anti-Vortex Alternate
pressure condition of 80 psi (55l.6 kPa) can be Supply Piping

achieved by one of a number of acceptable means.
The engineer should consult with the local ad- The piping for the storage tank discharge may
ministrative authority to determine the approved be for either pump suction or gravity discharge
methods. Unfortunately, in the northern lati- to the system. In either case, the pipe sizes should
tudes, a float-type level control in the storage be large enough to handle the highest demand
tank is frequently affected by icing and, there- flow with a minimum pressure drop due to fric-
fore, is not a very reliable device. One of the more tion. Sizing of the system’s pipe is dependent on
common ways of eliminating the problem is the the following factors: demand, pressure, friction,
use of an altitude valve, which is installed in the velocity, and provision for future expansion. Fric-
supply line to an elevated storage tank, basin, tion losses and elevation losses are graphed or
or reservoir for the purpose of preventing tabulated in Chapter 2, “Gray-Water Systems,”
overflow. The altitude valve closes at the prede- of this volume of the Data Book.
termined high-water level and opens for refilling In the past, some municipal water systems
when the water level recedes. A single-acting al- were designed with 4-in. (nominal size) pipes at
titude valve is employed for filling purposes only. the end of the main. This frequently resulted in
The discharge from the storage tank is handled an accumulation of silt and rust in the pipe line
by a swing check valve in a bypass around the and a severe restriction of flow. It is recom-
altitude valve. A double-acting altitude valve is mended that the designer use a loop system so
designed for two-way flows and eliminates the that flow from a fire hydrant may arrive from
need for a bypass. Without additional controls, both directions. Such a design reduces the pres-
the well pump(s) or system pump(s) will run con- sure drop in the system and, by enabling the
tinuously. Another type of system currently loop to be valved off in sections, permits mainte-
available on the market controls the well pump nance of a section with a minimal system
and the storage tank level by sensing the system’s shutdown. Lateral ties across the loop should
pressure at the point of pump discharge. This also be valved at each end. The engineer should
system eliminates the need to use leased tele- refer to National Fire Protection Association
phone lines from the elevated storage tank to (NFPA) Standard no. 24 for further details.
the well pump.
Fire hydrants on small, municipal, public wa- Equation 9-5

ter systems should be located at the intervals
required by the local administrative authority in W = c × w × B
conformance with the jurisdiction’s codes, but where
in no case should the distance between hydrants W = Earth load of the pipe, lb/l ft (kg/m)
be more than 500 ft (l52.4 m). Preferably, this
distance should not be more than 300 ft (9l.4 c = Load coefficient
m). No portion of the building within a fire dis- w = Density of earth, lb/ft3 (kg/m3)
trict should be more than 500 ft (l52.4m) distant B = Width of trench, ft (m)
from a fire hydrant as a fire hose would be laid.
In a complex, such as a large nursing home, this Application of the above formula, along with
requirement may necessitate the installation of the estimation of surface loads, are not simple.
fire hydrants remote from the water supply main There is little danger in narrow trenches with
(if it is not possible to provide a loop around the depths of less than 6 ft (l.8 m), except with un-
complex). usually heavy surface loads. The engineer should
refer to the pipe manufacturer’s data on mini-
Branches from a loop supplying a manufac- mum crushing loads for the type of material that
turing facility normally serve the sprinkler risers will be used.
in several locations. There should be a post indi-
cator valve on each branch just after it exits the The design of piping under airport runways
supply main. must take into account the wall thickness of the
ductile-iron pipe versus the trench conditions.
Additional calculations and data may be required,
PIPE INSTALLATION especially where large aircraft land; such calcu-
lations and data include the load analysis of the
Piping should be laid on a firm bed and covered concrete runway and the flexibility of the pipe.
with backfill that is noncorrosive and free of rocks.
Piping with flexible joints may be curved with-
Sand is the preferred material. In rocky soils, 6
out using any special fittings, depending on the
in. (l5.2. cm) of tamped sand beneath and on each
type of coupling and the lengths of each pipe.
side of the pipe is recommended. Blocking should
Plastic pipe can be bent somewhat. Table 9-1
be limited to steel and cast-iron pipe. Proper com-
provides the curve radii for ductile-iron pipe.
pacting and backfilling will result in good pipe
support and minimize settlement. Flooding clay
soil is not a satisfactory method of compaction. Thrust Blocks
Tamping on the slopes is required to stop any
Thrust blocks are necessary where joints are not
rain water from undermining newly laid pipe.
restrained. The blocks are installed at changes
Unstable soil may require matting or piles. Trench-
ing should be done in a safe manner, with shoring of direction (both horizontal and vertical),
and barricades, as required by the local adminis- changes of size, and the ends of the line.
trative authority. Thrust blocks should be cast in place at each
change in the direction of the pipe line and at all
The earth load on the pipe (for narrow ditches)
tees, plugs, caps, and bends. The thrust blocks
can be calculated by using the following equation:
Table 9-1 Curve Radii for Cast-Iron Pipe, ft (m)

Mechanical Joint Push-On Joint
Nominal Pipe Length, ft (m) Pipe Length, ft (m)
Pipe Size,
in. (mm) 12 (3.7) 16 (4.9) 18 (5.5) 12 (3.7) 16 (4.9) 18 (5.5) 20 (6.1)
3 (80) 85 (26) 110 (34) 125 (38) 140 (43) 185 (56) 205 (63) 230 (70)
4 (100) 85 (26) 110 (34) 125 (38) 140 (43) 185 (56) 205 (63) 230 (70)
6 (150) 100 (31) 130 (40) 145 (44) 140 (43) 185 (56) 205 (63) 230 (70)
8 (200) 130 (40) 170 (52) 195 (59) 140 (43) 185 (56) 205 (63) 230 (70)
should be of a concrete mix not leaner than l Depth of Bury

part cement, 2.5 parts sand, and 5 parts stone.
Backing should be placed between solid ground The minimum depth of bury required by recog-
and the fitting to be anchored; it should be of nized national standards is as follows:
such bearing area as to ensure adequate resis- Distance on Top
tance to the anticipated thrust. In general, Location of Pipe Below
backing should be placed so that the joints are Finished Cover, ft (m)
accessible for inspection and repair.
The bearing face of concrete thrust blocks Under driveways 3 (0.9)
should be per NFPA 24 or as shown in Table 9-3. Under railroad tracks 4 (l.2)
The areas in Table 9-3 have been derived using a
Other 2.5 (0.8)
water pressure of 225 psi (l55l.3 kPa) and a soil
resistance of 2000 lb/ft2 (95.8 kPa). Thrust blocks
are satisfactory where the soil is suitable, giving These values are provided for the purpose of
bearing areas against the undisturbed vertical wall protecting the pipe and keeping pipe with unre-
of soil in a trench equivalent to sand and gravel strained joints from leaving the trench (especially
cemented with clay. For other types of soils, the during testing). Pipe installed in areas subject to
values given in Table 9-3 should be multiplied by freezing temperatures should be at least 1 ft (0.3
an appropriate factor. The suggested factors are m) below the frost line or as appropriate for the
as follows: soft clay—4, sand—2, sand and geographical location.
gravel—l.33, and shale—0.4. Muck or peat soils
cannot be depended on to resist thrust. Thrust
blocks for underground valves should be provided Settlement
for conditions as listed in Table 9-2.
Piping underneath or through the footings of
buildings should be protected from building
Table 9-2 Thrust Block Requirements settlement by the use of sleeves. Flexible pack-
ing is often necessary. When piping needs to run
Working Pressure, Anchorage Recommended
parallel with a building’s footing, recommended
psi (kPa) for Valves, in. (mm)
practice is to keep the pipes above a 45° line
down from the footings to avoid imposing foot-
50–100 (344.7–689.5) 12 (304.8) and higher ing loads on the pipe.
101–150 (696.4–1034.2) 8 (203.2) and higher
151 (1041.1) and higher All sizes Expansion
Plastic piping should be allowed to cool and settle
before being covered. Where the temperatures
Table 9-3 Area of Bearing Face of
will change after covering, expansion joints
Concrete Thrust Blocks, ft2 (m2) should be considered to avoid any strains on the
piping. Thermal expansion in a pipe is the prod-
Nominal Tees, Plugs,
uct of the coefficient of thermal expansion, the
Pipe Size, Caps, and
8 -Bend length, and the temperature difference. The ex-
in. (mm) ¼-Bend Hydrants
pansion can be calculated by using Equation 9-6.
4 (100) 2 (0.19) 2 (0.19) 2 (0.19) Equation 9-6
6 (150) 5 (0.47) 3 (0.28) 4 (0.37)
E = e × L × (T2 – Tl)
8 (200) 8 (0.74) 5 (0.47) 6 (0.56)
where
10 (250) 13 (1.21) 7 (0.65) 9 (0.84)
E = Expansion, ft (m)
12 (300) 18 (1.67) 10 (0.93) 13 (1.21)
e = Coefficient of thermal expansion
14 (350) 25 (2.32) 14 (1.30) 18 (1.67)
16 (400) 32 (2.97) 18 (1.67) 23 (2.14) L = Length of pipe, ft (m)
20 (500) 50 (4.65) 28 (2.60) 36 (3.34) T2 = Final temperature, °F (°C)
24 (600) 72 (6.69) 40 (3.72) 51 (4.74) T1 = Initial temperature, °F (°C)
Table 9-4 provides the coefficient of expan-

sion for several materials.
Table 9-4 Coefficients of Expansion,

in/in/°F (mm/mm/°C)
Material Coefficient
Cast iron 0.56 × 10–5 (9.33 × 10–6)

Copper 0.98 × 10–5 (1.63 × 10–5)
Polybutylene 7.5 × 10–5 (1.25 × 10–4)
Polyethylene 8.0 × 10–5 (1.33 × 10–4)
PVC, Type 1 3.0 × 10–5 (5 × 10–5)
Corrosion Protection
Plastic pipes are not usually subject to corro-
sion. The occurrence of corrosion depends on the
soil and water conditions. Proper water treatment
and pipe linings can minimize interior attack;
exterior attack may be reduced by coatings, gal-
vanic protection, and careful selection of the
backfill. Coatings must remain intact. If not,
corrosion will be accelerated in local areas. Refer
to the “Corrosion” chapter in Data Book, Volume
1, for further information.
INITIAL OPERATION AND

MAINTENANCE
All potable water piping must be disinfected prior
to being placed into service. This process may
be accomplished by introducing a solution of
chlorine followed by a thorough flushing of the
system with clear water. Well-kept records of the
piping and connections will facilitate good op-
eration and maintenance. Periodic flushing,
particularly of dead ends and low-velocity
branches, will prevent sedimentation and foul-
ing. Regularly scheduled valve exercising will
ready the system for shutdown during an emer-
gency. Leakage may be controlled with surveys.
Inspections during and after construction will
guard against cross connections.
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
For further detailed information on ground-water
protection, contact The National Ground Water
Association in Westerville, Ohio, at (800)
551-7379 or www.ngwa.org.
Chapter 10 — Vacuum Systems 253
10
Vacuum
Systems
INTRODUCTION FUNDAMENTALS
This chapter describes design criteria, source For the purposes of this discussion, “vacuum” is
equipment, and piping distribution networks for any air pressure lower than atmospheric pres-
vacuum systems used for general and labora- sure. Vacuum is used by having air at
tory applications and central vacuum-cleaning atmospheric pressure enter a piping system that
systems. has a lower pressure. The way most vacuum sys-
tems function is that air becomes the
For the purposes of the discussion in this
transporting medium for any gas or suspended
chapter, references to inch-pound (IP) units and
solids and the negative pressure provides the
international standard (SI), or metric, units shall
energy for transportation. These two essential
follow the following conventions:
factors operate in inverse proportion: as the air-
1. Flow-rate measurements referring to stan- flow increases, the vacuum pressure decreases.
dard conditions shall be preceded by the
The various systems must be designed to pro-
prefix “s” for IP units and “n” for SI units.
duce specific vacuum-pressure and airflow levels
2. Flow-rate measurements referring to actual that have been determined, often by experience
conditions shall be preceded by the prefix “a” and experimentation, to be most effective in per-
for both IP and SI units. forming their respective tasks. The exception is
3. Pressure designations using standard atmo- where vacuum pressure is intended to produce
spheric conditions as the base shall be a force to lift objects or simply to evacuate and
followed by the suffix “g” for “gauge pressure” maintain a vacuum in an enclosed space. For
in IP units. (No suffix is used with SI units.) these uses, airflow is only a function of how long
it takes the system to achieve its ultimate vacuum
4. Pressure designations using absolute zero pressure.
pressure conditions as the base shall be fol-
lowed by the suffix “a” in both IP and SI units. The design of vacuum systems is based on
two factors: the flow volume measured in cubic
5. Pipe sizes using nominal pipe-diameter di- feet per minute, cfm (liters per minute, Lpm) and
mensions in IP units shall be designated as the level of vacuum pressure maintained in the
“nominal pipe size” (NPS) and based on inches system.
and fractions of an inch (e.g., 2 and 1½ in.);
in SI units the size shall be expressed as The “vacuum level” is the difference in pres-
nominal diameter (DN), based on millimeters sure between the evacuated system and the
(e.g., 50 and 40 DN). atmosphere. Vacuum pressures fall into three
general categories:
Unless otherwise noted, measurements used
in this chapter are in inch-pound (IP) units, with 1. Rough (or course) vacuum, up to 28 in. Hg
metric (SI) units given in parenthesis. (94.8 kPa).
2. Medium (or fine) vacuum, up to 1 micron (µ). To compute work forces and changes in vol-
3. Ultra-high vacuum, greater than 1 µ. ume, it is necessary to convert to negative gauge
pressure—expressed as pounds per square inch
gauge (psig) or kilopascals (kPa)—or to absolute
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT pressure—expressed as pounds per square inch
absolute (psia) or kilopascals (kPa). The units
While defining “vacuum” is straightforward, mea- used are inches of mercury (in. Hg) and the mil-
suring a vacuum level (or force) is not. Several libar (mbar). These units originate from the use
methods of measurement are used, each depend- of a barometer. The basic barometer is an evacu-
ing on a different reference point. ated vertical tube with its top end closed and the
open bottom placed in a container of mercury
open to the atmosphere. The pressure, or weight,
Units of Measurement and Reference exerted by the atmosphere on the open container
Points forces the mercury up into the tube. At sea level,
The two basic reference points for measuring this pressure supports a column of mercury
vacuum are standard atmospheric pressure and 29.92 in. high. In pressure units, this becomes
a perfect vacuum. When the point of reference is 14.69 psi (0 kPa).
standard atmospheric pressure, the measure-
Standard reference points and conversions On
ment from that to a specified vacuum pressure
the dials of most pressure gauges, atmospheric
is called “gauge pressure.” If the pressure level
pressure is assigned the value of zero. Vacuum
is measured from a perfect vacuum, the term measurements must have a value of less than
used for the measurement is “absolute pressure.” zero. “Negative gauge pressure” is the difference
“Local barometric pressure,” which is the pre-
between the system vacuum pressure and at-
vailing pressure at any specific location, should
mospheric pressure. “Absolute pressure” is the
not be confused with standard atmosphere,
pressure (in psia) above a perfect vacuum and is
which is mean barometric pressure at sea level.
equal to atmospheric pressure less negative
gauge pressure.
Other vacuum units are “atmospheres,”
“torrs,” and “microns.” To calculate “atmo-
spheres” knowing absolute pressure in psia,
Table 10-1 Basic Vacuum-Pressure divide that figure by 14.7. A “torr” is 1/760 of an
Measurements atmosphere, and a “micron” (µ) is 0.001 torr.
Inches Kilo- Table 10-1 compares basic vacuum-pressure
Negative Absolute of Pascals measurements from the two most commonly
Gage Pressure Pressure Mercury Absolute used reference points. Figure 10-1 gives con-
(psig) (psia) (in. Hg) (kPa) version from and to various IP and SI pressure
measurements. Table 10-2 gives numerical con-
0 14.7 0 101.4
Atmospheric pressure at sea level
–1.0 13.7 2.04 94.8 Table 10-2 Conversions from
–2.0 12.7 4.07 87.5 Torr to Various Vacuum-Pressure Units
–4.0 10.7 8.14 74.9
0.0010 torr = 1 micron mercury (µ Hg)
–6.0 8.7 12.20 59.5
0.0075 torr = 1 pascal (Pa)
–8.0 6.7 16.30 46.2
0.7501 torr = 1 millibar (mbar)
Typical working vacuum level
1.000 torr = 1 mm mercury (mm Hg)
–10.0 4.7 20.40 32.5
1.868 torr = 1 in. water at 4°C (in. H2O)
–12.0 2.7 24.40 17.5 25.40 torr = 1 in. mercury (in. Hg)
–14.0 0.7 28.50 10.0 51.71 torr = 1 lb/in.2 (psi)
–14.6 0.1 29.70 1.0 735.6 torr = 1 tech. atmosphere (at)
–14.7 0 29.92 0 750.1 torr = 1 bar
Perfect vacuum (zero reference pressure) 760.0 torr = 1 standard atmosphere (atm)
version multipliers for converting torr into vari- air. Using ambient, standard free air at atmo-
ous other vacuum-pressure units. Table 10-3 spheric pressure (referred to as “scfm”) as a
gives various numerical pressure conversions. common reference, the ambient free air entering
the vacuum pipe will expand to fill the vacuum
Flow-rate measurement There are two types of in the piping system, creating a lower vacuum
flow-rate measurement. The first, used in chemi- pressure. The flow in a vacuum pipe is expanded
cal process industries, is mass flow measured cfm and represents the flow under actual vacuum
by weight. The second is volumetric flow mea- conditions. This is referred to as “actual cubic
sured in cubic feet per minute, cfm (liters per feet per minute,” or “acfm.” The above designa-
minute, Lpm). Only volumetric flow is used for tions are not universally used; therefore, it is
calculations in this chapter. important to make certain that the correct
The flow-rate measurement for vacuum is nomenclature for vacuum-pump capacity speci-
exactly the opposite of that used for compressed fications and flow rate is identified and
understood prior to selection and sizing.
Figure 10-1 Conversion of Vacuum-Pressure Measurements

Standard air is dry (0.0 humidity), 14.7 psia where

(101.4 kPa), and 68°F (15.5°C). The expanded P = Actual pressure for the scfm being
air in the vacuum piping system is called “ac- converted, in. Hg
tual cubic feet per minute”(“acfm”). Another
phrase used to indicate acfm is “inlet cubic feet T = Actual temperature for the scfm being
per minute” or “icfm.” ACFM is greater than scfm. converted,°F
For practical purposes, a numerical method
Converting scfm to acfm The following formula for solving Equation 10-1 can be used if the tem-
is used to convert scfm to acfm: perature is 60°F (15.6°C). At that temperature,
Equation 10-1 the second part of the equation becomes unity.
Table 10-4 gives numerical values for 29.92/P.
29.92 T + 460 To find acfm, multiply the scfm by the value
acfm = scfm ×
P 520 found in the table opposite the vacuum pres-
sure, “P.”
A direct ratio for converting scfm to acfm (L/
Table 10-3 IP and SI Pressure Conversion s to L/s) for various pressures is given in Table
10-5. Multiply the scfm (L/s) by the factor corre-
kPa in. Hg in. Hg psia sponding to the pressure in in. Hg abs. (kPa abs.)
abs. abs. to find acfm (L/s).
101.4 0 29.92 14.70

97.9 1 28.92 14.2086
94.5 2 27.92 13.7173
91.5 3 26.92 13.2260
87.77 4 25.92 12.7347 Table 10-4 Expanded Air Ratio, 29.92/P,
84.39 5 24.92 12.2434
as a Function of Pressure, P (in. Hg)
81.01 6 23.92 11.7521
77.63 7 22.92 11.2608 P 29.92 P 29.92
74.19 8 21.92 10.7695 P P
70.81 9 20.92 10.2782
67.43 10 19.92 9.7869
29.92 1.00 10.92 2.7399
64.05 11 18.92 9.2955
60.67 12 17.92 8.8042 28.92 1.0345 9.92 3.0161
57.29 13 16.92 8.3129 27.92 1.0716 8.92 3.3542
53.91 14 15.92 7.8216 26.92 1.1114 7.92 3.7777
50.54 15 14.92 7.3303 25.92 1.1543 6.92 4.3236
47.09 16 13.92 6.8390 24.92 1.2006 5.92 5.0540
43.71 17 12.92 6.3477
23.92 1.2508 4.92 6.0813
40.33 18 11.92 5.8564
36.95 19 10.92 5.3651 22.92 1.3054 3.92 7.6326
33.57 20 9.92 4.8738 21.92 1.3649 2.92 10.2465
30.20 21 8.92 4.3824 20.92 1.4302 1.92 15.5833
26.82 22 7.92 3.8911 19.92 1.5020 0.92 32.5217
23.37 23 6.92 3.3998 18.92 1.5813 0.80 37.40
19.99 24 5.92 2.9085
17.92 1.6696 0.70 42.0742
16.61 25 4.92 2.4172
13.23 26 3.92 1.9259 16.92 1.7683 0.60 49.8667
9.85 27 2.92 1.4346 15.92 1.8793 0.50 59.84
6.48 28 1.92` 0.9433 14.92 2.0053 0.40 74.80
3.10 29 0.92 0.4520 13.92 2.1494 0.30 99.7334
2.36 29.22 0.80 0.3930
12.92 2.3157 0.20 149.60
1.35 29.52 0.70 0.3439
11.92 2.5100 0.10 299.20
0.61 29.72 0.60 0.2947
0 29.92 0 0 Note: 1 in. Hg = 3.39 kPa
GENERAL VACUUM CRITERIA scfm by the factor found opposite the altitude
where the project is located.
Adjusting Vacuum-Pump Rating for
Altitude Time for Pump to Reach Rated Vacuum
The rating of a pump at altitude is a lower per- The time a given pump will take to reach its rated
centage of its rating at sea level. For each 1000-ft vacuum pressure depends on the volume of the
(304.8-m) increase in altitude, atmospheric pres- system in cubic feet (cubic meters) and the ca-
sure drops by approximately 1 in. of mercury pacity of the pump in scfm (L/s) at the
(3.39 kPa). Refer to Table 10-6 for actual baro- vacuum-rated pressure. But simply dividing the
metric pressure at various altitudes. For example, system volume by the capacity of the pump will
for the city of Denver (at 5000 ft [1524 m]), the not produce an accurate answer. This is because
local atmospheric pressure is 24.90 in. Hg (84.3 the vacuum pump does not pump the same
kPa). Dividing 30 into 24.90 gives a percentage
of 83.3%. If a pump is rated at 25 in. Hg (84.7
kPa) at sea level, 83.3% of 25 equals 20.8 in. Hg
(70.4 kPa) at 5000 ft (1524 m). This is the re-
quired vacuum pressure that would equal 25 in.
Hg (84.7 kPa) at sea level.
At altitudes above sea level, there is a reduc- Table 10-6 Barometric Pressure
tion in the scfm delivered because of the Corresponding to Altitude
difference in local pressure compared to stan-
dard pressure. SCFM must be increased to Barometric
compensate for this difference. Table 10-7 pro- Altitudea Pressure
vides multiplication factors to accomplish this. m ft in. Hg kPa
To find the adjusted scfm, multiply the actual
–3040 –10,000 31.00 104.5
–152 –500 30.50 102.8
0 0 29.92 100.8
152 500 29.39 99.0
Table 10-5 Direct Ratio for Converting 304 1,000 28.87 97.3
scfm to acfm (nL/s to aL/s) 456 1,500 28.33 95.5
608 2,000 27.82 93.7
In. Hg kPa Factor In. Hg kPa Factor
Abs. Abs. 760 2,500 27.31 92.0
912 3,000 26.81 90.3
1 97.9 1.05 16 47.09 2.15 1064 3,500 26.32 88.7
2 94.5 1.1 17 43.71 2.3 1216 4,000 25.85 87.1
3 91.15 1.1 18 40.33 2.5 1368 4,500 25.36 85.5
4 87.77 1.15 19 36.95 2.73 1520 5,000 24.90 83.9
5 84.39 1.2 20 33.57 3 1672 5,500 24.43 81.9
6 81.01 1.25 21 30.20 3.33 1824 6,000 23.98 80.8
7 77.63 1.3 22 26.82 3.75 1976 6,500 23.53 79.3
8 74.19 1.35 23 23.37 4.28 2128 7,000 23.10 77.8
9 70.81 1.4 24 19.99 5 2280 7,500 22.65 76.3
10 67.43 1.5 25 16.61 6 2432 8,000 22.22 74.9
11 64.05 1.55 26 13.23 7.5 2584 8,500 21.80 73.4
12 60.67 1.62 27 9.85 10 2736 9,000 21.39 72.1
13 57.29 1.75 28 6.48 15 2888 9,500 20.98 70.7
14 53.91 1.85 29 3.10 30 3040 10,000 20.58 69.3
15 50.54 2.0 29.92 0 60 aSea level = 0.
quantity of air at different pressures. There is To obtain the most accurate answer, the en-
actually a logarithmic relationship that can be gineer should obtain pump curves from the
approximated by the following formula: manufacturer and substitute the scfm (L/s) ca-
pacity for the pump at each 5 in. Hg (16.9 kPa)
Equation 10-2 increment, then add them together to find the
V total time. Selection of the value for N depends
T = N on the highest level of system vacuum pressure
Q
and is constant for the several calculations.
where
T = Time, min. Adjusting Pressure Drop for Different
V = Volume of system, ft3 (m3) Vacuum Pressures
Q = Flow capacity of pump, scfm (L/s) When the sizing chart available to the design en-
N = Natural log constant (see below) gineer uses a vacuum level different than that of
the system being designed, the pressure loss for
For vacuum up to 10 in. Hg (33.9 kPa),
the scfm (L/s) and pipe size for the system’s
N=1 vacuum pressure can be found by dividing the
For vacuum up to 22.5 in. Hg (76.2 kPa), pressure drop in the chart by the ratio found
N=2 from the following formula:
For vacuum up to 26 in. Hg (88.0 kPa),
Equation 10-3
N=3
For vacuum up to 28 in. Hg (94.8 kPa), new vacuum pressure
30 –
N=4 pressure used to create chart
Simplified Method of Calculating

Velocity
Table 10-7 Factor for Flow Rate Use the following formula to find the velocity of
Reduction Due to Altitude a gas stream under a vacuum:
Altitude Factor for Equation 10-4
m ft Adjusted scfm
V = C×Q
0 0 1.0 where
152 500 1.02 V = Velocity, fpm (L/s)
304 1,000 1.04 C = Constant for velocity based on pipe
456 1,500 1.06 size (Refer to Table 10-8.)
608 2,000 1.08 Q = Flow rate based on an absolute
vacuum pressure, acfm (L/s)
760 2,500 1.10
912 3,000 1.12 As an example, calculate the velocity of 100
scfm (47.2 L/s) through a 2-in. (50 DN) pipe with
1064 3,500 1.14
a pressure of 20 in. Hg (67.7 kPa).
1216 4,000 1.16
1. First, find the equivalent absolute pressure
1520 5,000 1.20
of 20 in. Hg (67.7 kPa). Using Table 10-3,
1824 6,000 1.25 read 9.92 in. Hg abs (33.57 kPa abs).
2128 7,000 1.30 2. Convert 100 scfm (47.2 L/s) to acfm (L/s) at
2432 8,000 1.35 a pressure of 9.92 in. Hg abs (33.57 kPa
2736 9,000 1.40 abs) by using Table 10-5. Opposite 10 in. Hg
3040 10,000 1.45
(33.9 kPa) read 1.5.
3344 11,000 1.51 100 × 1.5 = 150 acfm (70.8 L/s)
3. Refer to Table 10-8 to obtain C. This table
1 scfm = 0.472 nL/s
has been developed from flow characteris- VACUUM SOURCE AND SOURCE
tics of air in schedule 40 pipe. Opposite 3-in. COMPONENTS
(80-mm) pipe read 19.53.
4. V = 150 × 19.53 General
V = 2930 fps (893 m/s) Vacuum is produced by a single or multiple
vacuum-pump source drawing air from remote
vacuum inlets or equipment. Except for some
Table 10-8 Constant, C, for Finding rare industrial applications, vacuum pumps
Mean Air Velocity withdraw air from a receiver to produce the
vacuum.
Sched. 40 Sched. 40
DN Pipe Size, C DN Pipe Size, C Air exhausted from the system must be dis-
in. in. charged to the atmosphere by means of an
exhaust piping system. The pipe size shall be
12 a 740.9 65 2½ 30.12 large enough so as not to restrict operation of
15 ½ 481.9 75 3 19.53
the vacuum pump. (See separate discussions
under the “Laboratory and Vacuum Systems”
20 ¾ 270.0 90 3½ 14.7
and “Vacuum-Cleaning Systems” sections, which
25 1 168.0 100 4 11.32 follow.)
32 1¼ 96.15 125 5 7.27
Alarms are required for maintenance pur-
40 1½ 71.43 150 6 5.0
poses or to annunciate trouble, generally
50 2 42.92 200 8 2.95 inadequate vacuum pressure, in the system.
1 in. = 25.4 mm
Vacuum Pumps
Vacuum Work Forces The majority of vacuum pumps are divided into
two general groups: gas transfer and capture.
The total force of the vacuum system acting on a Capture-type pumps are outside the scope of this
load is based on the vacuum pressure and the chapter.
surface area on which the vacuum is acting. This
is expressed in the following formula: Gas-transfer pumps These are essentially air
compressors that use the vacuum system as their
Equation 10-5 inlet and discharge “compressed” air to the atmo-
F = P × A sphere. The majority of pumps used for most
applications are gas-transfer pumps. They oper-
where ate by removing gas from the lower pressure of
F = Force, psi (kPa) the system and conveying it to the higher pres-
P = Vacuum pressure, psig (kPa) sure of the free-air environment through one or
more stages of compression provided by a vacuum
A = Area, in.2 (m2) pump. These pumps are also known as mechani-
Since the above formula is theoretical, it is cal rotary-type pumps and are the type used most
common practice to use a safety factor in the often for industrial and laboratory purposes. Ex-
range of 3 to 5 times the calculated force to com- amples of gas-transfer pumps include:
pensate for the quality of the air seal and other 1. Rotary vane, once-through-oil (OTO) type or
factors such as configuration of the load and oilless.
outside forces such as acceleration.
2. Reciprocating (rotary) piston pumps.
3. Rotary lobe (roots), ordinary lobe or claw type.
4. Screw.
5. Liquid ring.
6. Diaphragm.
7. Centrifugal (turbo).
Receivers Vacuum-Pressure Gauges

The piping-distribution system is connected to There are two commonly used gauges, the
the receiver. The pump(s) are also connected to Bourdon type and the diaphragm type.
the receiver and maintain the desired range of
vacuum as the demand rises or falls depending Bourdon gauge This is a mechanical gauge
on the number of inlets that open or close. When used to measure the difference in relative pres-
the system vacuum pressure drops to a prede- sure between the system and local barometric
termined level beyond the capacity of a single pressure. The most widely used type of gauge, it
pump, additional pumps in a duplex assembly is simple, inexpensive, and rugged. The heart of
are started. When the desired high level of the gauge is the Bourdon tube that is closed at
vacuum is reached, the pumps could be shut one end and open to the vacuum at the other.
off. Larger units may be constantly operated, As the vacuum pressure varies, the tube changes
loading, unloading, or bypassing on demand. shape. A pointer attached to the tube moves,
Often, there is a timer on the system allowing indicating the pressure on a dial.
the pumps to run for a longer time than required
by system pressure to prevent rapid cycling. Diaphragm gauge The diaphragm gauge mea-
sures the pressure difference by sensing the
Since the size of the receiver has little effect deflection of a thin metal diaphragm or capsular
on actual system operation, it is selected by the element. Similarly to the Bourden gauge, its op-
manufacturer based on experience. eration relies on the deformation of an elastic
metal under pressure.
Seal Liquids
Ancillary Equipment
For liquid-ring pumps, a circulating liquid in the
pump casing is an integral part of the pump op- A coalescing, or oil-mist, filter should be used
eration. This liquid, generally water or oil, is on the exhaust of any pump that uses oil to pre-
commonly known as “seal liquid” and is not in- vent the discharge of oil into the atmosphere. It
tended to refer to shaft or any other kinds of can also be used to recover solvents from the
sealing. discharge airstream.
Water, commonly used for sealing purposes, A knockout pot is a device that prevents en-
must be continuously replaced. With no conser- trained liquid or slugs of liquid from entering
vation, approximately 0.5 gpm/hp (1.9 L/hp) is the inlet of mechanical pumps used in indus-
used. Manufacturers have developed proprietary trial applications. It can also be combined with
water-conservation methods that typically reduce an inlet filter in one housing.
the usage to approximately 0.1 gpm/hp (0.4 L/
hp). Specific information about any water usage Inlet filters are used to remove solids or liq-
and additional space required must be obtained uids that may be present in the inlet airstream
prior to the air entering the pump. Various filter
from the manufacturer.
elements are available to remove particulates
Oil used for sealing purposes is recirculated, approximately 0.3 µ in size.
and may have to be cooled. The pump does not
In some cases where the system as a whole
require any water to operate. The oil eventually
becomes contaminated and must be replaced on has a high vacuum pressure, it may be desired
a regular basis. Typically, a running time of 1500 to lower the vacuum pressure to a branch. This
is generally done with an air-bleed valve on the
to 2000 hours is the useful life of seal oil. It may
branch where the lower vacuum pressure is de-
be desirable to install a running time meter on
sired. The valve is opened and air is allowed to
these pumps to aid in maintenance. Pumps us-
enter the system. For precise control, a needle
ing oil often require more installation space than
other types of pump. Specific information about valve is used.
additional space required shall be obtained from
the manufacturer.
Figure 10-2 Schematic Detail of a Typical Laboratory Vacuum-Pump Assembly
Figure 10-3 Typical Process Vacuum-Pump Duplex Arrangement

LABORATORY AND VACUUM ceptable to have a single vacuum pump. The

SYSTEMS pumps selected should be oil free.
The two most often used pump types are the
The laboratory vacuum system serves general liquid ring and sliding vane. A common configu-
chemical, biological, and physics laboratory pur- ration for more than one pump is a rack mounting
poses. Principal among such purposes are drying, one above the other and both pumps installed over
filtering, fluid transfer, and evacuating air from the receiver for a compact footprint. A schematic
apparatus. The usual working pressure of stan- detail of a typical laboratory vacuum pump as-
dard vacuum systems is in the range of 12 to 20 sembly is illustrated in Figure 10-2. A schematic
in. Hg (40.6 to 67.7 kPa). In some cases, there is detail of a typical process vacuum pump duplex
a need for “high” vacuum in the range of 24 to assembly is illustrated in Figure 10-3.
29 in. Hg (81.3 to 98.2 kPa), which is usually
produced with a separate point-of-use vacuum
pump adjacent to the area of application. Distribution Network
Other types of system serve light industrial Pipe material and joints Piping for the distri-
and manufacturing purposes, such as those of bution system shall be a corrosion-resistant
the pharmaceutical and chemical industries. material such as copper tube type K or L, stain-
less steel, or galvanized steel pipe (usually
Codes and Standards schedule 40 ASTM A-53). Copper tube shall be
hard tempered except when installed under-
There are no codes and standards applicable to ground, when soft tempered should be used.
the design of laboratory vacuum and manufac- Although cost has a major influence on the se-
turing systems. The most important requirements lection of the piping material, the most commonly
are those of the end user and good engineering used is copper tube type L, ASTM B-88 up to 4
practice. For laboratory work within health-care in. (100 mm) in size, with soldered joints. Pipe 5
facilities, conformance to NFPA 99, Standard for in. (125 mm) and larger is usually schedule 40
Health Care Facilities, is required. galvanized steel pipe with malleable iron fittings
Laboratories conducting biological work and threaded joints. Fittings shall be of a long-
where airborne pathogens could be released are turn drainage pattern so as not to impede the
required to follow the appropriate biological level flow of fluids in the pipe.
criteria established by the National Institutes of
Health (NIH). For most biological installations, it Sizing criteria
is recommended that check valves be installed
in each branch line to every room or area to pre- Number of inlets There are no code or other
vent any cross discharge. It is common to have mandated requirements specifying locations of
separate pumps for different biological areas. In vacuum inlets. The number of inlets is determined
addition, the vacuum pump exhaust shall be by the user, based on a program of requirements
provided with duplex 0.02-µ filters on the ex- for all rooms, areas, and equipment used in the
haust to eliminate all pathogenic particulates. facility. Inlets for laboratory stations, fume hoods,
etc. shall be appropriate for the intended use,
Vacuum Source based on the requirements of the end user.
The vacuum source usually consists of two or Flow rate The basic flow rate from each labo-
more pumps that are designed to operate as sys- ratory inlet shall be 1.0 scfm (0.47 L/s). This is
tem demand requires, a receiver used to provide an arbitrary number, based on experience. This
a vacuum reservoir and to separate liquids from flow rate is used in conjunction with the diver-
the vacuum airstream, the interconnecting pip- sity factor.
ing around the pumps and receiver, and alarms. For manufacturing facilities, the flow rate
A duplex pump arrangement is usually selected shall be obtained from the manufacturer of the
if the system is critical to the operation of the equipment or operation being supported.
laboratory. In some smaller installations where
the vacuum system is not critical, it may be ac- Diversity factor The diversity factor established
for general laboratories is based on experience. It
has been found to be slightly more than that used
Figure 10-4 Direct Reading Chart Showing Diversity for Laboratory Vacuum
for compressed air because the vacuum is often diversity factor double that found in Table 10-9,
left on for longer periods of time. Refer to Figure but never less than the largest scfm (L/s) calcu-
10-4 for a direct reading chart to determine the lated for the first two rooms. Since the above
adjusted general laboratory vacuum flow rate flow rates and diversity factors are arbitrary, they
using the number of connected inlets. Table 10-9 must be used with judgment and modified if
has been prepared for a numerical calculation of necessary for special conditions and client re-
the diversity factor, if desired. quirements. Always consult the user for definitive
For the design of classrooms, the diversity information regarding the maximum probable
factor for one and two classrooms on one branch simultaneous usage.
is 100%. For more than two classrooms, use a For industrial facilities, the information shall
be obtained from the end user.
Table 10-9 Allowable system pressure loss A generally

accepted criterion used to size a piping system is
Diversity Factor for Laboratory
to allow a high-to-low pressure loss of 3 to 5 in.
Vacuum Air Systems Hg (10.2 to 16.9 kPa) for the entire system (after
Number % Use the source assembly) and a maximum velocity of
of Inlets Factor 5000 fpm (1524 m/min). If noise may be a prob-
lem, use 4000 fpm (1219 m/min). For smaller
1–2 100 systems, use a figure of 1 in. Hg (3.4 kPa) allow-
able pressure loss for each 100 ft (31 m) of pipe.
3–5 80
6–10 66 Source vacuum-pump sizing The source
11–20 35 pump for laboratories is selected using the flow
21–100 25 rate of gas calculated using all inlets, the diver-
sity factor for the whole facility, and a range of ance, in feet, for fittings of all types is called
vacuum pressure. The source pumps for indus- the “equivalent length of piping.” It is ac-
trial facilities are sized using the total connected cepted engineering practice to add an
load reduced by a diversity factor determined additional 50% of the measured length of
from the duty cycle of the equipment and a di- piping to calculate the equivalent length.
versity factor based on end-user requirements.
2. Determine the allowable piping pressure loss
The pressure range usually extends from 5 for system vacuum pressure in terms com-
in. Hg (16.9 kPa) higher than the highest required patible with the chart or table for flow rate
vacuum pressure (the pump stopping point) to a and pressure loss per length of pipe used for
low figure equal to the lowest acceptable system sizing. Table 10-11 uses in. Hg for 100 ft of
pressure (the pump starting point). For duplex pipe (kPa for 30 m). This is accomplished by
and triplex pump arrangements, the intermedi- dividing the allowable difference in start-to-
ate vacuum settings for multiple pumps shall be stop vacuum pressure by the equivalent
adjusted accordingly. length of pipe, in 100-ft (30-m) increments.
As an example, the range of vacuum pres-
Vacuum-pump exhaust-pipe sizing For sizing sures is from 20 to 15 in. Hg (68 to 51 kPa)
the exhaust piping from the vacuum-pump and the total equivalent run is 600 ft (180
source assembly, refer to Table 10-10, using the m). The equivalent length, in hundreds of feet,
equivalent length of exhaust piping as the length equals 6. The difference in pressure is 5. Six
of piping. (See “Piping-Network Sizing” section divided by 5 equals 1.20 in. Hg per 100 ft
below for a definition of “equivalent length.”) available for friction drop. (One hundred
eighty m divided by 30 equals 6. Six divided
Piping-network sizing The following method
by 17 kPa—the allowable pressure loss
should be used to size the pipe at each design
range—equals 0.35 kPa loss per 30 m of run
point:
for the allowable pressure to be lost in the
1. Calculate the equivalent length of pipe based piping network.)
on the longest run. To accurately determine
3. Calculate the adjusted scfm (L/s) at each
the correct length of the longest piping sec-
point using the connected scfm (L/s) reduced
tion, some figure must be added to the by the diversity factor at each point.
measured length to allow for the additional
friction resulting from fittings, valves, etc. The 4. For sizing the distribution system, vacuum
measured length plus the additional allow-
Table 10-10 Vacuum-Pump Exhaust Pipe Sizing
Total Vacuum Equivalent Pipe Length, ft (m)

Plant Capacity, 50 100 150 200 300 400 500
All Pumps (15.2) (30.4) (45.6) (60.8) (91.2) (121.6) (152)
scfm nL/s Pipe Size, in. (DN)
10 4.72 2 (50) 2 (50) 2 (50) 2 (50) 2 (50) 2 (50) 2 (50)

50 23.6 2 (50) 2½ (65) 3 (75) 3 (75) 3 (75) 3 (75) 3 (75)
100 47.2 3 (75) 3 (75) 3 (75) 4 (100) 4 (100) 5 (125) 5 (125)
150 71 3 (75) 4 (100) 4 (100) 4 (100) 5 (125) 5 (125) 5 (125)
200 55 4 (100) 4 (100) 4 (100) 5 (125) 5 (125) 5 (125) 5 (125)
300 142 4 (100) 5 (125) 5 (125) 5 (125) 6 (150) 6 (150) 6 (150)
400 189 5 (125) 5 (125) 6 (150) 6 (150) 6 (150) 8 (200) 8 (200)
500 236 5 (125) 6 (150) 6 (150) 6 (150) 8 (200) 8 (200) 8 (200)
Table 10-11 Pressure Loss Data for Sizing Vacuum Pipe

Pressure Drop per 100 ft (30 m) of Pipe, in. Hg (kPa)
Nominal Pipe Size, in. (DN)
Standard
Air Flow, ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ 3 4
cfm (L/min) (20) (25) (32) (40) (50) (65) (80) (100)
1 (28.3) 0.15 (0.5)
2 (56.6) 0.39 (1.3) 0.10 (0.3)
3 (85.0) 0.77 (2.6) 0.19 (0.6)
4 (113.3) 1.24 (4.2) 0.31 (1.1) 0.10 (0.3)
5 (141.6) 1.78 (6.0) 0.44 (1.5) 0.14 (0.5)
6 (169.9) 2.40 (8.1) 0.60 (2.0) 0.19 (0.6)
7 (198.2) 0.77 (2.6) 0.24 (0.8) 0.12 (0.4)
8 (226.6) 0.95 (3.2) 0.31 (1.1) 0.15 (0.5)
9 (254.9) 1.17 (4.0) 0.38 (1.3) 0.18 (0.6)
10 (283.2) 1.38 (4.7) 0.45 (1.5) 0.22 (0.7)
15 (424.8) 2.80 (9.5) 0.88 (3.0) 0.44 (1.5) 0.12 (0.4)
20 (566.4) 1.46 (4.9) 0.72 (2.4) 0.19 (0.6)
25 (708.0) 2.20 (7.4) 1.09 (3.7) 0.29 (1.0)
30 (849.6) 1.52 (5.1) 0.41 (1.4) 0.14 (0.5)
35 (991.2) 2.00 (6.8) 0.54 (1.8) 0.18 (0.6)
40 (1132.8) 2.50 (8.4) 0.67 (2.3) 0.22 (0.7) 0.10 (0.3)
45 (1274.4) 0.81 (2.7) 0.27 (0.9) 0.12 (0.4)
50 (1416.0) 0.99 (3.3) 0.33 (1.1) 0.14 (0.5)
60 (1699.2) 1.34 (4.5) 0.45 (1.5) 0.19 (0.6)
70 (1982.4) 1.79 (6.1) 0.60 (2.0) 0.26 (0.9) 0.07 (0.2)
80 (2265.6) 2.30 (7.8) 0.77 (2.6) 0.32 (1.1) 0.09 (0.3)
90 (2548.8) 0.96 (3.2) 0.41 (1.4) 0.11 (0.4)
100 (2832.0) 1.17 (4.0) 0.50 (1.7) 0.14 (0.5)
125 (3540.0) 1.71 (5.8) 0.74 (2.5) 0.20 (0.7)
150 (4248.0) 2.30 (7.8) 0.99 (3.3) 0.27 (0.9)
175 (4956.0) 1.28 (4.3) 0.35 (1.2)
200 (5664.0) 1.61 (5.4) 0.44 (1.5)
Source: Courtesy of Ohmeda.

Note: Based on copper pipe type L, ASTM B88.
sizing chart Table 10-11 is based on scfm ily disposed of or recovered. Portable units can
(L/s) flow rate and friction loss per length of be easily moved throughout all areas of a facil-
piping. Enter Table 10-11 with the scfm ity. The design of portable units is outside the
(nLpm) and find the value equal to or less scope of this chapter.
than the previously determined allowable
pressure loss. Read the size at the top of the Types of System and Equipment
column where the selected value is found.
There are three types of permanent system: dry,
System leakage There is a difference between wet and combination. The dry system is intended
desirable and acceptable leakage in a vacuum exclusively for free-flowing, dry material. It is the
system. Ideally, there should be no leakage. It is most commonly used type of system, with clean-
common practice to test laboratory vacuum-piping capabilities ranging from cleaning carpets to
ing systems, section by section, at rated removing potentially toxic and explosive prod-
maximum working pressure for 24 hours with uct spills from the floors of an industrial facility.
no loss of pressure permitted. For large systems, Equipment consists of a vacuum producer, one
it is almost impossible to install an entire sys- or more separators that remove collected mate-
tem that does not have small leaks. If such is rial from the airstream, tubing to convey the air
the case, what is an acceptable amount? and material to the separator, and inlets located
There is no generally accepted value for al- throughout the facility. A wide variety of separa-
lowable leakage in a vacuum system. That figure tors are available to allow disposal and recovery
should be related to the volume of the piping of the collected material.
network in order to be meaningful. The Heat
Exchange Institute has developed a standard The wet system is intended exclusively for
liquid handling and pickup. It is commonly found
based on system volume. This formula, trans-
in health-care, industrial, and laboratory facili-
posed to solve for leakage, is:
ties where sanitation is important and frequent
Equation 10-6 washings are required. Equipment consists of a
vacuum producer, a wet separator constructed
0.15 × V to resist the chemical action of the liquids in-
T volved, piping or tubing of a material resistant
L = to the chemical action of the liquid, and inlets
4.5
located throughout the facility.
where
A combination system is capable of both wet
L = Leakage, scfm (L/s)
and dry pickup. Equipment consists of a vacuum
(Note: To convert to metric, multiply L by producer, a wet separator constructed to resist
0.4719.) the chemical action of the liquid mixtures in-
V = Total piping system volume, ft3 (m3) volved, pipe or tubing of a material resistant to
the chemical action of the combined solid/liq-
T = Time for vacuum pressure to drop 1
uid, and inlets located throughout the facility.
in. Hg (kPa), min
After calculating the system volume and the
Codes and Standards
leakage from the system, use Figure 10-5 to de-
termine if the intersection of the two values falls There are no codes and standards governing the
within the acceptable portion of the chart. design and installation of vacuum-cleaning sys-
tems.
VACUUM-CLEANING SYSTEMS
System Components
This section discusses vacuum systems used for
removing unwanted solid dirt, dust, and liquids Vacuum producer (exhauster) Vacuum pro-
from floors, walls, and ceilings. This involves the ducers for typical vacuum-cleaning systems
use of either a permanent, centrally located sys- consist of a single or multistage, centrifugal-type
tem or portable, self-contained, electric-powered units powered by an electric motor. The housing
units. A central system transports the unwanted can be constructed of various materials to handle
debris to a central location where it can be eas- special chemicals and nonsparking aluminum
Figure 10-5 Acceptable Leakage in Vacuum Systems

Source: Courtesy of Becker Pumps.
for potentially explosive dust. The discharge of facility, the separator shall be provided with an
the unit can be positioned at various points to integral explosion relief/rupture device that is
accommodate the requirements of the exhaust- vented to the outside of the building.
piping system.
Filters Vacuum producers are normally ex-
Separators Separators are used to remove the hausted to the outside air and do not require
solid particulates in the airstream generated by any filtration. However, when substances re-
the vacuum producers. moved from the facility are considered harmful
For dry-type systems, tubular-bag and cen- to the environment, a HEPA filter must be in-
trifugal-type separators can be used. If only dust stalled in the discharge line to eliminate the
and other fine materials are expected, a tubu- possibility of contamination of the outside air.
lar-bag type is adequate. The bag(s) are The recommended location is between the sepa-
permanently installed and cannot be removed. rator and vacuum producer, but an alternate
They function as an air filter for fine particles location immediately prior to penetration of the
and collect a majority of the dirt. This dirt even- building wall or roof is also acceptable.
tually falls into a hopper or dirt can at the bottom Silencers When the exhaust from the vacuum
of the unit. To empty the entire unit, the system producer is considered too noisy, a silencer shall
must be shut down. The bag(s) must be shaken
be installed in the exhaust to reduce the noise
to remove as much of the collected material as
to an acceptable level. Pulsating airflow requires
possible and emptied into the dirt can. The dirt
special design considerations. The connection to
can is removed (or the hopper is emptied into a
silencers shall be made with flexible connections.
separate container) to clean out the unit. The Additional support for silencers is recommended.
dirt can should be sized to contain at least one Filters and silencers can be economically combined
full day’s storage. Units are available with mul-
into a single, integral unit.
tiple bags to increase filter-bag area. Shaking can
be done either manually or by motor. The mo- Inlets Inlets are female inlet valves and are
tor-operated shaker has adjustable time periods equipped with self-closing covers. They provide
to start operation after a variable length of time a quick connection for any male hose or equip-
from shut down of the system and to shake the ment. The covers can be locked as an option.
bags for a variable length of time. If continuous Many different inlet types are available, in sizes
operation is required, compressed air can be used ranging from 1½ to 4 in. (40 to 100 mm) and of
to blow through the bags and remove the dirt various materials.
without requiring a shutdown.
The centrifugal-type separator is designed to Control and check valves Valves for vacuum-
remove coarser, dry particles from the airstream. cleaning systems are different than standard
It is also recommended when more than six si- valves. They are used to control the flow or stop
multaneous operators are anticipated to remove the reverse flow of air in the vacuum-cleaning
the bulk of the dirt. The air enters the separator system. When used only fully open or closed,
tangential to the unit, and the air containing par- they are generally referred to as “blast gates.”
ticulates is forced into a circular motion within When used as regulating valves, they are called
the unit. Centrifugal force accomplishes separa- “wafer butterfly valves.” A less costly substitute
tion. for a blast gate is an “air gate valve,” which op-
erates using a sliding plate in a channel. The
The wet separator system collects the liquid, plate has a hole that matches the size of the open-
separates the water from the airstream, and dis- ing in the channel, with room to close off the
charges the waste to drain. This type of separator opening completely. Air gates can only be used
can be equipped with an automatic overflow in low-pressure systems and are generally avail-
shutoff that stops the system if the water level able in sizes from 2 to 6 in. (50 to 150 mm).
reaches a predetermined high-water level, and
it can be equipped with automatic emptying fea- Check valves are typically spring-loaded,
tures. swing-type valves hinged in the center.
Immersion-type separators are used to col- Air-bleed control If the exhauster is constantly
lect explosive or flammable material in a water operated with low or no inlet air, there is a pos-
compartment. If there is a potential for explo- sibility that the exhauster motor will become hot
sion, such as exists in a grain or flour-handling enough to require shutdown due to overheating.
To avoid this, an air-bleed device can be installed requirements of the exhauster.

on the inlet to the exhauster that will automati- The inlets should be located between 24 and
cally allow air to enter the piping system. If the 36 in. (600 and 900 mm) above the floor.
facility indicates that this may be a possibility,
the manufacturer of the unit should be consulted Determining the number of simultaneous
to determine the need for this device for the sys- operators This is another major design consid-
tem selected. eration because an underdesigned system will
not produce the desired level of vacuum and an
Pipe and fittings The material most often used oversized system will be costly.
is thin-wall tubing, generally in a range of 12 to
16 gauge. This tubing is available in plain car- The maximum number of simultaneous op-
bon steel, zinc-coated steel, aluminum, and erators is decided by the facility’s housekeeping
stainless steel. Fittings are special, designed for or maintenance department and depends on a
the vacuum-cleaning system. Tubing is normally number of factors:
joined using shrink sleeves over the joints. Com- 1. Is the preferred method to have gang clean-
pression fittings and flexible rubber sleeves and ing? Is it possible to alter this practice in order
clamps are also used. to result in a less costly system?
Tubing shall be supported every 8 to 10 ft 2. What is the maximum number of operators
(2.4 to 3.1 m), depending on size, under normal expected to use the system at the same time?
conditions.
3. Is the work done daily?
Standard steel pipe is often used in areas
where the additional strength is required. In spe- For commercial facilities where there may be
cial areas where leakage prevention and strength no available information, the following guidelines
are mandatory, the tubing joints can be welded are based on experience and can be used to esti-
if required. mate simultaneous use based on productivity.
These figures consider the greater efficiency of
using a central system compared to portable
Detailed System Design units, often in the order of 25%. They must be
verified and based on actual methods anticipated.
Inlet location and spacing The first step in
system design is to locate the inlets throughout 1. For carpets, one operator will be expected to
the facility. cover 20,000 ft2 (1860 m2) of area for regular
carpeting in an 8-h shift. For long or shag
The spacing of inlets depends on the length
carpets, the figure is about 10, 000 ft2 (930
of hose selected for use. After this is decided,
m2). Another generally accepted figure for
the inlet locations shall be planned in such a
short time periods is 3000 ft2/h (280 m2/h)
manner that all areas can be reached by the se-
for standard floors, and 2500 ft2/h (233 m2/
lected hose length. This planning must take into
h ) for shag and long carpets.
account furniture, doorways, columns, and all
obstructions. Some small overlap must be pro- 2. For hotels, an average figure of 100 rooms,
vided to allow for hoses not being able to be including adjacent corridors, per 8-h shift
stretched to the absolute end of their length. would be expected. For long or shag carpets,
Consideration should be given to providing a 25 the figure is about 75 rooms.
ft 0 in. (7.5 m) spacing for areas where spills are 3. For theaters, use the number of seats divided
frequent, heavy floor deposits may occur or fre- by 1000 to establish the number of simulta-
quent spot cleaning is necessary. neous operators.
Generally, there are several alternate locations
4. For schools, 12 classrooms per day is an av-
possible for any given valve. Inlets should be
erage figure for a custodian to clean in
placed near room entrances. Wherever possible,
addition to other duties normally accom-
try to locate inlets in a constant pattern on ev- plished.
ery floor. This allows for the location of common
vertical risers since the distance between floors Inlet-valve, tool, and hose sizing The recom-
is less than the distance between inlets. In any mended inlet size for hand tools and hose is given
system, minimizing piping system losses by a in Table 10-12.
careful layout will be reflected in reduced power
Experience has shown that 1½-in. (DN 40) size
Table 10-12 Recommended Sizes of Hand Tools and Hose

Average Removing
Nominal Size Floor Cleaning Close Heavy Spills or Overhead Standard Hose Length
and Hand Large Quantities Vacuum
DN in. Moderate Spills Work of Materials Cleaning ft m
25 1 Not used Yes Inadequate Not used 8 2.4

40 1½ Excellent Yes Fair Preferred 25 and 50 7.5 and 15
50 2 Good No Good Poor 25 and 50 7.5 and 15
65 2½ Not used No Excellent Not used 25 and 50 7.5 and 15
Source: Courtesy of Hoffman.
hose and tools for cleaning floors, walls, and ceil- provided to allow for easy inspection, and,
ings is the most practical size to use. Smaller, where dirt bins must be emptied, room must
1-in. (DN 25), size tools are used for cleaning probe provided for the carts needed to move
duction tools, equipment, and benches. Larger them. Dry separators can be located outside
hose and tools are used for picking up expected the building for direct truck disposal of the
large spills and cleaning large tanks, boxcars, and dirt, if sufficiently protected.
the holds of ships. Refer to Table 10-12 for gen-
eral recommendations for tool and hose sizes. Sizing the piping network
Standard hoses are available in 25, 37.5, and General After the inlets and vacuum equipment
50-ft (7.5, 12, and 15-m) lengths. For general have been located, the layout of the piping system
cleaning, the location of inlet valves should al- accomplished, and the number of simultaneous
low for convenient cleaning with a maximum of operators determined, system sizing can begin.
50 ft 0 in. (15 m) of hose. This represents a labor
Cleaning systems using hose and tools shall
saving by halving the number of times an opera-
have sufficient capacity so that one pass over an
tor has to change outlets. This length should not
area is all that is necessary for cleaning. With
be exceeded, except for occasional cleaning, be-
adequate vacuum, light to medium dirt deposits
cause of excessive pressure drop.
shall be removed as fast as the operator moves
Locating the vacuum-producer assembly The the floor tool across the surface. The actual clean-
vacuum-producer assembly consists of the ing agent is the velocity of the air sweeping across
vacuum producer, commonly called an “ex- the floor.
hauster,” and the separators. The following shall
Vacuum-pressure requirements and hose
be considered when locating the vacuum equip-
capacity To achieve the necessary air velocity,
ment:
the minimum recommended vacuum pressure for
1. Provide enough headroom for the piping ordinary use is 2 in. Hg (7 kPa). For hard-to-clean
above the equipment and for the various and industrial-type materials, 3 in. Hg (10 kPa)
pieces to be brought easily into the room or vacuum pressure is required. The flow rate must
area where they are to be installed. be enough to bring the dirt into the tool nozzle.
Refer to Table 10-13 to determine the minimum
2. An ideal location is on the floor below the
and maximum recommended flow rate of air and
lowest inlet of the building or facility and cen-
the friction losses of each hose size for the flow
trally located to minimize the differences at
rate selected. For ordinary carpeting and floor-
remote inlet locations.
cleaning purposes, a generally accepted flow rate
3. A convenient means to dispose of the col- of 70 scfm (35 L/s) is recommended.
lected debris should be available close by. If
a separator is used, an adequately sized floor Recommended velocity The recommended
drain is required. velocity in the vacuum-cleaning piping system
depends on the pipe’s orientation (horizontal or
4. Enough room around the separators shall be
Table 10-13 Flow Rate and Friction Loss for Vacuum-Cleaning Tools and Hoses
Minimum Volume Maximum Volume
and Pressure Dropa and Pressure Dropa
Nominal Size of Volume, Pressure Drop, Volume, Pressure,
Use Tools and Hose scfm in. Hg scfm in. Hg
Bench use 1-in. diam., 8-ft 40 1.20 50 1.90

1-in. flexible hose
White rooms or 1½-in. diam., 50-ft 60 2.25 90 4.10

areas with very 1½-in. flexible hose
low dust content
Usual industrial 1½-in. diam., 50-ft 70 2.80 100b 4.80

1½-in. flexible hose
Fissionable materials 1½-in. diam., 50-ft 100 2.50 120 4.20

or other heavy 1½-in. flexible hose
metallic dusts and
minute particles of
copper, iron, etc.
Heavy spills, 2-in. diam., 50-ft 120 2.60 150 3.80

Cleaning railroad 2-in. flexible hose
cars and ship holds

Note: 1 scfm = 0.5 nL/s; 1 in. Hg = 3.4 kPa
aThe pressure drop in flexible hose is 2½ times the pressure drop for the same length and size of Schedule 40 pipe.
bCan be exceeded by 10% if necessary.
Table 10-14 Recommended Velocities for Vacuum-Cleaning Systems

Horizontal Runs of
Branches and Mains and
Vertical Down-Flow Risers Vertical Up-Flow Risers
Nominal Minimum Recommended Minimum Recommended
Tubing Size Velocity Max. Velocity Velocity Max. Velocity
in. DN (ft/min) (ft/min) (ft/min) (ft/min)
1½ 40 1800 3000 2600 3800

2 50 2000 3500 3000 4200
2½ 65 2200 3900 3200 4700
3 75 2400 4200 3800 5100
4 100 2800 4900 4200 6000
5 125 3000 5400 4800 6500
6 150 3400 6000 5000 7200

Note: 1 ft/min = 0.3 m/min
vertical) and size. Since the velocity of the air in of simultaneous operators. This table has been
the pipe conveys the suspended particles, it calculated to achieve the minimum velocity of
should be kept within a recommended range. air required for adequate cleaning. In this table,
Refer to Table 10-14 for recommended velocity “line” refers to permanently installed pipe from
based on pipe size and orientation of the pipe. inlet to separator and “hose” is the hose con-
The air velocity moves the dirt in the system. necting the tool to the inlet. Hose size 1½ in.(DN
Oversizing the pipe will lead to low velocity and 40) is recommended except where the material
poor system performance. to be cleaned will not pass through hose this
size or a large volume of material is expected.
Selecting the number of outlets used simul- After the initial selection of the pipe sizes, the
taneously Facilities may have many inlet valves actual velocity and friction loss based on antici-
but only a few will be used at once. Under nor- pated flow rates in each section of the piping
mal operating conditions, these inlets are chosen system should be checked by using Figure 10-6.
at random by the operators. To aid in the deter- This chart provides a more accurate method of
mination of simultaneous usage the following determining the pipe size, friction loss, and ve-
conditions, which should be expected, are given: locity of the system. To use it, enter the chart
1. Adjacent inlet valves will not be used simul- with the adjusted scfm and allowable pressure
taneously. loss. Read the pipe size at the point where these
two values intersect. If this point is between lines,
2. For the purposes of calculating simultaneous use the larger pipe size. If any parameter is found
use, the most remote inlet on the main and to be outside any of the calculated ranges, the
the inlet closest to the separator will be as- pipe size should be revised.
sumed to be in use, along with other inlet
valves between the two. Pipe sizing is an iterative procedure, and the
sizes may have to be adjusted to reduce or in-
3. Where mains and outlets are located on sev- crease friction loss and velocity as design
eral floors, the use of inlets will be evenly progresses.
distributed along a main on one floor or on
different floors. Piping-system friction losses With the piping
network sized, the next step is to calculate pre-
4. For long horizontal runs on one floor, allow
cisely the “worst-case” total system friction
for two operators on that branch.
losses, in in. Hg (kPa), so that the exhauster can
Sizing the piping Refer to Table 10-15 for se- be sized. These are calculated by adding together
lecting the initial pipe size based on the number all of the following values, starting with the inlet
most remote from the exhauster and continuing
to the source:
1. Initial level of vacuum required. For average
Table 10-15 Pipe Size Based on conditions, the generally accepted figure is 2
Simultaneous Usage in. Hg (6.8 kPa). For hard-to-clean material,
industrial applications, and long shag-type
Number of Operators carpet, the initial vacuum should be in-
Line Diam., 70 scfm, 140 scfm, creased to 3 in. Hg (10.2 kPa).
in. DN 1.5-in. hose 2-in. hose
2. Pressure drop through the hose and tool. Re-
fer to Table 10-13 for the friction loss through
2 50 1 — individual tools and hose based on the in-
2½ 65 2 1 tended size and length of hose and the flow
3 75 3 2 rate selected for the project.
4 100 5 3 3. Loss of vacuum pressure due to friction of the
5 125 8 4 air in the pipe. Losses in the straight runs of
6 150 12 6 the piping system are based on the flow rate
8 200 20 10 of air in the pipe at the point of design. Refer
to Figure 10-6. Fittings are figured separately,
Source: Courtesy of Spencer Turbine. using an equivalent length of pipe to be added
Note: 1 scfm = 0.5 nL/s. to the straight run. Refer to Table 10-16 to
Figure 10-6 Vacuum-Cleaning Piping Friction Loss Chart

determine the equivalent length of run for vacuum level required; the pressure lost through
each type and size of fitting. Starting from the tool and hose selected; the friction loss of air
the farthest inlet, use the cfm, the pipe size, flowing through the piping system; the pressure
fitting allowance, and the pipe length along lost through separators, filters, and silencers;
the entire run of pipe to find the total fric- and finally the exhaust pressure to be overcome,
tion loss. if required. These values are added together to
4. Loss through the separator. A generally ac- establish the vacuum rating of the exhauster.
cepted figure is 1 in. Hg (3.4 kPa) loss through The flow rate of air, in scfm (L/s), entering
all types of separators. The exact figure must the system is calculated by multiplying the num-
be obtained from the manufacturer. ber of simultaneous operators by the scfm
(L/s) selected as appropriate for the intended
5. Exhaust line loss. This can usually be ignored
cleanup requirements. For smaller, less complex
except for long runs. Allow 0.1 in. Hg (0.34
systems, using only the actual selected inlet cfm
kPa) as an average figure for a run of 100 ft
(L/s) is sufficient.
(30 m).
Vacuum-producer (exhauster) sizing Exhauster discharge The discharge from the
exhauster is usually steel pipe routed outside
Exhauster-inlet rating determination It is the building. It is also possible to route the ex-
now possible to size the exhauster. There are two hauster discharge into an HVAC exhaust duct
exhauster ratings that must be known in order that is routed directly outside the building.
to select the size and horsepower. They are 1) For a piped exhaust, if the end is elbowed
the “worst-case” piping-system vacuum-pressure down, it shall be a minimum of 8 ft 0 in. (2.4 m)
losses and 2) the flow rate, in scfm (L/s), of air above grade. If the end is vertical, an end cap
required by the system. shall be installed to prevent rain from entering
The vacuum pressure required from the ex- the pipe. A screen will prevent insects from en-
hauster is the total pressure necessary to tering. The size shall be equal to or one size larger
overcome all piping system losses. This consists than the size of the pipe into the exhauster. Use
of the total pressure drop from all components HVAC ductwork sizing methods to find the size
in the piping network from the inlet farthest from of the exhaust piping while keeping the air pres-
the exhauster. Included are the initial inlet sure loss to a minimum.
The pressure loss through the exhaust pipe
shall be added to the exhauster inlet pressure
drop, the total of which will be calculated into
Table 10-16 Equivalent Length (ft.) of the pressure that the exhauster must overcome.
Vacuum Cleaning Pipe Fittings For short runs of about 20 ft 0 in. (6 m), this can
be ignored.
Nominal Equivalent Length of Pipe Fittings (ft)a To account for the various fittings compris-
Pipe Size, 90° Change 45° Change ing the exhaust system, an additional 30%
in. DN in Direction in Direction should be added to the measured run to calcu-
late the equivalent piping run.
1¼ 32 3 1½
Exhauster rating adjustments
1½ 40 4 2
2 50 5 2½ Adjustment of cfm (L/s) for long runs For sys-
2½ 65 6 3 tems with very long runs or complex systems
3 75 7 4 with both long and short runs of piping, some
adjustment in the selected inlet cfm (L/s) shall
4 100 10 5
be made. This is necessary because the actual
5 125 12 6 cfm (L/s) at the inlets closest to the exhauster
6 150 15 7½ will be greater than the cfm (L/s) at the end of
8 200 20 10 the longest run due to the smaller friction loss.
The adjustment will establish an average inlet
Notes: 1) For smooth-flow fittings, use 90% of these values. cfm (L/s) flow rate for all inlets that will be used
2) 1 ft = 0.3 m
aLengths based on use of cast-iron drainage fittings.
for sizing instead of the selected inlet cfm (L/s).
To establish the adjusted cfm (L/s), it is nec- sure. Refer to Table 10-7 for the factor. This fac-
essary to calculate separately the total system tor shall be multiplied by the scfm
friction loss for each branch line containing in- (L/s) figure to calculate the adjusted cfm (L/s)
lets nearest and farthest from the exhauster. to be used in sizing the exhauster.
Following the procedures previously explained
will result in minimum and maximum system Adjustment for different cfm (L/s) standards An-
friction loss figures. The following formula can other adjustment to the scfm (L/s) figure used to
be used to calculate the adjusted cfm (L/s): size the exhauster is required if the equipment
manufacturer uses inlet icfm (L/s) instead of scfm
Equation 10-7 (L/s). Icfm (L/s) is the actual volume of air at the
inlet of the exhauster using local temperature and
farthest inlet
barometric conditions. Previously discussed tem-
friction loss (in. Hg)
adjusted cfm = × selected cfm perature and barometric conversions shall be
closest inlet used.
friction loss (in. Hg)
The adjusted cfm (L/s) figure is used instead Separator selection and sizing The separator
of the selected cfm (L/s) and multiplied by the is sized based on the cfm (L/s) of the vacuum
number of simultaneous operators to size the producer and the type of material expected to be
exhauster. collected. Refer to Table 10-17 for a classifica-
tion of such material.
Adjustment due to elevation All of the above cal- For dry separators, a starting point for sizing
culations are based on scfm (L/s) at sea level. If would provide a 6:1 ratio of filter bag area to bag
the location of the project is at an elevation higher volume for smaller volumes of course material
than sea level, the scfm (L/s) should be adjusted and a 3:1 ratio for fine dust and larger quanti-
to allow for the difference in barometric pres-
Table 10-17 Classification of Material for Separator Selection
Very Fine Fines Granular Lumpy Irregular

Recom- Ratio Recom- Ratio Recom- Ratio Recom- Ratio Separator
Size of mended Vol. Bag mended Vol. Bag mended Vol. Bag mended Vol. Bag Selection
material Sep. (S) Area Sep. (S) Area Sep. (S) Area Sep. (S) Area & Bag Area
Small Cent. Not appl. Cent. Not appl. Cent. Not appl. Cent. Not appl. dependent
Medium TB 6:1 Cent. 6:1 Cent. Not appl. Cent. Not appl. on
and TB material
Large Cent. 3:1 Cent. 6:1 Cent. 6:1 Cent. Not appl.
and TB and TB and TB
Source: Courtesy of Spencer Turbine Co.

Notes: 1. Centrifugal separators do not utilize bags.
2. Definition of terms:
Small: Light accumulations, such as those found in clean rooms, white rooms, laboratories, and so on.
Medium: Average accumulations, such as those found in classrooms, motels, assembly areas, and so on.
Large: Heavy accumulations, such as those found in foundries, spillage from conveyor belts, waste from processing
machines, and so on.
Fine: 100 mesh to 8 in. (3.2 mm).
Very fine: Less than 100 mesh.
Granular: 8 to ½ in. (3.2 to 12.7 mm).
Lumpy: Lumps ½ in. (12.7 mm) and over.
Irregular: Fibrous, stringy, and so on.
3. Abbreviations: Cent. = centrifugal; TB = tubular bag.
ties of all material. Wet and centrifugal-separa- is recommended that either cast-iron drainage
tor sizing is proprietary to each manufacturer fittings or schedule 40 steel pipe fittings using
and is dependent on the quantity and type of sanitary pattern sweeps and tees be substituted
material expected to be removed. for normally used tubing materials.
Some automatic-separator cleaning systems It is good practice to provide a safety factor of
use compressed air to aid in the dislodging of extra cfm (L/s) to ensure that additional capac-
dust. The air pressure recommended is gener- ity is available from the exhauster without
ally in the range of 100 to 125 psig (689 to 1034 affecting the available vacuum. This should not
kPa). exceed 5% of the total cfm (L/s) and is used only
when selecting the exhauster, not for sizing the
General design considerations “Abrasion” is piping system. The exhauster size should be se-
the wearing away of the interior of the pipe wall lected and then the safety factor added. The unit
by large, hard particles at the point where these selected should have that extra flow available.
particles strike the pipe. The effects are greatest
The piping shall be pitched toward the sepa-
at changes of direction of the pipe, such as at
rator. Plugged cleanouts should be installed at
elbows and tees and under the bag plates of sepa-
the base of all risers and at 90° changes in di-
rators. When abrasive particles are expected, it
rection to allow any blockages to be easily cleared.
Figure 10-7 Schematic of a Typical Wet-Vacuum Cleaning Pump Assembly

Piping geometry in the design of wet-system

piping could become critical. Every effort shall
be made to keep the piping below the inlet valves
to prevent any liquid from running out of the
inlet after completion of the cleaning routines
and to ease the flow of the liquid into the pipe.
The wet-system pipe should pitch back to the
separator at about 8 in./ft (1 cm/m). All drops
should be no larger than 2 in. (50 mm) in size
and only 1 inlet shall be placed on a single drop.
Each drop should terminate in a plugged tee fac-
ing down. This will allow any liquid still clinging
to the sides of the pipe to collect at the bottom of
the riser and be carried away the next time the
system is used. A typical wet vacuum-cleaning
system is shown in Figure 10-7.
In facilities using controlled substances, there
is always a possibility that a spill will occur. For
cleaning this type of spill, a portable vacuum-
cleaning unit should be selected so that the filter
can easily be weighed both before and after
cleanup to account for the controlled substances
picked up in the cleaning unit.
REFERENCES
1. Albern, W. F. 1972. Vacuum piping systems.
Building Systems Design.
2. Frankel, M. 1996. Facility piping systems hand-
book. New York: McGraw-Hill.
3. Harris, Nigel S. 1990. Modern vacuum practice.
New York: McGraw-Hill.
4. Hesser, Henry H. 1993. Vacuum sources. Pumps
and Systems Magazine August.
5. Hoffman Industries. Design of Hoffman industrial
vacuum cleaning systems.
6. McSweeney, D.P., and R. Glidden. 1993. Vacuum
cleaning systems. Manuscript.
7. Moffat, R. 1987. Putting industrial vacuum to
work. Hydraulics and Pneumatics Magazine.
8. The Spencer Turbine Co. How to design Spencer
central vacuum systems.
Chapter 11 — Water Treatment, Conditioning, and Purification 279
11
Water
Treatment,
Conditioning,
and Purification
INTRODUCTION definitions given are simplified but suffice for

the purposes of this chapter.
This chapter describes the logic behind the se-
lection of various water-treatment methods to
partially remove and replace various chemical CODES AND STANDARDS
and suspended agents from a feed-water stream.
It also discusses water-conditioning chemicals Many codes and standards apply to various sys-
used to control the impact of ionic compounds, tems; among them are the following:
adjust pH, and inhibit corrosion; and pure-wa- 1. Potable water treatment shall comply with
ter systems that remove impurities from the feed the 1986 Safe Drinking Water Act and
water to a level at or below the limits desired by amendments.
the end user.
2. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Information on basic water chemistry, impu- has identified treatment technologies with
rities found in water, water analysis, and impurity given contaminant removal efficiencies for
measurement is presented. General selection cri- potable water.
teria for the removal or reduction of specific
impurities from water are also discussed. Sepa- 3. Pure-water treatment shall comply with one
rate subsections discuss water-conditioning or more of the following, depending on the
systems for boiler feed water, water-conditioning purity of the water desired.
systems for cooling water, and the generation of A. College of American Pathologists (CAP)
purified water. and American Society for Testing and
For the purposes of discussion in this chap- Materials (ASTM) reagent grade water.
ter, the term “water treatment” is intended to B. US Pharmacopeia (USP) standards for
mean the chemical or mechanical removal and/ water purity.
or replacement of ionic or non-ionic substances C. Association for the Advancement of Medi-
in feed water to produce water for a predefined cal Instrumentation (AAMI) standards.
use. “Water conditioning” is intended to mean
the addition of chemicals to water for the pur- D. National Committee for Clinical Labora-
poses of inhibiting corrosion, chelating tory Standards, Inc. (NCCLS) standards.
hardness, chelating trace metals, suspending E. Semiconductor Equipment and Materi-
colloids, and adjusting pH. “Pure-water systems” als International (SEMI) and ASTM
are intended to mean systems designed to electronics grade water.
produce water pure enough for use in pharma- 4. Water treatment for boiler feed water, cool-
ceutical plants, laboratories, high-density ing water and process water.
semiconductor manufacturing, and very high-
pressure boilers. The explanations and 5. Food and Drug Administration (FDA).
BASIC WATER CHEMISTRY a unit, it is convenient to view the acid radicals

as an integral anion unit. When a metal radical
Water to be treated is known variously as “raw and acid radical combine, they form a class of
water,” “feed water,” or “source water.” Water that chemicals called “salts.” If a metal cation and a
has been treated is known as “treated water,” hydroxide anion combine, a “base” results.
“product water,” and “solute.” Chemicals or
An “acid” is any compound capable of giving
substances that dissolve in water can be “elec-
up a hydrogen ion (H+) or proton. The acid’s con-
trolytes” or “non-electrolytes.” “Electrolytes” are
jugate base, or anion, is the compound remaining
chemicals that dissolve in water to form ions, after the loss of the H+:
for example:
HCl → conjugate base = Cl–
Sodium chloride → Na+Cl–
A “base” is any compound capable of ac-
Magnesium sulfate → Mg2+SO42–
cepting a hydrogen ion or giving up a hydroxide
“Non-electrolytes” are chemicals that dissolve in (OH–) ion:
water but do not break down, for example, etha-
NaOH → conjugate acid = Na+
nol (C2H5OH), sugars, and many organics. The
positively charged atoms are called “cations” be- The “valence” of any element is a measure of
cause they migrate to the cathode electrode and its chemical combining power compared to that
the negatively charged atoms are called “anions” of a hydrogen atom, which has the assigned value
because they migrate to the anode electrode. The of 1. The valence is the number of electrons in
ions in solution act almost independently. For an atom that are free to share, give, or take from
example, magnesium sulfate dissociates to form other atoms. An element with a value of +2 can
positive magnesium ions and negative sulfate replace two hydrogen atoms in a compound, or
ions. Ions are often generally referred to as “salts” an element with a valence of –2 can react with
in reference to reverse osmosis water production. two hydrogen atoms. When atoms combine to
form compounds, a cation atom must combine
When an electrolyte compound dissolves in
with an anion atom and, in addition, the valence
water, the molecules of the compound separate,
of the two basic elements must equal one an-
disperse among the molecules of water, and are
other in order to form the compound.
held in suspension. “Suspension” usually refers
to colloids, particles, etc. that are suspended in Most of the basic chemical reactions in wa-
solution and do not settle under the influence of ter treatment consist of rearranging cation and
just gravity. When the limit of solubility is anion atoms using their valence. As can be seen
reached, those same compounds become sus- in Table 11-1, hydrogen has a valence of 1, and
pended solids. There is no chemical reaction. sulfate has a valence of 2. When combined to
Dissolved materials cannot be removed by filtra- form sulfuric acid, two hydrogen atoms are re-
tion, except by reverse osmosis. quired to form the combination, resulting in the
formula H2SO4. The chief exception is the case
Some types of liquid cannot be dissolved. where carbonates and bicarbonates are destroyed
They break down into extremely small-sized par-
by heating or aeration, giving off carbon dioxide.
ticles and then disperse into the water, even
though they are not soluble. These liquids are The term “equivalent weight” is the weight,
called “immiscible liquids.” The resulting small- in grams (g), of any element that could combine
sized particles are known as “colloids.” Colloidal with or displace 1.008 g of hydrogen or 8 g of
material is at the upper end of the size range for oxygen. Since the valence of an element is pro-
ions and molecules, in the general range of 0.001 portional to its combining power, the equivalent
to 1.0 micron (µ). In most cases, other liquids, weight is based on its valence. This is illustrated
such as oil and grease, cannot separate into in Table 11-1.
smaller-sized particles and become dispersed but
simply remain in suspension. If they are lighter Water Impurities
than water, they float on top. If heavier, they
sink below the surface. Natural, or source, water is never chemically pure
H2O. Water dissolves ionic compounds as it
All acid compounds referred to in water chem-
comes in contact with the ground surface or
istry consist of hydrogen combined with an acid
mineral formations when percolated through the
radical. Since the acid radical moves around as
Table 11-1 Important Elements, Acid Radicals, and Acids in Water Chemistry
Element Symbol Atomic Weight Valence Equivalent Weight
Aluminum Al 27.0 3 9.0

Barium Ba 137.4 2 68.70
Calcium Ca 40.1 2 20.05
Carbon C 12.0 Variable —
Chlorine Cl 35.46 Variable 35.46
Fluorine F 19.0 1 19.0
Iron (ferrous) Fe2+ 55.8 2 27.9
Iron (ferric) Fe3+ 55.8 3 18.6
Hydrogen H 1.0 1 1.0
Magnesium Mg 24.3 2 12.15
Nitrogen N 14.0 Variable —
Potassium K 39.1 1 39.1
Oxygen O 16.0 2 8.00
Phosphorus P 31.02 Variable —
Sodium Na 23.0 1 23.0
Sulfur S 32.0 Variable —
Silicon Si 28.06 4 7.01
Acid Radicals Formula Molecular Weight Valence Equivalent Weight
Bicarbonate HCO3 61.0 1 61.0

Carbonate CO3 60.0 2 30.0
Chloride Cl 35.46 1 35.46
Nitrate NO3 62.0 1 62.0
Hydroxide OH 17.0 1 17.0
Phosphate PO4 95.0 3 31.66
Sulfite SO3 80.0 2 40.0
Sulfate SO4 96.06 2 48.03
Acid Formula Molecular Weight Equivalent Weight
Carbonic acid H2CO3 62.0 31.0

Hydrochloric acid HCI 36.46 36.46
Phosphoric acid H3PO4 98.0 32.67
Sulfuric acid H2SO4 98.1 49.05
Sulfurous acid H2SO3 82.1 41.05
Miscellaneous Compounds Formula Molecular Weight Equivalent Weight
Aluminum hydroxide Al(OH)3 78.0 26.0

Calcium bicarbonate Ca(HCo3)2 162 81.0
Calcium carbonate CaCO3 100 50.0
Calcium sulfate CaSO4 136 68.0
Carbon dioxide CO2 44.0 22.0
Ferric hydroxide Fe(OH)3 107 35.6
Magnesium carbonate MgCO3 84.3 42.1
Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2 58.3 29.1
Magnesium sulfate MgSO4 120 60.1
Sodium sulfate Na2SO4 142 71.0
earth. It also contains dissolved gases and dust Several methods of measurement are used,
picked up when falling through the air as rain, including viable-count essays, direct-count
snow, or hail or when surface water is in contact epifluorescent microscopy, scanning electron
with the air above the water level. Water is clas- microscopy, and biochemical techniques. The
sified as “surface water” when obtained from most common means of measuring bacterial con-
sources such as lakes and rivers and “ground tamination is the viable-count method. This is
water” when obtained from streams, wells, or done by passing the water being measured
other aquifers originating underground. through a sterile nutrient medium, and count-
ing the number of colonies appearing on the
Suspended matter (particulates), turbidity medium after a period of time is allowed for
“Turbidity,” also called “suspended solids,” is a growth. These are called “colony forming units,”
general term used to describe any form of in- or cfus. Endotoxins are measured in endotoxin
soluble matter suspended in water. Color is units per milliliter (eu/mL). An often-used form
another chemical phenomenon often associated of measurement for endotoxins is the limulus
with turbidity. Color may be an indication of amoebocyte lysate (LAL) test, wherein a blood
water containing decaying vegetation. However, extract of the horseshoe crab becomes turbid in
the term “turbidity” is most often used when re- the presence of bacterial endotoxins. This detec-
ferring to mineral particulates such as silt tion technique uses optical density (turbidity
because they are usually the most plentiful. level) measured over a period of time.
Other commonly occurring impurities are liquids,
such as oil, and the residue caused by decaying Other organisms This term for biological life
vegetation. Coarse particles that settle rapidly is applied to larger living things, such as clams,
when water is standing are referred to as “sedi- mussels, their larvae, and other forms of life.
ment,” and fine particles that mostly remain in They tend to clog water inlets from bodies of salt
suspension are called “silt.” and fresh water and also may find their way into
the piping system of a facility.
Microorganisms “Microorganisms” are bacte-
ria and viruses. They are living forms of Dissolved minerals and organics Dissolved or-
particulate matter. Their unusual physiology al- ganic substances typically found in water include
lows them to grow and multiply in water both man-made and natural substances. Man-
containing only trace levels of nutrients. The made chemical compounds, some of which are
presence of these nutrients in untreated water harmful to the environment, include herbicides,
is an indicator of the presence of microorgan- pesticides, trihalomethanes, surfactants, and
isms, if the temperature is favorable for their detergents. Naturally occurring chemical com-
growth. Although microorganisms are a sus- pounds, which are typically not harmful in trace
pended solid, the treatment required for their amounts, include lignins, tannins, humic and
removal or neutralization puts them in a sepa- fulvic acid, and other bio-decomposition products.
rate category.
Alkalinity “Alkalinity” is a measurement of the
“Pyrogens” cause fever, and “pathogenic” or- quantity of dissolved earth minerals in water and
ganisms (such as Legionella) cause diseases of the water’s ability to neutralize acids. All natu-
all kinds. “Endotoxins,” which are fragments ral water contains some measure of alkalinity. It
derived from the cell walls of gram-negative bac- is mainly the sum of carbonate, bicarbonate, and
teria, are considered the most important and hydroxide ions in water, with borate, phosphate,
widely occurring group of pyrogens. Other or- and silicate ions partially contributing to the to-
ganic growths include “algae” (a primitive form tal. It is reported as parts per million (ppm)
of plant life), “fungi” (plants that lack the chloro- equivalent of calcium carbonate. Alkalinity is
phyll required for photosynthesis) and bacteria regarded as an important characteristic of wa-
that exhibit both plant and animal characteris- ter in determining its scale-forming tendency.
tics. Bacteria are further subdivided into “slime
bacteria,” which secrete slime; “iron bacteria,” Alkalinity is measured using two end-point
which thrive on iron; “sulfate-reducing bacteria,” pH indicators in a titration with acid. The phe-
which live by consuming sulfate and converting nolphthalein alkalinity, or P alkalinity, measures
it to hydrogen sulfide gas; and “nitrifying bacte- the strong alkali in the solution. The methyl or-
ria,” which use ammonia and whose byproduct ange alkalinity, or M alkalinity, measures all of
results in the formation of nitric acid. the alkalinity present in the solution. The M al-
kalinity is often called the “total alkalinity” be- Calcium Calcium is a silver-white, bivalent,
cause it also includes the P alkalinity. Alkalinity metallic element of the alkaline-earth group
is not a measure of pH but is a contributor to occurring only in combination. Common combi-
the pH of the solution. nations are calcium carbonate, calcium chloride,
calcium hydroxide, calcium phosphate, and cal-
Hardness “Hardness” is a measure of the total cium silicates.
calcium, magnesium, iron, and other metallic
elements that contribute to the “hard” feel of Magnesium The most common forms of mag-
water. Carbonate, sulfate, and chloride salts of nesium are magnesium carbonate, magnesium
these elements are responsible for most of the bicarbonate, and magnesium chloride. These
scaling deposited on pipe and boiler walls. impurities tend to deposit scale on surfaces they
Generally accepted practice limits the term “hard- come in contact with.
ness” to include only calcium and magnesium.
Hardness is usually expressed in terms of mg/L Silica The three common kinds of silica are
as CaCO3. soluble, colloidal, and particulate. Soluble silica
is often referred to as “reactive silica,” and col-
Often, water is characterized in general terms loidal silica is sometimes called “non-reactive”
by the amount of hardness, as follows: or “polymeric.” The most common form in solu-
Soft 0–75 mg/L as CaCO3 tion is silicon oxide, and in suspension it is found
Moderate 76–150 mg/L as CaCO3 as a fine colloid. These impurities tend to de-
posit a scale on surfaces they come in contact
Hard 151–300 mg/L as CaCO3
with and form a gelatinous mass on reverse-os-
Very hard Over 300 mg/L as CaCO3 mosis (RO) membranes.
Iron The most common form of iron is ferrous
Sodium and potassium Sodium and potas-
bicarbonate. Because this form of iron is soluble
sium form similar salts, with the most common
it may be treated the way one treats for hardness.
being sodium or potassium chloride, sodium or
Iron creates problems in ion-exchange pro- potassium carbonate, and sodium or potassium
cesses where polymeric resins are predominant. bicarbonate.
Iron also creates problems on the surface of sepa-
ration membranes. Soluble iron is called “ferrous” Chlorides and sulfates The most common
(Fe2+), while insoluble iron is called “ferric” (Fe3+). forms of chlorides and sulfates are dissolved salts
Iron in the ferrous form is subject to receiving of sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium.
an electron; it is said to be subject to oxidation. These impurities tend to deposit a scale on sur-
The presence of oxidation agents in water with faces they come in contact with.
ferrous iron is the root of the trouble. Common
oxidants are oxygen O2 and Chlorine Cl2. Nitrates The federal EPA has set drinking-wa-
ter limits for nitrates at 10 mg/L. Though water
If it were possible to maintain the iron as with high nitrate levels are treatable, the sys-
ferrous throughout the process, including regen- tems designer must be aware of the supply water
eration of softening resin and the shutdown of concentration. If neutralized ion-exchange re-
membrane systems, the (Fe2+) would not present generation waste or membrane-separation
a problem. However, for all practical purposes, concentrate is discharged directly into the envi-
it is impossible to prevent some of the ferrous ronment or into a municipal treatment system,
substance from oxidizing to the ferric substance. limits are placed on the discharge nitrate con-
During the oxidation process, other ionic sub- centration. Knowing the concentration of the
stances are involved. Typically there is a long supply and the local discharge limits is critical
hydrocarbon chain when resin or separation to the selection of equipment and system design.
membranes are made. In these long chains there
are sites where the ferric iron connects to the Trace elements Trace elements are present in
polymer. The ferric connection point acts as a very small quantities and are only considered
catalyst for further crystallization or chemical problems if the amount is above an accepted level
reactions with the iron or related substances, for the intended use of the water. Examples are
thereby creating a snowball effect for further lead, cadmium, copper, barium, silver, lithium,
chemical reactions. zinc, chromium, mercury, arsenic, and selenium.
When a supply-water treatment system is se-
lected, the waste products must be considered. 4. Anion ion-exchange resin, the solvent and
Many municipalities sell the sludge created by the organic amines (NH3 – NH4+)
their process to local farms as fertilizer or cattle
5. Reverse osmosis membrane, the solvent used
feed. Therefore, they place considerable restric-
to create the barrier polymer.
tions on treatment discharges. The systems
designer/specifier needs to be aware of all local 6. UF and nanofilter membranes, the solvent
codes and practices to be effective. Though ele- used to create the polymer.
ments may be identified as trace by analysis of 7. Fiberglass-reinforced plastic (FRP), poly-
the supply water, in the concentrate they may propylene, and polyethylene-treated
exceed local, state, and federal discharge limits. water-storage tanks.
Dissolved gases The most common dissolved 8. Filter and ion-exchange vessel linings.
gases in natural raw water are oxygen, carbon 9. Pipe solvent, glue, and “dope.”
dioxide, nitrogen, and hydrogen sulfide. Water
obtained from a potable water supply usually also 10. Cross-flow filter media.
has chlorine and fluorides present, added for 11. Other “plastic” wetted materials used in the
public-health purposes. Of increasing concern construction of the system.
is the presence of radon gas in many water sup-
plies obtained from wells. Many of the items listed above have substi-
tute materials or can be treated to remove the
Oxygen is the basic factor in the corrosion serious VOCs. To determine the best approach
process; it must be present for the corrosion of for avoiding serious contamination, contact the
metals. Its removal or reduction reduces the cor- supplier of the treatment products considered.
rosiveness of the water. Carbon dioxide, nitrogen Remember, however, that these organic com-
oxides, sulfur oxides, and hydrogen sulfide con- pounds are volatile—meaning that, with use, the
tribute to corrosion by making water acidic. VOCs will dissipate dramatically. Also, there are
For chlorine, no pretreatment is usually nec- commercially available flushing solutions that are
essary for a feed water with less than 1 ppm. used to rinse down high-purity installations be-
When more than 1 ppm of chlorine is present, fore they are placed in service. These solutions
an activated carbon filter is recommended. kill bacteria and rinse VOCs without severe dam-
age to the system. To determine the best
Volatile organic compounds (VOC) “Volatile approach for the materials selected for the pro-
organic compounds” are those compounds that cess, always consult with the vendor before
evaporate readily at ambient temperatures and proceeding. Furthermore, consult the user to
pressures. For the most part VOCs are man determine the impact of the VOCs given off by
made. Swamp gas is an example of a naturally the treatment on the process. Consultation can
occurring VOC. However, most of the compounds save considerable effort, time, and money.
that are a concern regarding the production of
chemically pure water are man made. The fed-
eral EPA as well as most state EPAs have lists of WATER ANALYSIS AND IMPURITY
21 VOC compounds that are regulated and 34 MEASUREMENT
more VOC compounds that are unregulated.
The analysis of a water sample is the process of
It may interest the plumbing engineer, how- finding the quantities of various impurities
ever, that most of the VOCs that create concern present. The quantities must be presented in a
for the end user of chemically pure water come logical and understandable manner to allow for
from the process itself. VOCs may come from easy and practical interpretation. It is of utmost
the following typical treatment elements and importance that the initial analysis of incoming
associated transport systems: water be accurate and contain a worst-case sce-
1. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and chlorinated poly- nario and that the desired output quality be
vinyl chloride (CPVC) pipe. established prior to the selection of any treat-
ment system.
2. Polypropylene and polyethylene pipe.
The most accurate analyses of water samples
3. Cation ion-exchange resin, the solvent used
are done by laboratories specializing in this type
to make the polymer.
of work. Sterile containers must be used and
several samples must be taken over a period of pH

time to ensure that peak readings and average
values are obtained. There are also many field “pH” is a measurement of the hydrogen ion con-
tests of water samples, which, while not as ac- centration in water and, therefore, a measure of
curate as laboratory tests, may provide an the water’s acidity. pH is calculated from the
accuracy acceptable to the user. logarithmic reciprocal of the hydrogen ion con-
centration in water. The pH scale ranges from 0
The results of the analysis are expressed in to 14, with values lower than 7 being acid, val-
many ways. A common method used to report ues higher than 7 being alkaline, and 7 being
the concentration of ions in solution is the weight neutral. When an acid is added to water, the
of an element or compound per liter of water, concentration of hydrogen ions increases, result-
expressed as milligrams per liter (mg/L) of wa- ing in a lower pH. When an alkaline is added to
ter. Another method is parts per million (ppm). water, the hydrogen ions decrease, resulting in
PPM can be expressed either by the weight of an a higher pH. The change of a pH unit represents
impurity compared to the weight of water (ab- a tenfold increase (or decrease) in strength. The
breviated “w/w,” weight to weight) or by the pH is not a measure of alkalinity.
volume of the impurity to the volume of water
(abbreviated “v/v”). Other units are also used,
such as grains per gallon (gpg) and equivalents
Specific Resistance
per million (epm). Mg/L differs from ppm in ex- “Specific resistance” (megaohm-cm) is a measure
pressing a proportion in weight per volume. This of the amount of electrolytes in water. It mea-
finds specific use in the analysis of saline wa- sures the ability of 1 cm3 of the sample solution
ters. For common supplies where the specific at a given temperature to resist the flow of an
gravity of the liquid is around 1, mg/L and ppm electrical current. It is based on the activity of
are equal. Grains per gallon (gpg) is a term often the compounds dissolved in water and is the most
used in discussion of ion-exchange equipment practical method of measuring ionic impurities
capabilities, where 1 gpg = 17.1 ppm. from a given sample. Resistance is given in ohms
As previously explained, compounds break (Ω). The resistance is based on the amount of
down into ions when dissolved. Although chem- ionized salts only and varies with the tempera-
ists can measure the amount of each ion present ture of the water.
in a sample, it is not practical to find the total
amount of each compound that actually went
into solution. In practice, the actual method of
analysis measures only ions. Using the ionic
measurement when reporting impurities makes
it easier and more convenient to interpret the Table 11-2 Converting ppm of Impurities to
results. ppm of Calcium Carbonate
To further simplify reporting, it is desirable
Cations Ionic ppm Anions Ionic ppm
to reduce all ions present in solution to a com-
Multiplier Multiplier
mon denominator. The common denominator is
calcium carbonate. This is accomplished by com-
paring the equivalent weight of all ions present Hydrogen 50.00 Hydroxide 2.94
and expressing them as the ppm anion and cat- Ammonium 2.78 Chloride 1.41
ion equivalent of calcium carbonate. The main Sodium 2.18 Bicarbonate 0.82
reason is that the molecular weight of calcium Potassium 1.28 Nitrate 0.81
carbonate is 100 and its equivalent weight is 50. Magnesium 4.10 Bisulfate 0.52
This method of expression is a widely accepted
Calcium 2.50 Carbonate 1.67
standard for reporting a water analysis, but it is
not universal. Table 11-2 presents the conver- Ferrous iron 1.79 Sulfate 1.04
sion factors used for major impurities. Figure Ferric iron 2.69
11-1 illustrates a typical water analysis report Cupric 1.57
indicating impurities in ppm, equivalents useful Zinc 1.53 Other
in calculating reacting chemicals, and a com- Aluminum 5.55 Carbon dioxide 2.27
parison of positive and negative ions.
Chromic 2.89 Silica 1.67
Pure water has an electrical resistance of ap- with warmer temperatures producing higher val-
proximately 18.3 megaohm-cm (MΩ−cm), at 77°F ues. For example, the electrical resistance of
(25°C). This maximum resistance value is based water at 50°F (10°C) is 8.8 MΩ-cm, and at 104°F
on calculation of the electrical resistance from (40°C), 43.3 MΩ-cm.
the very small concentrations of hydrogen and
Instruments, referred to as “water resistivity
hydroxide ions from the slight dissociation of
meters,” are now available to accurately mea-
water. This dissociation yields concentrations of
sure the electrical resistance of water. Because
1 x 10–7 moles/L for each hydrogen and hydrox-
of the large impact of temperature, these meters
ide. Temperature is a significant factor in the
typically report electrical resistance normalized
measurement of the electrical resistance of water,
Figure 11-1 Typical Water Analysis Report

to 77°F (25°C). Resistivity meters are typically given the name “mho,” which is “ohm” spelled
used as a measure of the total amount of backwards. The actual conductance is so small
electrolytes in purified water when the concen- it is measured in micromhos (µmho), which is
trations are very low. Resistivity conversions are one millionth of a mho. As an example, at 70°F
given in Table 11-3. (19°C) demineralized water with ½ ppm dissolved
salt has a conductance of 1 µmho. Pure water
Specific Conductance has a specific conductance of 0.055 µmho/cm
at 77°F (25°C). Conductivity conversions are
“Specific conductance” (micromho/cm) measures given in Table 11-3. Specific conductance in ac-
the ability of 1 cm3 of the sample solution at a tual practice is normally measured by probes
given temperature to conduct an electrical cur- suspended in the stream of water.
rent. It is the reciprocal of the resistance, in
ohms. Since it is the opposite of resistance, it is Total Suspended Solids
“Total suspended solids” is the sum of all the
suspended material found in the water sample
and is commonly measured in either parts per
Table 11-3
million (ppm, w/w) or milligrams per liter (mg/
Resistivity and Conductivity Conversion L), which measures the weight of the material
per volume of the sample. For all practical pur-
Grains/gala ppm ppm Conductivity, Resistivity,
as CaCO3 as CaCO3 NaCI µ mho/cm MΩΩ/cm
poses, these two forms of measurement are equal
to each other (1 ppm = 1 mg/L).
99.3 1700 2000 3860 0.00026 Turbidity in water is classified by the size of
74.5 1275 1500 2930 0.00034 the particulates in microns (µ) (1/1000 in. [0.03
49.6 850 1000 1990 0.00050 mm] diameter) and tested by a light interference
24.8 425 500 1020 0.00099 method known as a nephelometric. This test com-
pares the water sample by color to a standard
9.93 170 200 415 0.0024
color scale. This measurement is obtained by
7.45 127.5 150 315 0.0032
comparing the sample being tested with a known
4.96 85.0 100 210 0.0048 color reference; the total suspended solids are
2.48 42.5 50 105 0.0095 indicated based on this comparison. The most
0.992 17.0 20 42.7 0.023 common reporting method is the nephelometric
0.742 12.7 15 32.1 0.031 turbidity unit (ntu)—the higher the number, the
0.496 8.5 10 21.4 0.047 more turbid the water.
0.248 4.25 5.0 10.8 0.093 The nephelometric turbidity unit measures
0.099 1.70 2.0 4.35 0.23 the color of a beam of light passed through the
0.074 1.27 1.5 3.28 0.30 water sample being tested. An often-used stan-
0.048 0.85 1.00 2.21 0.45 dard for potable water is the standard method
0.025 0.42 0.50 1.13 0.88 for the examination of water and waste water
developed by the American Public Health Ser-
0.0099 0.17 0.20 0.49 2.05
vice, which uses formazin as the standard for
0.0076 0.13 0.15 0.38 2.65 producing a known volume of turbidity. The stan-
0.0050 0.085 0.10 0.27 3.70 dard color scale to which it is compared is derived
0.0025 0.042 0.05 0.16 6.15 from the platinum cobalt unit (PCU). Other meth-
0.00099 0.017 0.02 0.098 10.2 ods less frequently used are the comparator tube
0.00070 0.012 0.015 0.087 11.5 determination using formazin, called the
0.00047 0.008 0.010 0.076 13.1 formazin turbidity unit (FTU); and the original
0.00023 0.004 0.005 0.066 15.2
test, the Jackson turbidity unit (JTU), named
for the man who developed a standard candle
0.00012 0.002 0.002 0.059 16.9
used to compare the color of candle light through
0.00006 0.001 0.001 0.057 17.6 a sample to a color standard. The most accurate
none none none 0.055 18.3b method of measuring solids is gravimeterically,
a Grains per gal = 17.1 ppm (CaCO ). wherein a known quantity of water is evaporated
3
b Theoretical maximum. and the resulting solids weighed.
The most effective method of removing tur- equivalent by itself, then multiplying the prod-
bidity is by the use of filters and strainers. The uct by the equivalent weight of CaCO3 or 50.
equipment chosen to accomplish this task de-
pends for the most part on the sizes and types of Total Organic Carbon (TOC)
the solids to be retained. Other factors include
the materials of construction of the device, the “Total organic carbon” (TOC) is a measurement
nature of the raw water, flow-rate requirements, of the organic carbon compounds found dissolved
the particle removal target, initial and operating in water. These compounds contribute to corro-
costs, and maintenance requirements. sion, cause problems in manufacturing, and
usually indicate the presence of endotoxins in
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) water for pharmaceutical use. The test is widely
requested to determine the contamination of
Often referred to as “dissolved inorganics” and water by trace organic compounds that could
“mineral salts,” the “total dissolved solids” (TDS) produce a residue or interfere in further lab-
is generally the sum of all the dissolved minerals, oratory apparatus tests or provide trace
including chlorides, sulfates, and carbonates. contamination in a pharmaceutical product.
Dissolved solids contribute to scale deposit and
The measurement is generally complicated
corrosion of piping and equipment. When dis-
and dependent on the expected level. For higher
solved in water, mineral salts form positively
levels, the organic compound is first converted
charged ions, mostly sodium and calcium, and
to carbon dioxide, which is measured by infra-
negatively charged ions, mostly chlorides and
red absorption. Gas stripping is required to
sulfates.
remove other forms of carbon ions from dissolved
TDS is considered two diverse ways in the mineral compounds. For parts per billion (ppb)
field of water treatment. Engineers designing ion- levels, photolytic oxidation is used and the re-
exchange systems consider TDS differently than sulting carbon dioxide is then measured.
those designing membrane-separation systems.
Neither approach is incorrect, but if the approach Silt Density Index (SDI)
is not defined it can cause design errors in the
final process. Quantitatively, TDS is the differ- The “silt density index” (SDI) is a measure of the
ence in the weight between the tare weight of a fouling potential of a feed-water source. Since
crucible and the residue remaining after filtered colloids and other solids can be any size in the
water is evaporated. The quantitative chemical submicron range, there is no direct method to
definition is that used by membrane-separation measure their concentration in feed water. The
systems designers. The analytic, ionic, definition SDI is found by passing the feed water through
is used by ion-exchange systems designers. Since a 0.45-µm rated Millipore filter at 30 psi (207
ion-exchange by definition is an ionic chemical kPa). The SDI is found from the following formula:
process, the systems designer must consider a
balanced ionic solution when figuring capacity Equation 11-1
and equipment size. When designing a treatment
t1
system consisting of both membrane separation 1 – × 100
and ion exchange, care must be taken when t2
SDI =
moving from the separation unit’s product wa- T
ter analysis to that of the ion-exchange system.
where
Separation systems analysis reports, as well
as most laboratory water analysis reports, are t1 = Initial time needed to collect a 500-mL
shown as ppm as CaCO3. For example, sodium sample of water through a fresh 0.45-
would be reported as Na+, as would calcium be µm filter, 47 mm in diameter (s)
reported as Ca2+. However, to simplify the task, t2 = Time to filter and collect a second
when designing an ion-exchange system the “as 500-mL sample after exposing the
ion” is converted to CaCO3. The conversion is same filter as above for 15 min to the
done by considering the equivalent weight of the flow of feed water (s)
ion, the atomic weight divided by the ion’s exist-
T = Total test time (min) (Typically 15 min.
ing exchange valance. The equivalent weight is
For high SDI, T may be less.)
then converted to CaCO3 by dividing the ion’s
To obtain an accurate test, at the end of the is an excess of iron in the liquid, generally iron
elapsed time the filter should not become more oxide (rust) and iron carbonate (a corrosion prod-
than approximately 74% plugged. If this figure uct). Another is mud, dirt, and clay that tend to
is exceeded, the test should be repeated using a collect and adhere in areas of low circulation.
shorter overall elapsed time. A Millipore filter Sludge is prevented by filtering the incoming feed
is the only membrane currently approved by the water and adding chemical dispersants to keep
American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM) for the solids in suspension. They are removed by
determining the SDI. The higher the number is, blowdown. Mud, dirt, and clay are rarely encoun-
the greater the potential for fouling. tered except when the feed water is from surface
sources.
Many manufacturers of reverse osmosis (RO)
cartridges recommend allowable SDI figures for Condenser scale deposits consist of calcium
feed water. Typically, for hollow-fiber modules carbonate, calcium sulfate, or silica minerals.
there is a maximum SDI of 3 and for spiral wound They form when the minerals’ concentration in
modules the allowable SDI figure is 4. For con- water reaches a level where their solubility or
tinuous deionization, an SDI of 4 or less is the pH of saturation is exceeded and the miner-
recommended. In practice, when water has an als come out of solution. This can be prevented
SDI greater than 4, a pre-filter with a 4-µm depth by controlling the pH, diluting the circulating
is recommended. In addition to the 4-µm filter, water to prevent concentration, and adding
an additional 1-µm filter is recommended down- chemicals to inhibit and prevent scale formation.
stream. The use of a 4-µm filter on the feed-water
stream is always recommended as a precaution Biological fouling Microbiological fouling is
against fouling regardless of the potential SDI. caused by the growth of bacteria, algae, fungi,
and other organisms. Their growth is aided by a
favorable water temperature, favorable pH, the
DEPOSITS AND CORROSION presence of oxygen, and food. “Slime” is the
buildup of microbes and their waste products,
The contaminants previously discussed will which also include dust and other suspended
cause piping system fouling by depositing mate- matter.
rial on the walls of the pipe, thereby reducing Microbial control is achieved by sterilization,
the efficiency of the system; and reduce the thick- disinfection, and sanitation. “Sterilization” is de-
ness of the pipe wall by corrosion, which will fined as the lethal disruption of all bacteria, mold
cause failure of the piping system. Following is a and yeast, and eliminates biofilm and spores.
brief discussion of these categories of problems Numerically, it is a 12 log reduction in bacteria.
and treatment methods as they generally apply Disinfection is a 6 log reduction of microbials.
to most systems. “Sanitation” is generally considered as a killing
of the vegetative organisms and minimizes the
Deposits presence of bacteria and endotoxins. Numeri-
cally, it is a 3 log reduction in bacteria.
Scale and sludge “Scale” is a solid deposit on
the walls of a pipe resulting from the precipita- There are different methods of controlling
biofouling. Chemicals, ultraviolet radiation, heat,
tion of dissolved mineral solids in the fluid
filtering, and ozone are the ones most commonly
stream. This scale reduces heat transfer and in-
used. The method selected depends on the in-
terferes with the flow of water by increasing the
tended use of the treated water and the proposed
friction of the fluid with the walls of the pipe.
Boiler scale consists of calcium, magnesium, materials of the system components.
iron, and silica minerals. It is prevented by pre-
treating water prior to its entering the boiler to Corrosion
remove much of the scale-forming ingredients
and adding effective chemicals to the feed water “Corrosion” is the loss and eventual failure of
to adjust pH, prevent corrosion, and prevent metals and alloys from the electrochemical re-
deposits from occurring. action between water and the pipe material. It is
separated into two basic types: general and lo-
“Sludge” is a sticky, adherent deposit in the calized. General corrosion describes the potential
feed water resulting from the settling out of sus- dissolution of pipe over its entire exposed sur-
pended matter from several sources. One source
face. Localized corrosion affects only a small area corrosion inhibitors. Dissolved gases are removed
of the pipe surface. by deaeration.
• General corrosion. This is a breakdown of the
pipe material at a uniform rate over its entire PREDICTING SCALE FORMATION
surface by direct chemical attack. It is caused AND CORROSION TENDENCIES
by the loss of the protective passive film that
forms on the surface of the pipe coupled with A common and costly water-caused problem is
a chemical reaction occurring between the the formation and deposit of mineral scale. Al-
pipe material and the chemicals in the fluid.
though scale deposits may contain a complex
Particular types of corrosion include the fol-
mixture of mineral salts, the primary constitu-
lowing:
ent is calcium carbonate.
1. “Galvanic corrosion” is a type of corro-
sion that occurs in a liquid medium Most salts are more soluble in hot water than
(called an electrolyte) when a more ac- in cold water. Calcium and magnesium salts, on
tive metal (anode) and a less active metal the other hand, will dissolve more readily in cold
(cathode) come in contact with one an- water than in hot. As a result, they will tend to
other and form an electrode potential. deposit on surfaces when there is a rise in tem-
When this occurs, the more active (noble) perature. The following are the primary factors
metal will tend to dissolve in the electro- that affect this tendency:
lyte and go into solution. 1. Alkalinity.
2. “Intergranular corrosion” is a type of cor- 2. Hardness (calcium).
rosion that occurs in the pipe wall when
material in the grain boundary of some 3. pH.
alloys is less resistant to the corroding 4. Total dissolved solids.
agent than the grains themselves, and
5. Temperature.
the bonds between the grains are de-
stroyed.
pH
3. “Erosion corrosion” is caused by a wear-
ing away of the pipe wall, usually as a The pH value reflects the concentration of hy-
result of excessive fluid velocity or con- drogen protons (H+) or hydroxyl ions (OH–) in
stant wearing away by solids in the water aqueous solutions. The level of this concentra-
striking the walls of the pipe. tion, as indicated by pH, defines the ratio of
• Localized corrosion. This takes place on small bicarbonate to carbonate alkalinity. The measure
areas of the surface, usually at high rates, of pH is made on a logarithmic scale. One end of
and takes various forms: the scale is the hydrogen proton, the other end
is the hydroxyl ion. When the pH is 7, it is an
1. “Stress-corrosion cracking” is a physical
indication that there is an exact balance of hy-
deterioration and cracking of the pipe wall
drogen protons to hydroxyl ions in water. A pH
caused by a combination of high operat-
below 7 indicates an acid or a predominance of
ing temperature, tensile stress on the
hydrogen protons. A pH above 7 indicates a ba-
pipe, and chemicals in the fluid stream.
sic solution or a predominance of hydroxyl ions.
2. “Pitting” is characterized by deep penetra- In either direction the molar concentration of
tion of the metal at small areas of the either is increasing by a factor of ten. A pH be-
surface, concentrating in small cells with- low 5.0 indicates 100% carbonic and other
out affecting the entire surface. mineral acids. A pH in the range between 5.3
3. “Crevice attack corrosion” occurs at junc- and 8.2 indicates a bicarbonate/carbonate rela-
tions between surfaces (often called crud tionship of the water. A pH above 8.2 indicates
traps) where a crack exists that allows carbonate and hydroxyl alkalinity. As the pH
an accumulation of a corroding agent. proceeds upward from acidic to basic, the in-
crease in carbonates increases the tendency for
Conventional corrosion treatment of feed
calcium and magnesium carbonates to precipi-
water for boilers and cooling water systems con-
tate out of solution.
sists of pH control and the use of chemical
Temperature carbonate and thus be less corrosive. Water with

a non-scaling tendency will tend to dissolve pro-
The higher the temperature, the greater the ten- tective films and thus be more corrosive. The
dency of dissolved solids to precipitate out of interpretation of the LSI is based on the numeri-
solution because of their property of inverse solu- cal values given in Table 11-4.
bility. This is particularly true of calcium
carbonate.
Table 11-4 Prediction of Water Tendencies
by the Langelier Index
Langelier Saturation Index (LSI)
Langelier
In the 1930s, W. F. Langelier studied the pri- Saturation Index Tendency of Water
mary factors that affect the tendency of water to
form deposits of mineral scale on heat transfer
2.0 Scale-forming and for practical
equipment. As a result of this work, the Langelier
purposes noncorrosive.
index, best known as the Langelier Saturation
Index (LSI), was created. This index is based on 0.5 Slightly corrosive and scale-
forming.
numerical values given to the factors that affect
deposits. 0.0 Balanced, but pitting corrosion
possible.
The index is actually a calcium carbonate –0.5 Slightly corrosive and nonscale-
saturation index. It is based on the assumption forming.
that water with a scaling tendency will tend to –2.0 Serious corrosion.
deposit a corrosion-inhibiting film of calcium
Table 11-5 Numerical Values for Substitution in Equation 11-3 to Find

the pHs of Saturation for Water
Total Solids (ppm) A Ca as CaCO3 (ppm) C M. Alkalinity (ppm) D
50–330 0.1 10–11 0.6 10–11 1.0

400–1000 0.2 12–13 0.7 12–13 1.1
14–17 0.8 14–17 1.2
Temp., °F (°C) B 18–22 0.9 18–22 1.3
32–34 (0–1.1) 2.6 23–27 1.0 23–27 1.4
36–42 (2.2–5.6) 2.5 28–34 1.1 28–35 1.5
44–48 (6.7–8.9) 2.4 35–43 1.2 36–44 1.6
50–56 (10–13.3) 2.3 44–55 1.3 45–55 1.7
58–62 (14.4–16.7) 2.2 56–69 1.4 56–69 1.8
64–70 (17.8–21.1) 2.1 70–87 1.5 70–88 1.9
72–80 (22.2–26.7) 2.0 88–110 1.6 89–110 2.0
82–88 (27.8–31.1) 1.9 111–138 1.7 111–139 2.1
90–98 (32.2–36.7) 1.8 139–174 1.8 140–176 2.2
100–110 (37.8–43.3) 1.7 175–220 1.9 177–220 2.3
112–122 (44.4–50) 1.6 230–270 2.0 230–270 2.4
124–132 (51.1–55.6) 1.5 280–340 2.1 280–340 2.5
134–146 (56.7–63.3) 1.4 350–430 2.2 350–440 2.6
148–160 (64.4–71.1) 1.3 440–550 2.3 450–550 2.7
162–178 (72.2–81.1) 1.2 560–690 2.4 560–690 2.8
178–194 (81.1–90) 1.1 700–870 2.5 700–880 2.9
194–210 (90–98.9) 1.0 880–1000 2.6 890–1000 3.0
The LSI is calculated as follows: Aggressiveness Index (AI)

Equation 11-2 Developed by the EPA, the aggressiveness index
is used as a guideline parameter to find the cor-
LSI = pH – pHs rosive tendency of potable water. This index is
where calculated as follows:
LSI = Langelier saturation index number. Equation 11-5

pH = pH value obtained from testing the AI = pH + Log 10 (Alkalinity × Hardness)
water in question.
Values lower than 10 indicate an aggressive
pHs = Calculated pH of saturation for the
water, values between 10 and 12 indicate a mod-
calcium carbonate present in the
erately aggressive water, and a value higher than
water in question.
12 indicates a nonaggressive water.
The most accurate method is to use the follow-
ing formula:
TREATMENT METHODOLOGIES
Equation 11-3
Aeration
pHs = (9.3 + A + B) – (C + D)
The numerical values of A, B, C, and D for “Aeration” is a gas-transfer process in which wa-
substitution into Equation 11-3 are found in ter is brought into contact with air for the purpose
Table 11-5. A more empirical method to find pHs of transferring volatile substances to or from the
is to use Figure 11-2. raw water. It is used most often to remove unde-
sirable gases such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen
sulfide, and methane. Aeration, by introducing
Ryzner Stability Index (RI) oxygen, is also used to remove iron and manga-
The Ryzner stability index (RI), often referred to nese and to lower the amount of VOCs in ground
as the “stability index,” is an empirical method water. The following are criteria for its use:
used to predict the scale-forming tendencies of 1. Reduction of carbon dioxide by 90% is ob-
water. The RI is calculated from the following tained by near saturation with oxygen.
formula applying the same definitions used for Carbon dioxide dissolved in ground water will
the LSI: consume lime in the lime-soda softening pro-
cess without any accompanying softening.
Equation 11-4 Generally accepted practice indicates that
RI = 2 pHs – pH aeration is not economical for carbon-diox-
ide concentrations in water of less than 10
The RI is always positive. When it falls below mg/L. The amount of lime saved should be
6.0, scale formation is possible; the lower the compared to the cost of purchasing and op-
number of the index, the more probable scale erating the aerator before deciding on its use.
formation becomes. For an interpretation of the
RI, refer to Table 11-6. 2. Aeration will partially remove VOCs from raw
water by oxidation, making them insoluble.
They are then coagulated and removed from
Table 11-6 Prediction of Water Tendencies the water.
by the Ryzner Index
3. Aeration alone could be used for the removal
Ryzner Index Tendency of Water of hydrogen sulfide in concentrations of 2
mg/L or less. Above this level, it could be
4.0–5.0 Heavy scale
used in conjunction with chlorination, which
oxidizes hydrogen sulfide.
5.0–6.0 Light scale
6.0–7.0 Little scale or corrosion 4. Iron and manganese can be removed by aera-
tion if this will not be done by other methods.
7.0–7.5 Significant corrosion
These metals are oxidized to form insoluble
7.5–9.0 Heavy corrosion hydroxides, which precipitate out at the
9.0 and higher Intolerable corrosion proper pH levels. They can then be removed
Figure 11-2 pH of Saturation for Water
by settlement or filtered out of the water the other, with perforated, slot, or mesh bottoms.
stream. Each ppm of dissolved oxygen will The trays are filled with 2 to 6 in.(40 to 140 mm)
oxidize about 7 ppm of iron or manganese. of a medium, such as coke, stone, or ceramic
balls, to improve water distribution and gas
Several types of aerator are commonly used:
transfer as well as provide catalytic oxidation in
waterfall, diffusion (or bubble), and mechanical.
the medium. The vertical opening between trays
The type of system used most commonly in util-
ity water treatment is the waterfall. ranges between 12 and 30 in. (305 and 762 mm),
depending on the number of trays required.
Waterfall aerators are made in several types: Water loading on the trays is usually in the range
cascade, spray nozzle, and multiple tray. They of 10 to 20 gpm/ft2 (379 to 757 L/m/m2). Effi-
operate by having the raw water enter the unit ciency can be improved by the use of enclosures
from the top and fall by gravity to the bottom, and forced air blowers to provide counter-flow
using various methods to evenly distribute the ventilation.
water and disperse it evenly throughout the unit.
The type of waterfall aerator most commonly used The simplest type of aerator is the diffusion
type, which bubbles compressed air up through
is the naturally ventilated, multiple-tray type.
the water tank. The large volume of air required
This unit consists of a series of trays, one above
limits this to smaller flows of water. Air require-
ments vary from 0.1 to 0.2 standard ft3/min tank and disposed of. Most clarifier designs have
(scfm)/gal (0.003 to 0.006 m3/min/L) of water these processes done in the same operating unit.
aerated. A detention time, which ranges from 10
The most frequently used chemical coagu-
to 30 min, is necessary. Advantages of this type
lant is aluminum sulfate, called “alum” or “filter
of aerator are the freedom from cold-weather
alum.” Other frequently used coagulants are
operating problems, very low head loss, and the
sodium aluminate and potash alum. Iron coagu-
possibility of using this process for chemical
lants include ferric sulfate, ferris sulfate, and
mixing.
ferric chloride. Organic polyelectrolytes, which
Mechanical aerators consist of an open im- are high molecular weight polymers, are also
peller operating on the water surface of a tank. employed in low dosages to increase the effec-
They are not as efficient as either of the two sys- tiveness of treatment.
tems previously described, so longer retention
It is usually a matter of trial and error to
times are necessary.
find the correct amount of alum. This is because
the amount depends on the size and quantity of
Clarification the suspended solids in the raw water, the re-
tention time prior to flocculation, the water
“Clarification” is a process to reduce or remove
temperature, and the amount of mixing. All of
turbidity, silt, and sediment present in the raw-
these conditions change from day to day.
water supply. The water could be treated with
chemicals or filtered, depending on the amount As with almost every process, there is more
of impurities present and the volume of water to than one method for achieving a desired goal
be treated. If treated with chemicals, time is re- where the demand for water is not very large.
quired for the solids to settle out of suspension. One alternative flocculation method is to pro-
The chemical treatment process is usually reduce a finer floc, which can be removed by an
served for large volumes of water. appropriate filter system. By eliminating a large
settling basin, a high-quality water can be pro-
Suspended and colloidal particles are nor-
duced more quickly with smaller equipment.
mally in the range of 0.1 to 10 µ in size. They
stay apart because negatively charged ionized
matter are absorbed on their surfaces and repel Deaeration
each other. A measure of the charge that sur-
Dissolved gases in the water supply, such as
rounds the colloid is known as the “zeta
oxygen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and
potential.” These negative charges are reduced
ammonia, can produce corrosion and pitting.
by the use of positively charged chemicals called
They must be removed prior to using the water
“coagulants.” Coagulants, through a chemical re-
for most purposes.
action, reduce the zeta potential and allow the
colloids to cluster to form a larger, jelly-like mass Although carbon dioxide and hydrogen sul-
called “floc.” In a process called “flocculation,” fide can be removed by aeration, in many cases
colloidal particles, bacteria, and organic matter it is easier and less expensive to remove them by
are mechanically brought together into larger and “deaeration.” This process operates on the prin-
heavier particles. Too heavy to remain sus- ciple of raising the water temperature to the
pended, these particles now settle out of the water saturation point for the existing pressure. There
to the bottom. This process is called “sedimen- are two types of deaerator: steam and vacuum.
tation.” When heated water is needed, such as for boil-
ers, the steam type is preferred. When cold water
Clarification of large volumes of water is done
is required, the vacuum type is used.
in a basin. First, the coagulant(s) must be intro-
duced with a strong action in order to completely Steam deaerators break up water into a spray
disperse and mix the chemicals with the incom- or thin film, then sweep the steam across and
ing water. Often, some of the sludge produced through it to force out the dissolved gases. With
by flocculation is mixed with the coagulant. Af- this method, oxygen can be reduced to near the
ter coagulation is accomplished, the mixture is limit of detection. Design use is spread evenly
then gently mixed to allow the now larger par- among spray, tray, and combination units. Typi-
ticles to settle rapidly to the bottom of the tank. cal deaerators have a heating and deaeration
The particles and chemicals that settle out are section and a storage section for hot, deareated
called “sludge,” which must be removed from the water. Often, a separate tank is provided to hold
an additional 10-min supply of deaerated water. retically required amount. Hydrochloric acid,
The direction of steam may be cross flow, down rather than sulfuric acid, is preferred for regen-
flow, or counter current. The majority of the eration. This process is very sensitive to the flow
steam condenses in the first section of the unit. rate, temperature, and contaminant level of the
The remaining mixture of noncondensable gases feed water. These changing conditions must be
is discharged to atmosphere through a vent considered by the manufacturer in the design of
condenser. the process. The entire regeneration cycle is simi-
lar to that of a cation ion-exchange column.
Vacuum deaerators use a steam jet or me-
chanical vacuum pump to develop the required
vacuum used to draw off the unwanted gases. Decarbonation
The vessel has a packing material inside, and
Decarbonation is rarely used but should be con-
the inlet water is introduced to the top of the
sidered if the bicarbonate level in the feed water
unit and passed down through this packing.
is in the range of 14 to 20 mg/L or higher.
Deaerated water is stored at the bottom of this
vessel. The steam or vapor vacuum located at Decarbonation is usually accomplished in
the top of the unit discharges the unwanted smaller systems by the use of filtered air counter
flowing through the water stream and stripping
gases. The vacuum unit is far less efficient than
out the carbon dioxide.
the steam one, and is most often used in dem-
ineralizer systems to reduce the chemical
operating cost and the demineralizer size, and Distillation
to protect anion-exchange resins from possible
oxidation damage. In its basic form, “distillation” is the process of
boiling feed water, condensing the steam pro-
duced from the feed water, and collecting the
Dealkalizing condensate, which yields a product water theo-
retically free from nonvolatile impurities. There
“Dealkalizing” is a process that reduces the al-
are three methods currently used to produce dis-
kalinity of feed water. This can be done either
tilled water: single-stage distillation, vapor
with or without the use of acid regenerant. With-
out the use of acid, the regenerant used is salt, compression, and multi-effect distillation.
and the process is often called “salt splitting.” Single-stage distillation The still used for
The salt-splitting process exchanges all bicar- single-stage distillation is the simplest type of
bonate, sulfate, and nitrate anions for chloride still. Feed water enters the still and is evapo-
anions. For best results, it is recommended that rated and condensed in a single stage. Cooling
deionized water be used as feed water. Where water is required to condense the steam pro-
hard, alkaline, and low-sodium water is avail- duced. This type of still produces water of
able, the use of a weak acid resin should be approximately 1 megohm-cm, with higher purity
considered. possible with optional equipment that removes
The entire regeneration cycle is similar to dissolved gaseous impurities. This still has a
water softening (which is described later in this small footprint, is less labor intensive, and tol-
chapter). It is not uncommon to use the same erates feed water with a high level of impurity.
salt and regenerant piping to accommodate both
the softener and the dealkalizer. Some caustic Vapor-compression distillation “Vapor com-
soda may be added (1 part caustic soda to 9 parts pression,” sometimes called “thermocompression
salt) to reduce the leakage of alkalinity and car- distillation,” is a method of evaporation in which
bon dioxide. Since this can cause hardness a liquid is boiled inside a bank of tubes. The va-
leakage from the dealkalizer, a filter downstream por generated then passes through a mist
of the processed water is necessary. eliminator that removes any water droplets. The
pure vapor is withdrawn by a compressor where
A weak acid resin can also be used. The pro- the energy imparted results in a compressed
cess transfers the alkaline salts of calcium and steam with increased pressure and temperature.
magnesium to the weak acid resin. This process The higher-energy compressed steam is dis-
should include degasification if required by the charged into an evaporator. At this point, the
product water. The weak acid process operates steam gives up most of its energy (latent heat) to
at a very high utilization factor, near the theo- the water inside the tubes. More vapor is gener-
Figure 11-3 Detail of Vapor Compression Still

ated and the process is repeated. The conden- The pure steam generated in the first effect
sate (distilled water) is withdrawn by the distillate is introduced into the shell side of the second
pump and is discharged through a two-stream effect. The pure steam condenses, producing dis-
heat exchanger. tilled water while giving up its latent heat to the
high-purity feed water inside the second effect
The excess feed water that did not evaporate
tubes, causing the feed water to boil and gener-
is also pumped through an exchanger. Both the
ate vapor. Each effect operates at a lower
distillate and the blowdown are cooled, and the
pressure than the previous effect to provide the
feed water is preheated prior to its entering the
temperature difference that allows the transfer
evaporator. These exchangers minimize the en-
of heat. The pure steam generated in the tube
ergy consumption of the system and eliminate
side of the first effect by the condensing power
the need for additional cooling water. The sys-
steam passes through the mist eliminator to re-
tem operates continuously once it is started.
move any entrained water droplets. Feed water
Additional makeup heat, usually supplied by
from the first effect passes through an orifice
steam, is required for continuous operation. Va-
and into the tube side of the second effect. The
por compression is generally considered more
first effect pure steam enters the shell side of
economical for large quantities of water and does
the second effect and is condensed on the out-
not require a high-quality feed water for proper
side of the tubes.
operation. The vapor compression still is moder-
ate in both first and operating costs. The condensate (distilled water) passes
through an orifice and enters the shell side of
Refer to Figure 11-3 for a typical flow dia-
the third effect. Feed water in the second effect
gram of a vapor-compression distillation unit.
passes through an orifice and into the tube side
Multi-effect distillation Multi-effect distillation of the third effect.
units use the process of staged evaporation and After passing through the mist eliminator,
condensation to generate distilled water. Each the last effect, pure steam enters the condenser
stage is called an “effect.” Distilled water is pro- and condenses on the outside of the condenser
duced in each effect by condensing the steam coils. This distilled water from the last effect and
generated by the evaporation of high-purity feed the distilled water from the previous effects is
water in the previous stage. The initial driving cooled by the cooling water of the condenser. The
force for the evaporation is “power steam” ap- distilled water exits the condenser and enters
plied to the shell side of the first effect vessel. the distillate pump. The distillate is pumped
The multi-effect still has the highest initial cost through the distillate control valve and through
and the lowest operating cost and requires the the storage/dump valve. The condenser level
highest-quality feed water of all the stills. controller senses the distillate level and signals
The feed water enters the vessel, and its pres- the control valve to maintain the desired level.
sure is boosted by the feed pump. The feed water Noncondensable gases in the condenser are
flows through a coil in the condenser, which al- vented to the atmosphere. The condenser tem-
lows it to pick up heat from the condensing perature is maintained at a predetermined level
steam. This preheated feed water flows through by the cooling water flow. The unit is protected
the feed-control valve and into the tube side of by pressure-relief valves along with high and low-
the first effect. The first effect level controller level alarms.
senses the feed-water level and signals the feed-
control valve to maintain the desired level. Power Refer to Figure 11-4 for a typical flow dia-
steam is introduced into the unit and flows gram of a multi-effect distillation unit.
through the steam-control valve and into the
shell side of the first effect. Filtration
Temperature sensors sense the temperature
Deep-bed sand filtration Deep-bed filters are
on the tube side of the first effect and signal the
designed to remove coarse suspended particu-
steam-control valve to maintain the required tem-
lates larger than 10 µ in size. It is a pressure
perature. This steam condenses on the outside
type filter that uses either multi-graded sand or
of the tubes of the first effect, giving up its latent
heat of vaporization to the feed water inside the multimedia as the filter medium. Particulate re-
tubes, causing it to boil and generate vapor. moval in the order of 98% should be expected.
Detail of Multi-Effect Still

Figure 11-4
Sand-only filters for laboratory water systems 9. Reverse-osmosis waste-treatment applica-

should generally operate at a face velocity of tions.
about 4 gpm/ft2 (192 L/min/m2) of cross-sec-
The above filtration systems are typically
tional bed area. Multimedia filters operate at
used in conjunction with ion-exchange and re-
about 6 gpm/ft2 (228 L/min/m2) of cross-sec-
verse-osmosis, high-purity systems to remove
tional bed area. Since the above values are
bacteria, pyrogens, and nonvolatile TOC com-
general in nature, it is important to operate these pounds. These filtration systems are used in
units at the velocities recommended by the indi- waste-treatment applications, including the con-
vidual manufacturer.
centrated waste of reverse-osmosis systems and
The multimedia filter achieves a more uniform ion-exchange waste.
distribution of filter media throughout the bed than
the sand-only filter and is considered a more effec- Activated carbon filtration Activated carbon
tive type of filter. A typical multimedia filter for is used to remove residual chlorine, chlorimine
laboratory use consists of a top layer of anthracite disinfectants, dissolved organics such as
having a 1.1-mm grain size and a 1.5 specific grav- trihalomethanes, and a major portion of natu-
ity, a middle layer of sand having a 0.5-mm rally occurring dissolved organic material from
diameter grain size and a specific gravity of 26, municipal water supplies. The nonionic organ-
and a bottom layer of garnet having a 0.2-mm grain ics tend to coat ion-exchange resins and all types
size and a 4.2 specific gravity. The normal opera- of membranes.
tional flow rate ranges from 6 to 15 gal/min (gpm)/ There is a reluctance on the part of system
ft2 (228 to 570 L/min/m2) of bed area. designers to use the activated carbon filter in
Backwashing is required to clean the filter, the generation of pure water (PW) because of the
with the effluent discharged to the sanitary possible development of significant levels of bac-
drainage system. A backwash flow rate of 10 to teria in the unit itself. This can be controlled by
15 gpm/ft2 (380 to 570 L/min/m2) is generally periodically sanitizing it with pure steam or hot
required for effective cleaning. water with a temperature greater than 176°F
(80°C). The need for sanitizing can only be de-
Cross-flow and tangential-flow filtration In termined by testing the water. Because of this
the past 10 years a number of membrane filters need for sterilization, the interior of the filter
have appeared on the market. The membrane housing should be lined or coated. When using
systems have greatly expanded the field of me- PW as feed water, stainless-steel housings should
chanical filtration. The following are several be avoided because of possible chloride stress
typical media and membrane-filtration systems: corrosion and chloride pitting resulting from the
chlorine in the feed water. A typical detail of a
1. Bag filter gross filtration, including limited packed-bed, activated-carbon unit is illustrated
membrane applications. in Figure 11-5.
2. Standard cartridge depth filtration.
3. Hurricane (a trademark of the Harmsco Ion Exchange and Removal
Corporation). The Hurricane filter is a cross
between a standard tangential cartridge ap- “Ion exchange” is the basic process where spe-
plication and a cross-flow filter. cific ions in a feed-water stream are transferred
into an exchange medium called “resin” and ex-
4. Horizontal and vertical pressure media fil- changed for different ions of equal charge. When
ters, with or without a precoat. the ion-exchange process is used to treat water
5. Sub-micron cartridge filtration, including only for removal of hardness, it is generally known
point-of-use (POU) ultrafiltration cartridges. as “water softening.” When the ion-exchange pro-
cess is used to treat water for the removal of ions
6. Cross-flow membrane system designed for to produce pure water, it is often referred to as
particulate removal in the concentrate. “deionization” (DI) or “demineralization.”
7. Ultra-filtration to less that 10,000 molecular The deionization/demineralization process
weight compounds. uses different types of resin to exchange first
8. Nano-filtration with a very low molecular anions and then cations that will result in the
weight filtration, to ionic levels of calcium sul- removal of all ions from feed water when the pro-
fate. cess is carried to completion. When all of the
Figure 11-5 Schematic Detail of Large-Scale, Granular-Activated Carbon Filter
ionic components involved in water are removed Regenerable ion exchange “Regenerable ion
by ion exchange, the water is said to be “deion- exchange” is a batch process where ions in raw
ized” or “demineralized.” The ion-exchange water are transferred onto a resin medium in
process is also used to remove dissolved exchange for other ions bonded to that medium
inorganics. Water softening only exchanges some as the raw water percolates through it. This is
types of ions for others that are less detrimental accomplished by having the ions in the raw wa-
for the intended end use of the water. Table 11-7 ter adsorbed onto a bed of exchange resins and
lists the common anions and cations typically replaced with an equivalent amount of another
found in water. Ion exchange will not remove sig- ion of the same charge. This action continues
nificant amounts of organics, bacteria, particles, until the medium has reached its exchange
colloids, or turbidity. capacity, where it is no longer capable of exchang-
ing ions. Water softening and deionization are
Table 11-7 Typical Cations and Anions the most common of the ion-exchange processes.
Found in Water There are two general types of deionizers:
working and polishing. The working type is used
Cations Anions
for the initial removal of the bulk of ions from
feed water or as only an ion-exchange process
Calcium Carbonates
(such as hardness removal) if the purification is
Magnesium Bicarbonates a single process. The polishing type is used to
Sodium Sulfates purify feed water after an initial run through a
Potassium Chlorides working ion-exchange system.
Iron Nitrates
Manganese Silica Resins Resin-exchange media include natural
inorganic aluminum silicates (sometimes called
“zeolites” or “green sands”); bentonite clay; and resin is considered acceptable to obtain a more
synthetic, gelatinous and synthetic, organic res- efficient and longer-lasting resin. Weak-base ex-
ins. Most processes use the synthetic resins. changers are not effective in the removal of
Resins are graded by purity and consistency in carbon dioxide or silica. They remove strong ac-
size of resin. ids more by adsorption than by ion exchange.
The end result is the same, and the efficiency of
Resin is manufactured in the form of a large
weak-base regeneration for acid-salt removal is
number of spherical beads, typically about 0.4
far superior to that of strong-base material for
mm in diameter. These beads have weakly
the same job. Thus, weak-base units are supe-
bonded ions present on their surfaces that are
rior when the feed water is high in sulfates and
used for the exchange process. Because the pro-
chlorides.
cess must exchange ions of the same charge,
ion-exchange resins are composed of either an- The two most often-used cation-exchange
ion or cation exchange resins. Manufacturers are resins are strong acid or weak acid. Strong cat-
constantly making new resins for different ion- ion resins remove all cations, regardless of the
removal purposes. This is a constantly changing anion with which they are associated. These res-
technology. ins have a moderate exchange capacity and
require a strong acid regenerant, such as hydro-
Traditional deionization exchanges cations
chloric or sulfuric acid.
with hydrogen, H+, ions (an acid) and anions with
hydroxyl, OH–, ions (a base). Although not 100% The deionization process can be arranged as
effective, these two exchange processes together either a two-step (dual-bed) or single-step (mixed-
remove cations and anions from water and the bed) process. In the dual-bed process, one vessel
remaining H+ and OH– ions combine to form contains the anion-exchange resins and a sec-
water. When all of the ionized impurities are re- ond vessel the cation-exchange resins. In the
moved, the water is said to be “deionized,” which mixed-bed unit, a single vessel contains a mix-
is also referred to as “demineralized.” ture of both resins. The dual-bed arrangement
produces a water that is less pure than that pro-
There is a large number of ion-exchange res-
duced by a mixed bed but has a greater removal
ins available. Each resin is formulated to obtain
capacity. A typical mixed bed contains 40% cat-
optimum performance for different impurities.
ion resins and 60% anion resins. Dual beds are
The affinity for different ions in solution is termed
easier to regenerate. It is not uncommon to have
“selectivity coefficients.” The number of charges
a dual-bed exchanger, often referred to as a
(valence) available on a particular ionic medium
“working exchanger,” installed before a mixed bed
is a major factor in the selection of specific res-
to remove the bulk of the impurities then have
ins to remove the desired impurities and is based
the mixed bed, often called a “polishing ex-
on an analysis of raw water. The resins are con-
changer,” further purify the water to the desired
tained in a vessel, often referred to as a “column.”
high purity. A typical single-bed ion-exchange
The actual resin bed could be supported by a
unit is illustrated in Figure 11-6. A typical dual-
mat of graded gravel, screen-wrapped pipe, or
bed ion-exchange unit is illustrated in Figure
perforated plates, which also act to evenly dis-
11-7. A typical mixed-bed ion-exchange unit is
tribute feed water over the entire resin bed. The
illustrated in Figure 11-8. The piping and valve
resin beads in the vessel also create an effective
arrangements of different manufacturers may
depth filter. This filtering action leads to fouling
differ from those shown.
and unpredictable operating runs because of an
accumulation of particulates. Regeneration cycle The ion-exchange process
Anion resins could be either a strong or a is reversible. As the water continues to pass
weak base. An often-used anion resin is divinyl through the ion-exchange resin beds over time,
benzene, a gelatinous bead. Anion resin type 1 the number of ions on the resin beads available
premium has a very close tolerance of bead size. for exchange declines and gradually is exhausted.
Anion resin type 1 regular is generally used for This process starts at the entry of the water to
maximum silica reduction. Resin type 2 is used the vessel and progresses down the bed. When
most often, it is generally used unless type 1 is the resins have reached the limit of exchange,
specifically requested. There is a difference in the bed is said to have reached its “exchange
cost and a difference in capacity between the two capacity.” It is then necessary to take the col-
resins. In general, the higher cost of the type 1 umn out of service to be regenerated.
Figure 11-6 Typical Single-Bed Ion Exchanger
Figure 11-7 Typical Dual-Bed Ion Exchanger

Figure 11-8 Typical Mixed-Bed Ion Exchanger
“Regeneration,” which is the reverse of deion- acid and caustic waste streams to neutralize the
ization, is the term used for the displacement of effluent to the greatest extent possible. Additional
the ions removed from the feed water. Regenera- acid or caustic may have to be added to the final
tion generally consists of three steps: (1) effluent to produce a pH acceptable to the local
backwashing, (2) application of regenerating so- authorities. Note: Sufficient safety precautions
lution, and (3) rinsing. Regeneration can be need to be taken when handling regeneration
performed either co-currently (in the same chemicals.
direction as the flow of feed water) or counter-
Backwashing is a counter-current operation
currently (in the opposite direction of the flow of
that accomplishes two purposes. The first is to
feed water). All of the water used for regenera-
remove any particulates that have accumulated
tion must be routed to a drain of adequate size.
in the resin bed and on the beads. The second is
In addition, the acid and caustic must be neu-
to regrade the resin beads so that new beads are
tralized prior to discharge into a public sewer
on top of the bed, which is where the heaviest
system. It is common practice to combine the
duty from the beads is required. This is done by
having the resin bed expanded from its normal, iron, chlorides, and silica to avoid fouling the
packed condition by the reverse flow of water. strong-base anion exchangers. Weak-base anion
The manufacturer establishes the required flow exchangers are regenerated most economically
rate of backwash that should be maintained. A with technical-grade, flake sodium hydroxide.
flow rate that is too high will blow resin out of Strong-base exchangers are best regenerated us-
the tank and into the drain. The flow rate of water ing nylon or rayon-grade sodium hydroxide, also
should be enough to scrub the beads together, 76%. If purchased in a 40% solution, the same
increasing the cleaning action. A greater-than- grade previously indicated should be used. All
recommended flow will only waste water and caustic shall have a maximum of 2 ppm chlor-
provide no additional benefits. ates.
The two chemicals used to regenerate cation The flush cycle is the shortest step. It is a
resin beds are either a 93% solution of sulfuric co-current process whose purposes are to flush
acid or a 30 to 32% solution of hydrochloric acid away any remaining residue of the regeneration
(HCl), also called “mureatic acid.” As they flow liquids to drain and to repack the bed in prepa-
through the columns, they replace the retained ration for the new run.
cations with hydrogen ions from the acid. Hy-
The entire regeneration cycle typically takes
drochloric acid is used most often because it has
about 1 hour. If the process requires continu-
the greatest efficiency, and only ¼ of the amount
ous operation, a duplex set of equipment is
of sulfuric acid is used. Sulfuric acid is much
installed so that one is in use while the other is
lower in cost and is used when there is a large
being regenerated.
quantity of resin to be regenerated, which makes
its lower cost practical. The chemical used most To estimate the frequency of regeneration,
often for regenerating anion resins is a 40% mix- first, from literature provided by the manufac-
ture of sodium hydroxide, which replaces the turer, determine the exchange capacity, in grains,
retained anion ions with hydroxyl ions. For of the selected resin bed. Next, from the analysis
mixed-bed units, the resins must be separated of the raw water, find the average level of TDS,
prior to regeneration. and convert this figure into grains per gallon (li-
ter). Dividing the flow rate, in gallons (liters), into
The quality of the chemicals used for re-
the grain capacity of the resin bed gives the time
generation has an important effect on the
it takes to saturate the resin bed before regen-
maintenance of exchange capacity. Although
eration is required. As mentioned above, the
chemically pure ingredients are not required,
designer needs to consider the ionic or molecu-
some contaminants found in these chemicals
lar composition of the regeneration waste.
collect on the resins and eventually cause diffi-
culty in operation. Service deionization “Service deionization” is
Technical-grade acids, which are free of oils not another form of deionization but, rather, a
and other organic materials, are acceptable for different type of equipment arrangement. With
the regeneration of cation resins. They should the regenerable type, the deionization (DI) equip-
be 66° Baume, free of suspended matter, and ment is permanent and the regeneration is done
light in color. They should mix freely with water on site by operating or maintenance personnel.
and not form any precipitate. Acid-containing They must handle and store the chemicals used
inhibitors should not be used. Sulfuric acid is for regeneration. With the service type, the sup-
usually the most economical choice for large- plier replaces cartridges of exhausted resins with
scale use. Hydrochloric acid should be technical regenerated ones.
grade and a minimum of 30% HCl by weight (18° The service DI system uses individual car-
Baume) and shall not contain excessive amounts tridges or tanks for the anion, cation, and mixed
of iron and organic materials. HCl obtained by beds. When the individual cartridges are ex-
the salt-aid or hydrogen-chlorine process have hausted, they are replaced by the supplier with
been found satisfactory. HCl obtained by the recharged units on site and the exhausted car-
hydrolysis of chlorinated organic chemicals tridges are removed to be regenerated at the
should be avoided, particularly if used to treat supplier’s premises. This arrangement consider-
potable water. ably reduces the initial cost of the equipment,
Anion-exchange resins are regenerated with eliminates the need to store chemicals, and frees
76% sodium hydroxide, which shall be low in the operating or maintenance personnel from the
time required for regenerating the units. In addi- called a “cell pair.” Many sets of these cell pairs
tion, it saves water that does not have to be used can be placed between one set of electrodes in a
for backwash. The operating costs to a facility for plate-and-frame device to achieve the desired flow
service DI equipment are higher than they are for output. The higher the number of these cell pairs,
the permanent bed type. However, when regen- the higher is the flow output. This arrangement
eration discharge and variable production costs is schematically illustrated in Figure 11-9.
are considered, the cost of point-of-operation dem-
Feed water enters into the top of all the com-
ineralization becomes attractive.
partments. Under the influence of a DC electrical
Continuous deionization Continuous deion- field, ions move from the water in the dilute
ization (CDI), also known as “electrodeionization” stream, through the ion-exchange resin, toward
(EDI), is a continuous water-purification process the electrode with the opposite charge. Cations
that uses direct current (DC); an alternating ar- move toward the cathode, through the cation-
rangement of cation and anion-permeable permeable membrane, and into the adjacent
membranes; and mixed-bed, ion-exchange resin. concentrate stream. Anions move toward the an-
The cation and anion membranes form parallel, ode, through the anion-permeable membrane,
thin, flow compartments, alternating between and into the adjacent concentrate stream. Deion-
concentrating and diluting compartments. The ized water exits from the bottom of the dilute
diluting compartments contain a thin layer of stream. The alternating cation and anion-per-
ion-exchange resin. Some manufacturers also meable membranes trap and concentrate ions
use ion-exchange resin in the concentrating com- in the concentrate channels. A small flow of feed
partments. A single set of these components is water continuously rinses the concentrated ions
Figure 11-9 Schematic Operation of a Continuous Deionization Unit

to drain. The ion-exchange resin bed serves as a Lime soda addition The lime-soda-ash method
highly conductive medium through which ions uses either hydrated lime or quicklime along with
flow because of the electric field. The various flow soda ash. When added to water, these chemi-
streams are hydraulically independent, allowing cals react with the dissolved calcium and
a high volume of high-purity water (product) and magnesium carbonate to form insoluble com-
a low volume of concentrate (waste). pounds. These compounds precipitate out of
solution and are passed through a filter to be
The resin-filled diluting compartment (cell)
removed. They are then discharged to drain. This
creates a low-level resistance path for ions. At the
process is usually carried out during the clarifi-
bottom of the diluting cell under the proper com-
cation process rather than separately and is
bination of flow, temperature, water conductivity,
reserved for large volumes of water.
and voltage, the resins regenerate automatically
without the use of added chemicals. This is com- Ion exchange The ion-exchange method of wa-
monly referred to as “electroregeneration” of the ter softening is a cation-exchange process used
ion-exchange resins. This process is continuous to remove insoluble and scale-forming iron and
and results in a steady supply of high-purity wa- other multivalent cations, which are the primary
ter from the diluting compartments. The continual causes of hardness, and to replace them with
ion removal and electroregeneration result in some sodium ions, which do not contribute to hard-
significant advantages over conventional ion ex- ness. The removal of these impurities prevents
change, including no handling and disposal of the buildup of insoluble scale precipates on pip-
hazardous regeneration chemicals, no interrup- ing and the reverse-osmosis membrane. It is
tions due to exhaustion of the resins’ ion-exchange accomplished by passing the water through a
capacity, and low operating costs. bed of granular sodium, cation-exchange resin.
CDI is sensitive to feed-water impurities, and This process is commonly called “sodium cycle
experience has shown that very few natural po- ion exchange.”
table feed-water supplies can meet the required The resin bed typically occupies about q of
feed-water specifications without softening and the tank. The other 3 is needed for expansion of
additional pretreatment. Because of this limita- the resin bed during backwash. A generally ac-
tion, most processes are now using CDI for cepted range of between 0.4 and 3 gpm/ft3 (50
polishing purposes after reverse osmosis (RO). and 380 L/min/m3) of resin is used to deter-
The use of RO and CDI results in a complimen- mine the volume of resin and the cycle time of
tary combination of purification technologies, the the unit.
RO removing the bulk of contaminants and the
CDI polishing the water to high purity levels. An- Microbial growth inside the unit is a concern
other disadvantage of CDI is that the membranes in softening systems used for pharmaceutical and
and resins are incompatible with most sanitiz- some laboratory purposes. The water softener is
ing agents. Manufacturer specifications and regenerated with a brine solution, which does
guidelines should be checked and followed. How- not destroy bacteria. The liquid brine solution
ever, when CDI is used in combination with RO, storage-and-regeneration equipment also allows
the RO process effectively provides efficient re- microbial growth in storage tanks that are ex-
moval of bacteria, and the sanitization of the RO posed to the atmosphere. An alternative is to use
can reduce the risk of downstream bacteria a dry storage system, which generates salt solu-
growth. Furthermore, it has been reported that tion from water that is mixed with salt pellets
CDI can provide water consistently low in bacte- only when necessary for regeneration. This con-
ria and the CDI process can have a germicidal trols microbial growth better than wet systems,
effect due to local pH shifts associated with but constant maintenance is required to moni-
electroregeneration. tor the brine tank. The quality of the salt in all
systems should be periodically determined to
Water softening “Water softening” is a process ensure that there are “no added substances”
that reduces or removes dissolved impurities that present.
cause hardness in water. This is commonly done
The regeneration cycle is similar to that pre-
by either of two methods: adding lime-soda ash
viously discussed. The difference is that salt is
to the raw water for very large volumes or pass-
used to regenerate the resin bed. Industrial wa-
ing the raw water through an ion-exchange
ter softeners use rock salt for economy. Rock
process.
salt, because of its high mineral content, requires
a special tank called a “desolver” to dissolve the Membrane Filtration and Separation
rock salt in water prior to use. The water soft-
ener is similar to the schematic single-bed ion “Membrane filtration and separation” is a gen-
exchanger illustrated in Figure 11-6. eral term for a water-purification process that
removes contaminants from feed water by means
Ion-exchange system design considerations of a thin, porous barrier called a “membrane.”
“Leakage” is the presence of undesired ions in When used as a filter, a membrane is capable of
the final treated water. One of the major deci- removing impurities of a much smaller size than
sions that must be made when selecting an other types of filters. Filters of this nature are
ion-exchange system is allowable leakage. The often called “ultrafilters” and “nanofilters.”
amount of leakage is a function of the complete-
A semipermeable membrane limits the pas-
ness of regeneration of the resin. For water
sage of selected atoms and/or molecules in a
softening, generally accepted leakage amounts
specific manner. Membrane filtration and sepa-
range between 0.1 and 1 ppm. Since total regen-
ration, when used to produce pure water, is
eration of the resin bed is inefficient and very
characterized by having the feed water flow par-
costly, most water softeners operate at ½ to q of
allel to the membrane (often called “tangential
the ultimate capacity of the softener. There is
flow”). Not all of the feed water is recovered. Many
sodium leakage from cation exchangers and silica
of the membranes used are also available as
leakage from anion exchangers. Normally, mixed-
depth filters and in single thickness are used as
bed units have negligible leakage.
disk filters. There are two general categories of
In general, for high-purity applications, a membrane filtration: reverse osmosis using a
single pass cannot give adequate purification of semipermeable membrane and filtration using
the water stream; therefore, a polisher is neces- ultrafiltration and nanofiltration membranes.
sary. A mixed-bed ion-exchange system, when
used as a polisher, has, in general, a 74% lower Reverse osmosis Reverse osmosis (RO) is a
initial cost than a two-bed system. A single-pass broad-based water-purifying process involving
RO system is about equal to a two-bed ion-ex- osmosis and ionic repulsion.
change system. Osmosis is the spontaneous passage of a
Usually, if the water demand for a facility is solvent (such as water) through a semipermeable
less than about 40 gpm (151 L/min), the great- membrane until there is an equal concentration
est benefit will be derived from the simpler, less of solute molecules (impurities such as sodium
costly equipment with higher operating costs. For chloride) on both sides of the membrane. This
this quantity, it is usual to have a mixed-bed membrane is called “semipermeable” because it
unit without a degasifier, which is not required. allows the solvent to diffuse, or pass through,
For systems with a requirement of 200 gpm (757 but is impervious to the solute.
L/min) or more, the majority of the systems in- In the natural osmosis process, when two
stalled will have multiple-bed units and a solutions of different concentrations are sepa-
degasifier. Manufacturers must be contacted for rated by a semipermeable membrane, water
specific system and resin selection and required molecules from the less concentrated solution
equipment. will spontaneously pass through the membrane
Where applicable, the use of weakly acidic to dilute the more concentrated solution. This
and weakly basic resins minimizes chemical costs occurs until a rough equilibrium is achieved. The
and reduces losses to waste because of the high driving force is a difference of pressure, called
regenerative capacity. the “osmotic pressure” or “concentration gradi-
ent,” that exists across the membrane and is
There are some problems, such as microbial based on the degree of concentration of contami-
growth, associated with water softeners. Sanita- nants. This pressure is what drives the flow of
tion is usually accomplished during regeneration. solvent. The flow, or flux, will continue until the
Iron buildup in the unit could pass through to osmotic pressure is equalized, which then results
downstream purification equipment unless op- in a higher pressure on the concentrated solu-
erating personnel constantly monitor the water tion side that is equal to the osmotic pressure.
quality.
Reverse osmosis is the flow of solvent in the
direction opposite the direction of flow of natu-
ral osmosis. If enough pressure is applied to the depending on the manufacturer of the RO mod-
more concentrated solution, which in these dis- ule. Fouling resistance is low.
cussions is water, pure water is diffused through
the membrane leaving behind the bulk of the Spiral-wound reverse osmosis (SWRO) This con-
contaminants. This concentration of contami- figuration, illustrated in Figure 11-11, typically
nants is continuously flushed to drain, and achieves a large surface area per unit volume.
thereby removed from the system. The purified In this design, a flat membrane is formed around
water is called “permeate” and the contaminant a fabric spacer closed on three sides with the
containing water “reject” or the “reject stream.” open side terminating in a perforated produce
In some cases, the reject stream is referred to as water tube. The unit is placed in a pressure ves-
“salt.” The performance characteristics of the sel. Feed water permeates through the membrane
selected membrane determine how large a sys- and flows radially inside the enclosure toward
tem is required. The flow rate is measured in the product tube.
membrane flux. “Membrane flux” is a measure-
ment of the flow rate of permeate that will pass Tubular reverse osmosis (TRO) This configura-
through a given area of the membrane at a spe- tion, illustrated in Figure 11-12, consists of a
perforated tube manufactured from ceramic,
cific temperature and pressure. The ratio of
carbon, or porous plastic with larger inside di-
purified-water flow to the feed-water flow is called
ameters than the hollow-fiber configuration. The
“recovery.” Most applications require a minimum
membrane is installed on the inside of the tube.
40% recovery rate to be considered practical.
Rejection characteristics are expressed as a per- A number of tubes are installed inside a pres-
cent of the specific impurities removed and sure vessel. Feed water enters the tube and
permeates through the membrane to be collected
depend on ionic charge and size.
on the outside. The feed-water channels are
Membrane module configurations There are much more open than those of the SWRO and
four types of membrane module configuration less subject to fouling.
used for RO applications: hollow fiber, spiral
wound (SWRO), tubular (TRO), and plate and
frame. Spiral wound is the most commonly used
configuration. In each design, maximum turbu-
lence is necessary to avoid concentration
polarization.
Hollow-fiber reverse osmosis The hollow-fiber

configuration, illustrated in Figure 11-10, con-
sists of a perforated tube manufactured from
ceramic, carbon, or porous plastic with inside
diameters ranging from 6 to 1 in. (8 to 25 mm).
It requires rigid support when mounted inside
the pressure vessel. Feed water could be intro-
duced into either the center or the outside,
Figure 11-10 Hollow-Fiber Figure 11-11 Spiral-Wound

Reverse-Osmosis Configuration Reverse-Osmosis Configuration
which influence the capacity of the individual

membranes selected:
1. Operating pH.
2. Chlorine tolerance.
3. Temperature of the feed water.
4. Feed-water quality, usually measured as SDI.
5. Types of impurity and prior feed-water treat-
ment.
Figure 11-12 Tubular 6. Membrane flux.
Reverse Osmosis Configuration 7. Number of operating hours.
8. Resistance to biodegradation and ability to
be sanitized.
Plate and frame This configuration, illustrated 9. Rejection characteristics. Typical RO systems
in Figure 11-13, consists of a membrane that is remove the following contaminants to the
fixed to a grooved plastic or metal plate with sev- following levels:
eral plates stacked together in a frame that
includes feed water and drain ports. As the feed Inorganic ions 93 – 99%
water flows across the membrane surfaces, the Dissolved organics > 99%
purified water penetrates the membrane and
(>300 molecular weight)
gathers along the frame for collection. The
retentate continues to flow and could be recir- Particulates > 99%
culated or directed to drain. Microorganisms > 99%
This configuration is mostly used for filtra- The selection of a system configuration shall
tion and rarely for RO systems. The packing be based on the following considerations:
density is low and the resistance to fouling is
1. Maximum recovery.
very high. It is used for small to medium vol-
umes, generally less than 20 gpm (76 L/min). 2. Fouling properties and resistance.
Membrane selection System performance is 3. Production rate per unit volume.

determined by considering the following factors, Only a few polymers have the necessary char-
acteristics to function as a semipermeable
membrane:
1. Thin film composite of various polymer ma-
terials.
2. Polyamide.
3. Cellulose acetate.
4. Cellulose tricetate.
5. Polysulfone.
Typical characteristics and a comparison of
these membranes are given in Table 11-8.
Cross-flow filtration Ultrafiltration and

nanofiltration membranes are categorized by
their pore size. Ultrafiltration membrane pore
sizes range from 0.001 to 0.02 µm. Nanofiltration
membranes have pore sizes that allow the pas-
sage of solids to 10,000 molecular weight, or
Figure 11-13 Plate-and-Frame daltons. The 10,000-dalton cutoff is recom-
Reverse-Osmosis Configuration mended for the complete removal of pyrogens.
Table 11-8 Comparison of Reverse-Osmosis Polymers

Thin Film Cellulose Cellulose
Composite Polyamide Acetate Triacetate Polysulfone
pH stability 2–12 4–11 2–8 4–7.5 3–11
Chlorine tolerance Fair–poor Poor Good Fair–good Good
Biological resistance Good Good Poor Fair–good Good
Temperature limit for stability, °F (°C) 122 (45) 95 (35) 95 (35) 86 (30) 95 (35)
Typical rejection ionic species (%) >90 >90 90 90 90
Flux High Low Low–medium Low–medium High
Typical recovery rates for ultrafilters range Ultraviolet radiation Ultraviolet (UV) radiation
between 95 and 98%, with the remainder flushed is an in-line process. UV light is generated using
to drain. mercury vapor lamps. There are two different
wavelengths available that produce the inten-
The membranes are manufactured by bond- sity and energy output necessary for the intended
ing the membrane onto a porous, supporting germicidal-treatment requirements. Federal stan-
substrate and then configuring it into elements. dard 209E and aseptic guidelines issued by the
These filters are usually used as a pretreatment FDA provide some guidance for the use and
for the removal of colloids, bacteria, pyrogens, application of UV irradiation.
particulates, and high-molecular-weight organ-
ics. Spiral wound and hollow fiber are the two The 254-nm wavelength operates in the ger-
most often-used configurations. micidal region, sterilizing by destroying bacteria,
mold, viruses, and other microorganisms. This
Microbial Control wavelength is preferred for pure-water systems;
it significantly reduces the multiplication of or-
ganisms.
Chemicals The most often-used disinfection
method is the addition of oxidizing or nonoxidiz- The 185-nm wavelength operates in a high-
ing chemicals. Chemicals could be either energy spectrum of electromagnetic quantum
biocides, which are substances that kill microbes, packet, photon radiation (light) band. The en-
or biostats, which prevent the further growth of ergy available has the ability to break down
microbes. Commonly used chemicals are chlo- organic molecules and compounds to carbon di-
rine and chlorine compounds, hydrogen peroxide, oxide and water by the photooxidation process.
and acid compounds. It slowly breaks the bonds in organic molecules
To be effective, the chemical must have a mini- by direct radiation and also oxidizes organisms
mum “contact time” in the water. In addition, a by the formation of hydroxyl radicals. The UV
spectrum is illustrated in Figure 11-14.
residual amount of the chemical must be present
to keep its effectiveness against organisms. A flow rate of approximately 2 fps (0.6 m/s)
is a general industry standard for the effective
Chemicals add impurities to the water and
sanitation of purified water. The flow rate through
are not generally suitable for a pure-water envi-
ronment. They mostly are used to disinfect the UV device should be reduced compared to
potable and process water and equipment and that of the circulation loop to extend the neces-
sary contact time. The recommended location for
are injected directly into the fluid stream by
the UV device is prior to the deionization equip-
means of a metering pump. When present in the
ment.
feed water used for purification, they must be
removed. Chlorine may produce trihalomethanes.
Figure 11-14 UV Wavelength Spectrum
Problems include generation of ions that Ozone Ozone (O3) is an oxidizing gas generated
lower the resistivity of water and the possible from gaseous oxygen or catalytically from water.
leaching of silica from the quartz sleeve of the The most often-used method of producing ozone
UV device. Glass, plastic, rubber, and similar is by a corona-discharge generator, which con-
materials exposed to UV radiation will, over time, verts the oxygen in air to ozone. The air is passed
crack, etch, discolor, and flake. Tests have shown between two electrodes where an electrostatic
that only 50% of the energy used by the bulb is discharge across the gap converts oxygen to
actually transmitted to the water and that, in ozone. A typical schematic drawing of a corona-
time, 25% of the output will be lost compared to discharge generator is illustrated in Figure 11-15.
a new bulb.
It is a common misconception that the ozone
Filtering A filter removes organisms from the created by the bulbs in mercury vapor lamps is
fluid stream. Generally accepted practice is to imparted to the water. The engineer should re-
us a 0.2-µm absolute filter for the removal of member that when 185-nm systems are
bacteria. Although the effectiveness of this employed as a treatment process the bulbs are
practice is questioned by some authorities, rec- enclosed in—indeed, have to be enclosed in—
ommended current practice is to use a membrane quartz sleeves. Though it is true that the 185-nm
with an absolute rating (cutoff) of 10,000 daltons. bulbs are used to generate ozone, the bulbs are
Cartridge filtration is the most commonly used in a chamber where they are exposed to oxygen-
method of filtration. rich air. The ozone created in that chamber is
then induced into the aqueous stream as a
Heat Heating to 175°F (80°C) effectively sanitizes method of stream sanitation.
water under pressure. The heating can be ac-
The ozone system consists of a feed-gas-treat-
complished by using steam, electric, or other
ment unit, an ozone generator, a water-ozone
types of heat exchangers. It is common practice
contact mechanism, and a destruction unit to
to circulate purified water at this temperature
eliminate any residual ozone.
and use heat exchangers to lower the water tem-
perature at each point of use if necessary. 1. Feed-gas treatment. The gas reaching the gen-
erator must have all particles larger than 0.3
Figure 11-15 Principle of Corona-Discharge Ozone Generator
µm and 95% of those larger than 0.1 µm re- The mechanism for ozone oxidation is
moved. In addition, aerosols, moisture, and through generation of hydroxyl radicals. The gas
hydrocarbons shall be removed as required is directly injected into the water stream.
by the manufacturer. This purification is
Problems include the ozone system’s inabil-
usually supplied as part of a package.
ity to oxidize all organic compounds; also it is
2. Ozone generator. The three basic types of slow acting and in some cases will form stable
generator are the Lowther plate unit, Otto and refractory compounds.
plate unit, and tube unit. They differ only in
the manner in which they are cooled. Ozone
generators use large amounts of electrical WATER TREATMENT
power, generally between 15 and 26 kWh/
kg of O3. This subsection describes the various methods
3. Ozone and water are mixed in direct contact and equipment used to treat water for various
with one another by the use of static or me- purposes.
chanical mixers, injectors, or columns that
optimize the dissolution of the gas. Utility Water Treatment
4. Depending on the generator, ozone concen- Water from wells, rivers, lakes, and streams is
trations can vary from 100 to 3000 ppm. commonly used for cooling and washing purposes,
Because high concentrations are harmful to among others. Clarifying and treating the water
humans and metals, the ozone should not be to meet the purity requirements of the proposed
allowed to escape to atmosphere without being end use requires good monitoring and quick re-
treated to a level below 0.1 ppm. Destruction action to raw and treated water fluctuations. If
can be accomplished by catalytic, thermal, the water is to be recirculated, the treatment
and activated carbon. Thermal units operate methods are more stringent than if it is not. If
at a temperature of 572°F (300°C) and gener- the water is to be discharged into the environ-
ally require a 3 to 5-min contact time to be ment, local codes must be adhered to with regards
effective. to allowable chemical amounts present in the
waste water to avoid the need for waste treatment.
Initial filtering If the supply is from surface range of treatment methods is available, depend-
water, a coarse or fine screen is usually placed ing primarily on the impurities found in the raw
at the intake to keep out fish and other large water, the operating pressure of the boiler, and
debris. Coarse screens are usually ½-in. (1.27- the makeup rate of water. These methods could
cm) diameter bars with a clear opening of 1 to 3 be mechanical or chemical—the addition of
in. (2.54 to 7.62 cm). Fine screens could have chemicals to prevent deposits, inhibit corrosion,
openings of approximately A-in. (0.95-cm) square, or neutralize impurities detrimental to the pro-
with the water velocity through the screen lim- posed end use of the water and the use of
ited to about 2 fps (0.6 m/s). If the quantity of dispersants to keep particulates in suspension.
water is small enough, basket strainers can be
The treatment starts with an accurate feed-
used. In climates where freezing may occur, the
water analysis. This is compared to final
inlet should be placed far enough below the low-
treatment objectives established by the user and
water level to prevent freezing.
the boiler manufacturer. The degree of removal
Clarification After initial filtering, clarification is determined by the difference in the two
is required to obtain water that meets the stan- analyses. Recommended standards for boiler
dards for the proposed use. The selection of the feed-water and steam quality are given in
clarifier is based on the volume of water to be Table 11-9.
treated and the final quality desired. If the vol- A boiler-water treatment program shall ac-
ume of water is small and the raw water is not complish the following:
very turbid, filters may be used.
1. Reduce or remove hardness to control scale
Biological control To control microorganism by either mechanical (external) or chemical
fouling of the system, microorganisms must be (internal) treatment.
destroyed if possible, inactivated to keep them
2. Maintenance of proper levels of alkalinity to
from reproducing, and removed from the water
ensure that proper chemical reactions can
stream. This is usually accomplished by chlori- occur.
nation, filtration, UV radiation, ozone generation,
and special adsorbents. 3. Control dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide
through deaerating and the addition of an
Chlorination is the least costly and most of- oxygen scavenger.
ten-used method. The action of chlorine requires
a specified contact time and the establishment 4. Maintenance of proper levels of conditioners
of a residual chlorine amount. A range of 0.5 to so that the suspended solids remain in sus-
1.0 ppm is generally accepted for typical waters. pension and can be easily eliminated through
blowdown.
Water softening Water softening should be
5. Optimum boiler blowdown.
considered to reduce the hardness in the utility
water system when the system is used for recir- The mechanical removal of hardness is most
culated cooling purposes. often accomplished by water softening using an
ion-exchange process, where the insoluble cal-
cium and magnesium ions are replaced with
Boiler Feed-Water Conditioning
highly soluble sodium ions. A commonly used
In a boiler, energy in the form of heat is trans- resin is a strong acid resin in sodium form often
ferred across a heat-transfer surface from a fuel referred to as “zeolite.” Real zeolite is a naturally
source to the water used for making steam. When occurring mineral that is no longer widely used
subject to elevated temperature and pressure, because of its higher cost. Its use introduces arti-
the composition of the raw boiler-water supply ficial resins that are more efficient for most uses.
undergoes radical changes. The adjustment of pH is accomplished by the
The effects of dissolved gases are magnified. injection of dilute sulfuric or hydrochloric acid
The dissolved minerals may deposit a scale on or sodium hydroxide or sodium carbonate. This
the transfer surface that affects the heat-trans- requires close monitoring.
fer process. The result is a reduction in the Feed-water oxygen and carbon dioxide are
heat-transfer rate, a reduction in the flow rate, normally removed with deaerators before the feed
and increased damage from corrosion. A wide water enters the boiler. In addition to mechani-
Table 11-9 Recommended Boiler Feed-Water Limits and Steam Purity

Drum Range TDSa Range Total Suspended Solids Range TDSc
Pressure, Boiler Water Alkalinityb Boiler Water Steam (ppm)
psig (kPa) (ppm max.) Boiler Water (ppm max.) (max. expected value)
Drum-Type Boilersa
0–300 (0–2068) 700–3500 140–700 15 0.2–1.0
301–450 (2075–3103) 600–3000 120–600 10 0.2–1.0
451–600 (3110–4137) 500–2500 100–500 8 0.2–1.0
601–750 (4144–5171) 200–1000 40–200 3 0.1–0.5
751–900 (5178–6205) 150–700 30–150 2 0.1–0.5
901–1000 (6212–6895) 125–625 25–125 1 0.1–0.5
1001–1800 (6902–12 411) 100 1 0.1
1801–2350 (12 418–16 203) 50 n/a 0.1
2351–2600 (16 210–17 926) 25 n/a 0.05
2601–2900 (17 933–19 995) 15 n/a 0.05
Once-Through Boilers
1400 and above 0.05 n/a n/a 0.05
Source: American Boiler Manufacturers Association.

Note: n/a = not available.
a Actual values within the range reflect the total dissolved solids (TDS) in the feed water. Higher values are for high solids, lower values are
for low solids in the feed water.
b Actual values within the range are directly proportional to the actual value of TDS of boiler water. Higher values are for the high solids, lower
values are for low solids in the boiler water.
c These values are exclusive of silica.
cal deaeration, it is recommended that a chemi- Boiler blowdown is the bleeding off of some
cal oxygen scavenger be added to the water to water from the boiler. When steam is generated,
quickly eliminate any remaining traces of oxy- impurities are left behind from the feed water
gen. Many scavengers are in use but the most converted to steam; in time, these accumulate.
frequently used scavengers are sulfites (up to When the level of impurities becomes too high, a
1000 psig [6895 kPa]) and compounds of hydra- portion of the water is discharged to drain. This
zine. Hydrazine is being replaced by is called “blowdown.” Blowdown could be inter-
diethylhydroxylamine (DEHA), carbohydrazide, mittent or continuous.
hydroquinone, and isoascorbic acid.
Chemicals can be added to the boiler feed Cooling-Water Conditioning
water for two purposes. One is to keep the hard-
ness-causing salts in solution where they will This subsection discusses basic principles used
not cause scaling. The second is to precipitate for controlling scale, corrosion, and biological
fouling of water used in evaporative cooling tow-
them out of solution to allow the particulates to
ers and condenser systems.
be disposed of during blowdown. There are many
effective materials, generally blends of compo- The basic reason for the treatment of cooling
nent chemicals. Those most often used are water is to keep any dissolved solids from de-
polymers and phosphates and carbonates that positing onto any piping or equipment. This is
are designed to optimize the precipitation of cal- accomplished by preventing the dissolved solids
cium, magnesium, and iron. Modern treatment from reaching the saturation point. This is usu-
has made hardness deposits much less common ally expressed as the cycle of concentration of
but iron deposits more common because of the the water, which compares the dissolved solids
return of condensate to the boiler. in the feed water with the dissolved solids con-
tent of the circulating water. As an example, if These shall be recommended by the manu-
the feed water has a TDS of 100 ppm and the facturer of both the chemicals and the equipment
circulating water has a TDS of 300, a cycle of to ensure compatibility. The pH of the circulat-
concentration of 3 has been reached. The cycle ing water is usually controlled to a point near
of concentration is reduced by bleed off 7.5 to decrease its scale-forming tendency. The
(blowdown) from the system. addition of a dilute acid is the most often-used
method of control. A corrosion inhibitor often
Scale The basic treatment for scale in cooling- adds compounds that increase the tendency of
water systems is to add inhibitors that keep the scale to occur; therefore, a balance must be
scale from depositing on the walls of the pipe. reached.
They are similar to those used for boiler-water
treatment but with the addition of surfactants, Biological fouling Microbial control is achieved
which change the surface characteristics of the with the addition of biocides, either oxidizing or
pipe to prevent deposition and aid in removal if nonoxidizing depending on their chemistry and
deposits occur. killing action. Ozone is also commonly used.
Corrosion “Corrosion” can be broadly defined Biocide treatment is intended initially to

as an electrochemical process. Corrosion takes shock microbes with a heavy dose, then the con-
place when an electrical potential is possible be- centration of the compounds is allowed to fall to
tween two surfaces common to an electrolyte. a level of 25% of the initial dose. This is a gener-
The factors that impact on corrosion in aquatic ally accepted lower limit below which the biocide
systems include: is not considered effective. Often, because of the
presence of several different strains of microbes,
1. Dissolved oxygen. more than one biocide may be required. A con-
2. Total dissolved solids. tact time that must be approved by the chemical
manufacturer is required.
3. Alkalinity and pH.
These chemicals are added by means of a
4. Total hardness.
chemical feed pump discharging directly into the
5. Temperature. piping system. The levels must be closely moni-
tored with alarms established by performance
6. Flow velocity.
indicators based on operating experience.
7. Types of metal used in the process.
8. Condition of the interior surface of the plumb- Potable Water Treatment
ing system.
Water used for human consumption or intended
9. Extraneous electrical current. to be part of food products must be treated to
10. Bacteria. comply with the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA),
the Surface Water Treatment Rule (which is a
Simple tools used to predict the propensity
part of the SDWA), and local regulations. Sub-
of an aqueous solution to be corrosive are the
stances that affect the quality of potable water
Langelier, Stiff & Davis, and Ryznar indexes.
are classified in four major headings:
Corrosion treatments consist of:
1. Physical. Physical characteristics, such as
1. pH control.
color, turbidity, taste, and odor, are often re-
2. Chemical inhibitors. lated to the appearance of the water. Physical
3. Oxygen scavengers like hydrazine, sodium quality is usually corrected through the use
bisulfate, and morphine. of various types of filter.
4. Ensuring proper flow rates by correct size 2. Chemical. The chemical characteristics of
selection of metal pipe. water are related to dissolved minerals
(mostly hardness), gases, and organics. The
5. Sacrificial anode. chemical quality of water is adjusted by the
6. Polishing and passivation of interior surfaces. use of water softeners, ion exchange, RO
units, and activated charcoal units to remove
7. Biocide treatment. organic impurities.
3. Biological. These characteristics are con-
cerned with microorganisms that affect the 1. 21 CFR 210, current good manufacturing
health of the consumer. Biological treatment practice (cGMP) for drugs.
requires the use of biocides and biostats to
2. 21 CFR 211, cGMP for finished pharmaceu-
eliminate and reduce the number of micro-
ticals.
organisms present in the water and to create
a residual amount of the chemical to main- 3. USP/NF official water nomographs.
tain the required level of action required by 4. Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act.
code.
4. Radiological. This category is concerned pri- Laboratory Systems
marily with radon in areas where the water
may have come in contact with radioactive For laboratory work, all applications do not re-
substances. Retention and aeration lower the quire the same quality of water. The American
radon count to acceptable limits in approxi- Society of Testing Materials (ASTM), the College
mately 8 hours. of American Pathologists (CAP), the National
Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards
A synopsis of general treatment methods for (NCCLS), and the Association for the Advance-
small potable-water systems, including discus- ment of Medical Instrumentation (AAMI) have all
sion of general advantages and disadvantages,
developed standards for water used in laborato-
is given in Table 11-10.
ries depending on its intended use. These
standards are summarized in Tables 11-11
WATER PURIFICATION (ASTM), 11-12 (NCCLS), and 11-13 (AAMI). The
ASTM electronics-grade water standard is given
in Table 11-14 for reference only.
This section discusses pure water used for labo-
ratory and pharmaceutical purposes. The various There are three pure-water categories in the
systems are broadly defined and general guide- NCCLS specifications:
lines for pure water production, storage, and
distribution are provided. • Type I, called “reagent grade water,” is used
for analysis of trace matter and other critical
Ultra-pure water systems used in the pro- applications. It is the purest water covered
duction of food products and electronic industries by any written standard. This water is free
are considered process systems and are, there- from organic and inorganic impurities, sus-
fore, outside the scope of this chapter. For pended solids, and microorganisms.
information on suggested guidelines for water • Type II, called “analytical grade water,” is suit-
purity in the electronics industry, contact the able for all but the most critical procedures.
Semiconductor Equipment Manufacturers Insti-
tute, Mountain View, California. • Type III, called “general laboratory-grade wa-
ter,” is suitable for most qualitative analysis
A total water-treatment system consists of and equipment rinsing and as a supply for
three general, interrelated phases: pretreatment, generating type I water.
purification, and distribution (including post treat-
ment) of the purified water. Purification methods There are four basic applications where high-
include distillation, deionization, continuous purity water is needed in the biological
laboratory: (1) water for media used in growing
deionization, membrane filtration, and other ap-
tissue cultures, (2) water used in media formula-
proved processes. Water for injection (WFI) water
tions for growing bacteria and other procaryotes,
can only be produced by distillation or membrane
(3) water used to make buffer solutions that are
filtration. Ultra-pure water for specific applica-
tions is often made using pure water as feed water, used in enzymatic reactions, and (4) water used
which is then further purified to meet the specific to make solvent standards and reagents for vari-
ous types of analysis.
requirements at the point of use.
Another grade of water called “organic free
Codes and Standards water” is often required for trace analysis of vari-
ous impurities. It has no formal specification and
The required quality of purified water depends is required to have an organic purity greater than
on the application. Various codes have specifi- that required for type I.
cally defined water quality for use in various
industries. Among them are:
Table 11-10 Water-Treatment Technology for Small Potable Water Systems

Technology Advantages Disadvantages
Filtration
Slow sand Operational simplicity and reliability, Not suitable for water with high turbidity, requires
low cost, ability to achieve greater than large land areas.
99.9% Giardia cyst removal.
Diatomaceous earth Compact size, simplicity of operation, Most suitable for raw water with low bacterial
(septum filter) excellent cyst and turbidity removal. counts and low turbidity (<10 ntu), requires
coagulant and filter aids for effective virus removal,
potential difficulty in maintaining complete and
uniform thickness of diatomaceous earth on
filter septum.
Reverse-osmosis Extremely compact, automated. Little information available to establish design
membranes criteria or operating parameters, most suitable
for raw water with turbidity <1 ntu, usually
must be preceded by high levels of pretreatment,
easily clogged with colloids and algae, short filter
runs, concerns about membrane failure, complex
repairs of automated controls, high percent of
water lost in backflushing.
Rapid sand/ Compact, treat a wide range of water Chemical pretreatment complex, time-consuming;
direct filtration quality parameters and variable levels. cost.
package plants
Disinfection
Chlorine Very effective, has a proven history of Potential for harmful halogenated
protection against waterborne disease, byproducts under certain conditions.
widely used, variety of possible application
points, inexpensive, appropriate as both
primary and secondary disinfectant.
Ozone Very effective, no THMs formed. Relatively high cost, more complex operation
because it must be generated on-site, requires
a secondary disinfectant, other byproducts.
Ultraviolet Very effective for viruses and bacteria, Inappropriate for surface water, requires a
radiation readily available, no known harmful secondary disinfectant.
residuals, simple operation and
maintenance for high-quality waters.
Organic Contaminant Removal

Granular-activated Effective for a broad spectrum of organics. Spent carbon disposal.
carbon
Packed-tower aeration Effective for volatile compounds. Potential for air emissions issues.
Diffused aeration Effective for volatile compounds Clogging, air emissions, variable removal
and radionuclides. efficiencies.
Advanced oxidation Very effective. Byproducts.
Reverse osmosis Broad spectrum removal. Variable removal efficiencies, waste-water
disposal.
Inorganic Contaminant Removal

Reverse osmosis Highly effective. Expensive waste removal.
Ion exchange Highly effective. Expensive waste removal.
Activated alumina Highly effective. Expensive waste removal.
GAC Highly effective. Expensive waste removal.
Table 11-11 CAP and ASTM Reagent-Grade Water Specifications

CAP Type ASTM Type
I II III I II III IV
Spec. conductance (µmhos/cm) 0.1 0.5 10 0.056 1.0 0.25 5.0

Spec. resistance (MΩ · cm) 10 2.0 0.1 18 1.0 4 0.2
Silicate (µg/L) 50 100 1000 3 3 500 —
Heavy metals (µg/L) 10 10 10 — — — —
Total organic carbon (µg/L) — — — 100 50 200 —
Potassium permanganate reduction (min.) 60 60 60 — — — —
Sodium (µg/L) 100 100 100 1 5 10 50
Chlorides (µg/L) — — — 1 5 10 50
Hardness neg neg neg — — — —
Ammonia 0.1 0.1 0.1 — — — —
Bacterial growth (cfu/mL) 10 104 — a a a a
pH — — 5.0–8.0 — — — 5.0–8.0
CO2 (µg/L) 3 3 3 — — — —
a Microbiological contamination: When bacterial levels need to be controlled, reagent grade types should be further classified as follows:
Type A Type B Type C
Maximum heterotropic bacteria count 10/1000 mL 10/1000 mL 100/10 mL
Endotoxin, endotoxin unit (EU) <0.03 0.25 Not applicable
Table 11-12 Table 11-13

NCCLS Reagent-Grade Water Specifications AAMI/ANSI Water-Quality Standards
Characteristics Type I Type II Type III Suggested Maximum

Contaminant Level (mg/L)
Bacterial content
(colony-forming units Calcium 2 (0.1 meq/L)
per mL, maximum) 10a 1000 N/A Magnesium 4 (0.3 meq/L)
Sodium 70 (3 meq/L)
pH N/A N/A 5.0–8.0 Potassium 8 (0.2 meq/L)
Resistivity (25°C, MΩ/cm) 10 1.0 0.1 Fluoride 0.2
Chlorine 0.5
Silicate (mg/L max.) 0.05 0.1 0.1
Chloramines 0.1
a
Particulate matter 0.22-µm filter N/A N/A Nitrate (N) 2
Sulfate 100
Organicsb Activated carbon N/A N/A
Copper, barium, zinc 0.1 each
Source: Frankel 1996. Arsenic, lead, silver 0.005 each
a Preferably, type I water should be bacteria free. Chromium 0.014
b These specifications are process specifications and are not
Cadmium 0.001
Selenium 0.09
measured by the end user.
Aluminum 0.01
Additional purification may be reguired for selected clinical labora-
tory procedures, such as: Mercury 0.0002
1. Preparation of water with minimal pyrogen levels for cell Bacteria 200 (cfu/mL)
culture.
2. Preparation of bacteria-free water for direct fluorescent Source: Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumen-
detection of bacteria as in Legionella direct fluorescent antibody tation (AAMl), 1990, Hemodialysis Systems Standard. Adopted by
testing or direct fluorescent stains of mycobacteria. American National Standards Institute (ANSI), 1992.
3. Preparation of water with minimal organic content for Note: “meq/L” = mole equivalent/liter
HPLC.
Table 11-14 ASTM Electronics-Grade Water Standarda

Grade
Assay E-I E-II E-III E-IV
Resistivity, minimum >18.0a 17.5b 12 0.5

a
(MΩ · cm at 25°C) > 17.0 > 16.0b
SiO2 (total), max. (µg/L) 5 10 50 1000
Particle count (per mL) 1 3 10 100
Particle size limit (µm) 0.10 0.5 1.0 10
Viable bacteria, max. 1/1000 mL 10/1000 mL 10/1 mL 100/1 mL
Copper, max. (µg/L) 1 1 2 500
Zinc, max. (µg/L) 0.5 1 5 500
Nickel, max (µg/L) 0.1 1 2 500
Sodium, max. (µg/L) 0.5 1 5 1000
Potassium, max. (µg/L) 2 2 5 500
Chloride, max. (µg/L) 1 1 10 1000
Nitrate, max. (µg/L) 1 1 5 500
Phosphate, max. (µg/L) 1 1 5 500
Sulfate, max. (µg/L) 1 1 5 500
Total organic carbon, max. (µg/L) 25 50 300 1000
Endotoxins 0.03 EUc 0.25 EUc N/Ad N/Ad
Source: ASTM Standard D5127-90.

a Above 18ΩD · cm 95% of the time, not less than 17.
b 17.5 or greater 90% of the time, not less than 16.
c EU = Endotoxin unit.
d N/A = not applicable.
Pharmaceutical Systems of the various contaminants present in the feed-

water stream and of those to be removed.
The type of water used for pharmaceutical pur- Knowledge of the highest levels of contaminants
poses is called “USP” purified water. The name and the highest-purity water required cannot be
is derived from the United States Pharmacopoeia overemphasized. Unless these factors are well
(USP) specifications for purified water, with re- established, the selection of any treatment
visions to the specification made from time to method is impossible. A typical pharmaceutical
time based on current technology. There are two water-purification flow diagram is shown in Fig-
categories of water referred to: purified water (PW) ure 11-16.
and water for injection (WFI). The standard for
each is given in Table 11-15.
Feed Water
There are four basic technologies used to
produce pure water: ion exchange, distillation, Feed-water quality, which is source dependent,
membrane filtration and separation, and con- is the first parameter to be identified in the de-
tinuous deionization (CDI) or electrodeionization sign of a pure-water system. The source strongly
(EDI). The degree of treatment depends on the influences the pretreatment options and may
end-user requirements, the amount and nature dictate the treatment methods. A wide variation
in types and concentrations of impurities is pos- must also meet the 400 cfu/mL, the maximum
sible, depending on whether the feed water is value specified in USP XXII. Another requirement
obtained from a public utility or a private source, is that it shall contain no added substances. This
such as a well or other surface or ground-water is an issue that appears to be interpreted differ-
source. Surface waters are usually high in par- ently by individuals and organizations involved
ticulates, colloids, and organics. Underground in the design of PW systems. There are systems
waters tend to have low levels of particulates, presently in use that appear, from an overall
colloids, and organics and relatively high levels perspective, to violate this position. Items such
of calcium and magnesium hardness and alka- as the chlorination of raw water supplies, acid
linity (bicarbonates). Source water from addition to adjust pH, and the use of ozone to
agricultural areas often has high levels of ni- control microbial growth are subject to interpre-
trates, phosphates, and organic pesticides. Water tation. All of the concerns are resolved during
from public utilities has residual chlorine, fluo- the application phase for FDA approval and vali-
rides, and chlorimines as well as iron oxides and dation of the system.
other pipe-related impurities. It is important to
establish or obtain historical water analysis data Purification System Design
from different times and seasons of the year in
order to properly design a system with enough Specific methods of purification are capable of
flexibility to obtain the required purity under removing various types of impurities better than
worst-case conditions. others. None can be depended on to remove all
It is an FDA requirement that the feed water the impurities necessary to achieve the purity
for USP purified water and WFI systems meet level required for USP purified water. It is ac-
cepted practice to use a combination of
the EPA guidelines for potable water. Of particu-
technologies, each of which is designed to re-
lar concern is the microbial level. The water
move a specific type of impurity.
should be virtually free of coliform, which is a
pathogenic marker organism. The feed water The methods used to produce this water de-
pend on the feed water supplying the facility. In
most instances, that feed water has a high level
of some classes of contaminant. It is much more
economical to pretreat that water to remove the
bulk and/or the more concentrated of those im-
Table 11-15 USP XXII Purified-Water and
purities, then use the purification equipment to
WFI Water-Purity Standards “polish” the water to the desired purity level. In
Purified Water for some cases, the removal of individual impurities
Component Water Injection is necessary to allow the use of specific types of
purification equipment.
pH 5.0–7.0 5.0–7.0
Pretreatment Pretreatment is considered for
Chloride (mg/L) 0.5 0.5 two reasons:
Sulfate (mg/L) 1.0 1.0
1. Potential damage to the membrane selected.
Ammonia (mg/L) 0.1 0.1
Calcium (mg/L) 1.0 1.0 2. To increase membrane filtration quality.
Carbon dioxide (mg/L) 5.0 5.0 The need for pretreatment is determined by
Heavy metals (mg/L) 0.1 as Cu 0.1 as Cu an analysis of the raw water supply. The deci-
sion is generally governed by the cost efficiency
Oxidizable of the pretreatment method and whether the cost
Substances Pass USP Permanganate Test of purchasing and installing the pretreatment
equipment will reduce the initial cost of the main
Total solids (mg/L) 10.0 10.0
treatment equipment and lower the operating
Bacteria (cfu/mL) 100 50.0 cost of the system as a whole enough to justify
—FDA action limit 100 cfu/mL 10 cfu/100 mL its installation.
Pyrogen (EU/mL by LAL) — 0.25
Water temperature Membrane productivity
Source: Numerical values are interpretations of procedures listed (flux) is usually rated with feed water at 77°F
in the Standards in United States Pharmacopoeia, 22d ed. (25°C) and is inversely proportional to the feed-
Figure 11-16 Typical Pharmaceutical Water-Flow Diagram
water viscosity. When the water temperature is necessary. When using drinking water standards,
lower, additional membrane area is required. The this problem is rarely encountered.
flux increases with increased feed-water tempera-
ture. Heating the feed water lowers the viscosity. Filtration Filters are used to remove sus-
The water could be heated with a separate water pended solids originating from any source. If
heater or with a blending valve using domestic continuous production is required, a duplex ar-
hot water mixed with feed water to provide the rangement should be installed so that the filters
necessary temperature. can be backwashed or replaced with no inter-
ruption in service.
pH adjustment The selected membrane should
have an optimum pH operating range. To achieve Sand and multi-media filters A common initial
it, a dilute acid is injected into the feed water if method for gross particulate removal from
source water is a pressure multi-media sand microorganisms and TOC from the feed water
filter, used if the concentration of suspended prior to its reaching the RO units. Materials used
solids is greater than 0.2 ppm. If the concen- in the system must be compatible with these
tration is lower than that, a 5 to10-µm cartridge units. There is a reluctance to use any chemical
filter is often used. Experience has found that to remove microorganisms due to FDA restric-
cartridge replacement is uneconomical com- tions regarding adding chemicals to the feed
pared to backwashing. water. However, chlorine is commonly added to
disinfect the feed water because it is cost effec-
Cartridge filters These are used to remove lesser tive and can easily be removed by GAC filters.
amounts of particulates prior to the central pu-
rification equipment. It is generally accepted Biocide removal The most common source of
practice to provide an in-line 5-µm cartridge feed water for most facilities is potable water.
depth filter to eliminate any particulates that This water contains a residual amount of chlo-
would clog or interfere with the operation of the rine, which is necessary to comply with code for
central purification equipment. This filter is rec- drinking-water quality. To remove this residual
ommended if the SDI is less than 4 and generally chlorine, a granulated, activated-charcoal filter
required if the level is more than 4. If the level is is provided. An “organic trap” may also be re-
more than 4, an additional 1-µm cartridge filter quired if organics are very high.
is recommended downstream of the main filter.
In some locations, or on some feed waters, it is Central Purification Equipment
practical to use a sand, multimedia filter and a
cartridge filter (with the sand filter first). The basic methods used to produce high-purity
water are distillation, ion exchange, continuous
Carbon filtration Following the removal of gross deionization or electrodeionization, and reverse
particulates, a granulated carbon filter is pro- osmosis. The method used will depend on the
vided to remove residual disinfectants (chlorine, purity desired and limitations on initial or oper-
chlorimine, etc.), dissolved organics (oils, pesti- ating cost.
cides, surfactants, etc.), and suspended organics
(humic and fulvic acids, etc.). Storage The storage of water reduces the size
Flow rates through this filter are usually in of the purification equipment. Storage tanks are
constructed from fiberglass-reinforced plastic
the range of 1.0 to 4.0 gpm/ft2 (3.78 to 15.14 L/
with an internal vial suitable for the purpose,
min/0.093 m2) of filter area, depending on the
polypropylene (high-density or cross-linked with
quantity of organics and chlorimines in the en-
a minimum specific gravity of 1.5), polyethylene,
tering water. The higher the quality of water, the
slower the flow rate. and stainless steel (finish specified by user or
process). The bottom of the tank shall be dished
Problems of carbon filters are their tendency or conical to aid in complete drainage. It is an
to harbor microbial growth due to the removal of established fact that high-purity water degrades
chlorine. Frequent sanitizing is necessary, usu- in storage. Four major sources for this degrada-
ally with potassium permanganate, sodium tion are:
hydroxide, or steam. If steam is selected, the tank
should be constructed of 316L SS. 1. Water extract contamination from any con-
tainer.
Water softening If the hardness is high, it is 2. Bacteria grow and secrete waste products.
necessary to provide a water softener to reduce
the calcium and magnesium present to a level 3. Organics from solvents and shedding of cloth-
required by the membrane selected. Water soft- ing can diffuse through the air and dissolve
ening is recommended if the iron content exceeds in the water.
0.4 ppm. 4. Laboratory personnel secrete urea in perspi-
The softener is another device that harbors ration and respiration that can cause the
formation of ammonia in stored laboratory
microbial growth. Sanitizing with potassium per-
water.
manganate is generally used.
The tank for USP water should be airtight
Biological and TOC reduction UV units and and equipped with a non-shedding, 0.2-µm hy-
ozone generators are generally used to remove drophobic filter for venting. For WFI systems the
tank should be type 304L or 316L SS, pressure V = Velocity, fps (m/s)
rated to a minimum of 35 psig (241 kPa) pres- ID = Actual inside diameter, in. (mm)
sure and 30 in. (760 mm) Hg vacuum, 180 grit
and electro-polished. It is common practice to (Note: Check for actual ID of various
have a nitrogen gas blanket in the vapor space pipes based on schedules. Verify
above the water in the storage tank to reduce impact of various linings. Know the
the possibility of airborne contamination. The impact of surface finish inside pipe
tank shall have a jacket to maintain a tempera- being considered.)
ture of 177ºF (80°C) and be insulated and Pump selection can be made after pressure
provided with a rupture disk. losses are calculated through the entire system.
The discharge should be from the center bot- If a booster pump is required to keep the flow at
tom of the tank to allow complete circulation of the correct velocity, it is a far less costly invest-
the stored water. The water return should be at ment than fixing a contaminated piping system.
the top of the tank and be equipped with a spray The pipe shall be sloped at 8-in. (3.2
ball or spray ring. This minimizes microbial mm/m) pitch to allow complete drainage of the
growth by continuously washing the upper ar- network. Dead legs of more than 6 pipe diam-
eas of the tank. eters are not permitted by cGMP requirements.
To prevent future plastic pipe sagging from in-
Sterilization It is common practice to provide
terfering with drainage, continuous support is
an in-line UV sterilization device to reduce mi- recommended. Using PP as a baseline, PVDF is
croorganisms that may be present in the water. twice the cost and SS four times the cost in-
Another often-used method is to heat purified
stalled.
water to a temperature of 177°F (80°C) to pre-
vent microorganism growth, then circulate it to Valves shall be consistent with the piping ma-
maintain the sterile condition. Another possibil- terials. Prior to the RO or DI units, full-bore ball
ity is the installation of a filter that will remove valves are recommended. In the purified loop, use
any organic particulates. SS diaphragm valves with an EPDM or Teflon dia-
phragm and a backing ring. Provide sample valves
Piping distribution network The piping mate- (usually needle type) at strategic points in the sys-
rial for USP water should be fabricated from virgin tem to allow samples to be taken.
polypropylene (PP), polyvinylidene fluoride
(PVDF), or stainless steel (SS). Plastic pipe should Pumps for purified water should be of sani-
be butt-joint heat fused, and SS pipe should be tary design using a double mechanical seal with
orbital welded. Piping material for WFI water product water as the lubricant for the seals. WFI
should be SS, 180 grit, and electro-polished. Fit- pumps should be type 316L SS, 180 grit, and
tings shall have extended ends for orbital welding. electro-polished. A casing drain should be
All couplings shall be sanitary tri-clamp. Insula- provided.
tion shall be non-chloride bearing and designed
System design considerations USP/WFI wa-
for a temperature of 176°F (80°C). Velocity in the
ter is used in the pharmaceutical manufacturing
system should be approximately 6 to 9 fps (1.83
process and often becomes part of the product.
to 2.74 m/s) for supply from the storage tank to
Because of this, all aspects of the purification
the system and 3 to 6 fps (0.91 to 1.83 m/s) in
system and distribution network are subject to
the return leg. Piping system design and pump
inspection and validation by the FDA, which has
selection is critical to ensure the correct velocity
the responsibility to determine if the quality of
throughout the whole loop. The following is a “rule
water used is adequate.
of thumb” formula used to select the correct pipe
diameter: The FDA has specific guidelines for selection
of stills and RO equipment used for production
gpm (L/s) × 0.4085
V = of WFI. In contrast, PW systems can utilize dif-
ID2 ferent types of purification equipment, since the
or microbial and chemical quality can vary depend-
ing on the proposed use of the water.
gpm (L/s) × 0.4085 ½
ID =
V The purpose of any guidelines or standards is
to verify that all pertinent purity requirements of
where
the equipment and distribution system conform
to current good manufacturing practice (cGMP), 13. Nussbaum, O.J. 1992. Treating cooling water.
are capable of consistently producing water of the Heating, Piping, Air Conditioning Magazine. Feb-
required quality, and are capable of delivering ruary: 67-63.
water to the use point that meets the acceptance 14. Otten, Gerald. 1992. Measuring water purity by
criteria for water that comes in contact with prod- specific resistance. American Laboratory Maga-
uct. This investigation also includes verification zine July.
that the purification equipment selected is capable 15. Parekh, B.S. 1991. Get your process water to
of producing water of the required purity; that come clean. Chemical Engineering Magazine.
the quality of installation for the distribution net- January: 71-85.
work produces a piping network capable of 16. Sendelbach, M.G. 1988. Boiler water treatment.
delivering water of the required quality to all out- Chemical Engineering Magazine. August: 127-
lets; and that the continuing quality of system 132.
operation, maintenance, and ongoing testing will 17. Stenzel, Mark H. 1993. Remove organics by ac-
consistently provide water of the desired purity. tivated carbon adsorption. Chemical Engineering
Progress Magazine April: 36-43.
REFERENCES 18. Tanaka, T., et al. 1984. Disinfection of

escherichia coli by using water dissociation ef-
1. Blake, Richard T. Water treatment for HVAC and fect on ion exchange membranes. In Proceedings
potable water systems. New York: McGraw-Hill. of the European-Japan Congress on Membrane
and Membrane Processes, June.
2. Brown, J., N. Jayawardena, and Y. Zelmanovich.
1991. Water systems for pharmaceutical facili- 19. Yeh, K.L., and S.H. Lin. 1993. Looking to treat
ties. Pharmaceutical Engineering Magazine. July/ wastewater? Try ozone. Chemical Engineering
August: 14-23. Magazine. May: 113-116.
3. Cartwright, Peter S. 1994. Reverse osmosis and

nanofiltration system design. Plumbing Engineer.
March: 45-49.
4. Collentro, W.V. 1992. Pharmaceutical water
(Parts 1 & 2). Ultrapure Water Magazine, Novem-
ber/December.
5. Denoncourt and Egozy. 1986. Trace level analy-
sis of high purity water. Ultrapure Water Magazine
July/August.
6. Dow Chemical Corp. Water conditional manual.
7. Dunleavy, M. 1991. Membrane technologies in
the power industry. Paper presented at The Ninth
Annual Membrane Technology/Planning Confer-
ence and Second High-Tech Separations
Symposium, November, Newton, Massachusetts.
8. Frankel, M. 1996. Facility piping system hand-
9. Gorry, M., P. Amin, and D.W. Richardson, Sr.
1994. Take the guesswork out of demineralizer
design. Chemical Engineering Magazine. March:
112-116.
10. Janoschek, R., and G.C. du Moulin. 1994. Ul-
traviolet disinfection in biotechnology: Myth vs
practice. BioPharm Magazine, January/February:
24-27.
11. Meyrick, C.E. 1989. Practical design of a high-
purity water system. Pharmaceutical Engineering
Magazine. September/October: 20-27.
12. Nalco Chemical Co. The Nalco water handbook.
2d ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Chapter 12 — Special Waste Drainage Systems 327
12
Special-Waste
Drainage
Systems
INTRODUCTION systems and to Chapter 1 for information on

sanitary-drainage piping systems.
This chapter describes and discusses the collec-
tion and criteria necessary for the design of
various special-waste drainage systems for liq- CODES AND STANDARDS
uid effluent other than discharge from sanitary
and storm water sources. Except for the neu- There are two general jurisdictional bodies that
tralization of acid effluent, the treatment methods regulate different aspects of special-waste sys-
are outside the scope of this chapter. tems. The first are local and regional authorities,
who create and enforce plumbing and health
These systems are separated into categories codes. These include the local authorities charged
with similar characteristics rather than group- with the review and approval of plumbing sys-
ed as discharge from specific facilities. The tems’ design and discharge into the public sewer
systems discussed are: system. Although they are concerned with regu-
1. Acid-waste systems. lating the size and design of plumbing systems
within a building, they also restrict the intro-
2. Radioactive-waste systems. duction of any type of waste into the sanitary
3. Biological and infectious-waste systems. sewer that may degrade the public sewer piping
system or that is incapable of being easily treated
4. Chemical-waste systems.
in the public waste-treatment facility.
5. Fire-suppression water drainage.
The second, which have far more stringent
Each of these waste systems has unique regulations, are the various agencies concerned
properties that must be separately addressed. with protecting workers, the public, and the
These systems generally route the waste from environment from the discharge of toxic sub-
fixtures and equipment into a facility waste-treat- stances. Included in this group are federal,
ment system, with the treated effluent state, and local authorities responsible for pre-
discharging directly into the public sanitary- venting toxic discharge of any substances
drainage sewer system. Very often, untreated considered harmful into the general environ-
waste is stored on site and collected by approved ment, public sewers, and public treatment
waste-removal contractors for disposal. systems. Such discharges can occur either as
Unless specifically noted otherwise, all of the a result of spills and accidents or by deliber-
waste streams are assumed to have the approxi- ate, illegal discharge. To prevent such
mate flow characteristics of water. Pipe sizing discharge, it is common practice for these agen-
criteria are based on this assumption. cies to inspect facilities, mandate on-site facility
treatment systems, and require the use of
Refer to Chapter 4 of this volume of the Data double-wall piping and leak detection to pre-
Book for information on storm-drainage piping vent and mitigate any leakage from piping.
Other regulations, such as current good manu- PIPE MATERIAL AND JOINT
facturing practice (cGMP) from the Food and SELECTION CONSIDERATIONS
Drug Administration (FDA), the regulations of
the federal Environmental Protection Agency Important factors in the selection of appropriate
(EPA), and facility validation protocols, are con- pipe material, gaskets, jointing methods, and
stantly being revised due to technological and other piping components for any special drain-
design changes. age system are cost, temperature of the effluent,
It is recommended that the services of an the kind of chemicals, and the concentration of
experienced environmental consultant, who is fa- each that will enter the pipe. For some systems,
miliar with the latest applicable rules and the smoothness of the pipe interior or the lack of
regulations and their interpretations, be con- a crud trap are also important factors. This also
sulted for system compliance with the maze of applies to any associated vent system.
regulations. Selection is accomplished by first establish-
ing the flow rate, temperature range, and
concentration and composition of all effluent and
SYSTEM APPROVAL chemicals that are expected. All pipe manufac-
REQUIREMENTS turers have published chemical compatibility
charts that give the effects of various chemicals
There is a distinction between drainage efflu- on that particular pipe and recommendations for
ent that can be “locally” treated within a building acceptance using these chemicals. For conditions
(such as by biological waste sterilization, pH ad- not listed on these charts, the designer should
justment of chemical waste, or oil separation) make direct contact with the manufacturer of
and other effluent that requires a larger and the material creating the anticipated conditions
more complex waste-treatment system outside and ask for technical assistance.
a building on site. Acceptance of such local treat-
ment can be obtained only after conferences When the compatibility of various pipe systems
with the authorities responsible for issuing con- is the same, the total installed cost and possible
tamination limits for such a discharge. If the ease of assembly are the deciding factors.
local treatment system provides the appropri-
ate level of contaminant removal, direct
discharge into the public sanitary sewer is ac-
PIPE SIZING CONSIDERATIONS
ceptable. If the levels of contaminant removal
are beyond the capability of such local treat- System design is concerned only with the ad-
ment, a more sophisticated system that equacy of the pipe to carry away the design flow.
demonstrates removal of contaminants to the System configuration usually requires that traps
levels desired by the authority having jurisdic- be provided on fixtures and floor drains and that
tion must be chosen. the venting system conform to good plumbing
design practice, which limits the pressure inside
Any special drainage system effluent routed the system. All the elements of system design
for treatment inside a facility or on site does are left to the judgment of the design engineer.
not require examination or approval by the lo-
cal plumbing official. If any effluent is routed to The various plumbing codes generally use
the public sewer system for eventual treatment, only satisfactory performance as a sizing guide
however, the discharge must conform with lo- for special-waste system pipe sizing, compared
cal regulations for maximum concentrations of to specific drainage requirements mandated for
any contaminant or pH levels. If the only re- sizing sanitary drainage systems. A common ex-
quired method of treatment is pH adjustment ception is for laboratory fixtures, which may
prior to discharging into the building sanitary require that the drainage and vent systems be
drainage system or public sewer system, most sized on a fixture-unit basis.
authorities have requirements for acid drain- The reason for the lack of code requirements
age systems that must be followed. A pH value is that special drainage systems do not have a
of 4.0 is generally viewed as the lowest accept- predictable or documented usage history, as do
able level for direct discharge into a public sewer standard plumbing fixtures in sanitary drainage
system. systems. Equipment drainage, spills, discharge
from production facilities, and discharge from
fixtures within the facilities are not always changes in one ion concentration produce corre-
planned. They occur mostly at random intervals sponding changes in the other. The pH value is
dictated by cleaning, production, maintenance calculated from the logarithmic reciprocal of the
schedules, and, often, accidents. hydrogen ion concentration in water. The pH scale
ranges from 0 to 14, with 0 being acid and 14
In addition, special drainage systems that are
being alkaline; 7.0 is neutral. A change of one
completely within the property of the facility do
unit represents a tenfold increase (or decrease) in
not fall under plumbing code requirements for
strength. pH is not a measure of alkalinity.
piping size or design, although they may fall
under the jurisdiction of agencies such as the
EPA. Because of these factors, the special drain- GENERAL SYSTEM DESIGN
age piping system is sized on the basis of “good CONSIDERATIONS
engineering practice,” which uses system slope,
composition of the effluent, and expected flow It is good practice to separate each of the differ-
rates rather than fixture units. ent systems inside the facility or building to a
From each point in the system, the flow rate point outside the building so that the individual
and pitch of the piping must be known to size services can be isolated and allowed to be tested
the pipe. Pipe size should be determined based and sampled as may be required in the future
on the following criteria: by any local or national authority. Another rea-
son is that the system may, at some point in the
1. Effluent has the characteristics of water. (If future, require separate treatment because of a
the effluent contains large concentrations of new substance that may be discharged.
solids, the pitch should be adjusted accord-
ingly.) One of the more constant aspects of special
drainage systems is future change. In time, the
2. The drainage system is sized on the basis of
processes will change, equipment will be more
gravity drainage and maintenance of a mini-
efficient, facilities will become larger, and tech-
mum velocity of 2 feet per second (fps) (0.61
nology will be improved so that the effluent will
m/s), using the anticipated maximum flow
be different than it is at the time a system is origi-
rate and pitch of the pipe at each point of
nally designed. This change must be allowed for.
design and a maximum velocity of 10 fps
It is common practice to size the drain one size
(3.05 m/s) if the waste contains any solids.
larger than the design figures indicate or not to
3. Gravity drainage pipe size is based on flow size the drain line to the exact point on the sizing
rate, slope, and velocity. Refer to Table 12-1 chart indicated by the figures, especially where
to find the velocity and size of pipe based on there is a probability of future expansion.
flow rate and slope. Depending on the sys-
Consideration should be given to selecting a
tem, piping should be sized to flow between
½ to ¾ full to allow for unexpected larger pipe size slightly larger than that required for
discharges, future changes, and accidents. the immediate flow rate or a material capable of
resisting a greater selection of chemicals than
necessary at the time of design. This must be
pH DEFINITION verified with the client, of course, to ensure that
the extra cost incurred by these options is ac-
Any dissolved impurity in water separates to form ceptable.
negatively and positively charged atoms called
“ions.” Negative ions are called “cations” because
they migrate to the cathode, and positive ions ACID-WASTE DRAINAGE AND VENT
are called “anions” because they migrate to the SYSTEMS
anode.
General
All acid compounds consist of hydrogen com-
bined with an acid radical. In a mixture of acid An acid-waste drainage system collects and
and water, hydrogen ions result. pH is a measure- transports liquid wastes with a pH lower than
ment of the hydrogen ion concentration of a 7.0 from laboratory fixtures, equipment, and all
solution. Since the balance of hydroxyl (cation) areas of a facility for discharge into an appropri-
and hydrogen (anion) ions must be constant, ate treatment facility or the sanitary drainage
Table 12-1 Drainage Pipe Sizing

Grade 1Ñ2 Full 2Ñ3 Full Full
Pipe
size Discharge Velocity Discharge Velocity Discharge Velocity
(in.) (in./ft) (%) (gpm) (cfs) (ft/s) (gpm) (cfs) (ft/s) (gpm) (cfs) (ft/s)
2 c 1.0 7 0.02 1.3 10 0.02 1.5 13 0.03 1.3

3 2.1 9 0.02 1.8 14 0.03 2.0 18 0.04 1.8
2 4.2 14 0.03 2.9 22 0.05 3.2 28 0.06 2.9
1 8.3 20 0.05 4.0 32 0.07 4.5 40 0.09 4.0
3 c 1.0 18 0.04 1.7 29 0.06 1.9 36 0.08 1.7
3 2.1 26 0.06 2.4 41 0.09 2.7 51 0.11 2.4
2 4.2 40 0.09 3.7 64 0.14 4.1 80 0.18 3.7
1 8.3 57 0.13 5.3 90 0.20 5.9 114 0.25 5.3
4 c 1.0 39 0.09 2.0 61 0.13 2.2 77 0.17 2.0
3 2.1 55 0.13 2.8 87 0.20 3.1 110 0.25 2.8
2 4.2 87 0.20 4.5 138 0.31 5.0 174 0.39 4.5
1 8.3 123 0.28 6.3 194 0.44 7.1 245 0.55 6.3
6 0.5 79 0.18 1.8 124 0.28 2.0 157 0.35 1.8
c 1.0 1 10 0.25 2.5 174 0.39 2.8 220 0.49 2.5
1.5 135 0.30 3.1 213 0.47 3.5 269 0.60 3.1
3 2.1 157 0.35 3.6 248 0.55 4.0 314 0.70 3.6
2.5 175 0.39 4.0 277 0.62 4.5 350 0.78 4.0
d 3.1 193 0.43 4.4 305 0.68 4.9 386 0.86 4.4
3.5 207 0.46 4.7 327 0.73 5.3 413 0.92 4.7
2 4.2 225 0.50 5.0 355 0.79 5.6 449 1.00 5.0
e 5.2 247 0.55 5.6 391 0.87 6.3 494 1.10 5.6
: 6.3 270 0.60 6.1 426 0.95 6.8 539 1.20 6.1
f 7.3 292 0.65 6.6 461 1.03 7.4 583 1.30 6.6
8 0.2 108 0.24 1.6 170 0.38 1.8 215 0.48 1.6
0.4 153 0.34 2.0 241 0.54 2.2 305 0.68 2.0
0.6 191 0.43 2.4 302 0.67 2.7 382 0.85 2.4
0.8 236 0.53 2.9 372 0.83 3.2 471 1.05 2.9
c 1.0 247 0.55 3.2 391 0.87 3.6 494 1.10 3.2
1.5 303 0.68 3.8 479 1.07 4.3 606 1.35 3.8
3 2.1 348 0.78 4.5 550 1.22 5.0 696 1.55 4.5
2.5 392 0.88 4.9 621 1.38 5.5 785 1.75 4.9
d 3.1 427 0.95 5.4 674 1.50 6.0 853 1.90 5.4
3.5 449 1.00 5.8 710 1.58 6.5 893 2.00 5.8
2 4.2 494 1.10 6.2 780 1.74 6.9 987 2.20 6.2
4.5 516 1.15 6.6 816 1.82 7.4 1032 2.30 6.6
10 0.2 211 0.47 1.7 334 0.74 1.9 422 0.94 1.7
0.4 303 0.68 2.4 479 1.1 2.7 606 1.35 2.4
0.6 359 0.80 2.9 568 1.3 3.2 718 1.60 2.9
0.8 438 0.98 3.5 692 1.5 3.9 875 1.95 3.5
c 1.0 472 1.05 3.8 745 1.7 4.3 943 2.10 3.8
1.5 561 1.25 4.5 887 2.0 5.0 1122 2.50 4.5
3 2.1 651 1.45 5.3 1029 2.3 5.9 1302 2.90 5.3
2.5 741 1.65 5.7 1170 2.6 6.4 1481 3.30 5.7
d 3.1 808 1.80 6.4 1277 2.8 7.2 1616 3.60 6.4
3.5 853 1.90 6.8 1348 3.0 7.6 1706 3.80 6.8
Table 12-1 (M) Drainage Pipe Sizing

Grade 1Ñ2 Full 2Ñ3 Full Full
Pipe
size Discharge Velocity Discharge Velocity Discharge Velocity
(mm) (cm/m) (%) (L/s) (m3/s) (m/s) (L/s) (m3/s) (m/s) (L/s) (m3/s) (m/s)
50 1.04 1.0 0.44 0.57 0.40 0.63 0.57 0.46 0.82 0.85 0.40
2.08 2.1 0.57 0.57 0.55 0.88 0.85 0.61 1.14 1.13 0.55
4.16 4.2 0.88 0.85 0.88 1.39 1.42 0.98 1.77 1.70 0.88
8.32 8.3 1.26 1.42 1.22 2.02 1.98 1.37 2.52 2.55 1.22
80 1.04 1.0 1.14 1.13 0.52 1.83 1.70 0.58 2.27 2.27 0.52
2.08 2.1 1.64 1.70 0.73 2.59 2.55 0.82 3.22 3.12 0.73
4.16 4.2 2.52 2.55 1.13 4.04 3.96 1.25 5.05 5.10 1.13
8.32 8.3 3.60 3.68 1.62 5.68 5.66 1.80 7.19 7.08 1.62
100 1.04 1.0 2.46 2.55 0.61 3.85 3.68 0.67 4.86 4.81 0.61
2.08 2.1 3.47 3.68 0.85 5.49 5.66 0.94 6.94 7.08 0.85
4.16 4.2 5.49 5.66 1.37 8.71 8.78 1.52 10.98 11.04 1.37
8.32 8.3 7.76 7.93 1.92 12.24 12.46 2.16 15.46 15.58 1.92
150 0.5 4.98 5.10 0.55 7.82 7.93 0.61 9.91 9.91 0.55
1.04 1.0 6.94 7.08 0.76 10.98 11.04 0.85 13.88 13.88 0.76
1.5 8.52 8.50 0.94 13.44 13.31 1.07 16.97 16.99 0.94
2.08 2.1 9.91 9.91 1.10 15.65 15.58 1.22 19.81 19.82 1.10
2.5 11.04 11.04 1.22 17.48 17.56 1.37 22.09 22.09 1.22
3.12 3.1 12.18 12.18 1.34 19.25 19.26 1.49 24.36 24.36 1.34
3.5 13.06 13.03 1.43 20.63 20.67 1.62 26.06 26.05 1.43
4.16 4.2 14.20 14.16 1.52 22.40 22.37 1.71 28.33 28.32 1.52
5.2 5.2 15.59 15.58 1.71 24.67 24.64 1.92 31.17 31.15 1.71
6.3 6.3 17.04 16.99 1.86 26.88 26.90 2.07 34.01 33.98 1.86
7.3 7.3 18.43 18.41 2.01 29.09 29.17 2.26 36.79 36.82 2.01
200 0.2 6.81 6.80 0.49 10.73 10.76 0.55 13.57 13.59 0.49
0.4 9.65 9.63 0.61 15.21 15.29 0.67 19.25 19.26 0.61
0.6 12.05 12.18 0.73 19.06 18.97 0.82 24.10 24.07 0.73
0.8 14.89 15.01 0.88 23.47 23.51 0.98 29.72 29.74 0.88
1.04 1.0 15.59 15.58 0.98 24.67 24.64 1.10 31.17 31.15 0.98
1.5 19.12 19.26 1.16 30.22 30.30 1.31 38.24 38.23 1.16
2.08 2.1 21.96 22.09 1.37 34.71 34.55 1.52 43.92 43.90 1.37
2.5 24.74 24.92 1.49 39.19 39.08 1.68 49.53 49.56 1.49
3.12 3.1 26.94 26.90 1.65 42.53 42.48 1.83 53.82 53.81 1.65
3.5 28.33 28.32 1.77 44.80 44.75 1.98 56.35 56.64 1.77
4.16 4.2 31.17 31.15 1.89 49.22 49.28 2.10 56.60 62.30 1.89
4.5 32.56 32.57 2.01 51.49 51.54 2.26 65.12 65.14 2.01
250 0.2 13.31 13.31 0.52 21.08 20.96 0.58 26.63 26.62 0.52
0.4 19.12 19.26 0.73 30.22 31.15 0.82 38.24 38.23 0.73
0.6 22.65 22.66 0.88 35.84 36.82 0.98 45.31 45.31 0.88
0.8 27.64 27.75 1.07 43.67 42.48 1.19 55.21 55.22 1.07
1.04 1.0 29.78 29.74 1.16 47.01 48.14 1.31 59.50 59.47 1.16
1.5 35.40 35.40 1.37 55.97 56.64 1.52 70.80 70.80 1.37
2.08 2.1 41.08 41.06 1.62 64.93 65.14 1.80 82.16 82.13 1.62
2.5 46.76 46.73 1.74 73.83 73.63 1.95 93.45 93.46 1.74
3.12 3.1 50.98 50.98 1.95 80.58 79.30 2.19 101.97 101.95 1.95
3.5 53.82 53.81 2.07 85.06 84.96 2.32 107.65 107.62 2.07
system after local treatment. The vent system For the laboratory environment, emergency
equalizes flow in the drainage system in the same showers shall be provided immediately outside
manner it does in a sanitary drainage system. every room. Where rooms are adjacent, a single
shower is acceptable. Floor drains are not re-
For the purposes of this chapter, acid waste
quired but prevent the floor surrounding the
is divided into two general categories: laboratory
shower from becoming wet and hazardous. Ev-
waste and industrial waste. Laboratory waste
ery room shall have an emergency eyewash inside
consists primarily of dilute and concentrated
the room, usually mounted on a sink or free
mixtures of liquid chemical substances of min-
standing if sink mounting is not practical.
eral and organic origin and water. Many types of
acid are usually present. Laboratory waste is Where vapor is possible, fog nozzles that use
discharged from sinks, cup sinks, fume hoods, water to suppress the vapor and foam systems to
and other similar fixtures and equipment. Dis- prevent vapor from rising should be considered.
charge from floor drains, autoclaves, and glass
washers, and condensed water from various Common Types of Acid
sources are also included.
Acid waste from industrial facilities consists Acids are widely used chemicals in the chemical
processing industry. The most commonly used
of waste from accidental spills originating from
acids are:
tanks and piping, and anticipated waste dis-
charged from equipment into drains. Very often, Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) Sulfuric acid, among the
the drainage piping has to carry any of the ac- most commonly used acids, is commercially
ids used as part of the process. Where spills available in many concentrations and as vari-
are directed into holding tanks, the drainage ous percentages of oleum. “Oleums” are sulfuric
piping, tanks, pumps, and piping necessary to acids containing sulfur trioxide dissolved in the
convey the effluent to treatment facilities is acid, which are called “fuming” grades. Gener-
normally part of the plumbing engineer’s really recommended piping materials for these
sponsibility. acids at low temperatures (140°F [60°C] and
The most important considerations in the se- lower) and up to 90% concentration are PVC
lection of piping, valves, drains, and tanks for acid (polyvinyl chloride), CPVC, PP, PVDF, ETFE, and
are the concentration and temperature of the acid. HDPE plastic; glass; alloy 20; duriron; and FRP
Acid waste water from chemical and other facili- (fiberglass-reinforced plastic) piping with special
ties must be neutralized to a pH of 4.0 or higher resins. At 90% and higher concentrations, car-
prior to discharge into the sanitary system. bon steel schedule 80 is often used. Stainless
steel is generally unsuitable, except for olium
with less than 10.3% concentration. Vent lines
Health and Safety Concerns
should be of the same material used for the drain
All grades and concentrations of acids can cause line.
severe damage to the eyes and tissues of the body. Valve types include ball, gate, and dia-
Contact with the eyes can cause blindness. Con- phragm, with gate valves being the most
tact with the skin causes irritation and burns. commonly used. For low pressures and tempera-
Inhaling the mist or vapors can cause lung irri- tures suitable for specific plastic pipes, plastic
tation or burns. Ingestion destroys tissues of the is often used. For higher temperatures and pres-
mouth, throat, and stomach. sures, alloy 20 is preferred. In all cases, because
Extreme care should be exercised in the han- of differences in manufacturing, pipe vendors
dling and cleanup of all acids. This mandates should be consulted as to the suitability of ma-
that emergency drench equipment be provided terials for specific acid piping service.
immediately adjacent to all hazards and loca- Centrifugal pumps constructed of SS alloy
tions where spills and other accidents could 320 with Teflon packing are in common use.
occur. If several people are normally present at Other manufacturers use FRP and plastic
a hazardous location, multiple pieces of drench pumps. Also available are metallic pumps lined
equipment should be provided. Where fumes may with plastic or glass. Temperature limits should
be given off, emergency breathing apparatus be carefully checked for material suitability.
must be provided.
Spills of concentrated acids from tanks onto soda should not be used because hydrochloric
floors and equipment should be washed off and acid reacts with this chemical.
flooded with water, which is then routed to the
acid drainage system for neutralization. Tanks Nitric acid (HNO3) Nitric acid is available in
that contain this spillage should be of a suitable three grades, designated by the percent of con-
plastic. Since water reacts rapidly with the acid centration by weight: 56–70, 70–84, and
and splatters, caution should be exercised. Heat 97.5–100%.
and fumes are also given off. Breathing the fumes Recommended pressure piping material for
causes throat and lung injury. Where this situa- concentrations up to 95% is 304L SS. Above this
tion is possible, suitable emergency breathing concentration, aluminum piping is recommended.
apparatus should be provided. An emergency Pumps for concentrations up to 95% should be
shower should be provided in the immediate vi- constructed of 304L SS. Above this concentra-
cinity of acid storage and pipe routing. tion, titanium, aluminum type 3003 or silicon iron
Sulfuric acid is nonflammable, but it is highly are commonly used. Recommended materials for
reactive. Below a concentration of 75% it reacts gate, ball, plug, and globe valves are 347 SS or
with carbon steel and other metals to form hy- 304L SS. Drain lines should be glass.
drogen. It is particularly hazardous when in Precautions and procedures for spills and
contact with carbides, chlorates, nitrates, ful- safety and health concerns are similar to those
minates, picrates, and powdered metals. In for sulfuric acid, except that temperature and
higher concentrations it will ignite combustible humidity have an effect on the reaction of nitric
materials, such as oily rags and sawdust. Dry acid on such metals as copper, brass, and zinc.
chemicals or carbon dioxide are the fire-suppres- Nitric acid reacts violently with organic sub-
sion methods of choice. stances, occasionally causing explosions. A
Because of the danger of fumes, oleum spills self-contained breathing apparatus is required
should be contained by curbs and the liquid di- for approaching spills because of the emission
verted away from the area of a spill to a of nitrogen oxides, commonly called “nitrous
containment area, where the liquid can be neu- fumes,” which are extremely hazardous.
tralized. The resulting liquid should be absorbed
Hydrobromic acid (Hbr) Hydrobromic acid is
with diatomaceous earth, expanded clay, or other
commercially available in two concentrations: 70
nonreactive material. This material should be
and 99.95%.
carted away for suitable disposal.
Recommended pressure piping materials are
Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) Phosphoric acid is glass and rubber-lined steel pipe, PVC, PE (poly
available in concentrations of between 75 and ethylene), and PTFE (polytetrafloroethylene). In
87%. Recommended pressure piping is SS type addition to the pressure piping, glass pipe could
316 extra low carbon (ELC). The drainage and be used for drainage. Valves are often ball and
vent piping, valves, and pumps are similar to plug type with PVC, PE, and PTFE lining. Rub-
those used for sulfuric acid. The Occupational ber-lined pinch valves are commonly used.
Safety and Hazard Administration (OSHA) has Pumps are similar to those used for sulfuric acid,
limits for human exposure to this acid. with the addition of Hasteloy B material.
Precautions for spills and safety and health Precautions and procedures for spills and
concerns are similar to those for sulfuric acid. safety and health concerns are similar to those
for phosphoric acid, but the vapors are much
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) Hydrochloric acid, also
more hazardous. This acid reacts with metals
known as “muriatic acid,” is available in four
and produces explosive hydrogen gas.
strengths, designated as degrees Baume (an
equivalent notation of specific gravity). Perchloric acid (HClO4) Perchloric acid is avail-
Piping materials for drainage and vent pip- able in a concentration of 69–72% strength and
ing, valves, and pumps are similar to those used is the strongest of all the inorganic acids.
for sulfuric acid. Precautions and procedures for Recommended pressure piping materials are
spills and safety and health concerns are simi- glass and PTFE. Drain lines can be glass or
lar to those for sulfuric acid, except that caustic duriron. Valves are often ball-and-plug type
manufactured from PTFE and duriron. Pumps
manufactured from PTFE are the most commonly ter, such as is discharged from air compressors
used. and other condensate drains, can also spill into
the laboratory drainage system when convenient.
Precautions and procedures for spills and
Because of possible stoppages that could flood
safety and health concerns are similar to those
all the piping, the entire laboratory waste sys-
for phosphoric acid, except that, when heated to
tem shall be of the same acid-resistant piping
150°F (69°C), perchloric acid can cause objects
material.
not normally considered combustible, such as
rubber gloves and human skin, to burst into Where the only waste discharge is from labo-
flames. ratory fixtures, the use of fixture-unit schedules
for pipe sizing is acceptable, except that simul-
Selection of Laboratory Waste Piping taneous use should be factored into the sizing
and Joint Material process. When the effluent is expressed in gal-
lons per minute (gpm) (liters per second [L/s])
The majority of the effluent from an “average” from a known discharge, base the size on this
laboratory consists primarily of water and acid. gpm (L/s) and the equivalent gpm (L/s) from the
If toxic to the staff, chemicals used for experi- fixtures. The pipe shall be sized using the pitch
ments are usually confined to fume hoods. The and a ¾-full pipe.
designer should obtain information regarding the
The laboratory drainage and vent system
extent and concentration of all the chemicals
shall be separate from all other systems until
expected to be used in the laboratory from the
the effluent is adequately treated; it may then
end user. be combined on the site with other waste lines.
The most cost-effective above-the-floor pip- If a manhole is required in the acid waste line, it
ing from laboratory fixtures is generally should be acid resistant. A typical acid-resistant
fire-retardant polypropylene with either heat- manhole is illustrated in Figure 12-1.
fused socket or “screwed mechanical” type joints.
Other acceptable materials are glass with com- Acid Waste Treatment
pression joints and high-silicon cast iron with
caulked or compression gasket joints. Although All acid waste requires neutralization to a pH of
PVC and CPVC have the lowest initial cost, they between 7.5 and 4.0 before it is permitted to be
also have a limited range of chemical compat- discharged into any public sewer for disposal.
ibility, with PVC having a low temperature rating. Commonly accepted practice permits local au-
PTFE is resistant to the widest variety of chemi- thorities to allow primary-treated effluent to
cals and has the highest temperature rating and discharge directly into the public sanitary sewer
highest cost. system after only pH treatment. The most often-
used primary procedures are direct, continuous
Piping underground, subject to local codes,
contact with limestone chips in an acid-neutral-
could also be polypropylene with heat-fused socket
izing basin or continuous or batch treatment in
joints or high-silicon cast iron with compression
an automated neutralization system utilizing
gasket joints. Glass piping should be encased in
chemical feed neutralizing.
a sleeve of polyethylene for protection.
An acid-neutralizing basin operates on the
Vent pipe shall be the same material as the
principle of a chemical reaction between the acid
drain pipe. The vent shall be carried up to above
and the limestone chips. Each basin shall be
the roof level. Vent piping penetrating the roof
designed by the manufacturer to allow sufficient
shall not be glass. An adapter should be used
contact time for the chemical reaction to accom-
and any other acceptable acid-resistant pipe ma-
plish complete neutralization based on the
terial should be provided through the penetration.
maximum flow rate anticipated. Average figures
show that 100 lb (45 kg) of limestone chips treat
System Design Considerations 97 lb (44 kg) of sulfuric acid and 75 lb (34 kg) of
hydrochloric acid. Effluent consisting mostly of
General system design considerations for the sulfuric acid should be treated with dolomite
laboratory drainage system shall be the same as limestone chips.
those for the sanitary drainage system, includ-
ing placement of cleanouts. Each fixture shall For general laboratory waste, several meth-
be individually trapped and vented. Clean wa- ods of treatment using limestone chips are
Figure 12-1 Typical Acid-Resistant Manhole

available. For single isolated sinks, an acid-neu- can coat individual chips and prevent proper
tralizing trap should be considered. For a small chemical action to neutralize the acid.
number of sinks in a cluster, a shelf-mounted,
For a larger number of fixtures or equip-
small-diameter basin could be used. It should
ment and where treatment by limestone chips
be confined to treating the discharge of acids from
alone is not practical, a system consisting of
a small number of fixtures and in remote loca-
single or multiple basins and/or a mixing tank
tions or for individual sinks where the timely
should be installed. If this is located at a low
maintenance needed to fill the basin may be
level, a pump is required to bring the discharge
questionable. Larger basins, such as the one il-
up to the level of the sewer. A sophisticated ar-
lustrated in Figure 12-2, are available to treat
rangement of probes, chemical feed pumps, level
the effluent from a large number of laboratory
indicators, and alarms is required. An agitator
sinks. If the discharge of oil or grease is expected
or mixer may be installed in the basin to mix
in the laboratory waste stream, the installation
the acid with the caustic. The addition of a re-
of an interceptor basin before the acid sump is
corder may be desired. The acid-neutralizing
recommended. Some objectionable contaminants
Figure 12-2 Typical Large Acid-Neutralizing Basin

system operates on the principle of automati- The requirements for handling radioisotopes
cally adding proper amounts of caustic to the in laboratories are essentially no different than
incoming acid waste, thereby neutralizing the the requirements for handling toxic chemicals
acid. The probe is connected to an automatic or pathogens, with the exception of providing
caustic feed pump that introduces the proper radiation shielding if necessary. The ideal goal
amount of neutralizing liquid into the basin or is to totally eliminate the exposure of workers,
mixing tank. The most commonly used neutral- staff, and the general public. Since this is not
izing chemical is caustic soda. Continuous realistic, it is required not only to prevent over-
treatment may also require additional down- exposure but to keep any exposure to radiation
stream sensing probes and chemical additive as low as is reasonably achievable. The design
locations to ensure that the discharge is within shall implement criteria that eliminate or reduce
acceptable limits. Figure 12-3 illustrates a typi- to allowable levels the radiation exposure of work-
cal continuous waste-treatment system. Various ers and maintenance personnel and prevent
manufacturers have numerous proven and suc- exposure of the general public to unacceptable
cessful methods of acid treatment. amounts of radiation by waterborne radioactive
waste (“radwaste”).
It is good engineering practice to have the
discharge from the neutralizer separately routed
into the sanitary house drain outside of a build- The Nature of Radiation
ing for dilution prior to discharge into the public
“Radioactivity” is the spontaneous emission of
sewer. This may also be necessary in order for
local authorities to monitor the waste stream “harmful” particles from the unstable nucleus of
without having to enter a building. an atom. There are many intermediate steps in
the stabilization cycle, including the formation
For preliminary determination of the num- of other, less complex, radioactive byproducts
ber of sinks required for average laboratories, called “isotopes.” These byproducts, in turn, de-
allow 1 sink for each 200 ft2 (18.6 m2) of labora- cay to form other unstable isotopes as the cycle
tory area. Each sink will discharge 1 gpm (3.8 continues. The end result is an element that is
L/min). Cup sinks will discharge 0.5 gpm (1.9 highly stable. For example, the end product of
L/min). For a maximum flow rate, assume that uranium is lead. One of the intermediate byprod-
50% of the sinks could discharge simultaneously. ucts of uranium is radon.
“Radiation” is a general term that means any
RADIOACTIVE WASTE DRAINAGE or all of the following; alpha rays, beta rays,
AND VENT SYSTEM gamma rays, neutrons, x-rays, and other atomic
particles. There are three general classifications
General of radiation of concern, namely, alpha, beta, and
gamma. Alpha radiation is actually a helium atom
Commercial facilities can be characterized by low with a high velocity. Beta radiation is an elec-
quantities and levels of radioactive waste, and tron with a high velocity. Gamma radiation is a
therefore, have a lesser set of regulatory require- particle similar to a photon, which is light. Al-
ments than nuclear power plants. Because of the pha and beta radiation can generally be stopped
small amount of radioactive material present at by the skin or clothing, paper, or another simi-
commercial type facilities, larger storage and lar, light material. Alpha loses energy very quickly
treatment systems are not provided, and severe in air and is no practical concern for distances
safety requirements are not necessary. Facilities greater than 12 in. (305 mm). High-energy beta
having higher quantities of radioactive material radiation is commonly contained by only 1 in.
and levels of radiation fall under a different, much (25 mm) of solid, dense plastic. Beta is denser,
more stringent set of regulatory requirements carries more energy greater distances than al-
than commercial or institutional projects. For pha, and will burn bare skin and, in particular,
such facilities, the submission of documentation damage the eye but will generally not penetrate
for the protection of the public and workers in into the body to cause any internal damage. The
the event of an accident are considerably more greatest danger with beta radiation is to the eyes,
complex. The principles of drainage system de- particularly when the eye is directly exposed close
sign apply to all kinds of system. to the source.
Gamma radiation is electromagnetic in na- Radiation Measurement

ture. It carries the most energy and therefore is
the most dangerous to humans. Its wavelength “Radioactivity” is a general term used for the
is shorter than light waves. When generated, it total release of radiation of all types from a
is similar to x-rays and behaves in a manner source. Its measurement is in disintegrations
similar to light waves. When released from a per second (dps). This measurement is possible
source, gamma rays have a mass and velocity for gamma radiation because in most radioac-
that has a measurable energy potential.
Figure 12-3 Typical Continuous Acid-Waste Treatment System

tive materials dps also produces a known Allowable Radiation Levels

amount of gamma radiation. However, the best
manner of measuring gamma radiation is to There is no exact radiation level that is certain
measure the energy it produces per kilogram to cause any individual permanent harm. Many
(pound) of air. Because the instruments needed scientists believe there is no level that is harm-
to measure radiation in this way are very ex- less. There is a term called “background level of
pensive, it is not widely used outside of the radiation” that exists all over the world. The most
laboratory. The so-called Geiger-Mueller counter common source of this is the sun, and it is called
is the most common device for measuring ra- “cosmic radiation.” In addition, many sub-
diation. It measures the penetration of the stances, such as fly ash from burning organic
particles that enter into a tube, where the par- fuels (particularly coal), granite, and many other
ticles react with a gas in the tube creating an natural substances that contain trace isotopes
electrical charge that can be measured. If an of elements, emit radiation. One of the most com-
amplification device is used, it can be heard in mon of these trace elements is carbon 14, used
the form of static. The more modern instruments by scientists to date many materials.
have a digital readout. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC)
is a governmental body that has the responsibil-
Units of radiation Particulate radiation is mea-
ity of establishing criteria for the field of
sured by the number of disintegrations per unit
radioactivity. These criteria appear in the fed-
of time. A curie (c) is equal to 3.7 x 1010 dps.
eral government’s Code of Federal Regulations.
One millicurie (mc) is 0.001 c, or 3.7 x 107 dps.
One rad is defined as the dose corresponding to All personnel working at any site that has a
the absorption of 100 ergs/gram of tissue. A possibility of exposure to radiation are required
Roentgen measures ions carrying a total of 2.58 to wear some type of exposure detection device
x 104 coulombs (C) of electrical energy. that gives an accurate determination of their
actual exposure. The photographic badge is the
Since the term “radiation” is a general one, a
most common and is used where sensitivity is
more specific method must be used to measure
required. A pen-shaped device called a “dosim-
its effect on humans. That measurement is called
eter” is commonly used where there is less need
a “dose.” A “dose” is defined as the total quantity
for accuracy. It is used where instant determi-
of radiation absorbed by the body or any portion
nation of dose is necessary.
of the body. Much of the time, the dose is modi-
fied by reference to a unit of time. This differs An “unrestricted area” is any area within a
from radioactivity because all radiation is not facility that is not specifically controlled for the
absorbed by the body. purpose of protecting any individual from radia-
tion or radioactive materials. A “restricted area”
A “rad” is a measure of the dose to body tis-
is access controlled. Another term, “environs,”
sue in terms of energy absorbed per unit mass.
may also be used to describe areas adjacent to a
Gamma radiation is the type of radiation most
restricted or high-radiation area.
commonly measured this way.
A high-radiation area is defined as any ac-
The most important measurement is the “ra-
cessible area within a facility that is capable of
diation equivalent to man,” or “rem.” A “rem” is
allowing the body to receive 100 millirem (mrem)
the measure of ionizing radiation passing through
of radiation in a 1-h period.
or absorbed by the body in terms of the biologi-
cal effect relative to a dose of 1 roentgen of x-rays.
The relation of the rem to other dose units de- Shielding
pends upon the actual biological effect to the
particular part of the body being studied and the The purpose of shielding is to reduce or elimi-
actual conditions and amount of time of the ir- nate radiation emanating from any source within
radiation. One rem is the equivalent of 1 roentgen the facility. The most effective material has the
due to x or gamma radiation, and also 1 rad due greatest density, so lead has been universally
to x, gamma, or beta radiation. One rem of high- used for this purpose. Another commonly used
flux neutrons is roughly equivalent to 14 million material is concrete. The difference in shielding
neutrons per square centimeter (cm2) incident thickness between concrete and lead is the fol-
to the body. lowing: v in. (4 mm) of lead is the equivalent of
12 in. (305 mm) of concrete. The basic philoso-
phy is that the use of concrete as a structural Since given amounts of radioactive material
element of the building serves double purposes remain active for different periods of time, it is
as a very good shielding material. It is up to the not possible to predict when any material will
Radiological Safety Officer (RSO), whose respon- become completely stable. The method used is
sibilities we discuss later, to determine the type to determine when a specific material loses half
of shielding and its placement to lower radiation of its radioactivity, which is called its “half life.”
in specific areas. Radiation travels in a straight
line; therefore, if a tank or a length of pipe has System Design Criteria
to be shielded, the proper manner is to form a
labyrinth, so that the shine from the tank can’t The approval process and application require-
escape in a straight line. ments The use of any radioactive material
The materials most commonly used for requires the licensing of the site for a specific
shielding purposes are concrete and sheet lead. purpose, quantity, and amount of radioactive
Other materials that have proven effective are material. Application for this license is made to
(a) lead-lined concrete blocks, (b) lead-lined lath either the NRC or a particular state. Those states
for plaster, and (c) lead-lined panels and gyp- that have elected to adopt NRC regulations and
sum boards. provide their own staff for the purpose of issu-
ing and approving licenses are called “agreement
The barriers set up to reduce radiation lev- states.” In some cases these states make addi-
els are primary barriers, which are the first line tional regulations of their own. Those states that
of defense, and secondary barriers, which are rely on the NRC to review and issue licenses are
used to eliminate leakage radiation and scattered “non-agreement states.” The application is made
radiation where it may possibly exist. to the appropriate party.
The duties of the Radiological Safety Officer
Radioactive Materials
(RSO) include administration, monitoring per-
Radioactive materials are used for the following sonnel exposure limits, and controlling any
five general categories of work: release of radio nuclides to the sewer system. In
addition, it is usually the RSO who works with
1. Imaging sciences. engineers in the design phase of the facility to
2. Diagnostic purposes. ensure that the piping runs and all other me-
chanical work will result in a low exposure to
3. Treatment purposes. people within the facility. For the most part, this
4. Industrial uses. work is aimed at ensuring that facility person-
nel do not exceed the maximum permissible
5. Research.
radiation dose allowed under the applicable codes
Almost all of the materials used are isotopes. for any particular type of radioactive material
An “isotope” is a form of an element with a dif- present and that non-staff members are not sub-
ferent (or excess) number of neutrons in its ject to unacceptable levels of radiation. The RSO
nucleus. Because of this difference, the atom is is also responsible for the following:
unstable. These isotopes are identified by their
“atomic weight,” which is the weight of the num- 1. Teaches facility staff about the potential
dangers.
ber of neutrons and protons in the nucleus.
2. Keeps the necessary records for the facility.
There are a great number of isotopes in use
today. Some of the more common are: 3. Keeps inventory of material and records dis-
posal.
• Iodine 131 (8-day half-life).
4. Is responsible for concentration of materials
• Phosphorus 32.
at the facility.
• Technetium 99 (6-hour half-life).
5. Assists engineer in the design of mechanical
• Calcium 45. systems.
• Carbon 14. 6. Designates areas within the facility to be re-
• Strontium 90. stricted.
• Radium 226.
General design criteria The prime consideration low level of radiation is present. Other materials
in the design of any facility is controlling the ex- should be investigated as to their suitability for
posure of personnel to radiation, a concept called use for the levels anticipated.
ALARA, an acronym for “as low as reasonably
All the commonly used materials (cast iron,
achievable.” This requires that, in the design of
ductile iron, copper, steel, and glass) and the joints
the facility, every reasonable method to limit the
normally used to put pipes together fall far short
possible exposure of personnel inside the facility
of the ideal. However, all of them are suitable for
and to keep the presence of radioactivity in any
low-level waste and radioactive source materials
unrestricted area to a figure as low as reasonably
found in facilities with a low level of radiation. It
achievable must be considered. Among the things
is only when the radiation levels of the waste
that must be taken into account are the current
materials get into the “high radiation” level cat-
state of technology, the economics of further im-
egory that they fail one or more of the conditions
provements in relation to the benefits to the public
listed above. As a result, stainless steel with
health and safety, and other socioeconomic con-
welded joints has emerged as the material of
siderations that relate to the utilization of
choice for all “industrial” type waste products.
radioactive material in the general public inter-
Type 316L is the type most commonly used.
est. The designer of the facility must also make a
reasonable effort to eliminate residual radiation. A welded joint is the only type of joint that
One of the overriding concepts is the “worst case” meets the criterion for not allowing a crud trap.
possibility, where the worst possible combination The orbital welding process is often used since it
of circumstances is used to determine the pos- produces the cleanest interior weld surface. The
sible level of radiation and the period of time of proper weld end preparation is critical to proper
the exposure. This concept should not be over- welding and must be diagrammed or described
used, and a general rule is to have only one in the specifications.
“accident” at a time. As an example, a serious
There are two types of joint used for drainage
spill and a fire would not be considered as likely
to occur simultaneously. pipe: butt welding and socket welding. “Butt weld-
ing” is a term used to describe two pipes placed
Pipe material selection The pipe selected for end to end and joined with no overlapping. A
the radioactive drainage system depends upon “socket weld” describes the process by which one
the type of radiation and the level of radioactiv- pipe is placed inside the other and only one end
ity expected, which, in turn, depend upon the of the exposed pipe is actually welded around the
amount and type of radioactive material at the exterior of the pipe. This is like a coupling, with
facility. In general, an ideal radwaste drainage only the joint on the outside of the pipe welded.
pipe should have the following properties: In general, only pipe 2 in. (50 mm) and less is
socket welded. Pipe this small (2 in. [50 mm] and
1. It must be nonporous. under) is called “small bore pipe.”
2. It must be easy to clean and decontaminate. Specifications for, and approval of, the en-
3. It should be acid resistant. tire welding process for both shop welding and
field welding is necessary. It is also necessary to
4. It should be non-oxidizing.
qualify welding personnel to ensure that they
5. The joints should not form a crud trap. have sufficient training and knowledge to pro-
6. Joint materials must not be affected by ra- duce a weld of the required quality called for in
diation exposure. the specifications. The qualifications of welding
personnel are difficult to assess. High-tempera-
It is possible in very high radiation areas to ture, high-pressure pipe is covered by ASME
have a pipe affected by the radiation present. codes that specify the selection of successive
The oxides of the pipe can become radioactive or welding type passes, filler metal composition,
the pipe itself can be weakened. Plastic piping is joint preparation, movement and handling of the
not acceptable for radiation-waste systems due pipe, tack welding and clamping, welding cur-
to the possibility that the plastic may be affected rents, metal deposit rates, and weld inspection.
by the radiation. Another possibility is the weak- None of these code requirements applies to
ening of elastomeric seals or gaskets because of welded nonpressure drainage pipe. If the engi-
high levels of radiation. For this reason, Teflon neer does not have the knowledge to specify the
is never used where anything more than a very minimum requirements for welders and the weld-
ing process, it could be left up to the contractor quickly and to allow a scouring action to keep
who has the job to determine the correct specifi- the radioactive solids in suspension.
cations for the project and recommend them to
It is common practice to have high levels of
the engineer for approval. When this is done,
radiation confined to glove boxes or protected
the contractor establishes minimum criteria that
fume hoods. The small amount of liquid waste
will qualify any individual for welding on this
produced from this equipment should be stored
particular project. It is then up to the contractor
in shielded containers below the equipment and
to test a welder’s ability to make sound welds
removed periodically. If the storage of larger
under the actual working conditions and using
quantities of low-level radwaste is required, the
the same equipment expected to be used on the
waste is piped to a holding tank. A common hold-
job and certify that person as being qualified.
ing time is ten half-lives of the effluent. Usually,
These criteria should be reviewed by the engi-
radwaste is stored for disposal on the site, out-
neer for acceptability. It is common practice to
side of a building and where easy transfer of the
use an outside, knowledgeable third party for
liquid is possible. The removal must be done by
this review process.
licensed waste-disposal contractors who remove
The defects in welded piping must be found the waste from the holding tank into a special
and corrected. All of them arise from the fact truck, which transports the liquid waste to a
that the weld does not actually create a mono- designated site suitable for disposal of low-level
lithic piece of pipe. The flaws are cracks or voids waste. The solid wastes, such as gloves, wipes,
in the joint. The testing methods are of the non- and the like are stored in special containers,
destructive type (NDT). The methods are: which are removed to the disposal area with the
liquid radwaste.
1. Visual inspection of the weld.
Floor drains are normally not desired in labo-
2. Dye penetration.
ratories. If there is a spill of radioactive material,
3. Magnetic testing. it is wiped up by hand using absorbent mate-
4. Ultrasonic testing. rial, and the solid containing the spill is put in a
special radwaste holding container within the lab.
5. X-ray. If a floor drain is installed, it should be con-
structed of stainless steel. For testing purposes
General design considerations Human or ani-
and to close off a drain when it is not expected to
mal waste, even that contaminated with
radioactivity, is exempt from all NRC regulations, be used, each drain should be supplied with a
requiring only compliance with local codes as far closure plug. If there are areas where a spill is
possible, the floor must be pitched to a floor
as disposal, sizing, and all other criteria appli-
drain. A generally accepted value for the pitch of
cable to standard drainage systems. There are
the floor is 1 in./20 ft (2.54 cm/6.10 m). The
also many isotopes that are exempt from regula-
thickness of the slab must be closely coordinated
tions regarding disposal into the public sewer.
because the slab is thinnest at the drain and
Another requirement is that the liquid made thicker at the ends of the area served to
radwaste to be discharged shall be diluted with make up the pitch. It is not practical to cast the
the ordinary waste effluent from the rest of the slab evenly and add a topping, because there is
facility before being discharged to the public a tendency to chip the topping and possibly have
sewer system. This usually requires that the a radioactive spill get under the top coating. Since
radwaste piping first be kept separate from the the slab depth is greater the longer the run to
rest of the facility’s effluent, but combined to- the drain, it is necessary to indicate the top of
gether before leaving the building for discharge the drain elevation at each drain. This also makes
into a public sewer. There are no restrictions it easier for the shop fabricator to make up ac-
regarding the combining of any radwaste together curate pipe spools.
that are permitted to be discharged separately.
Drains also require special treatment. They
A method should be provided, such as a valved
outlet from both the radwaste line and the com- should also be manufactured of stainless steel.
bined discharge, for the RSO to take a grab There will be different types of drain in different
areas, and they may be installed at different el-
sample of the radwaste stream if desired.
evations. Because of this and the probability that
The pitch of the piping should be kept as the piping will be made in spools (preassembled
steep as possible in order to empty the pipe sections of piping), it is a good idea to number
all the individual drains on the design drawings. primary and secondary preventive measures that
A box next to each drain can be used to provide provide personnel, environmental, and experi-
information regarding type, number, and mental protection. “Primary barriers” are specific
elevation. pieces of equipment such as the biological safety
cabinet (which is the biologist’s equivalent of the
Since fittings are a natural crud trap, run-
chemist’s fume hood) and glove boxes. “Second-
ning piping in, under, over, or adjacent to
ary containment” refers to features of the facility
unrestricted areas in a facility should be avoided.
design surrounding and supporting the primary
If this is not possible, the line should be placed
containment. These features are described and
where additional shielding can be added, either
classified in publications of the National Insti-
at the time of construction or after the start of
tutes of Health (NIH), in Bethesda, Maryland,
actual use, when the RSO may determine by sur-
among others.
vey that additional shielding is necessary. Much
of the time, the ability to take the joint apart and The classifications for biological containment
flush out any crud is an advantage. Any of the in laboratories consist of four biosafety levels,
popular joints for no-hub or grooved pipe are ac- BL1 through BL4. Publications describe the work
ceptable, as well as those for glass pipe if that is practices, equipment, and BL selection criteria
used in a laboratory for chemical resistance. based on the activity of a particular laboratory.
If the laboratory or production facility produces
The designer should be generous with
or uses greater than 2.6 gal (10 L) involving vi-
cleanouts. They may be needed to flush out the
able organisms, the facility may become large
line to reduce spot high radiation rather than
scale (LS). This is noted as “BL2 LS.”
rodding it out.
Manufacturing standards shall conform to
good large-scale production (GLSP) standards.
INFECTIOUS AND BIOLOGICAL- The same standards apply to both small and
WASTE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS large-scale facilities.
Biological waste has the same basic character- Facility type of work is outlined later in this
chapter in a very abbreviated and simplified form.
istics as other types of laboratory and production
facility waste, but with the addition of
biohazardous material. “Biohazardous material” Codes and Standards
is material suspended in the waste stream with
live organisms that, if not contained, have the Mandated guidelines and regulations include the
potential to cause infection, sickness, and other following:
very serious diseases. This waste may be dis- 1. OSHA blood-borne pathogen regulations.
charged by gravity and under pressure from
many sources, including: 2. NIH guidelines for the use of recombinant
microorganisms
1. Fermentation tanks and equipment.
3. FDA cGMP regulations.
2. Process centrifuges.
4. CDC/NIH (Center for Disease Control/Na-
3. Sinks, both hand-washing and process. tional Institute of Health) guidelines for
4. Containment area floor drains. biosafety in microbiological and biomedical
laboratories.
5. Janitor closet drains.
Biological safety levels The laboratory contain-
6. Necropsy table drains.
ment levels described in the CDC/NIH guidelines
7. Autoclave drains. for biosafety in microbiological and biomedical
8. Contaminated condensate drains. laboratories are summarized as follows:
Containment is the method used to isolate Biosafety level 1 (BL1) containment This is
and confine biohazardous material. The facility the typical biological research facility classifica-
equipment and design shall conform to accept- tion for work with low-hazard agents. Viable
able and appropriate containment practices microorganisms not known to cause disease in
based on the hazard potential. A containment healthy adults are used at this level. Work activ-
category is used to describe an assembly of both ity is done on an open bench and any hazard
present can be controlled by using standard labo- A bio-waste treatment system shall be provided
ratory practice. Standard features consist of within the facility to sterilize liquid waste.
easily cleaned, impervious bench surfaces and
hand-wash sinks, and the work area is sepa- Liquid-Waste Decontamination System
rated from general offices, animal rooms, and
production areas. Contaminated liquid and solid A “liquid-waste decontamination system” (LWDS)
waste shall be treated to remove biological haz- collects and sterilizes (decontaminates) liquid
ards before disposal. Wastes containing DNA waste. Effluent containing potentially hazardous
materials or potentially infectious microorgan- bio-matter is collected in a dedicated drainage
isms shall be decontaminated before disposal. system generally discharging by gravity into a
Facilities to wash hands are required in each sump below the floor level within the facility.
laboratory. From the sump, effluent is pumped into a “kill
tank” where the actual sterilization occurs. A “kill
Biosafety level 2 (BL2) containment Facility tank” is a vessel into which steam or chemical
construction for this level is similar to that for disinfectant can be injected to kill any organ-
BL1 except that the microorganisms may pose ism. The kill-tank system shall be qualified to
some risk and safety cabinets are often present. the same biosafety level as the facility that it re-
Equipment and work surfaces shall be wiped down ceives its discharge from. The kill-tank system
with a suitable disinfectant. Sinks shall be must be a batch process since time is needed to
scrubbed daily with a chlorine-containing abra- complete the sterilization and decontamination,
sive and flushed with a suitable disinfectant. All based on the process used.
liquid waste shall be immediately decontaminated
by mixing it with a suitable disinfectant. System components In addition to piping, an
LWDS consists of the sump or tank to receive
Nearly all laboratories operate under levels 1
contaminated discharge from the drains and
or 2 containment. At these levels, the facility is
equipment of the facility, a pump to move the
engaged in research, diagnostic, or production
contaminated effluent from the sump and up into
activities thought to pose little or minimal risk
to workers. the kill tank(s), and the kill tanks that will de-
contaminate and sterilize the effluent to a point
Biosafety level 3 (BL3) containment Level 3 permitting disposal into the same system used
activity involves organisms that pose a signifi- for the sanitary waste from the facility—gener-
cant risk or represent a potentially serious threat ally a public sanitary sewer.
to health and safety. Biosafety cabinets are re-
Sump pit The sump pit into which the effluent
quired and all penetrations to outside the facility
must be sealed to prevent leakage. These seals drains shall have a gasketed, waterproof cover.
must be capable of being cleaned. Liquid waste The controls are similar to those provided on a
plumbing sump pump and shall be capable of
is kept within the laboratory or facility and steam
being chemically or steam sterilized. The sizing
sterilized prior to discharge or disposal. Vacuum
of the pit is done in conjunction with the sizing
inlets must be protected by appropriate filters
of the pump so that the pump stays on for a
and/or disinfectant traps. Laboratory animals
require special housing or, if conventional hous- minimum of 1 min to avoid too frequent start-
ing is used, personnel must be appropriately ing. Other possibilities, such as having the pit
contain one batch of product if necessary, may
protected with full suits and respirators. A hand-
be considered.
washing sink that is routed to sterilization shall
be located adjacent to the facility exit. Vents from Kill-tank assembly The kill tank consists of
plumbing fixtures must be filtered. a duplex-tank arrangement, allowing one batch
Biosafety level 4 (BL4) containment This is a to be decontaminated while the other is filling.
rarely used classification; activities in this type of The size of the tanks vary based on the indi-
vidual facility, but common practice is to have
facility require a very high level of containment.
each tank capable of containing one day’s ef-
The organisms present have life-threatening po-
fluent plus the chemicals used for
tential and may initiate a serious epidemic disease.
decontamination. Another consideration is to
All of the BL3 requirements apply. In addition,
showers shall be provided for personnel at the air have sufficient size to hold a catastrophic spill.
lock where clothes are changed upon entry or exit. There is usually an agitator to mix the effluent
with the deactivation chemicals. In addition to In the event of an accident, OSHA has rules
the kill tanks, tanks containing disinfectant to aid personnel responding to emergencies in-
chemicals to be injected are required. A fully volving any hazardous material.
automatic control system must be provided to
ensure the timely addition of the required chemi- System design considerations The treated dis-
cals in the correct amounts and for the required charge from any containment treatment shall be
duration for deactivation of the bio-matter. separately routed to the sanitary system outside
Alarms and status shall be displayed in an ap- the building to allow for monitoring and sampling.
propriate panel located in a facility control room
or other area, which shall be provided.
CHEMICAL-WASTE SYSTEMS
Drainage system and components The
drainage system must be closed, which requires General
sealed floor drains and valved connections to
equipment when not in use. Since the HVAC Industrial-waste drainage systems can contain
system maintains a negative pressure, it is im- a wide variety of water-borne wastes, among
portant that the traps on all floor drains have a them chemicals, solvents, suspended solids, and
seal 2½ in. (65 mm) deeper than the negative flammable liquids, as well as waste water, many
difference in air pressure. The traps of floor of which are considered hazardous. The purpose
drains shall be filled with a disinfectant solu- of the industrial-waste drainage system is to col-
tion when not used, to eliminate the possibility lect and transport these wastes from inside a
of spreading organisms between different areas facility to a point on site where disposal or treat-
served by the same connected sections of the ment can be accomplished.
piping system.
Codes and Standards
The drainage piping material is based on the
expected chemical composition of the effluent and A great body of regulations affect the design of
the sterilization method. If the local authorities any industrial drainage system. Among them are
determine that the bio-waste is hazardous, a the federal Clean Water Act (CWA) and Resource
double-contained piping system with leak detec- Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), which
tion may be required. Stainless steel or PTFE are administered by the federal EPA as well as
pipe is usually chosen where higher-temperature state and other local agencies. The local authori-
effluent may be discharged or steam steriliza- ties are also empowered to create regulations that
tion may be required. PVC, CPVC, polypropylene, are stricter than federal regulations. Where pro-
or lined FRP pipe can be used where effluent tem- duction and manufacturing facilities discharge
peratures are lower and also where chemicals waste, it is a general practice to engage the ser-
will provide the method of sterilization. vices of professionals experienced in waste-water
If waste from pressurized equipment is dis- treatment and environmental issues to ensure
charged into a gravity system, the system must compliance with all of the latest applicable regu-
be adequately sized to carry away the waste at lations and an acceptable treatment system.
the proposed flow rate with pipe flowing ½ full, The major regulatory factor to be considered
and adequate vents must be provided to equal- is the determination if any particular waste
ize the internal pressure and ensure that the pipe stream is hazardous. If so, protective measures,
is always at atmospheric pressure. such as double-contained piping systems and
Valves shall be diaphragm type and capable leak detection may be required.
of being sterilized using the same method used
for the pipe. After appropriate decontamination, Pipe Material and Joint Selection
the kill-tank effluent shall be discharged to drain.
This effluent must be treated prior to discharge Because of the vast diversity of manufacturing
into a public sewer system for disposal. processes, it is impossible to make any general
characterization of industrial waste water. It is
Vents Vents from pipe, fixtures, sealed sump common to have various areas within a plant or
pits, and kill tanks must be filter sterilized prior industrial complex discharging different types of
to leaving the system using a HEPA or a 0.2-µ effluent with greatly varying characteristics.
filter.
The largest quantity of effluent in an indus- a funnel type of drain should be provided.
trial facility originates from drains. Drains receive The top of the funnel should be as close to
discharge from production equipment, floor wash the floor as reasonable in order for an air
down, process and production machines, and gap to be provided between the top of the
other equipment, such as compressors and boil- floor drain and the end of the equipment
ers. The floor drain and the discharge pipe from drain. This air gap shall be twice the diam-
the drain must be capable of resisting chemicals eter of the drainage line.
discharged from the production equipment. Se- 5. Adequate cleanouts must be provided in drain
lection of the most appropriate piping material
lines. In lines that are at the ceiling of high
can only be accomplished if the nature of the
floors, the cleanouts should be extended to
effluent, both present and future, is known and
the floor above to avoid the need for mainte-
can be allowed for.
nance personnel to climb ladders to clean
An often-used material is vitrified clay sewer stoppages.
pipe because of its resistance to most chemicals. 6. The minimum size drain line under the slab
Manholes are lined, as is shown in Figure 12-1. or underground should be 2 in. (50 mm).
Floor drains should be a minimum size of 4
System Design Considerations in. (100 mm).
The design of the drainage system is dependent 7. Adequate venting of the drainage line must
on the location, composition, and quantity of dis- be provided to allow for smooth flow. The
charged effluent from all sources. The layout and vents shall be connected to the top of the
engineering of a piping network requires inge- drain line in order either to allow air at the
nuity and attention to detail. top of the pipe to be vented out (when there
is a slug of liquid) or to admit air required by
Selection of the type and location of floor the flow of water or due to a partial vacuum
drains is a major aspect of drainage system de- created by the liquid flowing full. Vents shall
sign. The following are general guidelines for be a minimum size of 2 in. (50 mm).
locating and selecting the drains:
8. Local regulations may require the use of
1. Wet floors are to be avoided. Drains should double-contained piping to prevent potential
be located next to equipment and be large leakage from discharging into the environ-
enough to allow multiple discharges to spill ment. A leak-detection system should be
easily over them without requiring a run of provided that annunciates leakage.
pipe over the floor or having to spill on the
floor and run to the drain. If large flow rates
are expected, a large drain should be selected. FIRE-SUPPRESSION WATER
DRAINAGE
2. The use of long trench drains in areas where
a number of pieces of equipment are placed
For industrial facilities, the water used to sup-
creates easy access to all the various drains
press a fire could become contaminated with the
from the equipment. This arrangement is
products and raw materials it comes in contact
usually less costly than multiple drains.
with. It is required that any water, such as sprin-
3. In many cases, the discharge from equipment kler and fire-hose discharge, that has the
may be under pressure because of the head possibility of being contaminated in this man-
of water in the piece of equipment, such as ner be routed to holding basins for analysis and
occurs when a tank is emptied. The drain possible treatment before being discharged into
should be large enough in physical size to the environment. If there is no material capable
accept the largest expected flow. The size of of causing contamination, no special consider-
the discharge pipe must be large enough to ation is necessary except to protect other areas
accept the maximum quantity flowing full by of the facility from possible flooding.
gravity without overflowing. An air gap shall
be provided to prevent pressurizing the grav- System Description
ity drainage system.
4. To accept the largest number of multiple, The drainage system consists of the drains, lo-
small-sized drainage lines from equipment, cated in such a manner to intercept the flow of
fire water; the drainage piping; a holding basin sanitary sewers. These standards vary, and the
on site to contain and treat the total volume of responsible enforcement and code authorities
water; and the necessary treatment system that must be consulted to determine the level of treat-
will neutralize the water prior to its discharge ment required.
into the environment.
The most common flammable liquid is oil. The
The amount of water discharged from the fire- hazard created is either one of safety (since the
suppression system is far greater than the vapors could create an explosive condition, the
amount of waste water discharged from the fa- oil will float on water and could be set on fire) or
cility under normal operating conditions. health (where the breathing of the vapors is dan-
Overflow floor drains large enough to take the gerous to health and toxic if ingested by humans).
design flow rate shall be installed at points that
The common characteristic of all volatile liq-
will intercept the water before it flows out of door-
uids is that they are lighter than water. Their
ways or drive bays and route it to holding basins.
removal from water, therefore, is similar to the
The placement of these overflow drains shall be
removal of oil outlined below.
selected to intercept all of the water discharged
and prevent it from damaging other parts of the
facility or escaping away from the property or Oil in Water
into the ground.
Oil is considered immiscible, since it cannot be
The drainage piping is sized based on flow mixed with water; oil in water exists in several
rate and pitch from the facility to the detention forms:
basin. The effluent is essentially clear water with
a few solids. The flow rate of water required to 1. Free oil.
be disposed of is determined by first calculat- 2. Mechanically dispersed oil is fine droplets
ing the sprinkler water density over the area ranging in size from microns to fractions of
used for hydraulic calculations. Add to this the an inch (millimeter). These droplets are stable
flow rate from the number of fire standpipe hose due to electrical charges and other forces but
streams possible. Velocity in the drainage pipe not due to the presence of surface active
is not a major consideration because the sys- agents.
tem will be rarely used. A shallow pitch will give
3. Chemically stabilized emulsions are fine
a low velocity that may result in the deposit of
droplets that are stable due to surface active
some material that could be flushed out after
agents.
the event of the fire. A high velocity will not
affect the life of the piping system because of 4. Dissolved and dispersed oil is suspended in
the short amount of time the system will be in such a small size (typically 5 µ or smaller)
operation. Pipe size is selected based on the that ordinary filtration is not possible.
actual pitch of the pipe and the capacity flow- 5. Oil-wet solids, which are particulates that oil
ing full. Refer to Table 12-1. adheres to the surface of.
Venting of the system is required in order to
Methods of separation and treatment Oil spills
allow free flow of the effluent. Each individual
and leaks are best treated in their most concen-
drain need not be vented, but each branch should
trated state, which is at their source or as close
have a loop vent of at least 2 in. (50 mm) in size.
to their source as is reasonable. The primary
The vent could be connected to the sanitary vent
methods used to separate and remove free oil
system or carried through the roof independently.
and oil-wet solids are flotation and centrifuga-
The pipe material selected shall be compat- tion. Secondary treatment, such as chemical
ible with the possible chemicals it may carry. treatment/coalescence and filtration, is then
used to break up oil water emulsions and re-
move dispersed oil. Finally, tertiary treatment,
FLAMMABLE AND VOLATILE such as ultrafiltration, biological treatment, and
LIQUIDS carbon adsorption will remove the oil to required
levels prior to discharge. This chapter discusses
Federal, state, and local regulations have estab- only the general principles of the primary and
lished standards for the discharge of volatile secondary separation methods and devices.
liquids, particularly oil, into storm-water and
The American Petroleum Institute (API) has Flotation devices For larger-scale service, the
established criteria for the large-scale removal flotation of oil and oil-wet solids to the top of the
of globules larger than 150 µ. In abbreviated form, flotation chamber can be increased by the at-
they are: tachment of small bubbles of air to the surface
of the slow-rising oil globules. This is done by
1. The horizontal velocity through the separa-
adding compressed air to the bottom of the flo-
tor may be up to 15 times the rise velocity of
tation chamber in a special manner that creates
the slowest-rising globule, up to a maximum
small bubbles that mix with and attach them-
of 3 fps (0.91 m/s).
selves to the oil globules.
2. The depth of flow in the separator shall be
within 3 ft 0 in. to 8 ft 0 in. (0.9 to 2.4 m). Centrifugal separators For larger-scale ser-
vice, the centrifugal separator is used. This device
3. The width of the separator shall be between operates on the principle of inducing the com-
6 ft 0 in. and 20 ft 0 in. (1.8 to 6.1 m). bined oil and water mixture to flow around a
4. The depth to width ratio shall be between circular separation chamber. The lighter oil glob-
0.3 and 0.5. ules collect around the central vortex, which
contains the oil removal mechanism, and the
5. An oil-retention baffle should be located no
clear water collects at the outer radial portion of
less than 12 in. (305 mm) downstream from
the separation chamber. Methods have evolved
a skimming device.
that produce effluent water with only 50 to 70
Gravity separators Gravity separation is the ppm of oil, and proprietary devices exist that
primary and most often-used separation method. lower oil content to 10 ppm.
It is based on the specific gravity difference be-
tween immiscible oil globules and water. Since Filtration Chemical methods used to break oil/
all volatile liquids are lighter than an equal vol- water emulsions followed by depth type filters to
ume of water, gravity separators operate on the remove the destabilized mixture have proven ef-
principle of flotation. As the water and oil flow fective in the removal of oil globules in a range of
through the unit, the oil floats to the top and is sizes between 1 and 50 µ. The velocity and flow
trapped inside by a series of internal baffles. Since rate of the mixture must be carefully controlled
the oil remains liquid, it is easily drawn off. to allow optimum effectiveness of the system.
Figure 12-4 Typical Oil Interceptor

(Source: Courtesy of Rockford Co.)
Smaller systems Oil separators for small flows Most commonly used for an oil interceptor is
usually take the form of a single unit consisting a coated steel vessel. Gratings, if used, must have
of a drain grating into which the effluent flows, the strength to withstand the type of vehicle ex-
is trapped and separated by gravity, then is di- pected to pass over the interceptor. A collection
verted to an accumulator chamber to be drawn basket may be specified where debris, such as
off manually or automatically. Another type of metal chips, can be intercepted before entering
unit uses an overflow arrangement that sends the interceptor.
the trapped oil to a remote oil-storage tank.
Refer to Figure 12-4 for an illustration of a
Because there is the possibility that the va- typical small oil interceptor. Figure 12-5 illustrates
por given off by the flammable liquid could ignite, the installation of a typical oil interceptor with
it is important to provide a separator vent that gravity oil drawoff for multiple-floor drain inlets.
terminates in the open air at an approved loca-
tion above the highest part of the structure. Some
codes require that a flame arrestor be installed
on the vent.
(A)
(B)
Figure 12-5 Typical Gravity Draw-Off Installation (A) Plan and (B) Isometric
(Source: Frankel 1996)
REFERENCES
1. Frankel, M. 1996. Facility piping systems hand-
2. Geogehegan, R.F., and H.W. Meslar. 1993. Con-
tainment control in biotechnology environments.
Pharmaceutical Engineering.
3. Grossel, S.F. 1998. Safe handling of acids. Chemi-
cal Engineering Magazine July.
4. Kaminsky, G. 1998. Failsafe neutralization of
wastewater effluent. Plant Services Magazine May.
5. Mermel, H. 1988. pH control of chemical waste.
Heating/Piping/Air Conditioning Magazine.
Index 219
A
Index B
C
D
E
F
G
H
∆ (delta), 1998 V1:18 plumbing and piping symbols, 1998 V1: 9–14
µ (micro) prefix, 1998 V1: 42
% (percentages), 1998 V1: 21
text, drawings, and computer programs, 1998
V1: 17–23
I
Ω (ohms), 1998 V1: 41 above finished floor (AFF), 1998 V1: 17
Ω m (ohm-meter), 1998 V1: 41 above-ground piping J
2-pole, fan-cooled, electric motors, 1998 V1: 201 inspection checklist, 1998 V1: 96
5-minute storm durations, 1999 V2: 69–70
10-minute storm durations, 1999 V2: 69–70
materials for, 1999 V2: 14–15
storm-drainage systems, 1999 V2: 68
K
10-year rainfall return periods, 1999 V2: 69–70 abrasion, 1998 V1: 143, 1999 V2: 18, 1999 V2:
15-minute storm durations, 1999 V2: 69–70 276 L
18-8-3 SS, 1998 V1: 140 abs, ABS (absolute), 1998 V1: 17
18-8 SS, 1998 V1: 140
28 CFR Part 36, 1998 V1: 101
ABS (acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene), 1998 V1: 24
ABS piping, 1999 V2: 14, 1999 V2: 15, 1999 V2: 68
M
70:30 Cu Ni, 1998 V1: 141 absolute (abs, ABS), 1998 V1: 17
90:10 Cu Ni, 1998 V1: 141 absolute pressure N
100-year rainfall return periods, 1999 V2: 69–70 defined, 1998 V1: 24
1964 Alaska Earthquake, 1998 V1: 163
1971 San Francisco Earthquake, 1998 V1: 163–
in vacuums, 1999 V2: 254
absolute temperature, 1998 V1: 24
O
164 absolute zero, 1998 V1: 24
3822/1 (Laboratory Tests on Noise Emission by absorphan (carbon filtration). See activated carbon P
Appliances and Equipment Used in Water filtration (absorphan)
Supply Installations), 1998 V1: 198 absorption, defined, 1998 V1: 24
absorption rates for soils, estimating, 1999 V2:
Q
A 217–220
A, X#, X#A (compressed air). See compressed air
absorption surface in seepage beds, 1999 V2: 224 R
absorption trenches. See leaching trenches (leach
A (amperes). See amperes
A (area). See area (A)
fields)
ac, AC (alternating current), 1998 V1: 17
S
a (atto) prefix, 1998 V1: 42
AC (air chambers). See air chambers (AC)
A/m (amperes per meter), 1998 V1: 41
AC-DC rectifiers, 1998 V1: 147, 1998 V1:149 T
A-weighted sound levels, 1998 V1: 198
acc (accumulate or accumulators), 1998 V1: 17,
AAMI (Association for the Advancement of Medical
Instrumentation), 1999 V2: 279, 1999 V2:
1998 V1: 24
acceleration
U
317, 1999 V2: 319
earthquakes, 1998 V1: 159, 1998 V1: 160
AAV (automatic air vents), 1998 V1: 13
abandoned seepage pits, 1999 V2: 226
linear. See linear acceleration V
measurements, 1998 V1: 41
abandoned septic tanks, 1999 V2: 231
abandoned wells, 1999 V2: 243
accelergrams, 1998 V1: 159
access doors, 1998 V1: 24
W
abbreviations
accessibility. See physically challenged individuals
International System of Units, 1998 V1: 40 XYZ
Accessibility Guidelines for Buildings
and Facilities, 1998 V1: 99 ratings for fixtures and appliances, 1998 V1: A
accessible, defined, 1998 V1: 24 198–200, 1998 V1: 204
Accessible and Usable Buildings and Facilities, 1998 silencers on vacuum systems, 1999 V2: 268
V1: 99, 1998 V1: 122 sound power levels, 1998 V1: 198 B
accumulate (acc, ACCUM), 1998 V1: 17 system design, 1998 V1: 205–214
accumulators (acc, ACCUM), 1998 V1: 17, 1998 V1: system layout, 1998 V1: 207 C
24 transmission in pipes, 1999 V2: 15, 1999 V2:
accuracy 121
in measurements, 1998 V1: 40 vacuum systems, 1999 V2: 263 D
of pressure-regulating valves, 1999 V2: 152 vibration isolation, 1998 V1: 207–214
ACEC (American Consulting Engineers Council), water hammer, 1998 V1: 203, 1998 V1: 206, E
1998 V1: 64 1999 V2: 132
acfh (actual cfh), 1999 V2: 180 water piping design, 1998 V1: 200
acfm (actual cubic feet per minute), 1999 V2: 255– acres, converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 47 F
256, 1999 V2: 257 acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS), 1998 V1: 24
acid-containing inhibitors, 1999 V2: 305 activated alumina water treatment, 1999 V2: 318 G
acid radicals, 1999 V2: 281 activated carbon filtration (absorphan)
acid regenerants, 1999 V2: 295, 1999 V2: 302, in gray-water systems, 1999 V2: 27, 1999 V2: 28
1999 V2: 305 in gray-water treatment, 1999 V2: 29 H
acid resins, 1999 V2: 295 illustrated, 1999 V2: 301
acid-resistant floor drains, 1999 V2: 16 overview, 1999 V2: 300 I
acid-resistant piping, 1999 V2: 14, 1999 V2: 341 pure-water systems, 1999 V2: 323
acid vents (AV), 1998 V1: 9, 1998 V1: 24 small water systems, 1999 V2: 318
acid-waste systems well water, 1999 V2: 244, 1999 V2: 245 J
acid-waste treatment, 1999 V2: 334–337 active, defined, 1998 V1: 149
continuous systems, 1999 V2: 338 active potential, defined, 1998 V1: 149 K
health and safety concerns, 1999 V2: 332 active sludge, 1998 V1: 24
introduction, 1999 V2: 329, 1999 V2: 332–334
large facilities, 1999 V2: 336
actual cfh (acfh), 1999 V2: 180
actual cubic feet per minute (acfm), 1999 V2: 255–
L
piping and joint material, 1999 V2: 334 256, 1999 V2: 257
system design considerations, 1999 V2: 334 ACU (air-conditioning units), 1998 V1: 17 M
types of acid, 1999 V2: 332–334 ADA (Americans with Disabilities Act), 1998 V1: 99,
acid wastes (AW), 1998 V1: 9, 1998 V1: 24
acidity
1998 V1: 100
ADAAG, 1998 V1: 99, 1998 V1: 101
N
in corrosion rates, 1998 V1: 141 ADAAG Review Federal Advisory Committee, 1998
in water, 1999 V2: 244, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: V1: 122 O
285 adapter fittings, 1998 V1: 24
acids, defined, 1999 V2: 280 addenda in contract documents, 1998 V1: 63, 1998
acme threads, 1998 V1: 24 V1: 64 P
acoustics, defined, 1998 V1: 215 addresses
acoustics in plumbing systems organizations and associations information, 1998 Q
acceptable levels in buildings, 1998 V1: 197 V1: 60
building material acoustic insulation, 1998 V1: plumbing specifications information, 1998 V1: 80
197–198 administrative authorities, 1998 V1: 24 R
cold-water systems, 1999 V2: 115 admiralty brass, 1998 V1: 141
design procedures, 1998 V1: 203 adp, ADP (apparatus dew points), 1998 V1: 17 S
equipment selection, 1998 V1: 205–206 adult-sized wheelchairs, dimensions, 1998 V1: 102.
flow velocity, 1998 V1: 203 See also wheelchairs
glossary, 1998 V1: 215–217 advanced oxidation water treatment, 1999 V2: 318 T
gurgling noises in pipes, 1999 V2: 35 aeration, 1998 V1: 24
introduction, 1998 V1: 197 aeration cells, 1998 V1: 149 U
noise and vibration control, 1998 V1: 204–205 aerators
occupied domestic spaces, 1998 V1: 201 aeration treatment, 1999 V2: 292–294, 1999 V2:
pipe sleeves and, 1998 V1: 206 318 V
pressure and, 1998 V1: 206 sovent aerators, 1999 V2: 19, 1999 V2: 46, 1999
pump speeds and, 1998 V1: 206 V2: 54–56, 1999 V2: 60, 1999 V2: 62 W
pumps, 1998 V1: 201–203 aerobic, defined, 1998 V1: 24
XYZ
Index 353
aerobic waste-water treatment plants, 1999 V2: sheets of water and, 1999 V2: 2 A
232–233 air locks, 1998 V1: 207
AFF (above finished floor), 1998 V1: 17 air pressure, 1999 V2: 255–256
AGA (American Gas Association) air-separation chambers, 1999 V2: 56 B
address, 1998 V1: 60 air springs, 1998 V1: 208, 1998 V1: 209, 1998 V1:
appliance venting standards, 1999 V2: 178 210 C
defined, 1998 V1: 24 air tests
gas-train vent standards, 1999 V2: 177 in cold-water systems, 1999 V2: 154
relief valve standards, 1999 V2: 166 defined, 1998 V1: 25 D
water heating standards, 1999 V2: 170 air velocity in vacuum cleaning systems, 1999 V2:
aggregation in soil structure, 1999 V2: 218 270 E
aggressiveness index, 1999 V2: 292 air vessels (chambers), 1998 V1: 203
aging disabilities, 1998 V1: 103 aircraft cable bracing method, 1998 V1: 173
agitators in kill tanks, 1999 V2: 344 aircraft fuel, 1999 V2: 13 F
agreement states, 1999 V2: 340 airport runways, piping underneath, 1999 V2: 250
agricultural drain tile, 1999 V2: 221 ALARA (as low as reasonably achievable), 1999 V2: G
AHAM (Association of Home Appliance Manufactur- 341
ers), 1998 V1: 60 alarm check valves, 1998 V1: 16, 1998 V1: 25
ahp, AHP (air horsepower), 1998 V1: 17 alarms H
AHU (air-handling units), 1998 V1: 17 defined, 1998 V1: 25
AI (aggressiveness index), 1999 V2: 292 on kill tanks, 1999 V2: 345 I
AIA (American Institute of Architects). See American on vacuum systems, 1999 V2: 259, 1999 V2: 262
Institute of Architects on water tanks, 1999 V2: 151
air, compressed. See compressed air (A, X#, X#A) Alaska Earthquake, 1998 V1: 163 J
air, free, 1998 V1: 25 Albern, W.F., 1999 V2: 277
air, standard, 1998 V1: 25 algae, 1999 V2: 282, 1999 V2: 289 K
air admittance valves, 1999 V2: 64 alkalinity
air-bleed vacuum controls, 1999 V2: 268–269
air breaks, 1998 V1: 24. See also air gaps
alkaline solutions in corrosion rates, 1998 V1:
141
L
air chambers (AC) boiler feed water, 1999 V2: 314
defined, 1998 V1: 24 dealkalizing treatment, 1999 V2: 295 M
symbols for, 1998 V1: 13 measuring, 1999 V2: 282–283
water hammer arresters, 1998 V1: 203, 1998 V1:
206, 1999 V2: 132, 1999 V2: 143
pH and, 1999 V2: 285, 1999 V2: 329
predicting scale and corrosion, 1999 V2: 290
N
air compressors in vacuum pumps, 1999 V2: 259 water saturation, 1999 V2: 293
AIR COND (air conditioning). See air-conditioning allowable radiation levels, 1999 V2: 339 O
systems allowable vacuum system pressure loss, 1999 V2:
Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute (ARI), 263
1998 V1: 60 alloy pipes, 1998 V1: 25 P
air-conditioning cooling towers. See cooling-tower alloys, 1998 V1: 25
water alpha ray radiation, 1999 V2: 337 Q
air-conditioning systems (AIR COND) alt, ALT (altitude), 1998 V1: 17
fixture-unit values, 1999 V2: 9 alteration (altrn, ALTRN), 1998 V1: 17
symbols, 1998 V1: 17 alternate bracing attachments for pipes, 1998 V1: R
waste heat usage, 1998 V1: 128 176
water demand, 1999 V2: 243 alternate energy sources, 1998 V1: 132 S
air-conditioning units (ACU), 1998 V1: 17 alternating current (ac, AC), 1998 V1: 17
air densities, calculating, 1998 V1: 6 alternative collection and treatment of waste water,
air flow rates, 1998 V1: 19 1999 V2: 232 T
air gaps. See also air breaks; effective openings alternative treatment of waste water, 1999 V2: 226–
as cross-connection control devices, 1999 V2: 227 U
144, 1999 V2: 145, 1999 V2: 148 Alternatives for Small Waste-water Treatment
defined, 1998 V1: 24, 1998 V1: 25 Systems: Cost-effectiveness Analysis”, 1999
air-gate valves, 1999 V2: 268 V2: 238 V
air-handling units (AHU), 1998 V1: 17 Alternatives for Small Waste-Water Treatment
air horsepower (ahp, AHP), 1998 V1: 17 Systems: On-site Disposal/Seepage Treatment W
air in pipes and Disposal, 1999 V2: 238
fixture drains, 1999 V2: 2 XYZ
Alternatives for Small Waste-water Treatment American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) A
Systems: Pressure Sewers/Vacuum Sewers, abbreviation for, 1998 V1: 25
1999 V2: 238 address, 1998 V1: 60
altitude (alt, ALT), 1998 V1: 17 electronics-grade water standards, 1999 V2: 320 B
altitude adjustments for vacuum, 1999 V2: 257, high-purity water standards, 1999 V2: 317
1999 V2: 275 membrane filters, 1999 V2: 289 C
altitude valves, 1999 V2: 249 publications, 1998 V1: 198
altrn, ALTRN (alteration), 1998 V1: 17 reagent-grade water standards, 1999 V2: 279,
alum, 1999 V2: 294 1999 V2: 319 D
aluminum, 1998 V1: 137, 1998 V1: 141, 1999 V2: standards, 1998 V1: 51–59
281 American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) E
aluminum 100, 1998 V1: 140 contract publications, 1998 V1: 64
aluminum 2017, 1998 V1: 140 sewer publications, 1999 V2: 95, 1999 V2: 114
aluminum check valves, 1999 V2: 177 American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air F
aluminum hydroxide, 1999 V2: 281 Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)
aluminum piping, 1999 V2: 68, 1999 V2: 176, defined, 1998 V1: 25 G
1999 V2: 196 publications, 1998 V1: 2, 1998 V1: 6, 1998 V1:
aluminum silicates, 1999 V2: 301–302 7, 1998 V1: 49, 1999 V2: 214
aluminum sulfate, 1999 V2: 294 water heating codes and standards, 1999 V2: H
amb, AMB (ambient), 1998 V1: 17 170
ambient (amb, AMB), 1998 V1: 17 American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) I
ambient temperature, 1998 V1: 25 address, 1998 V1: 60
ambulatory accessible stalls, 1998 V1: 108 defined, 1998 V1: 25
American Chemical Society, 1998 V1: 151 fired and unfired pressure vessel standards, J
American Concrete Institute, 1999 V2: 102, 1999 1999 V2: 170
V2: 114 publications, 1999 V2: 214 K
American Consulting Engineers Council (ACEC), relief valve standards, 1999 V2: 166
1998 V1: 64
American Gas Association (AGA)
American Society of Plumbing Engineers (ASPE)
ASPE Solar Energy System Design Handbook,
L
address, 1998 V1: 60 1998 V1: 132
appliance venting standards, 1999 V2: 178 defined, 1998 V1: 25 M
defined, 1998 V1: 24 publications, 1999 V2: 65
gas-train vent standards, 1999 V2: 177
relief valve standards, 1999 V2: 166
American Society of Plumbing Engineers Research
Foundation (ASPERF), 1998 V1: 25
N
water heating standards, 1999 V2: 170 American Society of Safety Engineers (ASSE), 1998
American Institute of Architects (AIA) V1: 25 O
address, 1998 V1: 80 American Society of Sanitary Engineering (ASSE),
General Conditions of the Contract for Construc- 1998 V1: 25, 1998 V1: 60
tion, 1998 V1: 64 American standard pipe threads, 1998 V1: 25 P
MASTERSPEC, 1998 V1: 68 American Standards Association. See American
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) National Standards Institute (ANSI) Q
abbreviation for, 1998 V1: 17, 1998 V1: 25 American Water Works Association (AWWA)
address, 1998 V1: 60 address, 1998 V1: 60
ANSI A117.1-1988, 1998 V1: 107–122 defined, 1998 V1: 26 R
ANSI A117.1-1980, 1998 V1: 99 publications, 1999 V2: 155
ANSI A117.1-1986, 1998 V1: 100 American Welding Society (AWS), 1998 V1: 169 S
ANSI A117.1-1998, 1998 V1: 99, 1998 V1: 100, American wire gage (AWG), 1998 V1: 17
1998 V1: 122 Americans with Disabilities Act, 1998 V1: 99, 1998
ANSI-ASSI: Building Code Requirements for V1: 100 T
Minimum Design Loads in Buildings and Americans with Disabilities Act Accessibility Guide-
Other Structures, 1998 V1: 195 lines, 1998 V1: 100, 1998 V1: 101 U
ANSI C72.1, 1998 V1: 133 Amin, P., 1999 V2: 325
ANSI Z22.10.3, 1998 V1: 133 ammonia, 1999 V2: 282, 1999 V2: 294
gas piping standards, 1999 V2: 194 amperes (A, amp, AMP, AMPS) V
publications, 1998 V1: 51–59, 1998 V1: 195 ampere-hours, 1998 V1: 135
water quality standards, 1999 V2: 319 amperes per meter, 1998 V1: 41 W
American Petroleum Institute, 1999 V2: 348 measurement conversions, 1998 V1: 41
American Public Health Service, 1999 V2: 287 symbols for, 1998 V1: 17 XYZ
Index 355
amphoteric corrosion, defined, 1998 V1: 149 ANSI-ASSI: Building Code Requirements for Minimum A
amphoteric materials, 1998 V1: 141 Design Loads in Buildings and Other Struc-
anaerobic, defined, 1998 V1: 25, 1998 V1: 149 tures, 1998 V1: 195
anaerobic bacteria in septic tanks, 1999 V2: 227 ANSI C72.1, 1998 V1: 133 B
analytical grade water, 1999 V2: 317 ANSI Z22.10.3, 1998 V1: 133
anchoring equipment anthracite coal filters, 1999 V2: 244, 1999 V2: 300 C
anchorage forces in earthquakes, 1998 V1: 189 anthropometrics for wheelchairs, 1998 V1: 103–107
anchors, defined, 1998 V1: 193 anti-cross-connection precautions, 1999 V2: 32
illustrations of potential problems, 1998 V1: 194 apparatus dew points (adp, ADP), 1998 V1: 17 D
seismic protection, 1998 V1: 165 appliances. See also fixtures
anchoring pipes, 1999 V2: 18, 1999 V2: 85 acoustic ratings, 1998 V1: 198–200, 1998 V1: E
anchors, defined, 1998 V1: 25, 1998 V1: 193 204
“and/or” in specifications, 1998 V1: 67 appliance connectors, 1999 V2: 176
anechoic chambers, 1998 V1: 203 codes and standards, 1998 V1: 58–59 F
ANG (angle). See angles (ANG) defined, 1999 V2: 213
ANGI (angles of incidence), 1998 V1: 17 draft hoods on appliances, 1999 V2: 178, 1999 G
angle grates in school shower rooms, 1999 V2: 11 V2: 213
angle snubbers, 1998 V1: 166 gravity vents for gas appliances, 1999 V2: 178
angle stops, 1998 V1: 25 natural gas, 1999 V2: 175, 1999 V2: 177–178 H
angle valves (AV), 1998 V1: 11, 1998 V1: 25 oxygen depletion and gas appliances, 1999 V2:
angles (ANG) 178 I
measurements, 1998 V1: 41 Applied Technology Council (ATC), 1998 V1: 185,
symbols, 1998 V1: 17 1998 V1: 195
angles of bend, 1998 V1: 25 approaches to toilet compartments, 1998 V1: 110 J
angles of incidence (ANGI), 1998 V1: 17 approvals
angular acceleration measurements, 1998 V1: 41 for radioactive materials systems, 1999 V2: 340 K
angular velocity measurements, 1998 V1: 41 for special-waste drainage systems, 1999 V2: 328
animal research centers, 1999 V2: 147, 1999 V2:
344
approved, defined, 1998 V1: 25
approved testing agencies, 1998 V1: 25
L
animal shelters, 1999 V2: 16 approximate (approx., APPROX), defined, 1998 V1:
anions 17 M
anion resins, 1999 V2: 284, 1999 V2: 305 approximate values, 1998 V1: 40
defined, 1998 V1: 150, 1999 V2: 280
in electromotive force series, 1998 V1: 140
aquastats, 1998 V1: 13
aquifers
N
in ion exchange, 1999 V2: 300, 1999 V2: 301, defined, 1999 V2: 240
1999 V2: 302 potentiometric surfaces, 1999 V2: 241 O
in pH values, 1999 V2: 329 in private water systems, 1999 V2: 239
annual costs. See economic concerns unconsolidated aquifers, 1999 V2: 241
annular spaces in wells, 1999 V2: 240, 1999 V2: arabic numerals, 1998 V1: 40 P
243 Architectural Barriers Act (90-480), 1998 V1: 100
anodes area (A) Q
anode expected life, 1998 V1: 146–147 calculating, 1998 V1: 4–6
anodic protection, 1998 V1: 150 conversion factors, 1998 V1: 43
defined, 1998 V1: 135, 1998 V1: 150 measurements, 1998 V1: 41 R
galvanic series of metals, 1998 V1: 140 non-SI units, 1998 V1: 42
sacrificial anodes, 1998 V1: 144 symbols, 1998 V1: 17 S
anodic inhibitors, 1998 V1: 149 area drains, 1998 V1: 25
anodic potential (electronegative potential), 1998 areaways, 1999 V2: 67, 1999 V2: 69
V1: 151 ARI (Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute), T
anodic protection, defined, 1998 V1: 150 1998 V1: 60
ANSI. See American National Standards Institute arresters for water hammer. See water hammer U
(ANSI) arresters; water hammer arresters
ANSI 117.1-1988, 1998 V1: 107–122 arterial vents, 1998 V1: 25, 1999 V2: 52
ANSI A117.1-1980, 1998 V1: 99 “as low as reasonably achievable” (ALARA), 1999 V
ANSI A117.1-1986, 1998 V1: 100 V2: 341
ANSI A117.1-1998, 1998 V1: 99, 1998 V1: 100, ASA A117.1-1961, 1998 V1: 99 W
1998 V1: 122 asbestos cement piping, 1999 V2: 122
XYZ
ASCE. See American Society of Civil Engineers AV (acid vents), 1998 V1: 9, 1998 V1: 24 A
(ASCE) AV (angle valves), 1998 V1: 11, 1998 V1: 25
ASHRAE. See American Society of Heating, Refriger- availability. See demand
ating and Air Conditioning Engineers available vacuum, safety factors and, 1999 V2: 276 B
(ASHRAE); AVB (atmospheric vacuum breakers), 1999 V2: 144,
1999 V2: 145, 1999 V2: 148 C
average (avg, AVG), defined, 1998 V1: 17
ASME. See American Society of Mechanical Engi- average pressure drops in water systems, 1999 V2:
neers (ASME) 125, 1999 V2: 126, 1999 V2: 127 D
ASPE. See American Society of Plumbing Engineers avg, AVG (average), 1998 V1: 17
(ASPE) AW (acid wasters), 1998 V1: 9, 1998 V1: 24 E
ASPE Solar Energy System Design Handbook, 1998 AWG (American wire gage), 1998 V1: 17
V1: 132 AWS, 1998 V1: 169
ASPERF (American Society of Plumbing Engineers AWWA. See American Water Works Association F
Research Foundation), 1998 V1: 25 (AWWA)
aspirators, 1998 V1: 25 AWWA Cross Connection Control Manual, 1999 V2: G
ASSE. See American Society of Safety Engineers 155
(ASSE); American Society of Sanitary Engi- AWWA Standard for Disinfecting Water Mains, 1999
neering (ASSE) V2: 155 H
Association for the Advancement of Medical Instru- AWWA Standard for Disinfection of Water Storage
mentation (AAMI), 1999 V2: 279, 1999 V2: Facilities, 1999 V2: 155 I
317, 1999 V2: 319 Ayres, J.M., 1998 V1: 195
Association of Home Appliance Manufacturers azimuth (az, AZ)
(AHAM), 1998 V1: 60 solar (SAZ), 1998 V1: 17 J
ASTM. See American Society for Testing and symbols for, 1998 V1: 17
Materials (ASTM) wall (WAZ), 1998 V1: 17 K
ATBCB (US Architectural and Transportation
Barriers Compliance Board), 1998 V1: 100,
1998 V1: 101
B L
b/m (bills of material), 1998 V1: 17
ATC-3 (Tentative Provisions for the Development of
Seismic Regulation for Buildings), 1998 V1:
back pressures in pipes, 1999 V2: 2, 1999 V2: 4,
1999 V2: 35
M
195
back-siphonage, 1998 V1: 26, 1999 V2: 144, 1999
ATC-3 (Tentative Provisions for the Development of
Seismic Regulations for Buildings), 1998 V1:
V2: 145. See also backflow N
back venting, 1999 V2: 43, 1999 V2: 47
185
Atienze, J., 1999 V2: 34
backfilling
around septic tanks, 1999 V2: 228
O
atmospheres (atm, ATM)
around subsurface drainage pipes, 1999 V2: 102
converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 47
symbols, 1998 V1: 17
around water system pipes, 1999 V2: 250 P
backfill defined, 1998 V1: 26
vacuum units, 1999 V2: 254
atmospheric pressure in vacuum, 1999 V2: 254
building sewers and, 1999 V2: 15
man-hour estimates, 1998 V1: 84, 1998 V1: 86
Q
atmospheric vacuum breakers (AVB), 1998 V1: 25,
backflow. See also back-siphonage
1999 V2: 144, 1999 V2: 145, 1999 V2: 148
atmospheric vents (steam or hot vapor) (ATV), 1998
backflow connections, defined, 1998 V1: 26 R
defined, 1998 V1: 26
V1: 11
attachments, 1998 V1: 195
backflow preventers
cold-water pressure losses and, 1999 V2: 125
S
“atto” prefix, 1998 V1: 42
cold-water systems, 1999 V2: 144–149
ATV (atmospheric vents), 1998 V1: 11
Auciello, Eugene P., 1999 V2: 114
cross-connection control devices, 1999 V2: 144– T
145
authorities having jurisdiction, 1998 V1: 24, 1998
V1: 25
hazard assessment, 1999 V2: 145
U
automatic air vents (AAV), 1998 V1: 13
installation, 1999 V2: 148–149
automatic sprinkler system types, 1998 V1: 37
Automatic Sprinkler Systems Handbook, 1998 V1:
isolating premises, 1999 V2: 145–147 V
roof drains, 1999 V2: 84
195
automatic storage water heaters, 1999 V2: 160
thermal expansion compensation and, 1999 V2:
167
W
automatic trap primers, 1999 V2: 10, 1999 V2: 14
vacuum breakers, 1999 V2: 144, 1999 V2: 149
automotive traffic, 1999 V2: 11, 1999 V2: 223 XYZ
background levels of radiation, 1999 V2: 339
Index 357
backhoe work, man-hour estimates, 1998 V1: 85 base units, 1998 V1: 41 A
backing rings, 1998 V1: 26 bathhouses, 1999 V2: 235
backup, defined, 1998 V1: 26 bathing rooms, 1998 V1: 108
backup storm-drainage systems, 1999 V2: 70, 1999 bathroom groups, 1999 V2: 43, 1999 V2: 62, 1999 B
V2: 79 V2: 63
backwash from water softeners, 1999 V2: 244, bathtubs C
1999 V2: 307 accessibility design, 1998 V1: 114–115
backwashing acoustic ratings of, 1998 V1: 199
filters, 1999 V2: 300 bathtub enclosures, 1998 V1: 115 D
in regeneration cycle, 1999 V2: 304–305 estimated water flows from, 1999 V2: 25
backwater valves, 1998 V1: 26, 1999 V2: 12, 1999 fixture-unit loads, 1999 V2: 3 E
V2: 13 grab bars, 1998 V1: 116, 1998 V1: 117
bacteria gray-water systems and, 1999 V2: 22
biological fouling, 1999 V2: 289, 1999 V2: 316– installation man-hour estimates, 1998 V1: 83 F
317 resilient-mounting design, 1998 V1: 212
chemical control, 1999 V2: 311–313 seats, 1998 V1: 121 G
in drinking water, 1999 V2: 244 sound damping materials, 1998 V1: 200
in feed water, 1999 V2: 282 batteries
in filters, 1999 V2: 300 corrosion cells in sacrificial anodes, 1998 V1: H
in septic tanks, 1999 V2: 227 146
in water-heating systems, 1999 V2: 169 batteries of fixtures, 1998 V1: 26, 1999 V2: 64 I
in wells, 1999 V2: 243 Baumeister, Theodore, 1998 V1: 1, 1998 V1: 3,
baffleplates, 1998 V1: 26 1998 V1: 6, 1998 V1: 49
baffles in septic tanks, 1999 V2: 228 BCMC (Board for Coordination of Model Codes), J
bag-filter gross filtration, 1999 V2: 300 1998 V1: 101
Bahamas, gray-water systems in, 1999 V2: 33 beam clamps, 1998 V1: 192 K
balancing pumps, 1998 V1: 202 Beausoliel, R.W., 1999 V2: 65
balancing valves (BLV), 1998 V1: 11
balcony drains, 1999 V2: 69
bedding and settlement
around septic tanks, 1999 V2: 228
L
ball check valves, 1998 V1: 26 building sewers and, 1999 V2: 15
ball joints, bracing and, 1998 V1: 173 pipe supports and, 1999 V2: 14 M
ball valves (BV), 1998 V1: 11, 1998 V1: 26, 1999 protecting against settlement, 1999 V2: 19
V2: 332
Ballanco, Julius, 1999 V2: 114
settlement loads, 1998 V1: 189
subsurface drainage pipes, 1999 V2: 102
N
Baltimore Dept. of Public Works, 1999 V2: 34 water system piping, 1999 V2: 250, 1999 V2:
bare pipe, 1998 V1: 147, 1998 V1:148 251 O
barium, 1999 V2: 281 bell-and-spigot joints and piping. See also hub-and-
baro, BARO (barometric), 1998 V1: 17 spigot piping and joints
baro pr, BARO PR (barometric pressure). See defined, 1998 V1: 26 P
barometric pressure earthquake protection and, 1998 V1: 169
barometers (baro, BARO) underground, 1999 V2: 88 Q
symbols for, 1998 V1: 17 bell holes, 1999 V2: 88
vacuums and, 1999 V2: 254 bell hub depressions, 1999 V2: 15
barometric (baro, BARO), defined, 1998 V1: 17 bells, defined, 1998 V1: 26 R
barometric loops, 1999 V2: 144 below-slab drainage, 1999 V2: 103
barometric pressure (baro pr, BARO PR, BP) bend-and-loop pipe configurations, 1998 V1: 205 S
altitude adjustments, 1999 V2: 257 bending movements, conversion factors, 1998 V1:
barometric, defined, 1998 V1: 17 43
barometric pressure, defined, 1998 V1: 21 bends, joints in, 1998 V1: 82 T
in vacuums, 1999 V2: 254, 1999 V2: 275 Bennett, E.R., 1999 V2: 238
barrels, converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 47 bentonite clay, 1999 V2: 302 U
barrier free, 1998 V1: 26. See also physically bentonite grout, 1999 V2: 243
challenged individuals Bernoulli’s equation, 1998 V1: 6–7
barriers in sound insulation, 1998 V1: 197 beta ray radiation, 1999 V2: 337 V
bars, converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 47 beverage-processing plants, 1999 V2: 147
base BFV (butterfly valves), 1998 V1: 11, 1998 V1: 27 W
compounds in water, 1999 V2: 280 bhp, BHP (brake horsepower), 1998 V1: 7, 1998 V1:
defined, 1998 V1: 26 17 XYZ
bicarbonates, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: 282, 1999 blood or other objectionable materials, 1999 V2: 16. A
V2: 290, 1999 V2: 295 See also infectious and biological waste
bid bonds, 1998 V1: 64 systems
bid/tender forms, 1998 V1: 64 blow-backs, reduced-size venting and, 1999 V2: 49 B
bidders blowdown
defined, 1998 V1: 63–64 boiler blowdown, 1999 V2: 314, 1999 V2: 315 C
information in project manuals, 1998 V1: 64 cooling towers, 1999 V2: 316
writing of specifications and, 1998 V1: 67 removing sludge, 1999 V2: 289
Biddison, 1998 V1: 195 blowout fixtures, acoustic design and, 1998 V1: 200 D
bills of material (b/m, BOM), 1998 V1: 17 blue dyes in gray water, 1999 V2: 22, 1999 V2: 33
binding, preventing in cleanouts, 1999 V2: 9 BLV (balancing valves), 1998 V1: 11 E
biochemical measurements of microorganisms, Board for Coordination of Model Codes (BCMC),
1999 V2: 282 1998 V1: 101
biocides, 1999 V2: 311, 1999 V2: 316, 1999 V2: BOCA (Building Officials and Code Administrators F
317, 1999 V2: 323 International, Inc.), 1998 V1: 60
biofouling, 1999 V2: 289, 1999 V2: 316 BOCA Basic Plumbing Code, 1999 V2: 114 G
biohazardous materials. See infectious and biologi- Boegly, W.J., 1999 V2: 238
cal waste systems boiler blow-off tanks, 1998 V1: 26
biological and biomedical laboratories. See also boiler blow-offs, 1998 V1: 26 H
laboratories boiler room earthquake protection, 1998 V1: 168
infectious waste systems, 1999 V2: 343 Boiler Water Treatment, 1999 V2: 325 I
vacuum systems, 1999 V2: 262 boilers
biological characteristics of drinking water, 1999 cast-iron supports for, 1998 V1: 163
V2: 316, 1999 V2: 318 codes and standards, 1998 V1: 59 J
biological control in pure water systems, 1999 V2: earthquake protection, 1998 V1: 165
323. See also microbial growth and control feed water corrosion inhibitors, 1998 V1: 149 K
biological fouling, 1999 V2: 289, 1999 V2: 316 feed water treatments, 1999 V2: 314–315
biological treatment
in gray-water treatment, 1999 V2: 27
natural gas systems and, 1999 V2: 174
scaling, 1999 V2: 289
L
of oil spills, 1999 V2: 347 sediment buckets in drains, 1999 V2: 12
of sewage in septic tanks, 1999 V2: 227 boiling points (bp, BP) M
biological waste systems. See infectious and biologi- defined, 1999 V2: 213
cal waste systems
biosafety cabinets, 1999 V2: 344
symbols for, 1998 V1: 17
bolting problems in seismic protection, 1998 V1:
N
biosafety levels (BL1-BL4), 1999 V2: 343–344 192, 1998 V1: 193
biostats, 1999 V2: 311, 1999 V2: 317 BOM (bills of material), 1998 V1: 17 O
bitumastic-enamel-lined piping, 1999 V2: 122 bonded joints, 1998 V1:148
bituminized felt, 1998 V1: 200 bonds and certificates, 1998 V1: 64
bituminous pipe joint compound, 1999 V2: 223 bonnets, 1998 V1: 26 P
BL1-4 levels, 1999 V2: 343–344 booster-pump systems, 1998 V1: 204, 1999 V2:
black pipes, 1998 V1: 26 121, 1999 V2: 152 Q
black steel piping, 1999 V2: 68, 1999 V2: 176, booster water heaters, 1998 V1: 124, 1998 V1: 127,
1999 V2: 196, 1999 V2: 197–211 1999 V2: 160
black water systems boosting water pressure, 1999 V2: 149–152 R
amount of generated black water, 1999 V2: 23 borate, 1999 V2: 282
compared to gray water, 1999 V2: 21, 1999 V2: bore holes for wells, 1999 V2: 240 S
23 bored wells, 1999 V2: 241
estimating sewage quantities, 1999 V2: 233–238 borings
bladder bags, 1998 V1: 113 subsurface site drainage, 1999 V2: 100 T
blades in pumps, 1998 V1: 201, 1998 V1: 202 wells, 1999 V2: 240
Blake, Richard T., 1999 V2: 325 borosilicate glass piping, 1999 V2: 14, 1999 V2: 15, U
blank flanges, 1998 V1: 26 1999 V2: 122
blast gates, 1999 V2: 268 Bosich, Joseph F., 1998 V1: 152
bleaches, 1999 V2: 230 bottled gas, 1999 V2: 174 V
block-like soils, 1999 V2: 218 Bourdon gauges, 1999 V2: 260
blocking water system pipes, 1999 V2: 250 bowl depth of sinks, 1998 V1: 114 W
blood analyzers, 1999 V2: 14 Boyle, W.C., 1999 V2: 34
bp, BP (boiling points), 1998 V1: 17, 1999 V2: 213 XYZ
Index 359
BP (barometric pressure). See barometric pressure breathing apparatus for emergencies, 1999 V2: A
braces (walking aids), 1998 V1: 103 332, 1999 V2: 333
bracing brick dome covers on seepage pits, 1999 V2: 225
aircraft cable method, 1998 V1: 173 brines B
alternate attachments for pipes, 1998 V1: 176 refrigerants, 1998 V1: 149
avoiding potential earthquake problems, 1998 in water softening, 1999 V2: 307 C
V1: 194 British thermal units (Btu, BTU)
defined, 1998 V1: 193 British thermal units per hour (Btu/h), 1998 V1:
hanger rod connections, 1998 V1: 179 26 D
hubless cast-iron pipe, 1998 V1: 179 calculating hot water savings, 1998 V1: 127
lateral sway bracing, 1998 V1: 183–184 converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 47 E
longitudinal and transverse bracing, 1998 V1: defined, 1998 V1: 26, 1998 V1: 133, 1999 V2:
182 213
longitudinal-only bracing, 1998 V1: 174, 1998 symbols for, 1998 V1: 17 F
V1: 182 bromtrifluoro-methane CBrF3 (halon 1301), 1998
open-web steel joists, 1998 V1: 178 V1: 33 G
pipes on trapeze and, 1998 V1: 177, 1998 V1: bronze, in electromotive force series, 1998 V1: 140
180 bronze floor drains, 1999 V2: 15
piping systems for seismic protection, 1998 V1: bronze-mounted, defined, 1998 V1: 26 H
168–184 bronze sediment buckets, 1999 V2: 14
riser bracing for hubless pipes, 1998 V1: 180 bronze trim, 1998 V1: 26 I
self bracing, 1998 V1: 192 Brown, F.R., 1998 V1: 195
spacing of, 1998 V1: 189 Brown, J., 1999 V2: 325
steel beam connections, 1998 V1: 177 Brown & Sharpe wire gage (B&S), 1998 V1: 17 J
structural angle bracing, 1998 V1: 173 Brownstein, E., 1999 V2: 65
structural channel bracing, 1998 V1: 173 B&S (Brown & Sharpe wire gage), 1998 V1: 17 K
strut bracing, 1998 V1: 175, 1998 V1: 177 Btu, BTU (British Thermal units). See British
superstrut, 1998 V1: 172
sway bracing, 1998 V1: 181, 1998 V1: 183–184,
Thermal units
Btu/h (British thermal units per hour), 1998 V1: 26
L
1998 V1: 187–188, 1998 V1: 190 bubble aerators, 1999 V2: 293
Tension 360 bracing, 1998 V1: 171 bubbles, 1999 V2: 38. See also detergents; soaps M
transverse bracing, 1998 V1: 173, 1998 V1: 181 buffing finishes on grates, 1999 V2: 11
truss-type actions, 1998 V1: 192
typical earthquake bracing, 1998 V1: 170
building drains
combined, 1998 V1: 27
N
brake horsepower (bhp, BHP) cross-sections of, 1999 V2: 2
pumps, 1998 V1: 7 defined, 1998 V1: 27, 1999 V2: 64 O
symbols for, 1998 V1: 17 flow in, 1999 V2: 2
branch-bottom connections, 1998 V1: 13 inspection checklist, 1998 V1: 96
branch intervals installation, 1999 V2: 15 P
defined, 1998 V1: 26, 1999 V2: 64 pneumatic pressure in, 1999 V2: 2
branch sewers, 1998 V1: 38 sanitary, 1998 V1: 27. See also sanitary drainage Q
branch tees, 1998 V1: 26 systems
branch-top connections, 1998 V1: 13 sovent system connections, 1999 V2: 60–61
branch vents, 1998 V1: 26 storm, 1998 V1: 27 R
branches, defined, 1998 V1: 26 Building Officials and Code Administrators Interna-
brass tional, Inc. (BOCA), 1998 V1: 60, 1999 V2: S
dezincification, 1998 V1: 138 114
in electromotive force series, 1998 V1: 141 building sewers (house drains), 1998 V1: 27, 1999
in galvanic series, 1998 V1: 140 V2: 15 T
brass fittings, 1999 V2: 196 building sites. See sites
brass floor drains, 1999 V2: 15, 1999 V2: 16 building storm-drainage systems U
brass pipes, 1999 V2: 68, 1999 V2: 122, 1999 V2: design criteria, 1999 V2: 68–69
176, 1999 V2: 196 pipe sizing and layout, 1999 V2: 69
brazed joints, earthquake protection and, 1998 V1: rainfall rate tables, 1999 V2: 69–78 V
169 roof drainage, 1999 V2: 79–94
brazing alloys on gas piping, 1999 V2: 196 secondary drainage systems, 1999 V2: 70, 1999 W
brazing ends, 1998 V1: 26 V2: 79
building subdrains, 1998 V1: 27 XYZ
Building Systems Design, 1999 V2: 277 calcium chloride, 1999 V2: 283 A
building traps, 1998 V1: 27 calcium hydroxide, 1999 V2: 283
buildings calcium hypochlorite, 1999 V2: 245
acceptable plumbing noise levels, 1998 V1: 197 calcium phosphate, 1999 V2: 283 B
building material acoustic insulation, 1998 V1: calcium silicates, 1999 V2: 283
197–198 calcium sulfate, 1999 V2: 281 C
defined, 1998 V1: 26 California Administrative Code of Regulations, 1998
essential facilities, 1998 V1: 193 V1: 185
isolating premises with backflow hazards, 1999 California Code of Regulations, 1998 V1: 195 D
V2: 145–147 California Plumbing Code, 1999 V2: 34
storm-drainage systems and, 1999 V2: 68–94 calories E
type of structure and earthquake protection, caloric values of natural gas, 1999 V2: 173, 1999
1998 V1: 169 V2: 212, 1999 V2: 214
bull head tees, 1998 V1: 27 converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 47 F
Bunsen burners, 1999 V2: 176 camps, septic tank systems for, 1999 V2: 231–232
buried piping. See underground piping; under- can pumps, 1998 V1: 31 G
ground piping Canadian Standards Association (CSA), 1998 V1:
burners, defined, 1999 V2: 213 60
burning methane, 1998 V1: 132 candelas (cd), 1998 V1: 41 H
burst pressure, 1998 V1: 27 candelas per meter squared (cd/m2), 1998 V1: 41
bushels, converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 47 cantilevered drinking fountains, 1998 V1: 106 I
bushings, 1998 V1: 27 CAP (College of American Pathologists), 1999 V2:
butane, 1999 V2: 194, 1999 V2: 213. See also fuel- 279, 1999 V2: 317, 1999 V2: 319
gas piping systems CAP/Electronic Sweet’s, 1998 V1: 80 J
butt welding capacitance, measurements, 1998 V1: 41
butt-weld end connections, 1998 V1: 31 capacity. See flow rates K
butt weld joints, 1998 V1: 27 capillaries, 1998 V1: 27
butt weld pipes, 1998 V1: 27
radioactive drainage systems, 1999 V2: 341
caps on ends of pipes, 1998 V1: 13
capture-type vacuum pumps, 1999 V2: 259
L
butterfly valves (BFV), 1998 V1: 11, 1998 V1: 27 car traffic, 1999 V2: 11, 1999 V2: 223
BV (ball valves), 1998 V1: 11, 1998 V1: 26, 1999 car-washing facilities, 1999 V2: 147 M
V2: 332 carbohydrazide, 1999 V2: 315
“by others” wording in specifications, 1998 V1: 67
bypass valves, 1998 V1: 27
carbon
adsorption of oil spills, 1999 V2: 347
N
bypasses, 1998 V1: 27 corrosion, 1998 V1: 137, 1998 V1: 141
total organic carbon, 1999 V2: 288 O
C in water, 1999 V2: 281
carbon 14, 1999 V2: 340
°C (celsius), 1998 V1: 17
carbon dioxide (CO2) P
c (centi) prefix, 1998 V1: 42
decarbonation, 1999 V2: 295
C (conductance), 1998 V1: 18, 1998 V1: 41
C (coulombs), 1998 V1: 41, 1998 V1: 135
symbols for, 1998 V1: 11 Q
in water, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: 284, 1999 V2:
c (curies), 1999 V2: 339
294
C (degrees celsius), 1998 V1: 42
carbon filtration (absorphan). See activated carbon R
C (specific heat). See specific heat
filtration (absorphan)
c to c, C TO C (center to center), 1998 V1: 17
C/m3 (coulombs per cubic meter), 1998 V1: 41
carbon steel, 1998 V1: 141 S
carbon steel casings, 1999 V2: 179
CABO (Council of American Building Officials),
carbonate films, 1998 V1: 149
1998 V1: 122
carbonates, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: 282, 1999 V2: T
CADD programs, 1998 V1: 68
283, 1999 V2: 290
cadmium, 1998 V1: 140
calcium
carbonic acid, 1999 V2: 281 U
carpets, vacuum calculations for, 1999 V2: 269
defined, 1999 V2: 283
cartridge filtration, 1999 V2: 300, 1999 V2: 305–
scale formation and corrosion, 1999 V2: 290
306, 1999 V2: 312, 1999 V2: 323 V
in water, 1999 V2: 244, 1999 V2: 281
Cartwright, Peter, 1999 V2: 325
calcium 45, 1999 V2: 340
calcium bicarbonate, 1999 V2: 281
cascade waterfall aerators, 1999 V2: 293 W
casings
calcium carbonate, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: 283,
driven wells, 1999 V2: 241 XYZ
1999 V2: 285, 1999 V2: 291
Index 361
gas boosters, 1999 V2: 179 caustic waste from regeneration cycle, 1999 V2: A
jetted wells, 1999 V2: 241 304
well casings, 1999 V2: 240 cavitation
Cassidy, Victor M., 1998 V1: 133 cavitation corrosion, 1998 V1: 150 B
cast-aluminum floor drains, 1999 V2: 15 defined, 1998 V1: 27, 1998 V1: 150
cast-in-place anchor bolts, 1998 V1: 165 flexible pipe connectors and, 1998 V1: 205 C
cast iron modifications to pump plants, 1998 V1: 202
in electromotive series, 1998 V1: 141 pressure levels and, 1998 V1: 206
in galvanic series, 1998 V1: 140 reducing noise source strength, 1998 V1: 204 D
graphitization, 1998 V1: 138 cavitation corrosion, 1998 V1: 150
cast-iron boiler supports, 1998 V1: 163 CCB (Construction Criteria Base), 1998 V1: 68 E
cast-iron fittings, 1999 V2: 196 CCS examination (Certified Construction Specifier),
cast-iron floor drains, 1999 V2: 16, 1999 V2: 17 1998 V1: 69
cast-iron piping, 1998 V1: 147 ccw, CCW (counterclockwise), 1998 V1: 18 F
blocking, 1999 V2: 250 cd (candelas), 1998 V1: 41
bracing, 1998 V1: 179 CD (condensate drains), 1998 V1: 9, 1999 V2: 13 G
liquefied petroleum gas, 1999 V2: 196 cd/m2, 1998 V1: 41
radioactive materials systems and, 1999 V2: 341 CD-ROM disks of specifications, 1998 V1: 68
roughness, 1999 V2: 122 CDA (Copper Development Association), 1998 V1: H
sanitary drainage systems, 1999 V2: 14 27
storm-drainage systems, 1999 V2: 89–92 CDI (continuous deionization), 1999 V2: 306–307 I
tree roots and, 1999 V2: 223 ceilings, piping in, 1998 V1: 200, 1998 V1: 206
underground piping, 1999 V2: 68 cell pairs, 1999 V2: 306
Cast-iron Soil Pipe and Fittings Engineering Manual, cells, defined, 1998 V1: 150 J
1999 V2: 114 cellulose acetate membranes, 1999 V2: 310, 1999
Cast Iron Soil Pipe Institute (CISPI), 1998 V1: 28, V2: 311 K
1998 V1: 60, 1999 V2: 114 cellulose tricetate membranes, 1999 V2: 310, 1999
cast-iron tank legs, 1998 V1: 165
catch basins
V2: 311
celsius (°C), 1998 V1: 17
L
piping size, 1999 V2: 69 cement grout, 1999 V2: 243
in site storm systems, 1999 V2: 98 cement joints, 1998 V1: 27 M
categories in CSI format, 1998 V1: 65–66 cement-lined piping, 1999 V2: 122
cathodes
defined, 1998 V1: 135, 1998 V1: 150
center to center (c to c, C TO C), 1998 V1: 17
“centi” prefix, 1998 V1: 42
N
galvanic series of metals, 1998 V1: 140 centigrade conversion factors, 1998 V1: 46
cathodic, defined, 1998 V1: 150 centipoise, converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 47 O
cathodic corrosion, 1998 V1: 150 central-water purification equipment, 1999 V2:
cathodic inhibitors, 1998 V1: 149 323–325
cathodic potential (electropositive potential), 1998 centrally-located vacuum cleaning systems. See P
V1: 151 vacuum cleaning systems
cathodic protection centrifugal pumps Q
criteria, 1998 V1: 148–149 acid wastes and, 1999 V2: 332
defined, 1998 V1: 27, 1998 V1: 150 defined, 1998 V1: 31
introduction, 1998 V1: 135 shallow well discharge, 1999 V2: 247 R
methods, 1998 V1: 144–149 vacuum pumps, 1999 V2: 259
cations centrifugal separators S
cation resins, 1999 V2: 284, 1999 V2: 305 centrifugal-type vacuum separators, 1999 V2:
defined, 1998 V1: 150, 1999 V2: 280 268
in ion exchange, 1999 V2: 300, 1999 V2: 301, for oil spills, 1999 V2: 348 T
1999 V2: 302 centrifugal vacuum cleaning systems, 1999 V2: 276
in pH values, 1999 V2: 329 centrifugation of oil, 1999 V2: 347 U
caulked joints on floor drains, 1999 V2: 16 ceramic wool, 1998 V1: 198
caulking, defined, 1998 V1: 27 certification of performance, 1999 V2: 155
causes and effects of earthquakes, 1998 V1: 156– Certified Construction Specifier examination, 1998 V
159 V1: 69
caustic embrittlement, 1998 V1: 150 cesspools W
caustic soda, 1999 V2: 333, 1999 V2: 337 defined, 1998 V1: 27
irrigation systems and, 1999 V2: 27 XYZ
CF (contact factors), 1998 V1: 18 chilled water supply (CWS), 1998 V1: 10 A
CFAC, CFACT (correction factors), 1998 V1: 19 chimneys
cfm (cubic feet per minute). See cubic feet per defined, 1999 V2: 213
minute heights, 1999 V2: 178 B
CFT (cubic feet), 1998 V1: 18 chlorides, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: 283, 1999 V2:
cfus (colony forming units), 1999 V2: 282 302 C
cGMP (current good manufacturing practices), 1999 chlorimine, 1999 V2: 300
V2: 325, 1999 V2: 328 chlorinated polyvinyl-chloride (CPVC), 1998 V1: 28,
CGPM (General Conference of Weights and Mea- 1999 V2: 284 D
sures), 1998 V1: 40 chlorinated polyvinyl-chloride piping, 1999 V2: 284
chain-type trenching, 1998 V1: 85 chlorination E
chainwheel-operated valves, 1998 V1: 27 disinfecting water systems, 1999 V2: 252
chambers (air chambers). See air chambers (AC) domestic water systems, 1999 V2: 154
Chan, Wen-Yung W., 1998 V1: 49 drinking water, 1999 V2: 245 F
change orders, 1998 V1: 64 gray water, 1999 V2: 27, 1999 V2: 28, 1999 V2:
changed standpipes, 1998 V1: 16 29 G
channels, 1998 V1: 27 wells, 1999 V2: 243
Characteristics of Rural Household Waste Water, chlorine
1999 V2: 34 bleaches, 1999 V2: 230 H
chases, 1998 V1: 27 chlorine-resistant grates, 1999 V2: 15
check valves (CV) microbial control, 1999 V2: 311 I
aluminum check valves, 1999 V2: 177 pure water systems, 1999 V2: 323
defined, 1998 V1: 28 removing, 1999 V2: 300
on vacuum systems, 1999 V2: 268 small drinking water systems, 1999 V2: 318 J
symbols for, 1998 V1: 11 in water chemistry, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: 284
thermal expansion compensation and, 1999 V2: chromium-iron, 1998 V1: 140 K
167 Church, James, 1999 V2: 114
vacuum systems, 1999 V2: 262
with vent ports, 1999 V2: 145, 1999 V2: 149
Chusid, Michael, 1998 V1: 79
CIN (cubic inches), 1998 V1: 18
L
checklists cinders as backfill, 1999 V2: 222
designs and drawings, 1998 V1: 91–94, 1998 V1: circles, calculating area, 1998 V1: 5 M
95 circuit venting, 1998 V1: 28, 1999 V2: 43–44, 1999
field checklists, 1998 V1: 96–97
general checklists for jobs, 1998 V1: 90
V2: 64
circuits (ckt, CKT), 1998 V1: 17, 1998 V1: 28
N
specifications, 1998 V1: 68 circulating water systems
chemical plants, 1999 V2: 147 in geothermal energy systems, 1998 V1: 132 O
chemical-waste systems hot water systems, 1999 V2: 165
codes and standards, 1999 V2: 345 standby losses in, 1998 V1: 127–128
defined, 1998 V1: 28 CISPI (Cast Iron Soil Pipe Institute), 1998 V1: 28, P
design considerations, 1999 V2: 346 1998 V1: 60, 1999 V2: 114
pipe and joint selection, 1999 V2: 345–346 cisterns, 1999 V2: 21, 1999 V2: 247 Q
chemically-stabilized emulsions, 1999 V2: 347 city rainfall rate tables, 1999 V2: 69–78
chemicals ckt, CKT (circuits), 1998 V1: 17, 1998 V1: 28
chemical characteristics of drinking water, 1999 CL, C/L (critical level), 1998 V1: 29 R
V2: 316, 1999 V2: 318 Claes, 1998 V1: 152
chemical control of microbes in water, 1999 V2: clamp gate valves, 1998 V1: 28 S
311 clams, 1999 V2: 282
chemical treatment of oil spills, 1999 V2: 347, clarification treatments for water, 1999 V2: 294,
1999 V2: 348 1999 V2: 314 T
laboratory vacuum systems, 1999 V2: 262 classes of service, standpipe systems, 1998 V1: 38
in septic tanks, 1999 V2: 230–231 classifications of disabilities, 1998 V1: 101 U
in special-waste effluent, 1999 V2: 328 claw type pumps, 1999 V2: 259
chemistry of water. See water chemistry clay pipe joints, 1999 V2: 223
children, fixtures and, 1998 V1: 101 clay piping V
chilled drinking water recirculating (DWR), 1998 industrial discharge piping, 1999 V2: 346
V1: 9 noise insulation, 1999 V2: 15 W
chilled drinking water supply (DWS), 1998 V1: 9 pipe sizing, 1999 V2: 89–92
chilled water returns (CWR), 1998 V1: 10 surface roughness, 1999 V2: 122 XYZ
Index 363
underground piping, 1999 V2: 68 coagulation in gray-water treatment, 1999 V2: 27, A
clay soils, 1999 V2: 26, 1999 V2: 27 1999 V2: 28
clays coalescence and filtration of oil spills, 1999 V2: 347
in feed water, 1999 V2: 289 coalescing filters in vacuum systems, 1999 V2: 260 B
in soil texture, 1999 V2: 218 coarse sands, 1999 V2: 26, 1999 V2: 27, 1999 V2:
Clean Water Act, 1999 V2: 345 103 C
cleaning coat hooks
cold-water systems, 1999 V2: 154–155 accessibility in toilet and bathing rooms, 1998
radioactive waste piping, 1999 V2: 341 V1: 108 D
septic tanks, 1999 V2: 228, 1999 V2: 229–230 ambulatory accessible toilet compartments, 1998
cleanout plugs (CO), 1998 V1: 14 V1: 111 E
cleanouts, 1998 V1: 28 coated metal
chemical-waste systems, 1999 V2: 346 cathodic protection, 1998 V1:148
cleaning drains, 1999 V2: 15–16 corrosion protection, 1998 V1: 143–144 F
manholes, 1999 V2: 99 natural gas piping, 1999 V2: 176
radioactive waste systems, 1999 V2: 343 passivation, 1998 V1: 143 G
roof drainage, 1999 V2: 88 piping codes and standards, 1998 V1: 59
roof leaders, 1999 V2: 86 septic tanks, 1999 V2: 228
sanitary drainage systems, 1999 V2: 9–10 storm piping, 1999 V2: 68 H
types, 1999 V2: 17–18 cocks, 1998 V1: 28
vacuum cleaning systems, 1999 V2: 276 Code of Federal Regulations, 1999 V2: 317 I
cleanouts to grade (CO), 1998 V1: 14 codes and standards
clear floor space chemical-waste systems, 1999 V2: 345
bathtubs, 1998 V1: 115 codes, defined, 1998 V1: 28 J
drinking fountains and water coolers, 1998 V1: energy code compliance, 1998 V1: 133
106 gray-water systems, 1999 V2: 22 K
laundry equipment, 1998 V1: 122 hot-water systems, 1999 V2: 170
lavatories and sinks, 1998 V1: 113
urinal design, 1998 V1: 113
infectious and biological waste systems, 1999 V2:
343–344
L
water closet and toilet accessibility, 1998 V1: 109 plumbing materials and equipment, 1998 V1:
for wheelchairs, 1998 V1: 103, 1998 V1: 104 51–59 M
clear space in septic tanks, 1999 V2: 228 plumbing standards for physically challenged,
clear-water wastes
1998 V1: 99–100
seismic protection, 1998 V1: 185–186
N
in roof drains, 1999 V2: 84 special-waste drainage systems, 1999 V2: 327–
clearance 328 O
bathtub accessibility, 1998 V1: 114 vacuum-cleaning systems, 1999 V2: 266
water closet and toilet accessibility, 1998 V1: 109 vacuum systems, 1999 V2: 262
cleveland work, 1998 V1: 85 water analysis, treatment and purification, 1999 P
clg load, CLG LOAD (cooling loads), 1998 V1: 18 V2: 279, 1999 V2: 317
climate, storm-drainage systems and, 1999 V2: 68 coeff., COEF (coefficients), 1998 V1: 17 Q
clinics, 1999 V2: 147 coefficients (coeff., COEF), 1998 V1: 17
clo, converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 47 coefficients of expansion, 1998 V1: 28
CLOAD (cooling loads), 1998 V1: 18 coefficients of performance (COP), 1998 V1: 133 R
clockwise (cw, CW), 1998 V1: 17 coefficients of permeability (K factor), 1999 V2: 100–
clogging in leaching trenches, 1999 V2: 222 101, 1999 V2: 104–105, 1999 V2: 242 S
close nipples, 1998 V1: 28 coefficients of transmissibility (Q factor), 1999 V2:
closed-circuit cooling systems, 1998 V1: 149, 1999 101–102
V2: 243 coefficients of valve flow (Cv, Cv, CV), 1998 V1: 17 T
clothes washers. See laundry systems and washers coffee sinks, 1999 V2: 25. See also sinks and wash
CMPR (compressors). See compressors basins U
cndct, CNDCT (conductivity), 1998 V1: 18, 1998 cogeneration systems, waste heat usage, 1998 V1:
V1: 41 128
CO (cleanout plugs), 1998 V1: 14 coherent unit systems, 1998 V1: 40 V
CO (yard cleanouts or cleanouts to grade). See coils (COIL), 1998 V1: 17
cleanouts; cleanouts to grade cold water (CW), 1998 V1: 9 W
CO2 (carbon dioxide). See carbon dioxide cold-water systems
coagulants in clarification, 1999 V2: 294 backflow prevention, 1999 V2: 144–149 XYZ
excess water pressure, 1999 V2: 152–154 common vents, 1998 V1: 28, 1999 V2: 41, 1999 A
inadequate water pressure, 1999 V2: 149–152 V2: 64. See also dual vents
introduction, 1999 V2: 115 community bathhouses, 1999 V2: 235
pipe sizing, 1999 V2: 121–131, 1999 V2: 133– compacted fill, building sewers and, 1999 V2: 15 B
142, 1999 V2: 136 companion flanges, 1998 V1: 28
references, 1999 V2: 155 compartments in septic tanks, 1999 V2: 229 C
residential systems, 1999 V2: 115–116 complexity in specifications, 1998 V1: 67
testing, cleaning, and disinfection, 1999 V2: 154– compound water meters, 1999 V2: 115, 1999 V2:
155 116, 1999 V2: 117 D
water hammer, 1999 V2: 131–132 compounds
water line sizing, 1999 V2: 116–131 plumbing fixture standards, 1998 V1: 59 E
coliform group of bacteria, 1998 V1: 28 in water, 1999 V2: 281
coliform organism tests, 1999 V2: 155 compressed air (A, X#, X#A)
collectors (dug wells), 1999 V2: 240 defined, 1998 V1: 25 F
College of American Pathologists (CAP), 1999 V2: earthquake bracing for piping, 1998 V1: 168
279, 1999 V2: 317, 1999 V2: 319 laboratory or medical compressed air, 1998 V1: G
Collentro, W.V., 1999 V2: 325 10
colloidal particles, removing, 1999 V2: 294 piping, 1999 V2: 177
colloidal silica, 1999 V2: 283 supplies to water tanks, 1999 V2: 247 H
colony forming units (cfus), 1999 V2: 282 symbols for, 1998 V1: 10
color Compressed Air and Gas Data, 1999 V2: 214 I
of drinking water, 1999 V2: 316 compressed gas. See natural gas systems
of feed water, 1999 V2: 282, 1999 V2: 287 compression fittings, 1998 V1: 32
of gray water, 1999 V2: 29, 1999 V2: 33 compression joints, 1998 V1: 28 J
of soils, 1999 V2: 218–219 compressors (cprsr, CMPR)
corporation cocks, 1998 V1: 28 defined, 1998 V1: 28 K
columns in ion exchange systems, 1999 V2: 302 earthquake protection, 1998 V1: 165
combination dry-pipe and pre-action systems, 1998
V1: 37
computer programs
L
combination fixtures, defined, 1998 V1: 28 abbreviations in, 1998 V1: 17–23
combination storm-drainage and sanitary sewers, computer-aided design and drafting, 1998 V1: 68 M
1999 V2: 12, 1999 V2: 67, 1999 V2: 93 computer analysis of piping systems, 1998 V1:
combination temperature and pressure relief valves,
1999 V2: 166
189
ETI (Economic Thickness of Insulation), 1998 V1:
N
combination vacuum-cleaning systems, 1999 V2: 125
266 computer room waste heat usage, 1998 V1: 128– O
combination waste and vent systems, 1998 V1: 28, 131
1999 V2: 45–46, 1999 V2: 64 Computerizing Spec Practices, 1998 V1: 80
combined building drains, 1998 V1: 27 concealed sprinklers, 1998 V1: 37 P
combustion efficiency, 1998 V1: 28 concentration cell attack corrosion, 1998 V1: 137–
combustion exhaust from natural gas, 1999 V2: 138 Q
177 concentration cells, defined, 1998 V1: 150
Commercial Energy Conservation Manual, 1998 V1: concentration gradients, 1999 V2: 308
133 concentration polarization, 1998 V1: 150 R
commercial facilities concentric reducers, 1998 V1: 12
estimating sewage quantities, 1999 V2: 234 concrete anchors S
gray-water systems, 1999 V2: 25 floor-mounted equipment, 1998 V1: 165
grease interceptors, 1999 V2: 13 problems in seismic protection, 1998 V1: 191–
natural gas appliance demand, 1999 V2: 175 193 T
oil interceptors in drains, 1999 V2: 12–13 concrete base devices, 1998 V1: 210–211
radioactive waste drainage and vents, 1999 V2: concrete covers on seepage pits, 1999 V2: 225 U
337 concrete embedments, 1998 V1: 192–193
commercial laundries, 1999 V2: 121, 1999 V2: 147. concrete floors, leveling around, 1999 V2: 17
See also laundry systems and washers concrete inertia bases, 1998 V1: 209 V
Commercial Standards (CS), 1998 V1: 29 Concrete Pipe Handbook, 1999 V2: 102, 1999 V2:
Commercial Water Use Research Project, 1999 V2: 114 W
34 concrete piping
noise insulation, 1999 V2: 15 XYZ
Index 365
pipe sizing, 1999 V2: 89–92 energy code compliance, 1998 V1: 133 A
surface roughness, 1999 V2: 122 glossary, 1998 V1: 133
underground piping, 1999 V2: 68 hot water system improvements, 1998 V1: 127
concrete roofing drains, 1999 V2: 82, 1999 V2: 83 introduction, 1998 V1: 123 B
concrete sand fill, 1999 V2: 103 nondepletable and alternate energy sources,
concrete sawing, man-hours for, 1998 V1: 85 1998 V1: 132 C
concrete septic tanks, 1999 V2: 228 reduced water flow rates, 1998 V1: 124–125
concrete shielding from radiation, 1999 V2: 339 references, 1998 V1: 133
concrete tank saddles, 1998 V1: 165 saving utility costs, 1998 V1: 131 D
concrete thrust blocks, 1999 V2: 251 standby losses in circulating systems, 1998 V1:
cond, COND (condensers, condensation). See 127–128 E
condensation; condensers thermal insulation thickness, 1998 V1: 125–127
condensate drains (CD), 1998 V1: 9, 1999 V2: 13 waste heat usage, 1998 V1: 128–131
condensates conserving water F
corrosion inhibitors, 1998 V1: 149 air-conditioning system water, 1999 V2: 243
defined, 1998 V1: 28, 1999 V2: 213 institutional waste-water systems, 1999 V2: 232 G
condensation (cond, COND) large sewage systems and, 1999 V2: 231
corrosion and, 1998 V1: 143 constant-speed pumps, 1999 V2: 152
earthquakes and, 1998 V1: 170 constantly-used fixtures, 1999 V2: 121 H
non-circulating hot water systems, 1998 V1: 127 Constructed Science Research Foundation, 1998
protecting against, 1999 V2: 18 V1: 68 I
symbols for, 1998 V1: 17 construction contract documents
condensers CSI format, 1998 V1: 65–66
condenser system water treatments, 1999 V2: defined, 1998 V1: 63, 1998 V1: 64 J
315 overview, 1998 V1: 63–65
defined, 1998 V1: 133 plumbing specifiers and engineers, 1998 V1: 69 K
scale deposits, 1999 V2: 289 project manuals, 1998 V1: 64–65
waste heat reclamation, 1998 V1: 129, 1998 V1:
Construction Criteria Base (CCB), 1998 V1: 68
Construction Specification Writing, Principles and
L
130 Procedures, 1998 V1: 80
conditioning water. See water treatment Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) M
ConDoc: The New System for Formatting and Inte- address, 1998 V1: 80
grating Construction Documentation, 1998 V1:
79
continuing education programs, 1998 V1: 69
CSI format, 1998 V1: 65–66
N
conductance (C), 1998 V1: 18, 1998 V1: 41 general conditions documents, 1998 V1: 64
conductivity (cndct, CNDCT, K) Manual of Practice, 1998 V1: 63 O
measurements, 1998 V1: 41 MASTERFORMAT, 1998 V1: 71–74, 1998 V1: 79
mho (specific conductivity), 1999 V2: 287 section shell outline, 1998 V1: 75–79
symbols for, 1998 V1: 18 consumption. See demand P
conductors contact corrosion, defined, 1998 V1: 150
defined, 1998 V1: 28 contact factors (CF), 1998 V1: 18 Q
number of, 1998 V1: 18 contact time for microbial control, 1999 V2: 311
conduits Containment Control in Biotechnology Environments,
defined, 1998 V1: 28 1999 V2: 350 R
seismic protection, 1998 V1: 155 containment of biological wastes, 1999 V2: 343
cones containment pipes and gas piping, 1999 V2: 176 S
calculating volume, 1998 V1: 5 contamination issues
of depression, 1999 V2: 242 backflow prevention, 1999 V2: 144–149
“Conference Generale de Poids et Measures,” 1998 bored wells, 1999 V2: 241 T
V1: 40 contaminators, defined, 1998 V1: 28
confluent vents, 1998 V1: 28, 1999 V2: 51, 1999 dug wells, 1999 V2: 240 U
V2: 52 gray-water irrigation systems and, 1999 V2: 26
connected loads, defined, 1999 V2: 214 well protection, 1999 V2: 243
conserving energy continuing education programs, 1998 V1: 69 V
Bernoulli’s equation, 1998 V1: 6–7 continuous acid-waste treatment systems, 1999 V2:
domestic water temperatures, 1998 V1: 123 338 W
efficiency of hot-water storage equipment, 1998 continuous deionization (CDI), 1999 V2: 306–307
V1: 132–133 continuous flow. See steady flow XYZ
continuous vents, defined, 1998 V1: 28, 1999 V2: in galvanic series, 1998 V1: 140 A
64 copper alloy piping, 1999 V2: 14
continuous waste, 1998 V1: 28 copper-copper sulfite half-cells, 1998 V1: 140
contract documents. See construction contract Copper Development Association (CDA), 1998 V1: B
documents 27, 1999 V2: 65
contraction of pipes copper joints, 1999 V2: 222 C
calculating, 1998 V1: 4 copper-nickel alloys, 1998 V1: 140
protecting against, 1999 V2: 18 copper piping
contractors, defined, 1998 V1: 64 aboveground piping, 1999 V2: 14, 1999 V2: 68 D
Control of Pipeline Corrosion, 1998 V1: 152 conserving energy, 1998 V1: 126
control panels (fire alarm), 1998 V1: 15 copper K piping, 1999 V2: 262 E
control systems in geothermal energy systems, copper L piping, 1999 V2: 262
1998 V1: 132 fuel-gas piping, 1999 V2: 196
controlled-flow storm-drainage systems, 1999 V2: gas piping, 1999 V2: 176 F
88, 1999 V2: 93–94 radioactive waste systems, 1999 V2: 341
controlled-substance spills, 1999 V2: 277 roughness, 1999 V2: 122 G
controllers, defined, 1998 V1: 28 sizing, 1999 V2: 133
controls copper rings over joints, 1999 V2: 223
in accessible shower compartments, 1998 V1: Copper Sovent Single-stack Plumbing System Hand- H
117 book Supplement, 1999 V2: 65
in bathtubs, 1998 V1: 114 copper sulfate, 1999 V2: 223 I
control valves on vacuum systems, 1999 V2: 268 copper-sulfate electrodes, 1998 V1:148
defined, 1998 V1: 28 Copson, H.R., 1998 V1: 152
gauges for vacuum systems, 1999 V2: 260 corona-discharge generators, 1999 V2: 312 J
on gas boosters, 1999 V2: 182 correction factors, 1998 V1: 19
on water heaters, 1999 V2: 160 corroded end of galvanic series, 1998 V1: 140 K
converging seismic plates, 1998 V1: 156 corrosion
conversion factors and converting
fahrenheit and centigrade, 1998 V1: 46
backflow preventers and, 1999 V2: 149
boilers, 1999 V2: 314
L
feet of head to pounds per square inch, 1998 V1: calcium carbonate and, 1999 V2: 291
2 cathodic protection, 1998 V1: 144–149 M
fuel gas, 1999 V2: 212 causes, 1999 V2: 289–290
IP and SI, 1998 V1: 47–48, 1999 V2: 256
coatings, 1998 V1: 143–144
control of, 1998 V1: 142–149, 1999 V2: 18, 1999
N
meters of head to pressure in kilopascals, 1998 V2: 244
V1: 2 cooling towers, 1999 V2: 316 O
vacuum acfm and scfm, 1999 V2: 256, 1999 V2: corrosion cells and sacrificial anodes, 1998 V1:
257 146
vacuum pressures, 1999 V2: 254 corrosion mitigation, 1998 V1: 150 P
water impurity measurements, 1999 V2: 285 corrosion potential, 1998 V1: 150
cooling loads (clg load, CLG LOAD, CLOAD), 1998 corrosion-resistant materials, 1998 V1: 142–143, Q
V1: 18 1999 V2: 15
cooling-tower water corrosion-resistant sprinklers, 1998 V1: 37
constant use and, 1999 V2: 121 corrosive wastes, 1999 V2: 14, 1999 V2: 14 R
exclusion from gray-water systems, 1999 V2: 21 deaeration and, 1999 V2: 294
Legionella pneumophila, 1999 V2: 169 defined, 1998 V1: 135, 1998 V1: 150 S
use of gray water in, 1999 V2: 21 electromotive force series, 1998 V1: 140
waste heat usage, 1998 V1: 128 factors in rate of, 1998 V1: 140–142
water demand, 1999 V2: 243 fatigue, 1998 V1: 150 T
water treatments, 1999 V2: 315–316 fatigue limits, 1998 V1: 150
cooling water corrosion inhibitors, 1998 V1: 149 fundamental corrosion cells, 1998 V1: 135–136 U
coordination disabilities, 1998 V1: 103 glossary, 1998 V1: 149–152
coordination with other designers, 1999 V2: 79, hot-water relief valves, 1999 V2: 166
1999 V2: 81, 1999 V2: 84 inhibitors, 1998 V1: 149 V
COP (coefficient of performance), 1998 V1: 133 introduction, 1998 V1: 135
copper natural gas piping, 1999 V2: 176 W
corrosion, 1998 V1: 137 passivation, 1998 V1: 143
in electromotive series, 1998 V1: 141 plastic water pipes, 1999 V2: 252 XYZ
Index 367
predicting water deposits and corrosion, 1999 CRIP (critical pressure), 1998 V1: 21 A
V2: 290–292 critical flows, defined, 1998 V1: 2
prevention, 1998 V1: 150 critical level, defined, 1998 V1: 29
references, 1998 V1: 152 critical pressure, 1998 V1: 21 B
total organic carbon and, 1999 V2: 288 cross connections
types of, 1998 V1: 137–139 backflow prevention, 1999 V2: 144–149 C
Corrosion, 1998 V1: 152 defined, 1998 V1: 29
Corrosion and Resistance of Metals and Alloys, 1998 taking precautions against, 1999 V2: 32
V1: 152 types of prevention devices, 1999 V2: 144–145 D
Corrosion Causes and Prevention, 1998 V1: 152 cross-country pipe lines, 1998 V1: 147
corrosion cells, 1998 V1: 146 cross-flow filter media, 1999 V2: 284, 1999 V2: 300 E
Corrosion Control, 1998 V1: 152 cross-sections of drains, 1999 V2: 2, 1999 V2: 3,
Corrosion Engineering, 1998 V1: 152 1999 V2: 4
corrosion fatigue, 1998 V1: 150 cross valves, 1998 V1: 29 F
corrosion fatigue limits, 1998 V1: 150 crosses
Corrosion Handbook, 1998 V1: 152 defined, 1998 V1: 29 G
corrosion mitigation, 1998 V1: 150 joints in, 1998 V1: 82
corrosion potential, 1998 V1: 150 crossovers, 1998 V1: 29
corrosion prevention, 1998 V1: 150 crown vents, 1998 V1: 29 H
Corrosion Prevention for Practicing Engineers, 1998 crowns, 1998 V1: 29
V1: 152 crud traps, 1999 V2: 290, 1999 V2: 341, 1999 V2: I
corrosion-resistant materials, 1998 V1: 142–143, 343
1999 V2: 15 crutches, 1998 V1: 103
corrosion-resistant sprinklers, 1998 V1: 37 CS (Commercial Standards), 1998 V1: 29 J
corrosive wastes, 1999 V2: 14 CSA (Canadian Standards Association), 1998 V1:
corrugated steel piping, 1999 V2: 122 60 K
cosmic radiation, 1999 V2: 339 CSI and CSI format. See Construction Specifica-
costs. See economic concerns
coulombs (C)
tions Institute (CSI)
CU FT (cubic feet), 1998 V1: 18
L
corrosion, 1998 V1: 135 CU IN (cubic inches), 1998 V1: 18
SI units, 1998 V1: 41 cubes, calculating volume, 1998 V1: 5 M
coulombs per cubic meter (C/m3), 1998 V1: 41 cubic feet (ft3, CU FT, CUFT, CFT), 1998 V1: 18
Council of American Building Officials (CABO),
1998 V1: 122
cubic feet per minute (cfm, CFM)
defined, 1999 V2: 213
N
counter-e.m.f.s, 1998 V1: 152 scfm (standard free air at atmospheric pressure)
counterclockwise (ccw, CCW), 1998 V1: 18 (scfm, SCFM), 1998 V1: 18, 1999 V2: 255, O
couple action. See galvanic corrosion 1999 V2: 257, 1999 V2: 263
couples, defined, 1998 V1: 150 symbols for, 1998 V1: 18
couplings vacuum exhausters and, 1999 V2: 274–275 P
defined, 1998 V1: 28 vacuum measurements, 1999 V2: 253, 1999 V2:
nonrigid couplings, 1998 V1: 189 255 Q
course vacuum, 1999 V2: 253 cubic feet per second, standard (scfs, SCFS), 1998
covers on seepage pits, 1999 V2: 225 V1: 18
cp, cp, CP (sp ht at constant pressure), 1998 V1: 22 R
cprsr (compressors). See compressors
CPVC (chlorinated polyvinyl chloride), 1998 V1: 28, S
1999 V2: 284
cracking, defined, 1998 V1: 150
crawl space installation man-hour estimates, 1998 cubic inches (in3, CU IN, CUIN, CIN), 1998 V1: 18 T
V1: 84 cubic meters, 1998 V1: 41
Craytor, J., 1999 V2: 34 cubic meters per kilogram, 1998 V1: 41 U
creep, pipe supports and, 1999 V2: 14 cubic meters per second, 1998 V1: 41
crevice-attack corrosion CUFT (cubic feet), 1998 V1: 18
crud traps in radioactive-waste piping, 1999 V2: CUIN (cubic inches), 1998 V1: 18 V
341, 1999 V2: 343 culvert pipes, 1999 V2: 99
defined, 1998 V1: 137, 1998 V1: 150, 1999 V2: curb boxes, 1998 V1: 29 W
290 curies (c), 1999 V2: 339
reducing, 1998 V1: 143 current XYZ
cathodic protection, 1998 V1: 144 DCBP (double-check backflow preventers), 1998 V1: A
in corrosion, 1998 V1: 135, 1998 V1: 140 12
electromotive force series, 1998 V1: 140 DCVA (double-check valve assemblies), 1999 V2:
large anode current requirements, 1998 V1: 147 144, 1999 V2: 145, 1999 V2: 149 B
measurements, 1998 V1: 41 DE (deionized water), 1998 V1: 9
current good manufacturing practices (cGMP), 1999 deactivation, defined, 1998 V1: 150 C
V2: 325, 1999 V2: 328 dead-end service in pressure-regulated valves, 1999
curve radii for water pipes, 1999 V2: 250 V2: 152
Cutting and Welding Processes, 1999 V2: 214 dead ends, defined, 1998 V1: 29 D
cutting oils, 1999 V2: 13 dead legs in pure water systems, 1999 V2: 324
cv, cv, CV (sp ht at constant volume), 1998 V1: 22 dead loads on roof, 1999 V2: 79 E
Cv, Cv, CV (valve flow coefficients), 1998 V1: 17 deaerators
CV (check valves). See check valves boiler feed water, 1999 V2: 314
CVBs (check valves with vent ports), 1999 V2: 145, deaeration water treatment, 1999 V2: 294–295 F
1999 V2: 149 sovent deaerators, 1999 V2: 19, 1999 V2: 46,
CVOL (specific volume). See specific volume 1999 V2: 54, 1999 V2: 56, 1999 V2: 60, G
cw, CW (clockwise), 1998 V1: 17 1999 V2: 61, 1999 V2: 62
CW (cold water), 1998 V1: 19 dealkalizing treatment, 1999 V2: 295
CWR (chilled water return), 1998 V1: 10 dealloying, defined, 1998 V1: 150 H
CWS (chilled water supply), 1998 V1: 10 decarbonation, 1999 V2: 295
cycle of concentration in cooling towers, 1999 V2: “deci” prefix, 1998 V1: 42 I
315 decibel (A) scale (dB(A)), 1998 V1: 215
cycling of pumps, 1999 V2: 151 decibels (dB, DB)
cylinder snubbers, 1998 V1: 167 defined, 1998 V1: 215 J
cylinders, calculating volume, 1998 V1: 5 symbols for, 1998 V1: 18
deck drains, 1999 V2: 69 K
D decomposition potential, 1998 V1: 151
d (deci) prefix, 1998 V1: 42
decontaminating radioactive waste piping, 1999 V2:
341
L
D (difference or delta), 1998 V1:18
decorative pools, gray water and, 1999 V2: 22
D (drains). See drains
D (indirect drains), 1998 V1: 9
deep-bed sand filtration, 1999 V2: 298, 1999 V2: M
300
da (deka) prefix, 1998 V1: 42
damage. See bedding and settlement; corrosion;
deep chambers, 1999 V2: 149
deep (dp, DP, DPTH). See depth
N
creep; hazards; scaling; seismic protection
deep fill, building sewers and, 1999 V2: 15
damped, single-leaf barriers, 1998 V1: 197
dampen, defined, 1998 V1: 29
deep-seal p-traps, 1999 V2: 13, 1999 V2: 84 O
deep wells, 1999 V2: 240, 1999 V2: 245
damping
deg., °, DEG (degrees), 1998 V1: 18
in earthquakes, 1998 V1: 160–161
degasification, 1999 V2: 295 P
sound damping, 1998 V1: 200
degradation of pure water, 1999 V2: 323
damping in earthquakes, 1998 V1: 185, 1998 V1:
189
degrees (deg., °, DEG), 1998 V1: 18 Q
degrees celsius, 1998 V1: 42
Darcy-Weisbach formula, 1999 V2: 7, 1999 V2: 40
DEHA (diethylhydroxylamine), 1999 V2: 315
Darcy’s friction formula, 1998 V1: 2–3, 1998 V1: 3
deionization, 1999 V2: 300 R
Darcy’s law, 1999 V2: 242
deionized water (DE), 1998 V1: 9
Daugherty, Robert L., 1999 V2: 19
Dawson, F.M., 1999 V2: 4, 1999 V2: 19
“deka” prefix, 1998 V1: 42 S
delivery pressure in natural gas systems, 1999 V2:
daylights, 1999 V2: 88, 1999 V2: 105
183
dB, DB (decibels), 1998 V1: 18, 1998 V1: 215
delta (diff., ∆, DIFF, D, DELTA), 1998 V1: 18 T
DB (dry-bulb temperature), 1998 V1: 18, 1998 V1:
delta t (temperature differential), 1998 V1: 133
30
dB(A) (decibel (A) scale), 1998 V1: 215
DELTP (pressure drops or differences). See pressure U
drops or differences
dbt, DBT (dry-bulb temperature), 1998 V1: 30
deluge systems, 1998 V1: 37
dbt, DBT (effective temperature), 1998 V1: 18
deluge valves, 1998 V1: 16 V
dc, DC (direct current), 1998 V1: 18, 1998 V1: 144,
demand
1999 V2: 306
DC current, 1998 V1: 18, 1998 V1: 144, 1999 V2:
cold-water systems, 1999 V2: 121 W
defined, 1999 V2: 213
306
domestic hot water systems, 1998 V1: 133 XYZ
Index 369
drinking water, 1999 V2: 243–244, 1999 V2: 245 dezincification of brass, 1998 V1: 138 A
hot water, 1999 V2: 157 DFRAD (diffuse radiation), 1998 V1: 18
hydropneumatic-tank systems, 1999 V2: 150 dfu (drainage fixture units), 1998 V1: 32, 1999 V2:
natural gas, 1999 V2: 175, 1999 V2: 177 64 B
water conservation and paybacks, 1998 V1: 125 DHEC (Department of Health and Environmental
water heater types and, 1999 V2: 160 Control), 1999 V2: 170 C
water supply piping and, 1999 V2: 249 DI (deionization), 1999 V2: 300
water treatment methods and, 1999 V2: 308 dia., DIA (diameters). See diameters
demineralizer systems, 1999 V2: 295, 1999 V2: 300 diagnostic facilities, 1999 V2: 340 D
Denoncourt, 1999 V2: 325 diameters (dia., DIA)
dens, DENS (density). See density defined, 1998 V1: 29 E
density (dens, DENS, RHO) inside (ID), 1998 V1: 18
measurements, 1998 V1: 41 outside (OD), 1998 V1: 18
of natural gas, 1999 V2: 180 symbols for, 1998 V1: 18 F
symbols for, 1998 V1: 18 diaphragm gauges, 1999 V2: 260
department connections, 1998 V1: 15 diaphragm pumps, 1999 V2: 259 G
departments having jurisdiction, 1998 V1: 29 diaphragm valves, 1998 V1: 29, 1999 V2: 332
depolarization, defined, 1998 V1: 151 diaphragms, defined, 1998 V1: 29
depolarizing cathodes, 1998 V1: 142 diatomaceous earth filtration, 1999 V2: 318 H
deposition corrosion, defined, 1998 V1: 151 dielectric fittings, 1998 V1: 29
deposits from feed water, 1999 V2: 289–290. See dielectric insulation, 1998 V1: 143, 1998 V1:148 I
also scaling; sediment; slime; sludge diesel fuel, 1999 V2: 13
depth (dp, DP, DPTH) diethylhydroxylamine, 1999 V2: 315
of leaching trenches, 1999 V2: 222 diff., DIFF (difference or delta), 1998 V1: 18 J
of liquids in septic tanks, 1999 V2: 230 difference (diff., (, DIFF, D, DELTA), 1998 V1: 18
of septic tanks, 1999 V2: 228 differential aeration cells, 1998 V1: 151 K
of soils, 1999 V2: 219 differential environmental conditions, corrosion by,
of water pipes, 1999 V2: 251
1998 V1: 138–139
differential movement in earthquakes, 1998 V1:
L
of wells, 1999 V2: 240 162
depth filters, 1999 V2: 308 differentials, defined, 1998 V1: 29 M
derived units of measurement, 1998 V1: 41 diffuse radiation (DFRAD), 1998 V1: 18
design
for physically challenged individuals, 1998 V1:
diffusion aerators, 1999 V2: 293, 1999 V2: 318
diffusion wells, 1999 V2: 105
N
101–107 digestion, 1998 V1: 29
reducing corrosion, 1998 V1: 143 digits, 1998 V1: 40 O
seismic, 1998 V1: 159–162, 1998 V1: 191 dikes for leaching trenches, 1999 V2: 223
design flow in gas boosters, 1999 V2: 182 dilution air, defined, 1999 V2: 213
Design of Hoffman Industrial Vacuum Cleaning dimensions P
Systems, 1999 V2: 277 defined, 1998 V1: 40
desktop publishing and project manuals, 1998 V1: wheelchairs, 1998 V1: 102 Q
68 DIN 52218, 1998 V1: 198
desolver tanks, 1999 V2: 307 dir radn, DIR RADN (direct radiation), 1998 V1: 18
destruction phase in ozonation, 1999 V2: 313 DIRAD (direct radiation), 1998 V1: 18 R
destructive forces in pipes. See water hammer direct-count epifluorescent microscopy, 1999 V2:
detector-check water meters, 1999 V2: 116 282 S
detectors, smoke, 1998 V1: 29 direct current (dc, DC)
detention systems for storm water, 1999 V2: 105– cathodic protection, 1998 V1: 144
107, 1999 V2: 107 in deionization, 1999 V2: 306 T
detention times for treated water, 1999 V2: 294 symbols for, 1998 V1: 18
detergents direct-filtration package plants, 1999 V2: 318 U
factors in trap seal loss, 1999 V2: 36 direct-operated pressure-regulated valves, 1999 V2:
in septic tanks, 1999 V2: 230 153
venting for, 1999 V2: 36–37, 1999 V2: 39 direct radiation (dir radn, DIR RADN, DIRAD), 1998 V
developed length, 1998 V1: 29 V1: 18
deviations in measurements, 1998 V1: 40 directly-heated, automatic storage water heaters, W
dew-point temperature (dpt, DPT), 1998 V1: 18 1999 V2: 160
dewpoints, 1998 V1: 29 dirt cans for vacuum systems, 1999 V2: 268 XYZ
dirt in feed water, 1999 V2: 289 natural gas systems, 1999 V2: 176–177, 1999 A
disabled individuals. See physically challenged V2: 194, 1999 V2: 195
individuals in vacuum sizing calculations, 1999 V2: 263
disc water meters, 1999 V2: 116 in vacuum systems, 1999 V2: 262–263 B
discharge characteristic fixture curves, 1999 V2: 3 divinyl benzene, 1999 V2: 302
discharge coefficients, 1998 V1: 6 division in SI units, 1998 V1: 42 C
discharge piping for vacuum cleaning systems, Divisions in specifications
1999 V2: 274 Division 1, 1998 V1: 67
discharge-type check valves, 1999 V2: 179 Division 2, 1998 V1: 74 D
discs, defined, 1998 V1: 29 Division 15, 1998 V1: 63, 1998 V1: 74
dishwashers listing, 1998 V1: 71–74 E
acoustic ratings of, 1998 V1: 199 DL (distilled water), 1998 V1: 9, 1999 V2: 295,
defined, 1998 V1: 29 1999 V2: 299
fixture-unit loads, 1999 V2: 3 DN (nominal diameter), 1999 V2: 253 F
disinfecting DNA materials, 1999 V2: 344
cold-water systems, 1999 V2: 154–155 docks, 1999 V2: 147 G
decontaminating infectious wastes, 1999 V2: dolomite limestone chips, 1999 V2: 334
344–345 dome grates in shower rooms, 1999 V2: 11
drinking water, 1999 V2: 245 dome roof drains, 1999 V2: 80 H
feed water, 1999 V2: 289, 1999 V2: 311–313 dome strainers, 1999 V2: 82
gray water, 1999 V2: 23, 1999 V2: 27 domestic sewage, 1998 V1: 29 I
septic tanks, 1999 V2: 230 domestic spaces, acoustic plumbing design for,
small drinking water systems, 1999 V2: 318 1998 V1: 201
water systems, 1999 V2: 252 domestic systems. See residential systems J
Disinfection of Escherichia Coli by Using Water Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, 1999 V2:
Dissociation Effect on Ion Exchange Mem- 166 K
branes, 1999 V2: 325 doors, accessibility and, 1998 V1: 108, 1998 V1:
disintegrations per second (dps), 1999 V2: 338,
1999 V2: 339
110, 1998 V1: 111
dope, pipe, 1999 V2: 284
L
disk filters, 1999 V2: 308 dormitories, acoustic plumbing design for, 1998 V1:
dispersed oil, 1999 V2: 347 201 M
displacement doses of radiation, 1999 V2: 339
in earthquakes, 1998 V1: 159
dosimeters, 1999 V2: 339
dosing tanks, 1998 V1: 29
N
displacement water meters, 1999 V2: 117 double. See also entries beginning with dual-,
disposal fields (sewage). See leaching trenches multiple-, or two-; entries beginning with O
(leach fields) dual-, multiple-, or two-
disposal wells in geothermal energy, 1998 V1: 132 double-acting altitude valves, 1999 V2: 249
disposers. See garbage disposers double-check backflow preventers (DCBP), 1998 V1: P
dissolved elements and materials in water 12
dissolved gases, 1999 V2: 284, 1999 V2: 294, double-check valve assemblies, 1999 V2: 144, 1999 Q
1999 V2: 314 V2: 145, 1999 V2: 149
dissolved inorganics, 1999 V2: 288 double-contained piping systems, 1999 V2: 345,
dissolved minerals, 1999 V2: 314 1999 V2: 346 R
dissolved oil, 1999 V2: 347 double discs, 1998 V1: 29
dissolved organics, 1999 V2: 300 double-leaf barriers, 1998 V1: 197 S
dissolved solids, 1999 V2: 288 double offsets, 1998 V1: 30
distilled water (DL) double-ported valves, 1998 V1: 30
distillation treatment, 1999 V2: 295–298, 1999 double-seated pressure-regulated valves, 1999 V2: T
V2: 299, 1999 V2: 299 152
symbols for, 1998 V1: 9 double-side-entry fittings, 1999 V2: 62 U
distribution boxes, 1999 V2: 223, 1999 V2: 231 double-sweep tees, 1998 V1: 30
distribution of materials, man-hour estimates, 1998 double-wall piping, 1999 V2: 327
V1: 84 double wedges, 1998 V1: 30 V
distribution system in seepage beds, 1999 V2: 224 double wyes, common vents and, 1999 V2: 43
ditch installation man-hour estimates, 1998 V1: 84 Dow Chemical Corp., 1999 V2: 325 W
diversity factor down, defined, 1998 V1: 30
defined, 1999 V2: 213 downspouts and leaders. See also vertical stacks XYZ
Index 371
defined, 1998 V1: 30, 1998 V1: 34 drinking fountains A

roof drainage systems, 1999 V2: 81, 1999 V2: access to, 1998 V1: 107–108
85–88 installation man-hour estimates, 1998 V1: 83
roof expansion and, 1999 V2: 85 wheelchair approaches, 1998 V1: 106 B
roof leaders, 1999 V2: 87 drinking water
sizing, 1999 V2: 81 drinking water supply (DWS), 1998 V1: 9 C
downstream, defined, 1998 V1: 30 drinking water supply recirculating (DWR), 1998
dp, DP (depth). See depth V1: 9
dps (disintegrations per second), 1999 V2: 338, drinking water systems. See private water D
1999 V2: 339 systems
dpt, DPT (dew-point temperature), 1998 V1: 18 potable water, 1998 V1: 35 E
DPTH (depth). See depth treatments for, 1999 V2: 316–317, 1999 V2: 318
draft hoods on appliances, 1999 V2: 178, 1999 V2: drive impellers in gas boosters, 1999 V2: 179
213 drive points, 1999 V2: 241 F
drafting, 1998 V1: 69 driven wells, 1999 V2: 241
drain, waste, and vent, defined, 1998 V1: 30 droop, 1998 V1: 30 G
drain, waste, and vent branches (DWV), 1999 V2: drop elbows, 1998 V1: 30
19, 1999 V2: 54, 1999 V2: 60 drop nipples on pendant sprinklers, 1998 V1: 16
drain, waste, and vent stacks (DWV) drop tees, 1998 V1: 30 H
DWV pattern schedule 40 plastic piping, 1999 drops, 1998 V1: 13, 1998 V1: 30
V2: 14 dross, 1998 V1: 30 I
DWV piping, 1999 V2: 68 dry, upright sprinklers, 1998 V1: 37
DWV stacks, 1999 V2: 19, 1999 V2: 54, 1999 dry (DRY), 1998 V1: 18
V2: 60 dry-bulb temperature (dbt, DBT, DB), 1998 V1: 18, J
drain bodies. See sumps and sump pumps 1998 V1: 30
drain cleaners in septic tanks, 1999 V2: 230 dry hose stations, 1998 V1: 16 K
drain-down times, 1999 V2: 94 dry pendent sprinklers, 1998 V1: 37
drain fields. See leaching trenches (leach fields)
drain outlets, types of, 1999 V2: 17–18
dry-pipe systems, 1998 V1: 37
dry-pipe valves, 1998 V1: 16, 1998 V1: 30
L
drain tiles, 1999 V2: 221 dry standpipes, 1998 V1: 16, 1998 V1: 38
drainage, waste, and vents (DWV). See drain, waste, dry-storage water softeners, 1999 V2: 307 M
and vent dry surfaces, 1998 V1: 22
drainage channels, irrigation systems and, 1999
V2: 26
dry-vacuum cleaning systems (DVC), 1998 V1: 11,
1999 V2: 266, 1999 V2: 268, 1999 V2: 275–
N
drainage (corrosion), defined, 1998 V1: 151 276
drainage fittings, 1998 V1: 30 dry venting, reduced-size venting and, 1999 V2: 49 O
drainage fixture units (dfu), 1998 V1: 32, 1999 V2: dry-weather flows, 1998 V1: 30
64 dry wells, 1998 V1: 34. See also leaching wells
drainage inlets in site storm systems, 1999 V2: 98 du Moulin, G.C., 1999 V2: 325 P
drainage piping dual. See also entries beginning with double-,
acoustic ratings of fixtures, 1998 V1: 198–199 multiple-, or two- Q
joints in, 1998 V1: 82 dual-bed deionization (two-step), 1999 V2: 302,
drainage systems. See also specific types of drain- 1999 V2: 303
age systems dual-gas booster systems, 1999 V2: 181 R
defined, 1998 V1: 30, 1999 V2: 1 dual vents, 1998 V1: 28. See also common vents
drains (D). See also building drains; horizontal ductile action of building systems, 1998 V1: 185 S
drains; specific types of drains ductile iron fittings, 1999 V2: 196
defined, 1998 V1: 30 ductile iron grates, 1999 V2: 15
symbols for, 1998 V1: 14 ductile iron piping, 1999 V2: 68, 1999 V2: 89–92, T
drawdowns (wells), 1999 V2: 242, 1999 V2: 245 1999 V2: 250, 1999 V2: 341
drawings, plumbing. See plumbing drawings ducts. See vents and venting systems U
drawoff installations. See specific kinds of intercep- dug wells, 1999 V2: 240
tors Dumfries Triangle and Occoquan-Woodbridge
drench equipment for emergencies, 1999 V2: 332 Sanitary District, 1999 V2: 34 V
drift. See also wander Dunleavy, M., 1999 V2: 325
defined, 1998 V1: 30 duplex. See also entries beginning with double-, W
problems in seismic protection, 1998 V1: 192 dual-, or two-
drilled anchor bolts, 1998 V1: 165, 1998 V1: 193 XYZ
duplex sump pump systems, 1999 V2: 9, 1999 V2: hot-water systems, 1999 V2: 157 A
69, 1999 V2: 105 ion-exchange cartridges, 1999 V2: 306, 1999 V2:
duplex vacuum pump arrangements, 1999 V2: 262, 323
1999 V2: 263 ion-exchange resins, 1999 V2: 302, 1999 V2: B
duration of rainfall, 1999 V2: 69–78 305
Durham systems, 1998 V1: 30 laboratory acid-waste drainage, 1999 V2: 334 C
durion, 1998 V1: 30 life-cycle costs, 1998 V1: 133
DVC (dry vacuum cleaning), 1998 V1: 11, 1999 V2: reduced-size venting, 1999 V2: 50
266, 1999 V2: 268, 1999 V2: 275–276 sanitary drainage systems, 1999 V2: 1 D
dwellings, 1998 V1: 30. See also buildings saving utility costs, 1998 V1: 131
DWR (drinking water supply recirculating), 1998 seismic protection costs, 1998 V1: 155, 1998 V1: E
V1: 9 185
DWS (drinking water supply), 1998 V1: 9 single septic tank installations, 1999 V2: 231
DWV. See drain, waste, and vent stacks (DWV) sovent single-stack plumbing systems, 1999 V2: F
dyes in gray water, 1999 V2: 22, 1999 V2: 29, 1999 54
V2: 33 sovent system fittings, 1999 V2: 62 G
dynamic head, 1999 V2: 245 special-waste drainage systems, 1999 V2: 328
dynamic pressure, 1998 V1: 21 subsurface site drainage, 1999 V2: 100
dynamic properties of piping, defined, 1998 V1: 193 vacuum system piping, 1999 V2: 262 H
dynamic response (K) to ground shaking, 1998 V1: water distillers, 1999 V2: 298
159, 1998 V1: 162 wet venting, 1999 V2: 49 I
dynamic viscosity Economic Thickness of Insulation, 1998 V1: 125
converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 47 Eddy, 1999 V2: 238
measurements, 1998 V1: 41 edge distances, problems in seismic protection, J
dyne, converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 47 1998 V1: 193
edr, EDR (equivalent direct radiation), 1998 V1: 18, K
E 1998 V1: 47
E-33.08B (Plumbing Noise), 1998 V1: 198
educating public on gray-water systems, 1999 V2:
33
L
E (exa) prefix, 1998 V1: 42
eff, EFF (efficiency). See efficiency
E (roughness), 1998 V1: 21. See also roughness
E (volts). See volts
effective openings, 1998 V1: 30 M
effective temperature (ET*, ET), 1998 V1: 18
earth loads
on water pipes, 1999 V2: 250
effectiveness (EFT), 1998 V1: 18
effects in multi-effect distillation, 1999 V2: 298
N
protecting against, 1999 V2: 18
effects of earthquakes, 1998 V1: 156–159
earthquake protection of plumbing equipment. See
seismic protection
efficiency (eff, EFF) O
fin (FEFF), 1998 V1: 18
Earthquake Resistance of Buildings, 1998 V1: 195
hot-water storage equipment, 1998 V1: 132–133
Earthquake Resistant Design Requirements Hand-
surface (SEFF), 1998 V1: 18 P
book, 1998 V1: 195
Eaton, Herbert N., 1999 V2: 4, 1999 V2: 19, 1999
V2: 38
thermal, 1998 V1: 133 Q
effluent
eccentric fittings, 1998 V1: 30
chemicals in special-waste effluent, 1999 V2: 328
eccentric reducers, 1998 V1: 12
defined, 1998 V1: 30 R
eccentricity in connections, 1998 V1: 194
estimating sewage quantities, 1999 V2: 233–238
Eclat Electronic Catalog Library, 1998 V1: 68, 1998
V1: 80
layers of in septic tanks, 1999 V2: 227 S
samples of radioactive waste effluent, 1999 V2:
economic concerns
342
cathodic protection costs, 1998 V1:148, 1998
special-waste drainage systems, 1999 V2: 327 T
V1:149
temperature of special-waste effluent, 1999 V2:
controlled-flow systems, 1999 V2: 88, 1999 V2:
93
328 U
treatment of sewage effluent, 1999 V2: 227–228
corrosion resistant materials, 1998 V1: 143
EFT (effectiveness), 1998 V1: 18
cost estimating introduction, 1998 V1: 81–89
Egozy, 1999 V2: 325 V
driven wells, 1999 V2: 241
EJ (expansion joints). See expansion joints
forms for cost estimates, 1998 V1: 87–89
galvanic cathodic protection costs, 1998 V1: 147
EJCDC (Engineers Joint Contracts Document W
Committee), 1998 V1: 65
gas booster location, 1999 V2: 180
ejectors XYZ
gray-water system costs, 1999 V2: 29–32
Index 373
fixture-unit values, 1999 V2: 9 elevated water storage tanks, 1999 V2: 247 A
in sanitary drainage systems, 1999 V2: 9 elevation (elev., EL, ELEV)
EL (elevation). See elevation adjustments for vacuum, 1999 V2: 257, 1999
elastic rebound theory, 1998 V1: 156–158, 1998 V2: 275 B
V1: 159 altitude valves, 1999 V2: 249
elastic units, 1998 V1: 31 symbols for, 1998 V1: 18 C
elastic vibration in pipes, 1998 V1: 7 ellipses, calculating area, 1998 V1: 5
elastomeric seals or gaskets, 1999 V2: 341 ells (elbows)
elbows defined, 1998 V1: 31 D
ells, 1998 V1: 31 joints in, 1998 V1: 82
risers up or down, 1998 V1: 13 elutriation, 1998 V1: 31 E
elderly embedments, problems in seismic protection, 1998
aging disabilities, 1998 V1: 103 V1: 192–193
fixtures and, 1998 V1: 101 emergency equipment for acid spills, 1999 V2: 332, F
electric capacitance measurements, 1998 V1: 41 1999 V2: 333
electric charge density measurements, 1998 V1: 41 e.m.f. series, 1998 V1: 140, 1998 V1: 151 G
electric inductance, 1998 V1: 41 emitters in irrigation systems, 1999 V2: 27
electric-operated, solenoid valve trap primers, 1999 empirical tank capacity equation, 1999 V2: 151
V2: 14 emptying noises, acoustic design and, 1998 V1: H
electric permeability measurements, 1998 V1: 41 200
electric permittivity measurements, 1998 V1: 41 emulsions, 1999 V2: 347 I
electric resistance, 1998 V1: 41 enameled floor drains, 1999 V2: 16
electric resistivity measurements, 1998 V1: 41 enameled sediment buckets, 1999 V2: 14
electric water-heater heat recovery, 1999 V2: 158– enclosures for showers, 1998 V1: 118 J
159 end connections, 1998 V1: 31
electrical components in gas boosters, 1999 V2: end-suction pumps, 1998 V1: 31 K
179 end-use restrictions
electrical phases, 1998 V1: 21
electricity
conserving energy, 1998 V1: 123
reduced water usage, 1998 V1: 124
L
conversion factors, 1998 V1: 43 end venting, 1999 V2: 41
measurements, 1998 V1: 41 endotoxins, 1999 V2: 282, 1999 V2: 288 M
electrochemical equivalents in corrosion, 1998 V1: energy
135–137
Electrochemical Society, 1998 V1: 151
conversion factors, 1998 V1: 43
defined, 1998 V1: 133
N
electrodeionization, 1999 V2: 306–307 Energy Efficiency Act, 1998 V1: 124
electrodes, defined, 1998 V1: 151 measurements, 1998 V1: 41 O
electrolysis, 1998 V1: 31, 1998 V1: 33. See also non-SI units, 1998 V1: 42
galvanic action nondepletable, 1998 V1: 132, 1998 V1: 133
electrolytes recovered, 1998 V1: 133 P
defined, 1998 V1: 135, 1998 V1: 151, 1999 V2: energy conservation. See conserving energy
280 energy efficiency. See conserving energy Q
specific resistance, 1999 V2: 285–287 Energy Efficiency Act, 1998 V1: 124
electromagnetic radiation, 1999 V2: 338 Energy Saving and the Plumbing System, 1998 V1:
electromotive force (emf, EMF) 133 R
counter-e.m.f.s, 1998 V1: 152 Engineered Plumbing Design, 1998 V1: 49, 1999 V2:
electromotive force series, 1998 V1: 140 114 S
measurements, 1998 V1: 41 engineered plumbing systems, 1998 V1: 31
symbols for, 1998 V1: 18 Engineering Manual of the War Department, 1999
electromotive force series, 1998 V1: 140, 1998 V1: V2: 97, 1999 V2: 114 T
151 Engineers Joint Contracts Document Committee
electronegative potential, 1998 V1: 150 (EJCDC), 1998 V1: 65 U
Electronic Sweet’s, 1998 V1: 80 engines, earthquake protection for, 1998 V1: 165
electronics-grade water, 1999 V2: 317, 1999 V2: entering (entr, ENT), 1998 V1: 18
320 enthalpy (H), 1998 V1: 18 V
electropositive potential, 1998 V1: 151 entr (entering), 1998 V1: 18
electroregeneration, 1999 V2: 307 entropy (S) W
elements in water, 1999 V2: 281 measurements, 1998 V1: 41
elev., ELEV (elevation). See elevation symbols for, 1998 V1: 18 XYZ
environmental conditions, corrosion by, 1998 V1: NFPA formula, 1999 V2: 186, 1999 V2: 187, A
138–139 1999 V2: 188, 1999 V2: 189
Environmental Protection Agency. See US Environ- Ohm’s Law, 1998 V1: 140
mental Protection Agency pipe expansion and contraction, 1998 V1: 4 B
environs (facilities with radiation), 1999 V2: 339 potential energy, 1998 V1: 3
EPA. See US Environmental Protection Agency Prandtl-Colebrook equation, 1999 V2: 60 C
epicenters of earthquakes, 1998 V1: 160 pump affinity laws, 1998 V1: 7–8
epicyclic gears, 1998 V1: 201 pump efficiency, 1998 V1: 8
epm (equivalents per million), 1999 V2: 285 pump noise levels, 1998 V1: 203 D
epoxy coatings, 1998 V1: 144 rate of corrosion, 1998 V1: 140, 1998 V1: 141
EQFT (equivalent feet), 1998 V1: 18 rate of flow, 1998 V1: 1 E
EQIN (equivalent inches), 1998 V1: 18 Rational Method formulas, 1998 V1: 8, 1999 V2:
eqiv ft, EQIV FT (equivalent feet), 1998 V1: 18 95–98
eqiv in, EQIV IN (equivalent inches), 1998 V1: 18 references, 1998 V1: 49 F
equations Reynold’s number, 1998 V1: 2
anode expected life, 1998 V1: 146–147 site storm drainage, 1999 V2: 88, 1999 V2: 95– G
areas and volumes, 1998 V1: 4–6 98, 1999 V2: 107–108
Bernoulli’s equation, 1998 V1: 6–7 soil resistivity, 1998 V1: 147
calculating seismic forces, 1998 V1: 186–189 Spitzglass formula, 1998 V1: 8, 1999 V2: 183, H
Darcy-Weisbach formula, 1999 V2: 7 1999 V2: 210–211
Darcy’s friction formula, 1998 V1: 2–3, 1998 V1: stack terminal velocity and length, 1998 V1: 3 I
3 steady-state heat balance equations, 1999 V2:
Faraday’s Law, 1998 V1: 141 158
flow at outlets, 1998 V1: 3, 1998 V1: 6 storm drainage, 1998 V1: 8 J
flow capacity in vertical stacks, 1999 V2: 4 tank capacity empirical equation, 1999 V2: 151
flow from outlets, velocity of, 1998 V1: 7 tank capacity rule of thumb equation, 1999 V2: K
friction head, 1998 V1: 7 151
friction head loss, 1998 V1: 2–3
gas laws, 1999 V2: 179
terminal velocity and terminal length, 1999 V2: 1
velocity head, 1998 V1: 6
L
gravity circulation, 1998 V1: 6 vent piping length, 1998 V1: 3
Hazen-Williams formula, 1998 V1: 2, 1999 V2: 7, water flow in pipes, 1998 V1: 2 column M
1999 V2: 116, 1999 V2: 118, 1999 V2: water hammer, 1998 V1: 203
119, 1999 V2: 121
hot-water systems, 1999 V2: 158
well equilibrium equations, 1999 V2: 242–243
Weymouth formula, 1998 V1: 8, 1999 V2: 183,
N
hydraulic shock, 1998 V1: 7 1999 V2: 190, 1999 V2: 191, 1999 V2:
Joukowsky’s formula, 1999 V2: 132 198 1999 V2: 209 O
kinetic energy, 1998 V1: 3 equilibrium equations for wells, 1999 V2: 242–243
Manning formula equipment
alternative sewage-disposal systems, 1999 V2: acoustic concerns in selection, 1998 V1: 205–206 P
226 defined, 1998 V1: 195
open-channel flow, 1998 V1: 1, 1999 V2: 7, seismic protection, 1998 V1: 164–168 Q
1999 V2: 8 equivalent direct radiation (edr, EDR)
runoff and, 1999 V2: 97 EDR hot water, 1998 V1: 47
site drainage and, 1999 V2: 98 EDR steam, 1998 V1: 47 R
sloping drains, 1999 V2: 8 symbols for, 1998 V1: 18
storm-drainage pipes, 1999 V2: 88 equivalent feet (eqiv ft, EQIV FT, EQFT), 1998 V1: S
subsurface drainage rates, 1999 V2: 105 18
mixing flows of water, 1998 V1: 124 equivalent inches (eqiv in, EQIV IN, EQIN), 1998
natural gas systems V1: 18 T
natural gas equivalent length, 1999 V2: 184 equivalent length
NFPA formula, 1999 V2: 186, 1999 V2: 187, defined, 1999 V2: 214 U
1999 V2: 188, 1999 V2: 189 natural gas equations, 1999 V2: 184
Spitzglass formula, 1999 V2: 183, 1999 V2: equivalent static force, calculating, 1998 V1: 185
210–211 equivalent weight, 1999 V2: 280, 1999 V2: 281 V
Weymouth formula, 1999 V2: 183, 1999 V2: equivalents per million, 1999 V2: 285
190, 1999 V2: 191, 1999 V2: 198, 1999 erosion, 1998 V1: 31 W
V2: 209 erosion corrosion, 1999 V2: 290
essential facilities, defined, 1998 V1: 193 XYZ
Index 375
estates, septic tank systems for, 1999 V2: 231–232 roofs, 1999 V2: 79, 1999 V2: 87 A
estimating costs. see economic concerns symbols for, 1998 V1: 12
Estimating Plumbing Costs, 1998 V1: 79 thermal expansion and, 1999 V2: 18
ET*, ET (effective temperature), 1998 V1: 18 expansion loops B
ETI (Economic Thickness of Insulation), 1998 V1: bracing and, 1998 V1: 173
125 defined, 1998 V1: 31 C
evap, EVAP. See evaporation; evaporators protecting against thermal expansion, 1999 V2:
evaporation (evap, EVAP) 18
staged, 1999 V2: 298 explosions D
symbols for, 1998 V1: 18 explosion-proof (XP) construction, 1999 V2: 179
evaporative coolers. See cooling-tower water explosion-relief devices for vacuums, 1999 V2: E
evaporators (evap, EVAP), 1998 V1: 18 268
evapotranspiration hot-water heaters, 1999 V2: 157
defined, 1998 V1: 31 nitric acid, 1999 V2: 333 F
sewage treatment, 1999 V2: 227 extended-coverage sidewall sprinklers, 1998 V1: 37
“exa” prefix, 1998 V1: 42 exterior piping for storm drainage, 1999 V2: 98 G
exact conversions, 1998 V1: 40 extinguishing systems, 1998 V1: 15
exams, 1998 V1: 69 extra-hazard occupancies, 1998 V1: 37
excess air, defined, 1999 V2: 213 extra-heavy piping, 1998 V1: 31 H
excess pressure pumps, 1998 V1: 31 extra-strength vitrified clay piping, 1999 V2: 68
excess water pressure, 1999 V2: 152–154 eyewashes for emergencies, 1999 V2: 332 I
exchange capacity of resins, 1999 V2: 302
exchangers in distillers, 1999 V2: 298
Execution section in specifications, 1998 V1: 66,
F J
°F, F (fahrenheit), 1998 V1: 19, 1998 V1: 46
1998 V1: 78
exhaust
F (farads), 1998 V1: 41
f (femto) prefix, 1998 V1: 42
K
filters on vacuum systems, 1999 V2: 262
F (fire protection water supply). See fire protection
natural gas combustion waste, 1999 V2: 177
pressure loss in vacuum systems, 1999 V2: 274
systems L
f to f, F TO F (face to face), 1998 V1: 19, 1998 V1:
vacuum exhaust pipe sizing, 1999 V2: 263
vacuum system piping, 1999 V2: 259, 1999 V2:
31
F/m (farads per meter), 1998 V1: 41
M
274
face area (fa, FA), 1998 V1: 19
exhausted cartridges in ion exchange, 1999 V2:
305–306
face-entry fittings on sovent systems, 1999 V2: 62 N
face to face (f to f, F TO F)
exhausters (vacuum)
air-bleed controls, 1999 V2: 268–269
face-to-face dimensions, defined, 1998 V1: 31
O
defined, 1999 V2: 266–269, 1999 V2: 268
face velocity (fvel, FVEL, FV), 1998 V1: 19
locating, 1999 V2: 270
sizing, 1999 V2: 272, 1999 V2: 274–275
Facility Piping System Handbook, 1999 V2: 277, P
1999 V2: 325, 1999 V2: 350
existing work, 1998 V1: 31
exp, EXP (expansion). See expansion
factors
correction factors (CFAC, CFACT), 1998 V1: 19
Q
expanded air in vacuums, 1999 V2: 256
friction factors (FFACT, FF), 1998 V1: 19
expansion (exp, EXP, XPAN)
calculating pipe expansion, 1998 V1: 4
Factory Mutual (FM) Loss Prevention Data Sheet, R
1999 V2: 177
enlargement of water systems, 1999 V2: 249
hot-water systems and, 1999 V2: 167–168
Factory Mutual Research Corporation (FM)
gas-train vents, 1999 V2: 177
S
plastic pipe thermal expansion, 1999 V2: 251
seismic protection recommendations, 1998 V1:
protecting against pipe expansion, 1999 V2: 18
roof drains and, 1999 V2: 85, 1999 V2: 87
186 T
fahrenheit (°F, F)
sanitary drainage systems, 1999 V2: 18
U
thermal expansion tanks, 1999 V2: 167
Failsafe Neutralization of Wastewater Effluent, 1999
water pipes and, 1999 V2: 251–252
expansion bends, 1999 V2: 18
V2: 350 V
failure values of anchors, 1998 V1: 193
expansion joints (EJ)
Fair Housing Accessibility Guidelines, 1998 V1: 100
fairly-rough piping, 1999 V2: 141
W
plastic water pipes, 1999 V2: 251
fairly-smooth piping, 1999 V2: 140
roof expansion and, 1999 V2: 85 XYZ
fall-off pressure, 1999 V2: 122, 1999 V2: 152
fan-cooled electric motors, 1998 V1: 201 FHR (fire hose racks), 1998 V1: 13 A
fans (FAN) FI (film coefficients), 1998 V1: 19
pulsation from, 1998 V1: 201 fiber piping, 1999 V2: 122
silencers, 1998 V1: 202 fiberglass-reinforced plastic, 1999 V2: 284 B
symbols for, 1998 V1: 19 fiberglass-reinforced storage tanks, 1999 V2: 323
Faraday’s Law, 1998 V1: 135, 1998 V1: 141 fiberglass sealants, 1998 V1: 198 C
farads, 1998 V1: 41 fiberglass septic tanks, 1999 V2: 228
farads per meter, 1998 V1: 41 field checklists, 1998 V1: 96–97
fasteners, sound damping, 1998 V1: 200 field orders, 1998 V1: 64 D
fats in kitchens. See grease fill
faucets fill layers, 1999 V2: 104 E
accessible shower compartments, 1998 V1: 117 leaching trenches, 1999 V2: 223
acoustic design and pressure, 1998 V1: 206 sewers, 1999 V2: 15
reduced water usage, 1998 V1: 125 subsurface drainage pipes, 1999 V2: 102, 1999 F
sinks, 1998 V1: 114 V2: 103
faults and fault zones, 1998 V1: 156–158 types of, around building sewers, 1999 V2: 15 G
FC (flexible connectors). See flexible connectors water pipes, 1999 V2: 250
FCO (floor cleanouts), 1998 V1: 14 film coefficients
FD (floor drains with p-traps), 1998 V1: 14 inside (FI, HI), 1998 V1: 19 H
FDA (Food and Drug Administration), 1999 V2: outside (FO, HO), 1998 V1: 19
279, 1999 V2: 321, 1999 V2: 324, 1999 V2: films I
328 carbonate, 1998 V1: 149
features, defined, 1998 V1: 40 film formation in rate of corrosion, 1998 V1: 142
fecal matter. See black water systems; effluent sodium hexametaphosphate, 1998 V1: 149 J
federal agencies, 1999 V2: 327. See also specific sodium silicate, 1998 V1: 149
agencies under “US” filter alum, 1999 V2: 294 K
Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act, 1999 V2: filters and filtration
317
Federal Specifications, General Services Adminis-
filter bags on vacuum systems, 1999 V2: 268
L
tration (FS), 1998 V1: 60 filter elements or media, 1998 V1: 31
federal specifications (FS), 1998 V1: 33, 1998 V1: gray water, 1999 V2: 22, 1999 V2: 23, 1999 V2: M
60 27, 1999 V2: 28, 1999 V2: 29
feed-gas treatment units in ozone generators, 1999
V2: 312
infectious waste systems, 1999 V2: 345
membrane filtration and separation, 1999 V2:
N
feed water 308–311
defined, 1999 V2: 280 microorganisms, 1999 V2: 312 O
pure-water systems, 1999 V2: 320 oil spills, 1999 V2: 347, 1999 V2: 348
feet (ft, FT) pure water systems, 1999 V2: 322–323
converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 47 small drinking water systems, 1999 V2: 318 P
feet per minute (fpm, FPM), 1998 V1: 19 subsurface drainage, 1999 V2: 102, 1999 V2:
feet per second (fps, FPS), 1998 V1: 19 103–104 Q
foot-pounds (ft-lb, FT LB), 1998 V1: 19 utility water, 1999 V2: 314
of head, converting, 1998 V1: 2 vacuum systems, 1999 V2: 268
symbols for, 1998 V1: 19 water quality and, 1999 V2: 244 R
FEFF (efficiency, fin). See efficiency, fin water systems, 1999 V2: 125
felt, 1998 V1: 200 water treatment, 1999 V2: 299, 1999 V2: 300 S
female threads, 1998 V1: 31 fin efficiency (FEFF), 1998 V1: 18
“femto” prefix, 1998 V1: 42 fine sands
ferric hydroxide, 1999 V2: 281 fill above subsurface drainage pipes, 1999 V2: T
ferric iron, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: 283 103
ferrous bicarbonate, 1999 V2: 283 gray-water irrigation systems and, 1999 V2: 26, U
ferrous iron, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: 283 1999 V2: 27
ferrous pipe and fitting codes and standards, 1998 fine vacuum, 1999 V2: 254
V1: 51–52 finish coats, 1998 V1: 144 V
FF (friction factors), 1998 V1: 19 finish inspection, 1998 V1: 97
FF (full-flow conditions), 1998 V1: 1 Finnemore, E. John, 1999 V2: 19 W
FFACT (friction factors), 1998 V1: 19 fire protection systems
FHC (fire hose cabinets), 1998 V1: 14 alarms XYZ
Index 377
fire alarm control panels, 1998 V1: 15 recessed sprinklers, 1998 V1: 38 A
fire alarm systems, 1998 V1: 31 residential sprinklers, 1998 V1: 38
codes and standards, 1998 V1: 59 sediment buckets in drains, 1999 V2: 12
extinguishers seismic protection and, 1998 V1: 186 B
fire extinguishers, 1998 V1: 16 sidewall sprinklers, 1998 V1: 16, 1998 V1: 38
fire extinguishing systems, 1998 V1: 15 special sprinklers, 1998 V1: 38 C
fire department connections, 1998 V1: 15, 1998 sprinkler types, 1998 V1: 37
V1: 31 water demands, 1999 V2: 243–244
fire hazards water supply for D
defined, 1998 V1: 31 firefighting water systems, 1999 V2: 249, 1999
flammable or volatile liquids, 1999 V2: 13, V2: 250 E
1999 V2: 347–349 symbols for water supply (F), 1998 V1: 10
fire lines water demands, 1999 V2: 243–244, 1999 V2:
defined, 1998 V1: 31 247 F
fire-line water meters, 1999 V2: 116 fire-rated sealants, 1998 V1: 198
fire protection first-degree burns, 1999 V2: 169 G
defined, 1999 V2: 18 fittings. See also specific types of fittings
symbols, 1998 V1: 15–16 acoustic ratings, 1998 V1: 198
terminology, 1998 V1: 24–39 codes and standards, 1998 V1: 51–59 H
fire pumps, 1998 V1: 15, 1998 V1: 31 compression, 1998 V1: 32
firefighting equipment, 1998 V1: 16 defined, 1998 V1: 32 I
firefighting water drainage, 1999 V2: 346–347 earthquake damage, 1998 V1: 163
hose cabinets and racks earthquake protection, 1998 V1: 168
hose racks (FHR), 1998 V1: 13 flange, 1998 V1: 32 J
recessed cabinets (FHC), 1998 V1: 14 friction loss and, 1999 V2: 128
surface-mounted cabinets (FHC), 1998 V1: 14 grab bars, 1998 V1: 119 K
hydrants liquefied petroleum gas, 1999 V2: 196
distance between, 1999 V2: 250
flow tests, 1999 V2: 122
natural gas fitting sizes, 1999 V2: 184
number of joins in, 1998 V1: 82
L
pressure drop and, 1999 V2: 249 pressure drops in water systems and, 1999 V2:
public hydrants, 1998 V1: 15 125, 1999 V2: 126, 1999 V2: 127 M
valves, 1998 V1: 31 radioactive waste systems, 1999 V2: 343
seismic protection, 1998 V1: 186
sprinkler systems
screwed fittings, 1998 V1: 163
vacuum cleaning systems, 1999 V2: 269
N
automatic sprinkler system types, 1998 V1: 37 welded, 1998 V1: 32
concealed sprinklers, 1998 V1: 37 Fitzgerald, 1998 V1: 152 O
corrosion-resistant sprinklers, 1998 V1: 37 fixed, floor-mounted equipment, 1998 V1: 165
drop nipples on pendent sprinklers, 1998 V1: fixed, suspended equipment, 1998 V1: 165
16 fixed shower heads, 1998 V1: 117 P
dry, pendent sprinklers, 1998 V1: 37 fixture branches, 1998 V1: 32
dry, upright sprinklers, 1998 V1: 37 fixture carrier fittings, 1998 V1: 32 Q
earthquake damage to, 1998 V1: 163 fixture carriers, 1998 V1: 32
extended-coverage sidewall sprinklers, 1998 fixture drains
V1: 37 defined, 1998 V1: 32 R
firefighting water drainage, 1999 V2: 346–347 discharge characteristics, 1999 V2: 3
flush sprinklers, 1998 V1: 37 flow in, 1999 V2: 2 S
fully-sprinklered spaces, 1998 V1: 15 flow rate in, 1998 V1: 3–4
heads, 1998 V1: 16 simultaneous use of fixtures, 1999 V2: 3, 1999
intermediate-level sprinklers, 1998 V1: 37 V2: 4 T
large-drop sprinklers, 1998 V1: 37 fixture supplies, 1998 V1: 32
nippled-up sprinklers, 1998 V1: 16 fixture-unit values U
nonsprinklered spaces, 1998 V1: 15 cold-water system demand, 1999 V2: 121
occupancy classification, 1998 V1: 37 conversion to gpm, 1999 V2: 120, 1999 V2: 124,
open sprinklers, 1998 V1: 37 1999 V2: 126 V
ornamental sprinklers, 1998 V1: 37 demand weight of fixtures, 1999 V2: 123
partially-sprinklered spaces, 1998 V1: 15 drainage vents and, 1999 V2: 40–41 W
pendent sprinklers, 1998 V1: 16, 1998 V1: 37 fixture units (fu) defined, 1999 V2: 64
quick-response sprinklers, 1998 V1: 38 XYZ
maximum for vertical stacks, 1999 V2: 4, 1999 flat roof drains, 1999 V2: 80 A
V2: 5 flexible connectors (FC)
pipe sizing and, 1999 V2: 133–142, 1999 V2: acoustics and, 1998 V1: 205
136 illustrated, 1998 V1: 210, 1998 V1: 216 B
reduced-size venting and, 1999 V2: 50 symbols for, 1998 V1: 12
sanitary drainage system loads, 1999 V2: 3 vibration control devices, 1998 V1: 208, 1998 V1: C
slope of drains, 1999 V2: 7, 1999 V2: 9 211–212
sovent systems, 1999 V2: 57–59, 1999 V2: 63 flexible gas hoses, 1999 V2: 196
steady flow in horizontal drains, 1999 V2: 9 float-type level controls, 1999 V2: 249 D
water hammer and, 1999 V2: 144 float valves, 1998 V1: 32
fixture units floatation devices for oil spills, 1999 V2: 348 E
drainage fixture units (dfu), 1998 V1: 32, 1999 floatation of oil in spills, 1999 V2: 347
V2: 64 floating screeds, sound-proofing, 1998 V1: 201
supply fixture units (sfu), 1998 V1: 32 floc, 1999 V2: 294 F
fixtures flocculation, 1999 V2: 294
batteries of fixtures, 1998 V1: 26, 1999 V2: 64 flood level rims, 1998 V1: 32 G
codes and standards, 1998 V1: 56–57 flooded
cold-water system demand, 1999 V2: 121 defined, 1998 V1: 32
defined, 1998 V1: 35 floor cleanouts (FCO), 1998 V1: 14 H
demand weight of, 1999 V2: 123 floor drains (FD)
fixture traps and vents, 1999 V2: 40 acid-resistant floor drains, 1999 V2: 16 I
flow and pressure requirements, 1999 V2: 129 chemical-waste systems, 1999 V2: 346
governing fixtures, 1999 V2: 125, 1999 V2: 129 components, 1999 V2: 11
inspection, 1998 V1: 97 end venting, 1999 V2: 41 J
installation man-hour estimates, 1998 V1: 83 fire-suppression drainage and, 1999 V2: 347
laboratory acid-waste drainage systems, 1999 fixture-unit loads, 1999 V2: 3 K
V2: 334 floor leveling around, 1999 V2: 17
plumbing fixtures, defined, 1998 V1: 32
reduced water usage, 1998 V1: 125
grate open areas, 1999 V2: 10
infectious and biological waste systems, 1999 V2:
L
resilient-mounting design, 1998 V1: 212, 1998 345
V1: 213 kitchen areas, 1999 V2: 16–17, 1999 V2: 17 M
resiliently mounted plumbing fixtures, 1998 V1: with p-traps (FD), 1998 V1: 14
212, 1998 V1: 213
sizing vents, 1999 V2: 50
radioactive waste systems, 1999 V2: 342
sanitary drainage systems, 1999 V2: 10
N
supply-water trap primers, 1999 V2: 14 types, 1999 V2: 17–18
vibration of, 1998 V1: 212 waterproofing, 1999 V2: 17 O
waste-water trap primers, 1999 V2: 14 floor-mounted equipment, vibration-isolated, 1998
water-saving fixtures, 1998 V1: 131 V1: 165–167
flammable or volatile liquids, 1999 V2: 13, 1999 floor-mounted pumps, 1998 V1: 212 P
V2: 347–349 floor sinks, 1999 V2: 10, 1999 V2: 16
flanged end connections, 1998 V1: 31 floors Q
flanges design considerations in seismic protection, 1998
bonnets, 1998 V1: 32 V1: 191
defined, 1998 V1: 32 floor penetrations of pipes, 1998 V1: 206, 1998 R
fittings, 1998 V1: 32 V1: 207
flange ends, 1998 V1: 32 leveling, 1999 V2: 17 S
flange faces, 1998 V1: 32 motions in earthquakes, 1998 V1: 161
problems in seismic protection, 1998 V1: 192 shaking in earthquakes, 1998 V1: 162
flap valves, 1998 V1: 32 flotation vibration isolation, 1998 V1: 165 T
flare nuts, frost proof, 1999 V2: 196 flow
flash points, 1998 V1: 32 at outlet, 1998 V1: 3 U
flash tubes for liquefied petroleum gas, 1999 V2: building drains, 1999 V2: 2
197 critical flows, defined, 1998 V1: 2
flashing flanges, 1999 V2: 17 fixture drains, 1998 V1: 3–4, 1999 V2: 2 V
flashing L flanges, 1999 V2: 17 gravity and sheet actions, 1999 V2: 12
flashing rings, 1999 V2: 12, 1999 V2: 17, 1999 V2: hydraulic jumps in, 1999 V2: 2, 1999 V2: 6 W
80 open-channel flow, 1998 V1: 1, 1999 V2: 7
flat-area leaching trenches, 1999 V2: 223–224 outlet velocity, 1998 V1: 7 XYZ
Index 379
overland flow for sites, 1999 V2: 96 defined, 1999 V2: 213 A
rate of flow, calculating, 1998 V1: 1 temperatures, 1999 V2: 178
stacks, 1999 V2: 1–2 flues, 1998 V1: 32
steady flow, 1999 V2: 6–7 fluid flow rates, 1998 V1: 19 B
surging flows, 1999 V2: 5 Fluid Mechanics with Engineering Applications, 1999
symbols for, 1998 V1: 14 V2: 19 C
velocity and water hammer, 1998 V1: 203 fluoride, 1999 V2: 245, 1999 V2: 284
velocity of uniform flow, 1998 V1: 1 fluorine, 1999 V2: 281
water flow in pipes, calculating, 1998 V1: 2 flush controls D
flow-control storm devices, 1999 V2: 94 urinals, 1998 V1: 113
flow equalization in gray-water treatment, 1999 V2: water closet and toilet accessibility, 1998 V1: 110 E
27 water closet requirements, 1998 V1: 113
flow indicators for portable meters, 1998 V1: 13 flush sprinklers, 1998 V1: 37
flow indicators for stationary meters (orifices), 1998 flush tanks, acoustic design, 1998 V1: 200 F
V1: 13 flush valves
flow pressure, 1998 V1: 32 defined, 1998 V1: 33 G
flow rates sanitation and, 1999 V2: 16
acoustic ratings and, 1998 V1: 198, 1998 V1: water closet acoustic design, 1998 V1: 205
206 flushing H
air flow in vacuum pressure, 1999 V2: 253 acoustic ratings of toilets, 1998 V1: 198–199
air flow rates (QAR, QAIR), 1998 V1: 19 acoustic ratings of urinals, 1998 V1: 199 I
altitude and, 1999 V2: 258 cold-water systems, 1999 V2: 154
at outlets, 1998 V1: 6 resin beds, 1999 V2: 305
capacity, 1998 V1: 27, 1998 V1: 41 water systems, 1999 V2: 252 J
cold-water systems, 1999 V2: 115, 1999 V2: 121, flushing rims, 1999 V2: 16
1999 V2: 153 flushing-type floor drains, 1998 V1: 33 K
conserving energy, 1998 V1: 124–125 flushometer valves, 1998 V1: 33, 1999 V2: 14
fixture drains, 1998 V1: 3–4
flux
membrane productivity, 1999 V2: 321
L
fixture requirements, 1999 V2: 129 natural osmosis, 1999 V2: 308
fluctuating flows in horizontal drains, 1999 V2: 5 FM. See Factory Mutual Research Corporation (FM) M
fluid (QFL), 1998 V1: 19 FM standards, 1998 V1: 51–59. See also Factory
fuel-gas systems and boosters, 1999 V2: 178
gas boosters, 1999 V2: 179, 1999 V2: 180, 1999
Mutual Research Corporation (FM)
FMRC (Factory Mutual). See Factory Mutual
N
V2: 182 Research Corporation (FM); Factory Mutual
gas flow rates (QGA, QGAS), 1998 V1: 19, 1999 Research Corporation (FM) O
V2: 173 FO (film coefficients), 1998 V1: 19
measurements, 1998 V1: 41, 1999 V2: 253 foaming in gray water, 1999 V2: 29
natural gas systems, 1999 V2: 183 fog nozzles, 1999 V2: 332 P
pump capacity, 1998 V1: 7 Fontana, Mars G., 1998 V1: 152
rate of flow, calculating, 1998 V1: 1 Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 1999 V2: Q
reduced-pressure backflow devices, 1999 V2: 148 279, 1999 V2: 321, 1999 V2: 324, 1999 V2:
resin bead regeneration, 1999 V2: 305 328
roof drainage in horizontal branches, 1999 V2: food dyes in gray water, 1999 V2: 33 R
88 food-processing areas and kitchens
special-waste drainage systems, 1999 V2: 329 drains, 1999 V2: 16–17 S
vacuum cleaning systems, 1999 V2: 270, 1999 grease interceptors, 1999 V2: 13
V2: 271 natural gas and, 1999 V2: 174
vacuum exhauster sizing, 1999 V2: 274 rates of sewage flows, 1999 V2: 237 T
vacuum systems, 1999 V2: 255–256, 1999 V2: sanitation, 1999 V2: 16
262 sewage estimates, 1999 V2: 235 U
water fountains, 1998 V1: 107 typical gray-water demand, 1999 V2: 25
water heater types and, 1999 V2: 160 food-processing plants
flow restrictors, 1998 V1: 127 cross-flow hazards, 1999 V2: 147 V
flow switches (FS), 1998 V1: 13 pure water and, 1999 V2: 317
flowing subsurface water, 1999 V2: 100 foot or feet. See feet W
fluctuating flows in horizontal drains, 1999 V2: 5 foot-pounds (ft-lb, FT LB), 1998 V1: 19
flue gases foot valves, 1998 V1: 33 XYZ
footing drains (SSD), 1998 V1: 9, 1998 V1: 38 French, John L., 1999 V2: 38 A
footings of buildings french drains, 1998 V1: 33. See also rubble drains
defined, 1998 V1: 33 frequencies (Hz, HZ)
water pipes and, 1999 V2: 251 measurements, 1998 V1: 41 B
FOR (fuel oil return), 1998 V1: 10 symbols for, 1998 V1: 19
force frequency of ion regeneration cycles, 1999 V2: 305 C
conversion factors, 1998 V1: 43, 1998 V1: 44 fresh-air inlets, 1998 V1: 33
measurements, 1998 V1: 41 friction connectors, 1998 V1: 194
in seismic design, 1998 V1: 192 friction factors, 1998 V1: 19 D
force factors in seismic force calculations, 1998 V1: friction head, calculating, 1998 V1: 7
185–186 friction losses in flow E
forced distortions of piping, 1998 V1: 162 calculating friction head loss, 1998 V1: 2–3
forced drainage (corrosion), defined, 1998 V1: 151 Hazen-Williams formula, 1998 V1: 2, 1999 V2:
forcing functions in earthquakes, 1998 V1: 160 116, 1999 V2: 118, 1999 V2: 119, 1999 F
formazin turbidity unit, 1999 V2: 287 V2: 121
forms natural gas systems, 1999 V2: 183 G
cost estimates, 1998 V1: 87–89 pipe pressure and, 1999 V2: 122–132
forms of agreement, 1998 V1: 64 pressure and, 1999 V2: 125, 1999 V2: 130
storm-drainage calculations, 1999 V2: 109–113 sizing of branches, 1999 V2: 127 H
formulas. See equations vacuum cleaning systems, 1999 V2: 271, 1999
forward approaches and reaches V2: 272–274, 1999 V2: 274, 1999 V2: 275 I
approaches for wheelchairs, 1998 V1: 104 vacuum exhauster sizing, 1999 V2: 274
drinking fountains and water coolers, 1998 V1: valves and threaded fittings, 1999 V2: 128
107 water supply piping and, 1999 V2: 249 J
reach for wheelchairs, 1998 V1: 103, 1998 V1: well pumps, 1999 V2: 245
105 front-end documents, 1998 V1: 64 K
FOS (fuel oil supply), 1998 V1: 10 frost. See freezing temperatures
fouling of water, 1999 V2: 289, 1999 V2: 316
foundations of buildings, 1999 V2: 103, 1999 V2:
frost proof flare nuts, 1999 V2: 196
frostproof closets, 1998 V1: 33
L
231 FRP (fiberglass-reinforced plastic), 1999 V2: 284
foundations of pumps, 1999 V2: 243, 1999 V2: 245 FS (federal specifications), 1998 V1: 33, 1998 V1: M
fountains, gray water in, 1999 V2: 22 60
FOV (fuel oil vents), 1998 V1: 10
fp, FP (freezing points), 1998 V1: 19
FS (flow switches), 1998 V1: 13
ft, FT (feet). See feet
N
fpm, FPM (feet per minute), 1998 V1: 19 ft-lb, FT LB (foot-pounds), 1998 V1: 19
fps, FPS (feet per second), 1998 V1: 19 ft3 (cubic feet), 1998 V1: 18 O
Frankel, Michael, 1999 V2: 114, 1999 V2: 277, FTUs (formazin turbidity units), 1999 V2: 287
1999 V2: 325, 1999 V2: 350 fu values. See fixture-unit values
Franzini, Joseph B., 1999 V2: 19 Fuel Gas Piping, 1999 V2: 214 P
Frederick, Ralph H., 1999 V2: 114 fuel-gas piping systems
free air, 1998 V1: 25 conversion factors, 1999 V2: 212 Q
free oil, 1999 V2: 347 fuel gas, defined, 1999 V2: 213
free-standing siamese fire department connections, glossary, 1999 V2: 213–214
1998 V1: 15 liquefied petroleum gas, 1999 V2: 194, 1999 V2: R
free vibration, 1998 V1: 160 196–197
Freehof, James N., 1998 V1: 79 methane, 1998 V1: 132 S
“freezing,” preventing in cleanouts, 1999 V2: 9 natural gas systems, 1999 V2: 173–194
freezing points (fp, FP), 1998 V1: 19 values of fuel gas, 1999 V2: 212
freezing temperatures fuel oil T
backflow preventers and, 1999 V2: 149 fuel oil return (FOR), 1998 V1: 10
buried water pipes and, 1999 V2: 251 fuel oil supply (FOS), 1998 V1: 10 U
gas piping and, 1999 V2: 196 fuel oil vents (FOV), 1998 V1: 10
ice inside water storage tanks, 1999 V2: 247 pipe bracing, 1998 V1: 168, 1998 V1: 169
leaching trenches and, 1999 V2: 222 full-flow conditions (FF), 1998 V1: 1 V
reduced-size venting and, 1999 V2: 50 fully-sprinklered spaces, 1998 V1: 15
testing of cold-water systems, 1999 V2: 154 fume hoods, 1999 V2: 334, 1999 V2: 342 W
water meters and, 1999 V2: 115 fumes, hazardous, 1999 V2: 284, 1999 V2: 332,
well heads and, 1999 V2: 243 1999 V2: 333. See also gases XYZ
Index 381
fuming grade sulfuric acid, 1999 V2: 332 gamma ray radiation, 1999 V2: 337, 1999 V2: 338, A
The Function of Reference Standards in Construction 1999 V2: 339
Specifications, 1998 V1: 79 garbage disposers
fundamental corrosion cells, defined, 1998 V1: acoustic ratings of, 1998 V1: 199 B
135–136 defined, 1998 V1: 29
Fundamentals of Underground Corrosion Control, discharges from, 1999 V2: 237 C
1998 V1: 152 fixture-unit loads, 1999 V2: 3
fungi, 1999 V2: 282, 1999 V2: 289 garnet in filters, 1999 V2: 300
funnel-type collectors for backflow devices, 1999 gas boosters D
V2: 148 design considerations, 1999 V2: 180–182
funnel-type drains in chemical plants, 1999 V2: gas laws, 1999 V2: 179 E
346 glossary, 1999 V2: 182–183
furring-out requirements for roofs, 1999 V2: 79, heat exchanger loop systems, 1999 V2: 181,
1999 V2: 81 1999 V2: 182 F
future expansion of water systems, 1999 V2: 249 high-rise buildings, 1999 V2: 180
FV (face velocity), 1998 V1: 19 materials and components, 1999 V2: 179 G
fvel, FVEL (face velocity), 1998 V1: 19 overview, 1999 V2: 178–183
simplex and dual gas booster systems, 1999 V2:
G 181 H
sizing, 1999 V2: 182–183
g, G (gravitational constants), 1998 V1: 19
G (giga) prefix, 1998 V1: 42
gas flow rates, 1998 V1: 19, 1999 V2: 173 I
gas laws, 1999 V2: 179
G (low-pressure gas), 1998 V1: 10
gas logs, defined, 1999 V2: 213
ga, GA (gauges). See gauges
gas piping systems. See also fuel-gas piping sys- J
GACs (granulated carbon filters), 1999 V2: 318,
tems; liquefied petroleum gas; natural gas
1999 V2: 323. See also activated carbon
filtration
systems K
bracing, 1998 V1: 169
gages (ga, GA, GAGE), 1998 V1: 19. See also gauges
gal, GAL (gallons). See gallons
defined, 1998 V1: 195
gas cocks, 1998 V1: 11
L
gallons (gal, GAL)
gas line earthquake-sensitive valves, 1998 V1:
gallons per day (gpd, GPD), 1998 V1: 19
164 M
gas main inspection checklist, 1998 V1: 96
gallons per hour (gph, GPH), 1998 V1: 19, 1998
V1: 47
gas pressure regulators, defined, 1999 V2: 214
gas stops (gas cocks), 1998 V1: 11
N
gallons per minute (gpm), 1999 V2: 120, 1999
gas-train vents, 1999 V2: 177, 1999 V2: 213
V2: 124, 1999 V2: 126, 1999 V2: 240
grains per gallon (gpg), 1999 V2: 285
gas trains, 1999 V2: 213 O
gas turrets, 1999 V2: 177
standard gallons per hour (std gph, SGPH), 1998
gas vents (GV), 1998 V1: 10, 1999 V2: 213
V1: 19
high-pressure (HG), 1998 V1: 10 P
low-pressure (G), 1998 V1: 10
galvanic action, 1998 V1: 33. See also electrolysis
galvanic anodes, 1998 V1: 144–147
medium-pressure (MG), 1998 V1: 10 Q
Spitzglass formula, 1998 V1: 8
galvanic cells, defined, 1998 V1: 151
gas stripping, 1999 V2: 288
galvanic corrosion, 1998 V1: 137–138, 1998 V1:
gas-transfer vacuum pumps, 1999 V2: 259 R
151, 1999 V2: 290
gas water heaters, 1998 V1: 131
galvanic series of metals
defined, 1998 V1: 151
gases. See also fuel-gas piping systems; liquefied S
petroleum gas; natural gas systems
dielectric insulation and, 1998 V1: 143
dissolved gases in water, 1999 V2: 284
listing, 1998 V1: 140
forcing upward through terminal stack, 1999 V2: T
galvanized iron joints, 1999 V2: 222
36
galvanized iron piping, 1999 V2: 14, 1999 V2: 136
galvanized steel piping
hazardous, 1999 V2: 332 U
nitrous fumes, 1999 V2: 333
aboveground piping, 1999 V2: 14, 1999 V2: 68
preventing concentration with vents, 1999 V2: 35
liquefied petroleum gas, 1999 V2: 196
sulfuric acid, 1999 V2: 333 V
volatile organic compounds, 1999 V2: 284
galvanizing
coatings for corrosion prevention, 1998 V1: 144
gaskets W
materials, 1998 V1: 55–56
special-waste systems, 1999 V2: 328 XYZ
galvomag alloy, 1998 V1: 141
gasoline, 1999 V2: 13 governing fixtures, 1999 V2: 125, 1999 V2: 129 A
gate valves (GV), 1998 V1: 11, 1999 V2: 332 gpd, GPD (gallons per day), 1998 V1: 19
gauges (ga, GA, GAGE) gpg (grains per gallon), 1999 V2: 285
gauge pressure, 1999 V2: 253, 1999 V2: 254 gph, GPH (gallons per hour), 1998 V1: 19 B
symbols for, 1998 V1: 19 gph, standard (std gph, SGPH), 1998 V1: 19
vacuum systems, 1999 V2: 260 gpm (gallons per minute), 1999 V2: 120, 1999 V2: C
gear journals, 1998 V1: 201 124, 1999 V2: 126, 1999 V2: 240
gear pumps, 1999 V2: 247 gr, GR (grains). See grains
gearbox silencing enclosures, 1998 V1: 202 grab bars D
gears, acoustic problems, 1998 V1: 201 ambulatory accessible toilet compartments, 1998
Geiger-Mueller counters, 1999 V2: 339 V1: 111 E
general conditions in contract documents, 1998 V1: bathtub accessibility, 1998 V1: 114
63, 1998 V1: 64 clearance, 1998 V1: 121
General Conditions of the Contract for Construction, shower stalls, 1998 V1: 117, 1998 V1: 118 F
1998 V1: 64 standards for, 1998 V1: 119–121
General Conference of Weights and Measures water closet and toilet accessibility, 1998 V1: 110 G
(CGPM), 1998 V1: 40 grades, defined, 1998 V1: 33
general corrosion, 1998 V1: 151, 1999 V2: 289–290 grading, defined, 1998 V1: 85
general laboratory-grade water, 1999 V2: 317 grains (gr, GR) H
General Requirements section in specifications, converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 47
1998 V1: 67 grains per gallon, 1999 V2: 285 I
General section in specifications, 1998 V1: 66, symbols for, 1998 V1: 19
1998 V1: 75 granulated carbon filters, 1999 V2: 318, 1999 V2:
generally accepted standards, defined, 1998 V1: 33 323. See also activated carbon filtration J
Geogehegan, R.F., 1999 V2: 350 graphic conventions in plumbing drawings, 1998
geological stability of sites, 1999 V2: 26 V1: 102 K
geothermal energy, 1998 V1: 132 graphite, 1998 V1: 140
geothermal heat pumps, 1999 V2: 243
Get Your Process Water to Come Clean, 1999 V2:
graphite anodes, 1998 V1: 147
graphitic corrosion, 1998 V1: 151
L
325 graphitization
“giga” prefix, 1998 V1: 42 cast iron, 1998 V1: 138 M
glass borosilicate piping, 1999 V2: 14, 1999 V2: 15, defined, 1998 V1: 151
1999 V2: 122
glass piping, 1999 V2: 334, 1999 V2: 341
grate-type inlets in site storm systems, 1999 V2: 98
grates
N
Glidden, R., 1999 V2: 277 buffing, 1999 V2: 11
globe valves (GLV), 1998 V1: 11 grate open areas for floor drains, 1999 V2: 10 O
glossaries materials for, 1999 V2: 14
acoustics in plumbing systems, 1998 V1: 215– sanitary drainage systems, 1999 V2: 10–12
217 gravels P
conserving energy, 1998 V1: 133 fill above subsurface drainage pipes, 1999 V2:
corrosion, 1998 V1: 149–152 103 Q
fuel-gas systems, 1999 V2: 213–214 gray-water irrigation systems and, 1999 V2: 26,
gas boosters, 1999 V2: 182–183 1999 V2: 27
measurement units, 1998 V1: 40 gravimetric measurement of solids, 1999 V2: 287 R
plumbing terminology, 1998 V1: 24–39 gravitational constants (g, G), 1998 V1: 19
pressure-regulating valves, 1999 V2: 152 gravity S
references for, 1998 V1: 49 acceleration of water, 1999 V2: 1–2
seismic protection, 1998 V1: 193–195 forces in earthquakes, 1998 V1: 189
vents and venting, 1999 V2: 64 loads, 1998 V1: 155 T
glove boxes, 1999 V2: 342, 1999 V2: 343 gravity circulation, 1998 V1: 6
GLSP (good large-scale production), 1999 V2: 343 gravity drainage for special waste systems, 1999 U
glues, 1999 V2: 284 V2: 329
GLV (globe valves), 1998 V1: 11 gravity-flush valve fixtures, 1998 V1: 200
gold, 1998 V1: 140 gravity separators in oil spills, 1999 V2: 348 V
golf clubs, 1999 V2: 237 gravity sewers, 1999 V2: 226
gravity tank systems, 1999 V2: 150–152, 1999 V2: W
good large-scale production (GLSP), 1999 V2: 343 248, 1999 V2: 249
Gorry, M., 1999 V2: 325 gravity vents for gas appliances, 1999 V2: 178 XYZ
Index 383
gravity water filters, 1999 V2: 244 A Guide to Airborne, Impact and Structure-Borne A
Gray, G.D., 1999 V2: 34 Noise Control in Multifamily Dwellings, 1998
gray-water systems V1: 204
amount of generated gray water, 1999 V2: 23 guide-vane tips, acoustic modifications, 1998 V1: B
benefits of water reuse, 1998 V1: 131 202
codes and standards, 1999 V2: 22 Guidelines for Seismic Restraints of Mechanical C
designing for supply and consumption, 1999 V2: Systems, 1998 V1: 195
23–27 Guides and Manual as Reference Standard, 1998
economic analysis of, 1999 V2: 29–32 V1: 80 D
introduction, 1999 V2: 21 gutters
precautions, 1999 V2: 32–33 sizing roof gutters, 1999 V2: 81, 1999 V2: 86 E
public concerns and acceptance, 1999 V2: 33 street gutters, 1999 V2: 99
reasons for using, 1999 V2: 21 Guzey, Onkal K., 1998 V1: 79
references, 1999 V2: 34 GV (gas vents), 1998 V1: 10, 1999 V2: 213 F
system description and components, 1999 V2: GV (gate valves), 1998 V1: 11, 1999 V2: 332
22–23 gypsum board, lining with lead, 1999 V2: 340 G
treatment systems, 1999 V2: 27–29
Gray-water Systems, 1999 V2: 34 H
grease H
H (enthalpy), 1998 V1: 18
exclusion from gray-water systems, 1999 V2: 21
fats in kitchens, 1999 V2: 13
h (hecto) prefix, 1998 V1: 42
H (henrys), 1998 V1: 41
I
grease traps, defined, 1998 V1: 33
h (hours), 1998 V1: 19, 1998 V1: 42
horizontal wet-vented systems and, 1999 V2: 46
interceptors, 1998 V1: 33, 1999 V2: 13, 1999 V2:
h (velocity head), 1998 V1: 6 J
H-I alloy, 1998 V1: 141
230, 1999 V2: 232, 1999 V2: 235, 1999
V2: 336
H/m (henrys per meter), 1998 V1: 41
ha (hectares), 1998 V1: 42
K
greatest temperature difference (GTD), 1998 V1: 19
half-full conditions (HF), 1998 V1: 1
green sands, 1999 V2: 302
Greene, Norbert D., 1998 V1: 152
half lives, defined, 1999 V2: 340 L
halon 1301, 1998 V1: 33
grinder pumps
halon system types, 1998 V1: 33
hammer. See water hammer
M
in sewage tanks, 1999 V2: 226
hand-grading, defined, 1998 V1: 85
Grossel, S.F., 1999 V2: 350
ground failure, 1998 V1: 158
hand-held shower heads, 1998 V1: 117 N
hand tools for vacuum cleaning systems, 1999 V2:
ground floor space. See clear floor space
ground-motion time history, 1998 V1: 161
269–270
hand trenching, 1998 V1: 85
O
ground-mounted water storage tanks, 1999 V2: 247
Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, 1998 V1: 3,
ground ruptures, 1998 V1: 158
ground shaking, 1998 V1: 158, 1998 V1: 159, 1998
1998 V1: 6 P
Handbook of Chlorination, 1999 V2: 155
V1: 162
ground space for wheelchairs. See clear floor space
Handbook of Fundamentals, 1998 V1: 2 column,
1998 V1: 6, 1998 V1: 7, 1998 V1: 49
Q
ground water
Handbooks (ASHRAE), 1999 V2: 214
defined, 1999 V2: 282
determining quantities, 1999 V2: 100–101
handicapped individuals. See physically challenged R
individuals
disposal of, 1999 V2: 105
feed water for pure water systems, 1999 V2: 321
hangers. See supports and hangers
hard conversions, 1998 V1: 40
S
gray-water irrigation systems and, 1999 V2: 26
hard-temper copper tubes, 1999 V2: 14, 1999 V2:
private water systems, 1999 V2: 239
68 T
hardness of water
wicking into buildings, 1999 V2: 99
groundspace for wheelchairs. See clear floor space
boiler feed water, 1999 V2: 314
degrees of hardness, 1999 V2: 283
U
grouts in wells, 1999 V2: 243
ion exchange treatment, 1999 V2: 300
GSA Guide Specification Number 3-1515-71 (Public
Building Service), 1998 V1: 204
pH and alkalinity, 1999 V2: 293 V
private water systems, 1999 V2: 244
GTD (greatest temperature difference, 1998 V1: 19
guaranty bonds, 1998 V1: 64
water softener treatments, 1999 V2: 307–308
Harris, Cyril M., 1998 V1: 79
W
Harris, Nigel, 1999 V2: 277
Hartman, Robert, 1998 V1: 80 XYZ
Hastelloy C, 1998 V1: 140, 1998 V1: 141 water-heater heat recovery, 1999 V2: 158–159 A
Hasteloy B, 1999 V2: 333 Heat Exchange Institute, 1999 V2: 265
hazards heat exchangers and exchange systems, 1998 V1:
accidental acid spills, 1999 V2: 332 131 B
backflow prevention, 1999 V2: 145, 1999 V2: corrosion inhibitors, 1998 V1: 149
146 heat exchanger loop gas booster systems, 1999 C
classes of hazard occupancies, 1998 V1: 37 V2: 181, 1999 V2: 182
cold-water systems, 1999 V2: 115 vibration isolation, 1998 V1: 212–214
controlled substance spills, 1999 V2: 277 waste heat usage, 1998 V1: 128 D
exposed piping and accessibility, 1998 V1: 114 heat exchanges in geothermal energy, 1998 V1: 132
fire hazards, 1998 V1: 31 heat-fused socket joints, 1999 V2: 334 E
flammable and volatile liquids, 1999 V2: 347– heat gain (HG, HEATG)
349 latent (LHG, HGL), 1998 V1: 19
gas appliances, 1999 V2: 178 sensible (SHG, HGS), 1998 V1: 19, 1998 V1: 22 F
gas boosters, 1999 V2: 179 symbols for, 1998 V1: 19
gases in septic tanks, 1999 V2: 230 heat loss (HL, HEATL), 1998 V1: 19 G
gray-water systems, 1999 V2: 32–33 heat pumps, waste heat usage, 1998 V1: 128–131
hazardous gases, 1999 V2: 332 heat reclamation systems, 1998 V1: 128–131
hot-water systems, 1999 V2: 157, 1999 V2: 169– heat-trace systems, 1999 V2: 165–166 H
170 heat transfer (Q)
liquefied petroleum gas, 1999 V2: 194, 1999 V2: heat transfer coefficients (U, U), 1998 V1: 19 I
197 symbols for, 1998 V1: 19
radiation, 1999 V2: 337–338 heated water. See hot-water systems
radioactive waste-drainage systems, 1999 V2: heaters (HTR), 1998 V1: 19. See also water heaters J
341 HEATG (heat gain). See heat gain
sanitary precautions for wells, 1999 V2: 243 heating feed water K
types of acids, 1999 V2: 332–334 efficiency of hot-water storage equipment, 1998
vacuum cleaning system issues, 1999 V2: 276
Hazen-Williams formula, 1998 V1: 2, 1999 V2: 7,
V1: 132–133
for microbial control, 1999 V2: 312
L
1999 V2: 116, 1999 V2: 118, 1999 V2: 119, for pure water systems, 1999 V2: 322
1999 V2: 121 heating hot water return (HHWR), 1998 V1: 10 M
HB (hose bibbs), 1998 V1: 12, 1999 V2: 121 heating hot water supply (HHWS), 1998 V1: 10
head (hd, HD)
acoustic design for water pipes, 1998 V1: 200
heating values of natural gas, 1999 V2: 173, 1999
V2: 212, 1999 V2: 214
N
friction head, 1998 V1: 7 HEATL (heat loss), 1998 V1: 19
head measurements, 1999 V2: 4 heavy equipment earthquake recommendations, O
pump affinity laws, 1998 V1: 7 1998 V1: 163
symbols for, 1998 V1: 19 hectares, 1998 V1: 42
velocity head (h), 1998 V1: 6 “hecto” prefix, 1998 V1: 42 P
head loss heel inlets on traps, 1999 V2: 16
calculating, 1998 V1: 2 heel-proof grates, 1999 V2: 10 Q
friction loss of head, 1999 V2: 118, 1999 V2: heel-proof strainers, 1999 V2: 80
119, 1999 V2: 121 height (hgt, HGT, HT)
sanitary drainage, 1999 V2: 2 grab bars for accessibility, 1998 V1: 119 R
head measurements, 1999 V2: 4 laundry equipment, 1998 V1: 122
head pressure, 1999 V2: 9, 1999 V2: 86 sinks, 1998 V1: 114 S
head walls on culverts, 1999 V2: 99 symbols for, 1998 V1: 19
header systems, 1999 V2: 127 toilet seats, 1998 V1: 110, 1998 V1: 111
headers in CSI format, 1998 V1: 66 Heineman, Tom, 1998 V1: 80 T
health hazards. See hazards Henriques, F.C., Jr., 1999 V2: 169, 1999 V2: 170
hearing disabilities, 1998 V1: 101 henrys, 1998 V1: 41 U
heat (HT) henrys per meter, 1998 V1: 41
conversion factors, 1998 V1: 44 HEPA filters, 1999 V2: 268, 1999 V2: 345
latent, 1998 V1: 20, 1998 V1: 133 herbicides, 1999 V2: 230 V
measurements, 1998 V1: 41 hermetic gas boosters, 1999 V2: 179
protecting against, 1999 V2: 19 hertz, 1998 V1: 41, 1998 V1: 215 W
sensible, 1998 V1: 22, 1998 V1: 133 Hesser, Henry H., 1999 V2: 277
symbols for, 1998 V1: 19 hexametaphosphate, 1999 V2: 244 XYZ
Index 285
HF (half-full conditions), 1998 V1: 1 cross-sections of, 1999 V2: 2 A

Hg, HG (mercury), 1998 V1: 20 fixture loads, 1999 V2: 7, 1999 V2: 9
HG (heat gain). See heat gain flow in, 1999 V2: 2
HG (high-pressure gas), 1998 V1: 10 hydraulic jumps in, 1999 V2: 6 B
HGL (latent heat gain), 1998 V1: 19 minimum slope of piping, 1999 V2: 7
HGS (sensible heat gain), 1998 V1: 19, 1998 V1: 22 sloping drains in sanitary drainage systems, C
hgt, HGT (height). See height 1999 V2: 5–9
HHWR (heating hot water return), 1998 V1: 10 steady flow in, 1999 V2: 6–7
HHWS (heating hot water supply), 1998 V1: 10 horizontal loads of piping, 1998 V1: 186, 1998 V1: D
HI (film coefficients), 1998 V1: 19 187–188
Hicks, Tyler G., 1999 V2: 114 horizontal pressure-media filters, 1999 V2: 300 E
high-capacity wells, 1999 V2: 240 horizontal pumps, 1998 V1: 32
high-energy beta radiation, 1999 V2: 337 horizontal split-case pumps, 1998 V1: 32
high-level water tank alarms, 1999 V2: 151 horizontal wet-vented systems, 1999 V2: 45–46 F
high-pressure condensate (HPC), 1998 V1: 11 horsepower (hp, HP)
high-pressure gas (HG), 1998 V1: 10 air horsepower (ahp, AHP), 1998 V1: 17 G
high-pressure steam (hps, HPS), 1998 V1: 19 brake horsepower (bhp, BHP), 1998 V1: 7, 1998
high-pressure steam supply (HPS), 1998 V1: 11 V1: 17
high-purity water. See water purification converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 47 H
high-radiation areas, 1999 V2: 339, 1999 V2: 341 indicated horsepower (ihp, IHP), 1998 V1: 20
high-rise buildings, 1999 V2: 180, 1999 V2: 195 shaft horsepower (sft hp, SFT HP, SHP), 1998 V1: I
High-rise Plumbing, 1999 V2: 114 22
high-silicas cast iron piping, 1999 V2: 14, 1999 V2: symbols for, 1998 V1: 19
15 hose bibbs (HB), 1998 V1: 12, 1999 V2: 121 J
high-silicon iron anodes, 1998 V1: 147 hose cabinets and racks
high-suds detergents, 1999 V2: 36–37, 1999 V2: 39 hose racks (FHR), 1998 V1: 13 K
high-temperature hot water (hthw, HTHW), 1998 recessed cabinets (FHC), 1998 V1: 14
V1: 19
high-temperature withstand, 1999 V2: 166
surface-mounted cabinets (FHC), 1998 V1: 14
hose outlets, 1998 V1: 15
L
high-to-low pressure loss in vacuum systems, 1999 hose stations, dry, 1998 V1: 16
V2: 263 hoses M
high vacuum, 1999 V2: 262 flexible gas hoses, 1999 V2: 196
high-velocity fixtures, acoustic design and, 1998
V1: 200
vacuum cleaning hose capacity, 1999 V2: 270
vacuum cleaning systems. See tubing
N
high-velocity jetted well digging, 1999 V2: 241 hospitals, 1999 V2: 16, 1999 V2: 147
Hillman, 1998 V1: 195 hot vapor atmospheric vents, 1998 V1: 11 O
history of earthquake damage, 1998 V1: 162–164 hot water recirculating (HWR), 1998 V1: 9
HL (heat loss), 1998 V1: 19 hot water return, 1998 V1: 10
HO (film coefficients), 1998 V1: 19 hot water supply (HW) P
Hodnott, Robert M., 1998 V1: 195 heating hot water supply, 1998 V1: 10
Hoffman Industries, 1999 V2: 277 symbols for, 1998 V1: 9 Q
hoisting, labor units for, 1998 V1: 84 hot-water systems
holes avoiding standby losses, 1998 V1: 127–128
in coatings, 1998 V1: 144 circulation systems, 1999 V2: 165 R
for perc tests, 1999 V2: 219 codes and standards, 1999 V2: 170
holidays in coatings, 1998 V1: 144 components, 1999 V2: 166 S
hollow-fiber modules conserving energy, 1998 V1: 123, 1998 V1: 126,
in cross-flow filtration, 1999 V2: 311 1998 V1: 127
in reverse osmosis, 1999 V2: 289, 1999 V2: 309 corrosion rates, 1998 V1: 142 T
homogeneity in rate of corrosion, 1998 V1: 142 defined, 1998 V1: 133
horizontal branches earthquake damages, 1998 V1: 163 U
branch intervals, 1999 V2: 64 efficiency of hot-water storage equipment, 1998
defined, 1999 V2: 64 V1: 132–133
laboratory gas piping, 1999 V2: 177 equations, 1999 V2: 158 V
roof drainage, 1999 V2: 88 exposed piping and accessibility, 1998 V1: 114
sovent systems, 1999 V2: 57–60 hot water properties, 1999 V2: 168 W
storm drainage calculation form, 1999 V2: 110 hot water temperatures, 1998 V1: 117, 1999 V2:
horizontal drains 159, 1999 V2: 161–165 XYZ
insulation, 1999 V2: 166 Hunter’s curve for peak load, 1999 V2: 60 A
introduction, 1999 V2: 157–158 Hurricane filters, 1999 V2: 300
maintaining temperatures, 1999 V2: 165 HVAC equipment roof drains, 1999 V2: 83
mixed-water temperatures, 1999 V2: 159–160 HVAC exhaust ducts, 1999 V2: 274 B
natural gas heating, 1999 V2: 174 HW (hot water supply), 1998 V1: 9, 1998 V1: 10
pipe vibration isolation, 1998 V1: 212–214 HWR (hot water recirculating), 1998 V1: 9 C
relief valves, 1999 V2: 166–167 hydrants
safety and health concerns, 1999 V2: 169–170 distance between, 1999 V2: 250
scalding water, 1999 V2: 169–170 flow tests, 1999 V2: 122 D
thermal efficiency, 1999 V2: 169 pressure drop and, 1999 V2: 249
thermal expansion, 1999 V2: 167–168 public hydrants, 1998 V1: 15 E
waste heat usage, 1998 V1: 128–131 valves, 1998 V1: 31
water heater heat recovery, 1999 V2: 158–159 wall hydrants, 1998 V1: 12, 1998 V1: 15
water heaters, 1999 V2: 160–165 hydraulic jumps in flow, 1999 V2: 2, 1999 V2: 6, F
hot water temperatures 1999 V2: 67
accessible shower compartments, 1998 V1: 117 hydraulic mean depth of flow, 1998 V1: 1–2 G
charts, 1999 V2: 161–164 hydraulic radii (R), 1998 V1: 1–2
high-temperature hot water, 1998 V1: 19 hydraulic shock, calculating, 1998 V1: 7
maintaining temperatures, 1999 V2: 165 hydraulic soil conditions, 1999 V2: 217–220 H
hotels hydraulics of wells, 1999 V2: 241–243
acoustic plumbing design for, 1998 V1: 201 hydrazine, 1999 V2: 315 I
septic tank/soil-absorption systems for, 1999 V2: hydrobromic acid, 1999 V2: 333
231–232 hydrochloric acid, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: 295,
vacuum calculations for, 1999 V2: 269 1999 V2: 305, 1999 V2: 333 J
hours (h, HR), 1998 V1: 19, 1998 V1: 42 hydrodynamic noise generation, 1998 V1: 201
house drains. See building drains hydrogen, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: 302, 1999 V2: K
housed-spring mountings, 1998 V1: 210 329
houses. See buildings
housing project sewers, 1999 V2: 231–232
hydrogen embrittlement, 1998 V1: 151
hydrogen film buildup, 1998 V1: 135
L
housings for gas boosters, 1999 V2: 179 hydrogen overvoltage, 1998 V1: 151
How to Design Spencer Central Vacuum Cleaners, hydrogen peroxide, 1999 V2: 311 M
1999 V2: 277 hydrogen sulfide, 1999 V2: 284, 1999 V2: 292,
hp, HP (horsepower). See horsepower
HPC (high-pressure condensate), 1998 V1: 11
1999 V2: 294
hydropneumatic-tank systems, 1999 V2: 150, 1999
N
hps, HPS (high-pressure steam), 1998 V1: 19 V2: 247
HPS (high-pressure steam supply), 1998 V1: 11 hydroquinone, 1999 V2: 315 O
HR (hours), 1998 V1: 19, 1998 V1: 42 hydrostatic pressure in pipes, 1999 V2: 4
HT (heat). See heat hydroxides, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: 282
HT (height). See height hydroxyl, 1999 V2: 302, 1999 V2: 313, 1999 V2: P
hthw, HTHW (high-temperature hot water), 1998 329
V1: 19 Hz, HZ (frequencies), 1998 V1: 19, 1998 V1: 41 Q
HTR (heaters), 1998 V1: 19. See also water heaters Hz (hertz), 1998 V1: 41, 1998 V1: 215
hub-and-spigot piping and joints. See also bell-and-
spigot joints and piping I
R
sanitary piping, 1999 V2: 14
IAPMO (International Association of Plumbing and
Mechanical Officials), 1998 V1: 60, 1999 V2:
S
hubless piping
34, 1999 V2: 214
bracing cast-iron pipe, 1998 V1: 179
hubless, defined, 1998 V1: 33
ICBO (International Conference of Building Offi- T
cials), 1998 V1: 60, 1998 V1: 185, 1998 V1:
riser bracing for hubless pipes, 1998 V1: 180
sanitary piping, 1999 V2: 14
195
ice. See freezing temperatures
U
HUD. See US Department of Housing and Urban
icfm (inlet cubic feet per minute), 1999 V2: 256
Development
humidity
ID (inside diameters), 1998 V1: 18 V
ideal water-system sizing method, 1999 V2: 127
humidity ratios (W, W), 1998 V1: 20
relative (rh, RH), 1998 V1: 20, 1998 V1: 21
identifying parts of gray-water systems, 1999 V2:
22, 1999 V2: 33
W
Hunter, Roy B., 1999 V2: 3, 1999 V2: 4, 1999 V2:
ihp, IHP (indicated horsepower), 1998 V1: 20
49, 1999 V2: 65, 1999 V2: 155 XYZ
illegal connections to water meters, 1999 V2: 115
Index 387
illuminance continuous acid-waste treatment systems, 1999 A

conversion factors, 1998 V1: 44 V2: 338
measurements, 1998 V1: 41 defined, 1999 V2: 332
Illustrated National Plumbing Code Design Manual, health and safety concerns, 1999 V2: 332 B
1999 V2: 114 large facilities, 1999 V2: 336
imaging-science facilities, 1999 V2: 340 types of acids, 1999 V2: 332–334 C
immersion-type vacuum separators, 1999 V2: 268 industrial chemical-waste systems, 1999 V2: 345–
immiscible liquids, 1999 V2: 280 346
impaired individuals. See physically challenged industrial facilities D
individuals firefighting water drainage, 1999 V2: 346–347
impellers radiation in, 1999 V2: 340 E
acoustic modifications for blades, 1998 V1: 202 Industrial Risk Insurers (IRI), 1999 V2: 177
pump impeller diameters, 1998 V1: 7–8 industrial waste, defined, 1998 V1: 34
sources of noise in pumps, 1998 V1: 201 inertia F
impingement attack corrosion, 1998 V1: 138, 1998 conversion factors, 1998 V1: 44
V1: 151 measurements, 1998 V1: 41 G
importance of equipment or systems in seismic infectious and biological waste systems. See also
force calculations, 1998 V1: 186 disinfecting; microorganisms
impressed current systems, 1998 V1: 144, 1998 biosafety levels, 1999 V2: 343–344 H
V1: 147 codes and standards, 1999 V2: 343–344
impurities in water, 1999 V2: 280–284 components, 1999 V2: 345 I
in. Hg (inches of mercury), 1999 V2: 254, 1999 V2: introduction, 1999 V2: 343
257 liquid-waste decontamination systems, 1999 V2:
in-line pumps, 1998 V1: 32 344–345 J
in-plant isolation, 1999 V2: 145–147 infiltration rates
in-wall piping, acoustic design and, 1998 V1: 200 pipes, 1999 V2: 102 K
in3 (cubic inches), 1998 V1: 18 soils, 1999 V2: 96, 1999 V2: 104
inadequate water pressure, 1999 V2: 149–152
inch-pound units (IP)
infrequently-used fixtures, 1999 V2: 121
Ingersoll-Rand Company, 1999 V2: 214
L
converting, 1999 V2: 256 inhibitors (corrosion), 1998 V1: 149, 1998 V1: 151
natural gas piping sizing, 1999 V2: 197 initial pressure in natural gas systems, 1999 V2: M
use of, 1999 V2: 253 193, 1999 V2: 194
inches, converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 47
inches of mercury (in. Hg)
initial vacuum pressure, 1999 V2: 272
inlet cubic feet per minute (icfm), 1999 V2: 256
N
converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 47 inlets. See also outlets
pressure drops, 1999 V2: 257 gas boosters, 1999 V2: 179 O
vacuum pressure measurements, 1999 V2: 254 inlet filters on vacuum systems, 1999 V2: 260
incident angles (INANG), 1998 V1: 20 inlet inverts on septic tanks, 1999 V2: 228
incineration systems, 1998 V1: 132 inlet pressure in cold-water systems, 1999 V2: P
inconel, 1998 V1: 140, 1998 V1: 141 153
incrustation in water, 1999 V2: 244 inlet pressure in gas boosters, 1999 V2: 182 Q
indicated horsepower (ihp, IHP), 1998 V1: 20 number of in vacuum systems, 1999 V2: 262
indirect drains (D), 1998 V1: 9 for storage tanks, 1999 V2: 248
indirect waste pipes, 1998 V1: 33 for storm drainage, 1999 V2: 98 R
indirect waste receptors, 1999 V2: 16, 1999 V2: 17. for vacuum cleaning systems, 1999 V2: 268,
See also floor sinks 1999 V2: 269–270, 1999 V2: 272, 1999 S
individual aerobic waste treatment plants, 1999 V2: V2: 274
232–233 in vacuum sizing calculations, 1999 V2: 263
Individual Home Waste-water Characterization and input motion of earthquakes, 1998 V1: 160 T
Treatment, 1999 V2: 238 insanitary, defined, 1998 V1: 34, 1999 V2: 64
individual vents, 1998 V1: 33. See also revent pipes inside-caulk outlets, 1999 V2: 17 U
indoor gas boosters, 1999 V2: 180 inside diameters (ID), 1998 V1: 18
indoor gas hose connectors, 1999 V2: 196 inside film coefficients, 1998 V1: 19
induced siphonage, 1998 V1: 33, 1999 V2: 36, inspecting. See also cleanouts V
1999 V2: 39–40 checklists, 1998 V1: 96–97
industrial acid-waste drainage systems drains in sanitary drainage systems, 1999 V2: 9 W
acid-waste treatment, 1999 V2: 334–337 septic tanks, 1999 V2: 229–230
sewage-disposal systems, 1999 V2: 238 XYZ
installing inverts A
anchor bolts, seismic problems, 1998 V1: 193 defined, 1998 V1: 34
backflow preventers, 1999 V2: 148–149 on septic tanks, 1999 V2: 228
grab bars, 1998 V1: 119 An Investigation of the Adequacy of Performance of B
pressure-regulated valves, 1999 V2: 153–154 Reduced-size Vents Installed on a Ten-Story
reduced-size venting, 1999 V2: 52 Drain, Waste and Vent System, 1999 V2: 65 C
sovent systems, 1999 V2: 62 iodine 131, 1999 V2: 340
water system pipes, 1999 V2: 250–252 ion-exchange and removal systems, 1999 V2: 300–
instantaneous water heaters, 1999 V2: 160 308 D
institutions continuous deionization, 1999 V2: 306
estimating sewage quantities, 1999 V2: 234 design considerations, 1999 V2: 308 E
septic tank systems for, 1999 V2: 231–232 regenerable ion exchange, 1999 V2: 301
instructions to bidders, 1998 V1: 64 regeneration cycle, 1999 V2: 302–305
insulation resins, 1999 V2: 301 F
airborne sound, 1998 V1: 197–198 service deionization, 1999 V2: 305
codes and standards, 1998 V1: 59 small drinking water systems, 1999 V2: 318 G
dielectric insulation, 1998 V1: 143 total dissolved solids and, 1999 V2: 288
in geothermal energy systems, 1998 V1: 132 water softening, 1999 V2: 307
hot-water systems, 1998 V1: 127, 1999 V2: 166 ions H
noise insulation, 1999 V2: 15 defined, 1998 V1: 151
pure water systems, 1999 V2: 324 in electromotive force series, 1998 V1: 140 I
roof drainage, 1999 V2: 85 in pH values, 1999 V2: 329
short-circuiting installations, 1998 V1:148 IP units, 1999 V2: 197, 1999 V2: 253, 1999 V2:
thickness and energy conservation, 1998 V1: 256 J
125–127 IPC (International Code Council), 1998 V1: 60
intake sump acoustic problems, 1998 V1: 202 ips, IPS (iron pipe sizes), 1998 V1: 20 K
integral check valves on gas turrets, 1999 V2: 177 IPS (International Pipe Standard), 1998 V1: 20
intensity (luminous), 1998 V1: 41
interceptors, 1998 V1: 34. See also specific kinds of
IPS outlets, 1999 V2: 18
IRI (Industrial Risk Insurers), 1999 V2: 177
L
interceptors iron
intergranular corrosion, 1999 V2: 290 corrosion, 1998 V1: 137 M
interlocking, gas boosters and, 1999 V2: 182 in electromotive force series, 1998 V1: 141
intermediate coats, 1998 V1: 144
intermediate-level sprinklers, 1998 V1: 37
in galvanic series, 1998 V1: 140
removing, 1999 V2: 292
N
intermittent flow in roof drainage, 1999 V2: 88 sludge and, 1999 V2: 289
intermittent sand filters, 1999 V2: 232 in soils, 1999 V2: 219 O
International Association of Plumbing and Mechani- in water, 1999 V2: 244, 1999 V2: 245, 1999 V2:
cal Officials (IAPMO), 1998 V1: 60, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: 283
34, 1999 V2: 214 iron bacteria, 1999 V2: 282 P
International Code Council (IPC), 1998 V1: 60 iron coagulants, 1999 V2: 294
International Conference of Building Officials iron oxide, 1998 V1: 135 Q
(ICBO), 1998 V1: 60, 1998 V1: 185, 1998 V1: iron oxide films, 1998 V1: 142
195 iron piping
International Organization for Standardization corrosion, 1998 V1: 135 R
(ISO), 1998 V1: 198 iron pipe sizes (ips, IPS), 1998 V1: 20
International Pipe Standard (IPS), 1998 V1: 20 irradiation treatment of water, 1999 V2: 245, 1999 S
International Plumbing Code, 1999 V2: 39 V2: 311–312, 1999 V2: 318, 1999 V2: 323,
International System of Units (SI) 1999 V2: 324
conversion factors, 1998 V1: 48 irrigation T
converting, 1998 V1: 47, 1999 V2: 256 gray-water demand, 1999 V2: 26–27
listing, 1998 V1: 40–48 gray-water systems and, 1999 V2: 21, 1999 V2: U
natural gas piping sizing, 1999 V2: 197 22, 1999 V2: 30
non-SI units, 1998 V1: 42 water demand, 1999 V2: 243
prefixes and symbols, 1998 V1: 42 ISO (International Organization for Standardiza- V
style and use, 1998 V1: 42, 1999 V2: 253 tion), 1998 V1: 198
interruption of water service, 1999 V2: 239 isoascorbic acid, 1999 V2: 315 W
invertebrates, 1999 V2: 282 isolating premises with backflow hazards, 1999 V2:
inverted-membrane roofs, 1999 V2: 82 145–147 XYZ
Index 389
isolating valves, 1999 V2: 149 tubing, 1999 V2: 196 A

isolation, vibration welded joints in radioactive waste systems, 1999
dishwasher isolation mounts, 1998 V1: 199 V2: 341
flexibility and, 1998 V1: 205 Joukowsky’s formula, 1999 V2: 132 B
isolation hangers, 1998 V1: 208, 1998 V1: 209 joules, 1998 V1: 41
isolation springs, 1998 V1: 165 joules per kelvin, 1998 V1: 41 C
isolators within hangers, 1998 V1: 167–168 joules per kg per kelvin, 1998 V1: 41
in piping systems, 1998 V1: 207–214 journeyman plumbers, 1998 V1: 34
problems in seismic protection, 1998 V1: 191– JTUs (Jackson turbidity units), 1999 V2: 287 D
193, 1998 V1: 194, 1998 V1: 214
types of vibration control devices, 1998 V1: 208– K E
212
k, K (thermal conductivity), 1998 V1: 22, 1998 V1:
washing machine isolation mounts, 1998 V1:
199–200
41 F
K (conductivity), 1998 V1: 18, 1998 V1: 41
isosceles triangles, calculating area, 1998 V1: 5
isotopes, 1999 V2: 337, 1999 V2: 340
K (dynamic response to ground shaking), 1998 V1:
159, 1998 V1: 162
G
K factor (coefficient of permeability), 1999 V2: 100–
J 101, 1999 V2: 104–105, 1999 V2: 242 H
J (joules), 1998 V1: 41 K (kelvin), 1998 V1: 20, 1998 V1: 42
J/K (joules per kelvin), 1998 V1: 41
J/kg K (joules per kg per kelvin), 1998 V1: 41
k (kilo) prefix, 1998 V1: 42
Kalinske, A.A., 1999 V2: 19
I
Jackson, T., 1999 V2: 65 Kaminsky, G., 1999 V2: 350
Jackson turbidity units (JTUs), 1999 V2: 287 KE (kinetic energy), 1998 V1: 3, 1998 V1: 6 J
Janoschek, R., 1999 V2: 325 kelvin (K), 1998 V1: 20, 1998 V1: 41
Jayawardena, N., 1999 V2: 325
jet pumps, 1999 V2: 241
kerosene, 1999 V2: 13
kg (kilograms). See kilograms
K
jetted wells, 1999 V2: 241 kg/m (kilograms per meter), 1998 V1: 41
job preparation checklists, 1998 V1: 90–91 kg m2 (kilograms per meter squared), 1998 V1: 41 L
jockey pumps, 1998 V1: 32, 1998 V1: 131 kg/m3 (kilograms per meter cubed), 1998 V1: 41
joint compounds, 1999 V2: 223
joints
kg ms (kilogram-meters per second), 1998 V1: 41
kg/s (kilograms per second), 1998 V1: 41
M
acid-waste systems, 1999 V2: 334 kill tanks, 1999 V2: 344–345
bonded joints and cathodic protection, 1998 “kilo” prefix, 1998 V1: 42 N
V1:148 kilocalories, converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 47
caulked joints on floor drains, 1999 V2: 16
chemical-waste systems, 1999 V2: 345–346
kilograms (kg)
O
clay pipe joints, 1999 V2: 223 kilograms per cubic meter, 1998 V1: 41
copper joints, 1999 V2: 222 kilograms per meter, 1998 V1: 41 P
copper rings over joints, 1999 V2: 223 kilograms per meter squared, 1998 V1: 41
earthquake damage to, 1998 V1: 163
earthquake protection and, 1998 V1: 169
kilograms per second, 1998 V1: 41
kilometers (kg)
Q
expansion joints, 1999 V2: 18, 1999 V2: 79, converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 48
1999 V2: 85, 1999 V2: 87, 1999 V2: 251 kilometers per hour, 1998 V1: 42 R
fill and pipe joints, 1999 V2: 15 kilopascals (kPa)
galvanized iron joints, 1999 V2: 222
heat-fused socket joints, 1999 V2: 334
converting meters of head loss to, 1998 V1: 2
vacuum pump ratings, 1999 V2: 257
S
installation man-hour estimates, 1998 V1: 83 vacuum work forces, 1999 V2: 254
joint compounds, 1999 V2: 223 kiloponds, converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 48 T
liquefied petroleum gas and, 1999 V2: 196 kilowatt hours (kWh, KWH), 1998 V1: 20, 1998 V1:
mechanical clay pipe joints, 1999 V2: 223
42
kilowatts (kW, KW), 1998 V1: 20
U
mortar joints on septic tanks, 1999 V2: 228 kinematic viscosity
number of in fittings, 1998 V1: 82 converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 47 V
plastic joints, 1999 V2: 222 measurements, 1998 V1: 41
in plumbing cost estimates, 1998 V1: 81
radioactive waste systems, 1999 V2: 341
water temperature variations, 1999 V2: 121
kinetic energy (KE)
W
screwed mechanical joints, 1999 V2: 334 calculating, 1998 V1: 3
special-waste drainage systems, 1999 V2: 328 velocity head and, 1998 V1: 6 XYZ
kip, KIP (thousand pounds), 1998 V1: 22 Systems with Reduced-size Vents, 1999 V2: A
kip ft, KIP FT (thousand foot-pounds), 1998 V1: 22 65
KIPFT (thousand foot-pounds), 1998 V1: 22 Laboratory Testing on the Noise Emitted by Valves,
kitchens. See food-processing areas and kitchens Fittings, and Appliances Used in Water Supply B
km/h (kilometers per hour), 1998 V1: 42 Installations, 1998 V1: 198
knee space for wheelchairs, 1998 V1: 103 Laboratory Tests on Noise Emission by Appliances C
knockout pots in vacuum systems, 1999 V2: 260 and Equipment Used in Water Supply Installa-
Konen, Thomas K., 1999 V2: 34, 1999 V2: 65 tions, 1998 V1: 198
kPa (kilopascals). See kilopascals laboratory vacuum (LV), 1998 V1: 11 D
Kullen, Howard P., 1998 V1: 152 lagging (pipe wrappings), 1998 V1: 200, 1998 V1:
kW, KW (kilowatts), 1998 V1: 20 206–206, 1999 V2: 68, 1999 V2: 196 E
kWh, KWH (kilowatt hours), 1998 V1: 20, 1998 V1: lagoons, 1999 V2: 232
42 lakes, 1999 V2: 26, 1999 V2: 27
LAL test, 1999 V2: 282 F
L laminar flow in pipes, 1998 V1: 2
L (length). See length
landscaping irrigation. See irrigation G
landslides, 1998 V1: 158
L (liters). See liters
Langelier, W.F., 1999 V2: 291
L-shaped bath seats, 1998 V1: 121
Langelier saturation index (LSI), 1999 V2: 291–292 H
LA (laboratory compressed air), 1998 V1: 10
Laque, F.L., 1998 V1: 152
labeled, defined, 1998 V1: 34
labeling
large buildings I
acid-waste systems, 1999 V2: 336
parts of gray-water systems, 1999 V2: 22, 1999
enlargement of water systems, 1999 V2: 249
V2: 33
fixture drainage loads, 1999 V2: 3 J
piping, labor units to perform, 1998 V1: 84
large private sewage-disposal systems, 1999 V2:
piping system codes and standards, 1998 V1: 59
labor and materials payment bonds, 1998 V1: 64
231–232 K
sovent single-stack plumbing systems, 1999 V2:
labor costs in estimates, 1998 V1: 81
labor units
19
large-drop sprinklers, 1998 V1: 37
L
estimating, 1998 V1: 84
large-scale biohazard facilities, 1999 V2: 343
forms, 1998 V1: 87–89
laboratories
lat, LAT (leaving air temperature), 1998 V1: 20 M
latent heat (LH, LHEAT), 1998 V1: 20, 1998 V1:
acid-waste drainage systems, 1999 V2: 332
acid-waste treatment, 1999 V2: 334–337
133
latent heat gain, 1998 V1: 19
N
continuous acid-waste treatment systems,
lateral and longitudinal sway bracing, 1998 V1:
1999 V2: 338
health and safety concerns, 1999 V2: 332
183–184, 1998 V1: 187–188 O
lateral force
large facilities, 1999 V2: 336
calculating for seismic protection, 1998 V1: 185
piping and joint material, 1999 V2: 334
defined, 1998 V1: 195 P
system design considerations, 1999 V2: 334
problems in seismic protection, 1998 V1: 194
types of acids, 1999 V2: 332–334
fixtures and pipe sizing, 1999 V2: 328
lateral sewers, 1998 V1: 34 Q
lateral stability of suspended equipment, 1998 V1:
gas systems, 1999 V2: 176–177
165
isolating, 1999 V2: 147
laterals in leaching fields, 1999 V2: 221 R
lab animals, 1999 V2: 344
laundry systems and washers
pure water systems for, 1999 V2: 317–325
radioactive isotopes in, 1999 V2: 337
accessibility, 1998 V1: 122 S
acoustic ratings of machines, 1998 V1: 199–200
vacuum systems
clothes washer fixture-unit loads, 1999 V2: 3
codes and standards, 1999 V2: 262
laundry tray fixture-unit loads, 1999 V2: 3 T
leakage, 1999 V2: 265, 1999 V2: 267
laundry tray installation man-hour estimates,
piping, 1999 V2: 262
pump assemblies, 1999 V2: 261
1998 V1: 83 U
natural gas and, 1999 V2: 174
sizing, 1999 V2: 262–266
rates of sewage flows, 1999 V2: 237
water systems
sound damping materials, 1998 V1: 200 V
filtration for, 1999 V2: 300
suds problems, 1999 V2: 37, 1999 V2: 39
laboratory compressed air (LA), 1998 V1: 10
Laboratory Studies of the Hydraulic Performance of
typical gray-water supply and demand, 1999 V2: W
25
One-story and Split-level Residential Plumbing
use of gray water in prerinse, 1999 V2: 22 XYZ
Index 391
waste heat usage, 1998 V1: 128 drinking fountains and water coolers, 1998 V1: A
lavatories. See also sinks and wash basins 106
accessibility, 1998 V1: 113–114 toilet and bathing rooms, 1998 V1: 108
fixture-unit loads, 1999 V2: 3 Legionella pneumophila, 1999 V2: 144, 1999 V2: B
gray-water systems, 1999 V2: 22 169
installation man-hour estimates, 1998 V1: 83 legislation regarding physically challenged C
reduced water usage, 1998 V1: 125 individuals, 1998 V1: 100–101
sovent systems, 1999 V2: 62 legs on tanks
typical gray-water supply, 1999 V2: 25 cast-iron tank legs, 1998 V1: 165 D
typical use, 1999 V2: 25 problems in seismic protection, 1998 V1: 191–
vents, 1999 V2: 37 193, 1998 V1: 194 E
lawn sprinkler supply (LS), 1998 V1: 10 Lehr, Valentine A., 1999 V2: 34
layer-type dezincification, 1998 V1: 138 length (lg, LG, L)
layers of effluent in septic tanks, 1999 V2: 227 conversion factors, 1998 V1: 44 F
layers of fill, 1999 V2: 15 in measurements, 1998 V1: 41
layout planning, labor units for, 1998 V1: 84 of stacks, 1998 V1: 3 G
lb, LBS (pounds). See pounds symbols for, 1998 V1: 20
leaching trenches (leach fields) of vent piping, 1998 V1: 3
choosing absorption systems, 1999 V2: 220 Less-than-full Specifications, 1998 V1: 80 H
construction of, 1999 V2: 222–223 levels in water tanks, 1999 V2: 249
drain fields defined, 1998 V1: 30 levels of radiation, 1999 V2: 339 I
flat areas, 1999 V2: 223–224 Lewis, G.N., 1998 V1: 151
introduction, 1999 V2: 221–224 LF (linear feet), 1998 V1: 20
serial distribution, 1999 V2: 223–224 lg, LG (length). See length J
sloping area trenches, 1999 V2: 224 LH (latent heat), 1998 V1: 20, 1998 V1: 133
leaching wells, 1998 V1: 34. See also dry wells LHEAT (latent heat), 1998 V1: 20, 1998 V1: 133 K
lead LHG (latent heat gain), 1998 V1: 19
corrosion, 1998 V1: 137
life-cycle costs, 1998 V1: 133
lifts of fill, 1999 V2: 15
L
in galvanic series, 1998 V1: 140 light conversion factors, 1998 V1: 44
lead-caulked, cast-iron piping, 1999 V2: 223 light hazard occupancies, 1998 V1: 37 M
lead-lined concrete blocks, 1999 V2: 340 lime-soda method of water softening, 1999 V2: 244,
lead-lined lath for plaster, 1999 V2: 340
lead piping, 1999 V2: 14, 1999 V2: 68, 1999 V2:
1999 V2: 307
limestone chips, 1999 V2: 334
N
122 limiting conditions in seismic protection, 1998 V1:
lead shielding on radioactive drainage systems, 192, 1998 V1: 194 O
1999 V2: 339–340 limulus amoebocyte lysate test, 1999 V2: 282
lead-tin solders, 1998 V1: 140 Lin, S.H., 1999 V2: 325
leaders. See downspouts and leaders; vertical lin ft (linear feet), 1998 V1: 20 P
stacks linear acceleration
leakage detection conversion factors, 1998 V1: 48 Q
chemical wastes, 1999 V2: 345, 1999 V2: 346 measurements, 1998 V1: 41
infectious waste drainage systems, 1999 V2: 344 linear feet (lin ft, LF), 1998 V1: 20
ion exchange systems, 1999 V2: 308 linear velocity measurements, 1998 V1: 41 R
special-waste drainage systems, 1999 V2: 327 lining materials
leakage tests for dug wells, 1999 V2: 240 S
cold-water systems, 1999 V2: 154 for seepage pits, 1999 V2: 225
liquefied petroleum gas systems, 1999 V2: 197 Linstedt, K.C., 1999 V2: 238
private water systems, 1999 V2: 252 liq, LIQ (liquid). See liquids T
vacuum systems, 1999 V2: 265, 1999 V2: 267 liquefaction, 1998 V1: 158
leaking oil into water, 1999 V2: 347–349 liquefied petroleum gas. See also fuel-gas piping U
least mean temperature difference (LMTD), 1998 systems
V1: 20 codes and standards, 1998 V1: 59
least temperature difference (LTD), 1998 V1: 20 defined, 1999 V2: 214 V
leaving air temperature (lat, LAT), 1998 V1: 20 flexible gas hoses, 1999 V2: 196
leaving water temperature (lwt, LWT), 1998 V1: 20 gas boosters, 1999 V2: 178–183 W
leg clearances glossary, 1999 V2: 213–214
introduction, 1999 V2: 194 XYZ
storage, 1999 V2: 194 long runs in vacuum cleaning systems, 1999 V2: A
system materials, 1999 V2: 196 274–275
warnings, 1999 V2: 197 long-term thermal stability for hot-water systems,
liquid oxygen (LOX), 1998 V1: 10 1999 V2: 166 B
liquid ring pumps, 1999 V2: 259, 1999 V2: 260, long-turn tee-wyes, 1999 V2: 4
1999 V2: 262 longitudinal bracing C
liquid waste defined, 1998 V1: 195
decontamination systems, 1999 V2: 344–345 longitudinal and transverse bracing, 1998 V1:
defined, 1998 V1: 34 182 D
liquids (liq, LIQ) longitudinal brace points, 1998 V1: 169
levels in septic tanks, 1999 V2: 228–229 longitudinal-only bracing, 1998 V1: 182 E
symbols for, 1998 V1: 20 seismic protection, 1998 V1: 174
vacuuming, 1999 V2: 266 sway bracing, 1998 V1: 187–188
listed, defined, 1998 V1: 34 longitudinal forces, 1998 V1: 195 F
listing agencies, 1998 V1: 34 Looking to Treat Wastewater? Try Ozone, 1999 V2:
liters 325 G
converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 48 loop systems for fire hydrants, 1999 V2: 249
liters per minute (Lpm), 1999 V2: 253 loop vents, 1998 V1: 39, 1999 V2: 43–44, 1999 V2:
liters per second, 1999 V2: 124, 1999 V2: 126 64 H
non-SI units, 1998 V1: 42 LOV (lubricating oil vents), 1998 V1: 10
live loads on roof, 1999 V2: 79 low-fire input in gas boosters, 1999 V2: 182 I
lm (lumens), 1998 V1: 41 low-flush toilets and water closets
LMTD (least mean temperature difference), 1998 acoustic design, 1998 V1: 200
V1: 20 conserving water in, 1999 V2: 232 J
ln, LN (logarithms, natural), 1998 V1: 20 low-flow water closets, 1999 V2: 19, 1999 V2:
LO (lubricating oil), 1998 V1: 10, 1999 V2: 13 232 K
loading tables ultra-low-flow water closets, 1999 V2: 19
fixture-unit values in drainage systems, 1999 V2:
3
water closets, 1999 V2: 19, 1999 V2: 232
low-level water tank alarms, 1999 V2: 151
L
sovent systems, 1999 V2: 63 low-pressure air test codes and standards, 1998
subsurface piping loads, 1999 V2: 102 V1: 59 M
vertical stacks, 1999 V2: 4 low-pressure condensate (LPC), 1998 V1: 11
loads
computer analysis of loads, 1998 V1: 189
low-pressure gas (G), 1998 V1: 10
low-pressure natural gas systems, 1999 V2: 173–
N
connected loads, defined, 1999 V2: 214 194, 1999 V2: 192, 1999 V2: 194
design considerations in seismic protection, 1998 low-pressure steam (lps, LPS), 1998 V1: 20 O
V1: 191 low-pressure steam supply (LPS), 1998 V1: 11
earth load on water pipes, 1999 V2: 250 low-temperature hot water (lthw, LTHW), 1998 V1:
horizontal loads of piping, 1998 V1: 186 20 P
live loads on roof, 1999 V2: 79 low-water pressure, 1999 V2: 149–152
load factors, defined, 1998 V1: 34 Lowther plate units, 1999 V2: 313 Q
settlement loads, 1998 V1: 189 LOX (liquid oxygen), 1998 V1: 10
sway bracing, 1998 V1: 187–188 LP-gases at Utility Gas Plants, 1999 V2: 214
vertical seismic load, 1998 V1: 189 LPC (low-pressure condensate), 1998 V1: 11 R
vibration control materials, 1998 V1: 208 lpg. See liquefied petroleum gas
local application systems (halon), 1998 V1: 33 Lpm (liters per minute), 1999 V2: 253 S
local authorities, 1999 V2: 68, 1999 V2: 327 lps, LPS (low-pressure steam), 1998 V1: 20
local barometric pressure in vacuums, 1999 V2: LPS (low-pressure steam supply), 1998 V1: 11
254 LS (lawn sprinkler supply), 1998 V1: 10 T
local rainfall rate tables, 1999 V2: 69–78 LSI (Langelier saturation index), 1999 V2: 291–292
localized corrosion, 1999 V2: 289–290 LTD (least temperature difference), 1998 V1: 20 U
location of piping, earthquake protection and, 1998 lthw, LTHW (low-temperature hot water), 1998 V1:
V1: 169 20
Loevenguth, 1998 V1: 195 lubricating oil (LO), 1998 V1: 10, 1999 V2: 13 V
log, LOG (logarithm to base 10), 1998 V1: 20 lubricating oil vents (LOV), 1998 V1: 10
logarithms lumens, 1998 V1: 41 W
logarithm to base 10 (log, LOG), 1998 V1: 20 luminance measurements, 1998 V1: 41
natural (ln, LN), 1998 V1: 20 luminous flux, 1998 V1: 41 XYZ
Index 393
luminous measurements, 1998 V1: 41 examples, 1998 V1: 82 A

lump copper sulfate, 1999 V2: 223 installation estimates, 1998 V1: 83
lux, 1998 V1: 41 trenching, 1998 V1: 85
LV (laboratory vacuum), 1998 V1: 11 Management of Small Waste Flows, 1999 V2: 34 B
LWDS (liquid-waste decontamination systems), Manas, Vincent T., 1999 V2: 65, 1999 V2: 114,
1999 V2: 344–345 1999 V2: 155 C
LWT (leaving water temperature), 1998 V1: 20 manganese, 1999 V2: 245, 1999 V2: 292
lx (lux), 1998 V1: 41 manholes
acid-waste systems, 1999 V2: 334, 1999 V2: 335 D
M chemical-waste systems, 1999 V2: 346
M alkalinity, 1999 V2: 282
septic tanks, 1999 V2: 228, 1999 V2: 229 E
storm-drainage systems, 1999 V2: 98, 1999 V2:
M (mega) prefix, 1998 V1: 42
99
m (meters). See meters (measurements)
Manning formula F
m (milli) prefix, 1998 V1: 42
alternative sewage-disposal systems, 1999 V2:
m/s (meters per second), 1998 V1: 41
m/s2 (meters per second squared), 1998 V1: 41
226 G
open-channel flow, 1998 V1: 1, 1999 V2: 7, 1999
m2 (meters squared), 1998 V1: 41
V2: 8
m2/s (meters squared per second), 1998 V1: 41
runoff and, 1999 V2: 97 H
m3, 1998 V1: 41
site drainage and, 1999 V2: 98
m3/kg, 1998 V1: 41
m3/s, 1998 V1: 41
sloping drains, 1999 V2: 8 I
storm-drainage pipes, 1999 V2: 88
MA (medical compressed air), 1998 V1: 10
subsurface drainage rates, 1999 V2: 105
Mach numbers (Mach, MACH), 1998 V1: 20
Manual of Practice, 1998 V1: 79 J
MacHatton, J.G., 1999 V2: 238
Division 1 in specifications, 1998 V1: 67
magnesium
introduction, 1998 V1: 63 K
MASTERFORMAT organization, 1998 V1: 66
in galvanic series, 1998 V1: 140
section shell outline, 1998 V1: 75–79
Manual of Septic Tank Practice, 1999 V2: 237, 1999
L
lifespan of anodes, 1998 V1: 147
V2: 238
sacrificial anodes, 1998 V1: 144
in water, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: 283
Manual on the Design and Construction of Sanitary M
and Storm Sewers, 1999 V2: 95, 1999 V2:
zeolite process and, 1999 V2: 244
magnesium alloys, 1998 V1: 140
114
manual trap primers, 1999 V2: 10, 1999 V2: 14
N
magnesium bicarbonate, 1999 V2: 283
Manufacturers Standardization Society of the Valve
magnesium carbonate, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2:
283, 1999 V2: 290
and Fittings Industry, Inc. (MSS), 1998 V1: O
34, 1998 V1: 60
magnesium chloride, 1999 V2: 283
maps
magnesium hydroxide, 1999 V2: 281
seismic risk maps, 1998 V1: 155, 1998 V1: 156, P
magnesium sulfate, 1999 V2: 281
1998 V1: 157
magnetic field pulsation, 1998 V1: 201
magnetic field strength measurements, 1998 V1: 41
soils, 1999 V2: 218 Q
margins in CSI format, 1998 V1: 66
magnetic flux density, 1998 V1: 41
marinas, 1999 V2: 147
magnetic flux measurements, 1998 V1: 41
Mark, 1998 V1: 1, 1998 V1: 3, 1998 V1: 6 R
magnetism, conversion factors, 1998 V1: 43
markets, sanitation in, 1999 V2: 16
main vents, 1998 V1: 34
mains
markings, corrosion and, 1998 V1: 143 S
Marks, Lionel S., 1998 V1: 49
mass
pipe, 1998 V1: 15
conversion factors, 1998 V1: 44 T
maintenance bonds, 1998 V1: 64
mass law in acoustics, 1998 V1: 197
maintenance hot-water temperatures, 1999 V2: 166
makeup, defined, 1998 V1: 133
mass per unit area measurements, 1998 V1: 41 U
mass per unit length measurements, 1998 V1:
mall (malleable), 1998 V1: 34
41
malleable
in measurements, 1998 V1: 41 V
non-SI units, 1998 V1: 42
iron fittings, 1999 V2: 196
malls, 1999 V2: 25
mass flow, 1999 V2: 255 W
mass flow rates (mfr, MFR)
man-hours
measurements, 1998 V1: 41 XYZ
backfilling, 1998 V1: 86
symbols for, 1998 V1: 20 mechanical rooms, earthquake protection, 1998 V1: A
Massey, Howard C., 1998 V1: 79 168
massive soil structure, 1999 V2: 218 mechanical rotary-type vacuum pumps, 1999 V2:
master plumbers, 1998 V1: 34 259 B
master specifications, 1998 V1: 67–68 mechanically-dispersed oil, 1999 V2: 347
MASTERFORMAT, 1998 V1: 79 Meckler, Milton, 1998 V1: 49 C
categories, 1998 V1: 71–74 medical cabinets, 1998 V1: 109
organization, 1998 V1: 66 medical compressed air (MA), 1998 V1: 10
plumbing work section titles, 1998 V1: 74 medical gas piping earthquake bracing, 1998 V1: D
MASTERFORMAT Numbers are for More than Specs, 168
1998 V1: 80 medical vacuum (MV), 1998 V1: 11 E
MASTERSPEC, 1998 V1: 68 medical waste systems. See infectious and biologi-
materials. See specific materials or system fixtures cal waste systems
maximum (max., MAX), 1998 V1: 20 medium-pressure condensate (MPC), 1998 V1: 11 F
maximum capacity rating (MCR), 1999 V2: 182 medium-pressure gas (MG), 1998 V1: 10
maximum design flow, 1999 V2: 182 medium-pressure natural gas systems, 1999 V2: G
maximum discharge rates, 1998 V1: 6 173–194
maximum outlet pressure in gas boosters, 1999 V2: medium-pressure steam (mps, MPS), 1998 V1: 20
183 medium-pressure steam supply (MPS), 1998 V1: 11 H
maximum resistance values, 1999 V2: 286 medium-temperature hot water (mthw, MTHW),
Maybeck, Edward M., 1998 V1: 79 1998 V1: 20 I
mbars (millibars), 1999 V2: 254 medium vacuum, 1999 V2: 254
mc (millicuries), 1999 V2: 339 “mega” prefix, 1998 V1: 42
McClelland, Nina I., 1999 V2: 238 megaohm-cm, 1999 V2: 285 J
Mcf, MCF (thousand cubic feet), 1998 V1: 22 Meier, Hans W., 1998 V1: 80
Mcm, MCM (thousand circular mils), 1998 V1: 22 membrane filtration K
MCR (maximum capacity rating), 1999 V2: 182 cross-flow filters, 1999 V2: 300, 1999 V2: 310–
McSweeney, D.P., 1999 V2: 277
mean effective temperatures (MET), 1998 V1: 20
311
gray-water systems, 1999 V2: 27
L
mean temperature difference (MTD), 1998 V1: 20 membrane flux, 1999 V2: 309
measurement units membrane productivity, 1999 V2: 321 M
earthquake measurement, 1998 V1: 159–162 membrane selection in reverse osmosis, 1999 V2:
flow rates, 1999 V2: 255–256
International System of Units, 1998 V1: 40–48
310, 1999 V2: 311
overview, 1999 V2: 308–311
N
labor units, 1998 V1: 84 pure water systems, 1999 V2: 321
microorganisms, 1999 V2: 282 reverse osmosis, 1999 V2: 308–309 O
non-SI units, 1998 V1: 42 tangential-flow filters, 1999 V2: 300
radiation, 1999 V2: 338–339 total dissolved solids and, 1999 V2: 288
types of conversions, 1998 V1: 40 membrane flux, 1999 V2: 309 P
units and symbols, 1998 V1: 41 membrane productivity, 1999 V2: 321
usage of, 1999 V2: 253 Membrane Technologies in the Power Industry, 1999 Q
vacuum pressure, 1999 V2: 254–256 V2: 325
water impurities, 1999 V2: 285 membranes in waterproofing, 1999 V2: 17
Measuring Water Purity by Specific Resistance, 1999 mercury (Hg, HG), 1998 V1: 20 R
V2: 325 mercury vapor lamps, 1999 V2: 312
mechanical aerators, 1999 V2: 293, 1999 V2: 294 Mermel, H., 1999 V2: 350 S
mechanical areas Meslar, H.W., 1999 V2: 350
grates and strainers, 1999 V2: 10 MET (mean effective temperatures), 1998 V1: 20
sediment buckets, 1999 V2: 12 metal flashing on roof drains, 1999 V2: 79 T
trap primers in drains, 1999 V2: 13 metal-plating plants, 1999 V2: 147
mechanical clay pipe joints, 1999 V2: 223 metals. See also specific metals U
mechanical cross-connection protection devices, corrosion losses, 1998 V1: 137
1999 V2: 144 galvanic series table, 1998 V1: 140
Mechanical Engineering Reference Manual, 1999 V2: metallic coatings, 1998 V1: 144 V
214 metallic piping, 1998 V1: 84
mechanical joints, earthquake protection and, 1998 Metcalf, 1999 V2: 238 W
V1: 169 meter set assemblies, 1999 V2: 214
meters (measurements) XYZ
Index 395
meters, 1998 V1: 41 millirems (mrem), 1999 V2: 339 A

meters of head, 1998 V1: 2 min., MIN (minimum), 1998 V1: 20
meters per second, 1998 V1: 41 min (minutes), 1998 V1: 42
meters per second squared, 1998 V1: 41 mineral salts, 1999 V2: 288, 1999 V2: 290 B
meters squared, 1998 V1: 41 mineral solids, 1999 V2: 289
meters squared per second, 1998 V1: 41 mineral wool, 1998 V1: 198 C
meters (water), 1999 V2: 115–116, 1999 V2: 117, minimum (min., MIN), 1998 V1: 20
1999 V2: 123, 1999 V2: 127, 1999 V2: 233 minimum design flow, 1999 V2: 182
methane. See fuel-gas piping systems minimum inlet pressure in gas boosters, 1999 V2: D
Methods of Estimating Loads in Plumbing Systems, 182
1999 V2: 155 minor backflow hazard, 1999 V2: 145, 1999 V2: E
methyl orange alkalinity, 1999 V2: 282 146
Metric Conversion Act, 1998 V1: 40 minutes, 1998 V1: 42
metric tons, 1998 V1: 42 mirrors, 1998 V1: 108, 1998 V1: 109 F
metric units. See International System of Units misaligned wells, pumps for, 1999 V2: 245
Meyers, Vance A., 1999 V2: 114 misinterpretation of specifications, 1998 V1: 67 G
Meyrick, C.E., 1999 V2: 325 Missing Link, 1998 V1: 80
mfr, MFR (mass flow rates), 1998 V1: 20, 1998 V1: mist eliminators, 1999 V2: 295
41 MIUS Technology Evaluation: Collection, Treatment H
mg/L (milligrams per liter), 1999 V2: 285 and Disposal of Liquid Wastes, 1999 V2: 238
MG (medium-pressure gas), 1998 V1: 10 mixed-bed deionization (single-step), 1999 V2: 302, I
mho (specific conductivity), 1999 V2: 287 1999 V2: 303, 1999 V2: 304, 1999 V2: 305
“micro” prefix, 1998 V1: 42 mixing flows of water
microbial growth and control. See also bacteria; conserving energy, 1998 V1: 124 J
microorganisms; viruses in feed water mixed-water temperatures, 1999 V2: 159–160
cooling towers, 1999 V2: 316 moderate backflow hazard, 1999 V2: 145, 1999 V2: K
drinking water, 1999 V2: 316–317, 1999 V2: 318 146
feed water, 1999 V2: 321
pure water systems, 1999 V2: 323
Modern Vacuum Practice, 1999 V2: 277
modified header systems, 1999 V2: 127
L
utility water, 1999 V2: 314 modular iron piping, 1999 V2: 196
water softeners, 1999 V2: 307, 1999 V2: 308 Moffat, R., 1999 V2: 277 M
water treatments, 1999 V2: 311–313 mole (mol), 1998 V1: 41
microbiological fouling of water, 1999 V2: 289,
1999 V2: 316
molecular weights of elements, 1999 V2: 281
moments of inertia
N
microbiological laboratories, 1999 V2: 343. See also conversion factors, 1998 V1: 44
laboratories measurements, 1998 V1: 41 O
micromhos, 1999 V2: 287 momentum measurements, 1998 V1: 41
microns monel, 1998 V1: 140, 1998 V1: 141
converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 48 mop sinks, 1999 V2: 25 P
vacuum units, 1999 V2: 254 morgues and mortuaries, 1999 V2: 16, 1999 V2:
microorganisms. See also bacteria; microbial growth 147 Q
and control; viruses in feed water Moritz, A.R., 1999 V2: 169, 1999 V2: 170
infectious waste drainage systems, 1999 V2: 343 mortar joints on septic tanks, 1999 V2: 228
pure water systems, 1999 V2: 323 motels R
water analysis of, 1999 V2: 282 acoustic plumbing design, 1998 V1: 201
water treatments, 1999 V2: 311–313, 1999 V2: septic tanks, 1999 V2: 231–232 S
318 motion in earthquakes, 1998 V1: 159
miles motor-operated filter bag shakers, 1999 V2: 268
converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 48 motor-operated valves, 1998 V1: 12 T
miles per hour (mph, MPH), 1998 V1: 20 motors
Millepore filters, 1999 V2: 288–289 earthquake protection, 1998 V1: 165 U
“milli” prefix, 1998 V1: 42 fan acoustic problems, 1998 V1: 202
millibars (mbar) motor journals, 1998 V1: 201
converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 48 in pumps, 1998 V1: 201 V
vacuum units, 1999 V2: 254 rotor acoustic modifications, 1998 V1: 202
millicuries (mc), 1999 V2: 339 mound soil-absorption systems, 1999 V2: 220, W
milligrams per liter (mg/L), 1999 V2: 285 1999 V2: 226
millimeters, converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 48 MPC (medium-pressure condensate), 1998 V1: 11 XYZ
mph, MPH (miles per hour), 1998 V1: 20 NAPHCC (National Association of Plumbing-Heat- A
mps, MPS (medium-pressure steam), 1998 V1: 20 ing-Cooling Contractors), 1998 V1: 81, 1999
MPS (medium-pressure steam supply), 1998 V1: 11 V2: 65
mrem (millerems), 1999 V2: 339 naphtha, 1999 V2: 13 B
MSS (Manufacturers Standardization Society of the National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE),
Valve and Fittings Industry, Inc.), 1998 V1: 1998 V1: 148, 1998 V1: 152 C
34, 1998 V1: 60 National Association of Home Builders Research
MTD (mean temperature difference), 1998 V1: 20 Foundation, 1999 V2: 65
mthw, MTHW (medium-temperature hot water), National Association of Plumbing-Heating-Cooling D
1998 V1: 20 Contractors (NAPHCC), 1998 V1: 81, 1999
MU (viscosity), 1998 V1: 2, 1998 V1: 23, 1998 V1: V2: 65 E
41 National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel
muds in feed water, 1999 V2: 289 Inspectors (NBBPVI), 1999 V2: 166
multi-effect distillation, 1999 V2: 298, 1999 V2: National Bureau of Standards F
299 electromotive force series, 1998 V1: 151
multi-graded sand filtration, 1999 V2: 298 publications, 1999 V2: 19, 1999 V2: 65, 1999 G
multimedia filtration, 1999 V2: 298, 1999 V2: 300, V2: 155
1999 V2: 322–323 reduced-size venting, 1999 V2: 49
multiple. See also entries beginning with double-, stack capacities study, 1999 V2: 4 H
multiple-, or two- National Coarse of US Thread, 1998 V1: 24
multiple-compartment septic tanks, 1999 V2: 229 National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Stan- I
multiple-degree-of-freedom systems, 1998 V1: 161 dards, Inc. (NCCLS), 1999 V2: 279, 1999 V2:
multiple gas-train vents, 1999 V2: 177 317, 1999 V2: 319
multiple pressure-regulated valve installation, 1999 National Easter Seal Society, 1998 V1: 99 J
V2: 153 National Electrical Code (NEC), 1999 V2: 170
multiple-tray waterfall aerators, 1999 V2: 293 National Fire Protection Association, Inc., 1998 V1: K
multiplication in SI units, 1998 V1: 42 34
multistage pressure breakdown systems for pump
plants, 1998 V1: 202
address, 1998 V1: 60
fire hydrants, 1999 V2: 249
L
multistory buildings. See large buildings firefighting water tanks, 1999 V2: 247
mureatic acid, 1999 V2: 305, 1999 V2: 333 fuel-gas pipe sizing, 1999 V2: 184 M
mussels, 1999 V2: 282 gas storage standards, 1999 V2: 194
MV (medical vacuum), 1998 V1: 11 hot-water system standards, 1999 V2: 170
publications, 1998 V1: 49, 1998 V1: 195, 1999
N
N V2: 214
n c, N C (normally closed), 1998 V1: 20
sprinkler piping, 1998 V1: 186 O
National Fuel Gas Code (NFPA 54), 1999 V2: 177,
n i c, N I C (not in contract), 1998 V1: 20
1999 V2: 183, 1999 V2: 184, 1999 V2: 194,
N m (newton-meters), 1998 V1: 41
1999 V2: 214 P
n (nano) prefix, 1998 V1: 42
National Ground Water Association (NGWA), 1999
N (newtons), 1998 V1: 41
N (nitrogen), 1998 V1: 11, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2:
V2: 252 Q
National Institute of Building Services (NIBS), 1998
284
V1: 80
N (numbers), 1998 V1: 20
National Institutes of Health, 1999 V2: 262, 1999 R
n o, N O (normally open), 1998 V1: 20
V2: 343
N2O (nitrous oxide), 1998 V1: 11
na, N/A (not applicable), 1998 V1: 20
National Insulation Contractors’ Association (NICA), S
1998 V1: 125
NACE Basic Corrosion Course, 1998 V1: 152
National Plumbing Code, 1999 V2: 65, 1999 V2:
NACE (National Association of Corrosion Engineers),
114, 1999 V2: 155 T
1998 V1: 148, 1998 V1: 152
National Sanitation Foundation (NSF), 1998 V1: 60,
NACE Standard RP-01, 1998 V1: 148
nails, protecting against, 1999 V2: 19
1999 V2: 22, 1999 V2: 170, 1999 V2: 232 U
National Sanitation Foundation Testing Laboratory
Nalco Chemical Co., 1999 V2: 325
(NSFTL), 1998 V1: 34
Nalco Water Handbook, 1999 V2: 325
National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE), V
“nano” prefix, 1998 V1: 42
1998 V1: 64
nanofilter membranes, 1999 V2: 284, 1999 V2:
300, 1999 V2: 308–311, 1999 V2: 310
National Standard Plumbing Code, 1999 V2: 37, W
1999 V2: 65
natural drainage (corrosion), 1998 V1: 151 XYZ
Index 397
natural frequency of vibration control materials, net positive suction head (NPSH), 1998 V1: 204, A
1998 V1: 208 1998 V1: 215, 1999 V2: 247
natural gas. See fuel-gas piping systems; natural neutralizing acid in waste water, 1999 V2: 332,
gas systems 1999 V2: 333, 1999 V2: 334–337 B
natural gas systems neutrons, 1999 V2: 337
appliances, 1999 V2: 175, 1999 V2: 177–178 newton-meters, 1998 V1: 41 C
bottled gas, 1999 V2: 174 newtons, 1998 V1: 41
design considerations, 1999 V2: 173–176 NF nomographs, 1999 V2: 317
gas boosters, 1999 V2: 178–183 NFPA. See National Fire Protection Association D
gas train vents, 1999 V2: 177 NFPA 13: Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler
glossary, 1999 V2: 213–214 Systems, 1998 V1: 186, 1998 V1: 195 E
high-rise buildings and, 1999 V2: 180 NFPA 54: National Fuel Gas Code, 1999 V2: 177,
laboratory gas systems, 1999 V2: 176–177 1999 V2: 184, 1999 V2: 194
low and medium pressure systems, 1999 V2: NFPA 99: Health Care Facilities, 1999 V2: 262 F
173–194 NFPA 170, 1998 V1: 49
pipe sizing, 1999 V2: 183–194 NFPA formulas in natural gas systems, 1999 V2: G
pressure drops and sizing, 1999 V2: 192, 1999 186, 1999 V2: 187, 1999 V2: 188, 1999 V2:
V2: 193 189
sizing by NFPA formula, 1999 V2: 186, 1999 V2: NGWA (National Ground Water Association), 1999 H
187, 1999 V2: 188, 1999 V2: 189 V2: 252
sizing by Spitzglass formula, 1999 V2: 183, 1999 ni-resist cast iron, 1998 V1: 141 I
V2: 210–211 ni-resist ions, 1998 V1: 140
sizing by Weymouth formula, 1999 V2: 183, NIBS (National Institute of Building Sciences), 1998
1999 V2: 190, 1999 V2: 191, 1999 V2: V1: 80 J
198, 1999 V2: 209 NICA (National Insulation Contractors’ Association),
natural gas water heaters 1998 V1: 125 K
conserving energy, 1998 V1: 123 nickel
net efficiency of, 1998 V1: 131
natural logarithms, 1998 V1: 20
electromotive force series, 1998 V1: 141
L
natural osmosis, 1999 V2: 308 galvanic series, 1998 V1: 140
natural period of vibration, 1998 V1: 160 nickel-bronze grates, 1999 V2: 15, 1999 V2: 16 M
natural water. See feed water nippled-up sprinklers, 1998 V1: 16
naturally-vented, multiple tray aerators, 1999 V2:
293
nitrates, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: 283
nitric acid, 1999 V2: 333
N
naval rolled brass, 1998 V1: 141 nitrifying bacteria, 1999 V2: 282
NBBPVI (National Board of Boiler and Pressure nitrogen gas blankets in water tanks, 1999 V2: 324 O
Vessel Inspectors), 1999 V2: 166 nitrogen (N), 1998 V1: 11, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2:
NBS (National Bureau of Standards). See National 284
Bureau of Standards nitrous fumes, 1999 V2: 333 P
NC (noise criteria), 1998 V1: 20, 1998 V1: 215 nitrous oxide (N2O), 1998 V1: 11
NC (number of circuits), 1998 V1: 20 no., NO (numbers), 1998 V1: 20 Q
NCCLS (National Committee for Clinical Laboratory no-flow pressure in pressure-regulated valves, 1999
Standards, Inc.), 1999 V2: 279, 1999 V2: V2: 152
317, 1999 V2: 319 no-hub joints, earthquake protection and, 1998 V1: R
NEC (National Electrical Code), 1999 V2: 170 169
negative gauge pressure, 1999 V2: 254 no-hub outlets, 1999 V2: 18 S
negative pressure. See vacuum no-man zones around building footers, 1999 V2:
NEMA 4 listing, 1999 V2: 179 103
NEMA 4X listing, 1999 V2: 166 NOAA, National Weather Service 5-60 Minute Precipi- T
NEMA 12 listing, 1999 V2: 179 tation Frequency for the Eastern and Central
NEMA Class 1, Division 1, Group D listing, 1999 United States, 1999 V2: 114 U
V2: 179 noble potential, defined, 1998 V1: 152
neoprene floor and hanger mounts, 1998 V1: 209, noise. See acoustics in plumbing systems
1998 V1: 212 noise criteria (NC), 1998 V1: 20, 1998 V1: 215 V
neoprene seal plugs in cleanouts, 1999 V2: 9 noise criteria (NC) curves, 1998 V1: 215. See also
nephelometric test, 1999 V2: 287 preferred noise criteria (PNC) curves W
nephelometric turbidity units (NTUs), 1999 V2: 287 nominal diameter (DN), 1999 V2: 253
nominal pipe size (NPS), 1999 V2: 253 XYZ
nominal values, 1998 V1: 40 numerals in measurements, 1998 V1: 40 A

nomographs, 1999 V2: 31–32 Nussbaum, O.J., 1999 V2: 325
non-agreement states, 1999 V2: 340
non-ambulatory disabilities, 1998 V1: 101 O
B
non-circular grab bars, 1998 V1: 119
non-circulating water systems, 1998 V1: 127–128
oa, OA (outside air), 1998 V1: 21
obstructions to wheelchairs, 1998 V1: 105, 1998
C
non-continuous joints, 1998 V1:148
V1: 106
non-depletable energy sources, 1998 V1: 133
non-electrolytes, 1999 V2: 280
occupancy classification (sprinkler systems), 1998 D
V1: 37
non-ferrous pipes and fittings, 1998 V1: 52–53
non-metallic coatings, 1998 V1: 144
Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA), 1998 V1: 60, 1999 V2: 333
E
non-metallic pipe, 1998 V1: 52–55
occupied domestic spaces, acoustic plumbing
non-oxidizing chemicals in microbial control, 1999
V2: 311
design for, 1998 V1: 201 F
ocean water, irrigation systems and, 1999 V2: 26
non-oxidizing piping, 1999 V2: 341
non-porous piping, 1999 V2: 341
octave-band sound levels, 1998 V1: 198
octaves, 1998 V1: 216
G
non-potable water systems. See gray-water systems
OD (outside diameters), 1998 V1: 18
non-pumping wells, 1999 V2: 241–243
non-puncturing membrane flashing, 1999 V2: 17
odor control in drinking water, 1999 V2: 245, 1999 H
V2: 316
non-reactive silica, 1999 V2: 283
non-rigid couplings, 1998 V1: 189
off-peak power, 1998 V1: 131
Office of Statewide Health Planning and Develop-
I
non-SI units, 1998 V1: 42
ment (OSHPD), 1998 V1: 195
non-sprinklered spaces, 1998 V1: 15
Non-structural Damage to Buildings, 1998 V1: 195
offset stacks J
non-tilting grates, 1999 V2: 11
Nondiscrimination on the Basis of Disability by Public
sizing, 1999 V2: 5, 1999 V2: 6
venting, 1999 V2: 44–45
K
Accommodations and in Commercial Facilities,
offsets, defined, 1998 V1: 34
1998 V1: 101
normally closed (n c, N C), 1998 V1: 20
offshore facilities, 1998 V1: 147 L
ohm-meters, 1998 V1: 41
normally open (n o, N O), 1998 V1: 20
nose pieces in deaerators, 1999 V2: 56
ohms, 1998 V1: 41
Ohm’s Law, 1998 V1: 140
M
not applicable (na, N/A), 1998 V1: 20
OHMS (resistance or resistors), 1998 V1: 21
not in contract (n i c, N I C), 1998 V1: 20
not to scale (NTS), 1998 V1: 20
oil N
as seal liquid in liquid ring pumps, 1999 V2: 260
nozzles, 1998 V1: 37
NPS (nominal pipe size), 1999 V2: 253
intercepting in acid-waste systems, 1999 V2: 336
intercepting in sanitary drainage systems, 1999
O
NPSH (net positive suction head), 1998 V1: 204,
V2: 12–13
1998 V1: 215, 1999 V2: 247
NRC (Nuclear Regulatory Commission), 1999 V2:
spills and containment, 1999 V2: 347–349 P
storm-drainage systems and, 1999 V2: 67
339, 1999 V2: 340
NSF (National Sanitation Foundation), 1998 V1: 34,
vegetable oil, 1999 V2: 10
oil draw-off pipes, 1999 V2: 13
Q
1998 V1: 60, 1999 V2: 22, 1999 V2: 170,
oil interceptors, 1999 V2: 12–13, 1999 V2: 349
1999 V2: 232
NSPE (National Society of Professional Engineers),
oil-mist filters in vacuums, 1999 V2: 260 R
oil-wet solids, 1999 V2: 347
1998 V1: 64
NT (number of tubes), 1998 V1: 20
oilless pumps, 1999 V2: 259, 1999 V2: 262
oleums, 1999 V2: 332, 1999 V2: 333
S
NTS (not to scale), 1998 V1: 20
on-site facility treatment systems. See special-waste
NTUs (nephelometric turbidity units), 1999 V2: 287
nuclear power plants
drainage systems T
on-site storm-water detention systems, 1999 V2:
nuclear reactors, 1999 V2: 147
regulatory requirements, 1999 V2: 337
105–107
On Site Waste-water Facilities for Small Communities
U
seismic protection, 1998 V1: 156
and Subdivisions, 1999 V2: 238
Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 1999 V2: 339,
1999 V2: 340
on-site water reclamation. See gray-water systems V
one-pipe, heat-trace systems, 1999 V2: 165
number of circuits (NC), 1998 V1: 20
number of tubes (NT), 1998 V1: 20
one-pipe systems (Philadelphia systems), 1999 V2:
46, 1999 V2: 47, 1999 V2: 48
W
numbering in CSI format, 1998 V1: 66
open-channel flow, 1998 V1: 1, 1999 V2: 7
numbers (no., NO, N), 1998 V1: 20 XYZ
open-circuit potential, defined, 1998 V1: 152
Index 399
open-joint piping, 1999 V2: 102 overturning, preventing, 1998 V1: 164, 1998 V1: A
open spring floor and hanger mounts, 1998 V1: 194
209, 1998 V1: 210 overvoltage, defined, 1998 V1: 152
open sprinklers, 1998 V1: 37 OX (oxygen). See oxygen B
open-type base pumps, 1999 V2: 243 oxidation, defined, 1998 V1: 152
open-web steel joists in pipe bracing, 1998 V1: 178 oxidized sewage, 1998 V1: 34 C
openings for tool access, 1999 V2: 9. See also oxidizing chemicals in microbial control, 1999 V2:
cleanouts 311
operating hot-water temperatures, 1999 V2: 166 oxygen concentration cells, 1998 V1: 152 D
operators of vacuum systems, 1999 V2: 269 Oxygen-fuel Gas Systems for Weldings and Cuttings,
orbital welding process, 1999 V2: 341 1999 V2: 214 E
ordinary hazard occupancies, 1998 V1: 37 oxygen (OX)
ordinary lobe pumps, 1999 V2: 259 corrosion process, 1999 V2: 284
organic free water, 1999 V2: 317 oxygen content in rate of corrosion, 1998 V1: 142 F
organic polyelectrolytes, 1999 V2: 294 oxygen depletion and gas appliances, 1999 V2:
organisms in water, 1999 V2: 282. See also micro- 178 G
organisms oxygenation of drinking water, 1999 V2: 245
orifices on stationary meters, 1998 V1: 13 removing, 1999 V2: 294
ornamental sprinklers, 1998 V1: 37 saturation with, 1999 V2: 292–294 H
orthotolidin tests, 1999 V2: 154 symbols for, 1998 V1: 10
oscillation in pumps, 1998 V1: 206 in water, 1999 V2: 281 I
OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administra- oxygen scavengers, 1999 V2: 314, 1999 V2: 315
tion), 1998 V1: 60, 1999 V2: 333 oz, OZ (ounces), 1998 V1: 20, 1998 V1: 48
OSHPD (Office of Statewide Health Planning and ozonation J
Development), 1998 V1: 195 cooling tower water, 1999 V2: 316
osmosis, defined, 1999 V2: 308 pure water systems, 1999 V2: 323 K
osmotic pressure, 1999 V2: 308 small drinking water systems, 1999 V2: 318
Otis, Richard J., 1999 V2: 238
OTO pumps, 1999 V2: 259
water treatments, 1999 V2: 245, 1999 V2: 312–
313
L
Otten, Gerald, 1999 V2: 325 ozone generators, 1999 V2: 313
Otto plate units, 1999 V2: 313 M
ounces (oz, OZ) P
P alkalinity, 1999 V2: 282 N
P (peta) prefix, 1998 V1: 42
outdoor gas booster installation, 1999 V2: 180
outdoor gas hose connectors, 1999 V2: 196
p (pico) prefix, 1998 V1: 42
P (pressure). See pressure
O
outfall sewers, 1998 V1: 34
p-traps
outlets. See also inlets
flow at outlet, 1998 V1: 3
floor drains with, 1998 V1: 14 P
storm drainage systems, 1999 V2: 84
flow rates at outlets, 1998 V1: 6
gas boosters, 1999 V2: 179, 1999 V2: 183
Pa (pascals), 1998 V1: 41
PA (pipe anchors), 1998 V1: 12
Q
pressure in cold-water systems, 1999 V2: 153
Pa s (pascal-seconds), 1998 V1: 41
septic tanks, 1999 V2: 228
packed-bed, activated-carbon filters, 1999 V2: 300, R
1999 V2: 301
velocity of flow from outlets, 1998 V1: 7
outside air (oa, OA), 1998 V1: 21
packed tower aeration, 1999 V2: 318
packing material
S
outside diameters (OD), 1998 V1: 18
in seepage beds, 1999 V2: 224
outside film coefficients, 1998 V1: 19
overall system thermal efficiency, 1998 V1: 133
sound damping, 1998 V1: 200 T
in vacuum deaerators, 1999 V2: 295
overflow storm drains. See secondary storm-
drainage systems
padding for vibration control, 1998 V1: 208, 1998
V1: 210
U
overhead in cost estimates, 1998 V1: 82
page formatting in CSI format, 1998 V1: 66
overhead piping, man-hour estimates, 1998 V1: 84
overheating vacuum exhausters, 1999 V2: 268–269
pain, thresholds of, 1999 V2: 169 V
paints in septic tanks, 1999 V2: 230
overland flow times for sites, 1999 V2: 96, 1999 V2:
97, 1999 V2: 98, 1999 V2: 111
panels, lining with lead, 1999 V2: 340
paper towel clogs, 1999 V2: 11, 1999 V2: 231
W
overlap in toilet accessibility, 1998 V1: 109
paraffin, 1999 V2: 13
paragraph numbering in CSI format, 1998 V1: 66 XYZ
parallel approaches for wheelchairs, 1998 V1: 104, petroleum-processing plants, 1999 V2: 147 A
1998 V1: 107 PG (pressure gauges with gauge cocks), 1998 V1:
parallel installation of pressure-regulated valves, 13
1999 V2: 153 pH B
parallel-shaft gears, 1998 V1: 201 acid wastes, 1999 V2: 334–337
parapet wall scuppers, 1999 V2: 79, 1999 V2: 82 adjustments to waste, 1999 V2: 328 C
Parekh, B.S., 1999 V2: 325 alkalinity and, 1999 V2: 283
partially-sprinklered spaces, 1998 V1: 15 boiler feed water, 1999 V2: 314
particulate radiation, 1999 V2: 339 in corrosion rates, 1998 V1: 141 D
particulate silica, 1999 V2: 283 defined, 1998 V1: 152
particulates in water, 1999 V2: 282, 1999 V2: 287– feed water for pure water systems, 1999 V2: 322 E
288 measuring, 1999 V2: 285
parts per million (ppm, PPM), 1998 V1: 21, 1999 predicting water deposits, 1999 V2: 290
V2: 285 saturation, 1999 V2: 291, 1999 V2: 293 F
pascal-seconds, 1998 V1: 41 values in waste, 1999 V2: 329
pascals, 1998 V1: 41 ph, PH (phases, electrical), 1998 V1: 21 G
passivation, 1998 V1: 143 pH Control of Chemical Waste, 1999 V2: 350
passive, defined, 1998 V1: 152 pharmaceutical pure water, 1999 V2: 317–325,
pathogenic organisms, 1999 V2: 282 1999 V2: 320, 1999 V2: 322 H
paths of acoustic problems, 1998 V1: 204 Pharmaceutical Water, 1999 V2: 325
paved area storm drainage, 1999 V2: 67 phases, electrical (ph, PH), 1998 V1: 21 I
PB (polybutylene), 1998 V1: 34 phenolphthalein alkalinity, 1999 V2: 282
PCT (percentages), 1998 V1: 21 Philadelphia venting system, 1999 V2: 46, 1999 V2:
PCUs (platinum cobalt units), 1999 V2: 287 47, 1999 V2: 48 J
PD (pressure drops or differences). See pressure phosphates, 1998 V1: 149, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2:
drops or differences 282 K
PD (pump discharge lines), 1998 V1: 9 phosphoric acid, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: 333
PDI (Plumbing and Drainage Institute), 1998 V1: 34
phosphorus, 1999 V2: 281
phosphorus 32, 1999 V2: 340
L
PDI symbols for water hammer arresters, 1999 photographic badges for radiation levels, 1999 V2:
V2: 143 339 M
PDI symbols for water hammer arresters, 1999 V2: photolytic oxidation, 1999 V2: 288
144
PE (polyethylene), 1998 V1: 34
phrasing in specifications, 1998 V1: 67
physical characteristics of drinking water, 1999 V2:
N
PE (potential energy), 1998 V1: 3, 1998 V1: 6 316, 1999 V2: 318
Peabody, A.W., 1998 V1: 152 physically challenged individuals O
peak consumption in gas boosters, 1999 V2: 182 ambulatory accessible toilet compartments, 1998
pendent sprinklers, 1998 V1: 16, 1998 V1: 37 V1: 111
percentages (%, PCT), 1998 V1: 21 ANSI A117.1-1988, 1998 V1: 107–122 P
perched water, 1999 V2: 100 bathing rooms, 1998 V1: 108
perchloric acid, 1999 V2: 333–334 bathtub and shower seats, 1998 V1: 121 Q
percolation bathtub design, 1998 V1: 114–115
defined, 1998 V1: 34 codes and standards, 1998 V1: 59
rates for soils, 1999 V2: 217–220, 1999 V2: 219– design for, 1998 V1: 101–107 R
220, 1999 V2: 238 drinking fountains and water coolers, 1998 V1:
perfect vacuums, 1999 V2: 254 107–108 S
perforated piping, 1999 V2: 102 exposed piping and accessibility, 1998 V1: 114
performance bonds, 1998 V1: 64 grab bars, 1998 V1: 119–121
Performance of Reduced-size Venting in Residential history of design and construction standards, T
Drain, Waste and Vent System, 1999 V2: 65 1998 V1: 99–100
permeability introduction to plumbing for, 1998 V1: 99 U
coefficient of (K factor), 1999 V2: 100–101, 1999 laundry equipment, 1998 V1: 122
V2: 104–105, 1999 V2: 242 lavatories and sinks, 1998 V1: 113–114
converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 48 legislation, 1998 V1: 100–101 V
permeable strata in soils, 1999 V2: 219 references, 1998 V1: 122
permeance, converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 48 shower compartments, 1998 V1: 115–119 W
pesticides in septic tanks, 1999 V2: 230 urinal design, 1998 V1: 113
“peta” prefix, 1998 V1: 42 XYZ
Index 401
water closets and toilets, 1998 V1: 108, 1998 V1: pitch down or up, 1998 V1: 14 A
109–113 radioactive waste systems, 1999 V2: 342
physics laboratories, 1999 V2: 262. See also special-waste drainage systems, 1999 V2: 329
laboratories vacuum cleaning systems, 1999 V2: 276 B
“pico” prefix, 1998 V1: 42 pitless adapters, 1999 V2: 243
piers, 1999 V2: 147 pitting, defined, 1998 V1: 152 C
pilot-operated pressure-regulated valves, 1999 V2: pitting corrosion, 1998 V1: 137, 1999 V2: 290
153 plain air chamvers, 1999 V2: 132, 1999 V2: 143
pints, converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 48 plane angles, 1998 V1: 41, 1998 V1: 44 D
pipe anchors (PA), 1998 V1: 12 planning jobs, labor units for, 1998 V1: 84
pipe dope, 1999 V2: 284 plans. See construction contract documents; E
pipe glue, 1999 V2: 284 plumbing drawings
pipe guides, 1998 V1: 12 plant noise, 1998 V1: 202
pipe hangers. See supports and hangers planting area drains, 1999 V2: 83 F
pipe joints plaster, lining with lead, 1999 V2: 340
acid-waste systems, 1999 V2: 334 plastic joints, 1999 V2: 222 G
chemical-waste systems, 1999 V2: 345–346 plastic piping
clay pipe joints, 1999 V2: 223 corrosion, 1999 V2: 252
copper joints, 1999 V2: 222 gas piping, 1999 V2: 176, 1999 V2: 196 H
estimating work costs, 1998 V1: 82 sanitary drainage systems, 1999 V2: 14
fill and, 1999 V2: 15 storm-drainage systems, 1999 V2: 68, 1999 V2: I
galvanized iron joints, 1999 V2: 222 89–92
heat-fused socket joints, 1999 V2: 334 thermal expansion and, 1999 V2: 251
liquefied petroleum gas, 1999 V2: 196 plastic-wrapped steel piping, 1999 V2: 196 J
mechanical clay pipe joints, 1999 V2: 223 plate and frame modules in reverse osmosis, 1999
pipe joining material codes and standards, 1998 V2: 309, 1999 V2: 310 K
V1: 55–56 plate tectonics, 1998 V1: 156–158
plastic joints, 1999 V2: 222
plastic pipe expansion joints, 1999 V2: 251
platinum, 1998 V1: 140
platinum cobalt units (PCUs), 1999 V2: 287
L
radioactive waste systems, 1999 V2: 341 platy soils, 1999 V2: 218
screwed mechanical joints, 1999 V2: 334 plot plans, irrigation systems and, 1999 V2: 26 M
special-waste drainage systems, 1999 V2: 328 plug-type dezincification, 1998 V1: 138
thermal expansion and, 1999 V2: 18
welded joints, 1999 V2: 341
plug valves (PV), 1998 V1: 11
plumbing, defined, 1998 V1: 34–35
N
pipe sleeves Plumbing and Drainage Institute (PDI), 1998 V1:
acoustic design, 1998 V1: 206, 1998 V1: 207 34, 1998 V1: 60 O
earthquake recommendations, 1998 V1: 164 Plumbing and Piping Industry Council (PPIC), 1998
pipe solvents, 1999 V2: 284 V1: 172, 1998 V1: 195
pipe supports. See supports and hangers plumbing appliances, 1998 V1: 35 P
pipe wrappings, 1998 V1: 200, 1998 V1: 206–207, plumbing appurtenances, 1998 V1: 35
1999 V2: 68, 1999 V2: 196 Plumbing Design and Installation Reference Guide, Q
pipes and piping. See also sizing; specific kinds of 1999 V2: 114
piping or piping functions Plumbing Design Manual, 1999 V2: 114
computer analysis of piping systems, 1998 V1: plumbing designs, 1998 V1: 91–94, 1998 V1: 95 R
189 Plumbing Drainage Institute (PDI), 1998 V1: 34,
installation man-hour estimates, 1998 V1: 83 1998 V1: 60 S
labor unit estimation forms, 1998 V1: 87 plumbing drawings
pipes (PIPE), 1998 V1: 21 abbreviations, 1998 V1: 17–23
piping codes and standards, 1998 V1: 51–59 checklists, 1998 V1: 91–94, 1998 V1: 95 T
piping symbols, 1998 V1: 9–14 graphic conventions, 1998 V1: 102
seismic protection, 1998 V1: 155, 1998 V1: 168– introduction, 1998 V1: 63 U
184 Plumbing Efficiency through Gray-water Recycling,
Piping Handbook, 1999 V2: 214 1999 V2: 34
Piping Systems Fundamentals and Application, 1999 plumbing engineering V
V2: 155 defined, 1998 V1: 35
pit type fire department connections, 1998 V1: 15 plumbing engineers, 1998 V1: 69 W
pitch plumbing fixtures. See fixtures
defined, 1998 V1: 34 plumbing inspectors, 1998 V1: 35 XYZ
Plumbing Manual, 1999 V2: 155 ponding A

Plumbing Noise, 1998 V1: 198 on roofs, 1999 V2: 79
plumbing specifications slow-release storm-water systems, 1999 V2: 106
additional information and addresses, 1998 V1: storm water ponds, 1999 V2: 68 B
80 ponds, stabilization, 1999 V2: 232
administration of specifications, 1998 V1: 68 pools, 1998 V1: 35 C
bibliography, 1998 V1: 80 pore size in filter membranes, 1999 V2: 310
drawings, 1998 V1: 63 porous piping, 1999 V2: 102
introduction, 1998 V1: 63 portable fire extinguishers, 1998 V1: 16 D
master specifications, 1998 V1: 67–68 portable meters, 1998 V1: 13
MASTERFORMAT section titles, 1998 V1: 74 positive attachments, defined, 1998 V1: 195 E
plumbing specifiers and engineers, 1998 V1: 69 positive-displacement water meters, 1999 V2: 115
references, 1998 V1: 79–80 positive pressure, backflow and, 1999 V2: 144
software, 1998 V1: 68 potable water. See drinking water; private water F
writing specifications, 1998 V1: 66–67 systems; wells
Plumbing Specifications, 1998 V1: 79 potash alum, 1999 V2: 294 G
plumbing specifiers and engineers, 1998 V1: 69 potassium, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: 283
plumbing symbols, 1998 V1: 9–14 potassium bicarbonate, 1999 V2: 283
plumbing systems, defined, 1998 V1: 35 potassium carbonate, 1999 V2: 283 H
plumbing systems designers, 1998 V1: 69 potassium chloride, 1999 V2: 283
plumbing terminology, 1998 V1: 24–39 potassium hydroxide, 1999 V2: 230 I
PNC (preferred noise criteria curves), 1998 V1: 215 potassium permanganate, 1999 V2: 245
pneumatic pressures potential energy (PE)
controlling induced siphonage, 1999 V2: 40 calculating, 1998 V1: 3 J
sanitary drains, 1999 V2: 2–3 velocity head and, 1998 V1: 6
POC (points of connect), 1998 V1: 14 potentiometric surfaces of aquifers, 1999 V2: 241 K
point-of-use ultrafiltration, 1999 V2: 300 POU filtration, 1999 V2: 300
point-of-use water heating, 1998 V1: 127
points of connect (POC), 1998 V1: 14
pounding forces in water. See water hammer
pounds (lb, LBS)
L
polarization converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 48
defined, 1998 V1: 152 pounds per square foot (psf, PSF), 1998 V1: 21 M
hydrogen film buildup, 1998 V1: 135 pounds per square inch (psi, PSI), 1998 V1: 2,
polishing deionizers, 1999 V2: 301, 1999 V2: 302,
1999 V2: 307
1998 V1: 21
pounds per square inch absolute (psia), 1999 V2:
N
polishing water in pure water systems, 1999 V2: 254
321 pounds per square inch gauge (psig), 1999 V2: O
pollution 254
dispersion from gas appliances, 1999 V2: 178 symbols for, 1998 V1: 21
sanitary precautions for wells, 1999 V2: 243 power P
polyamide membranes, 1999 V2: 310, 1999 V2: conversion factors, 1998 V1: 45
311 converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 47 Q
polybutylene (PB), 1998 V1: 34 measurements, 1998 V1: 41
polyelectrolytes, 1999 V2: 294 power control self-regulating index, 1999 V2: 166
polyethylene (PE), 1998 V1: 34 power piping codes and standards, 1998 V1: 59 R
polyethylene piping, 1999 V2: 284 power steam, 1999 V2: 298
polyethylene storage tanks, 1999 V2: 323 power usage, economizing on, 1998 V1: 131 S
polymer membranes, 1999 V2: 310, 1999 V2: 311 Powered Industrial Trucks, 1999 V2: 214
polymeric silica, 1999 V2: 283 PPIC (Plumbing and Piping Industry Council), 1998
polymers, 1998 V1: 35 V1: 172, 1998 V1: 195 T
polypropylene piping, 1999 V2: 14, 1999 V2: 15, ppm, PPM (parts per million), 1998 V1: 21, 1999
1999 V2: 284, 1999 V2: 324, 1999 V2: 334 V2: 285 U
polypropylene storage tanks, 1999 V2: 323 Practical Design of a High-purity Water System, 1999
polysulfone membranes, 1999 V2: 310, 1999 V2: V2: 325
311 Practical Plumbing Design Guide, 1999 V2: 114 V
polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 1998 V1: 36 Prandtl-Colebrook equation, 1999 V2: 60
polyvinyl chloride piping, 1999 V2: 284 pre-action systems, 1998 V1: 37 W
polyvinyl-fluoridine (PVDF), 1998 V1: 36 pre-action valves, 1998 V1: 16
polyvinylidene fluoride piping, 1999 V2: 324 pre-bid information, 1998 V1: 64 XYZ
Index 403
pre-filters for feed water, 1999 V2: 289 static (sp, SP), 1998 V1: 21, 1998 V1: 22 A
precast septic tanks, 1998 V1: 59, 1999 V2: 228 static pressure loss, 1999 V2: 123
precast water storage tanks, 1999 V2: 247 storm-drainage stacks, 1999 V2: 67
precipitates in water, 1999 V2: 245, 1999 V2: 291 suds pressure zones, 1999 V2: 37, 1999 V2: 38, B
precipitation. See rainwater and precipitation 1999 V2: 39
precision in measurements, 1998 V1: 40 symbols for, 1998 V1: 21 C
precompressed, glass-fiber pads, 1998 V1: 210 vacuum cleaning system requirements, 1999 V2:
predicting water deposits and corrosion, 1999 V2: 270
290–292 vacuum defined, 1999 V2: 253 D
prefabricated roofing drains, 1999 V2: 82 vacuum pressure measurement, 1999 V2: 254–
prefabricated septic tanks, 1998 V1: 59, 1999 V2: 256 E
228 vapor (vap pr, VAP PR, VAP), 1998 V1: 21
prefabricated water storage tanks, 1999 V2: 247 velocity of water in pipes and, 1999 V2: 122–132
preferred noise criteria (PNC) curves, 1998 V1: 215 water pressure, 1999 V2: 149–152 F
prefixes in SI units, 1998 V1: 42 water supply piping and, 1999 V2: 249
preparing for jobs, checklists, 1998 V1: 90–91 pressure differentials G
PRES (pressure). See pressure fittings, 1998 V1: 198
President’s Committee on Employment of the pressure-differential-actuated valve trap primers,
Handicapped, 1998 V1: 99 1999 V2: 14 H
PRESS (pressure). See pressure pressure droop in gas boosters, 1999 V2: 182
pressure (PRESS, PRES, P). See also pressure drops pressure drops or differences (PD, DELTP) I
acoustic design for water pipes, 1998 V1: 200 average pressure drops in water systems, 1999
barometric (baro pr, BARO PR, BP). See baromet- V2: 125, 1999 V2: 126, 1999 V2: 127
ric pressure defined, 1999 V2: 214 J
bottled gas, 1999 V2: 174 fire hydrants and, 1999 V2: 249
cold-water systems, 1999 V2: 115 gas meters and, 1999 V2: 176 K
conversion factors, 1998 V1: 45 liquefied petroleum gas storage, 1999 V2: 194
critical (CRIP), 1998 V1: 21
discharge pressure from gas boosters, 1999 V2:
natural gas systems, 1999 V2: 174, 1999 V2:
183, 1999 V2: 192, 1999 V2: 193
L
178 sizing vacuum piping, 1999 V2: 263
dynamic (velocity) (vp, VP), 1998 V1: 21 static pressure loss, 1999 V2: 123 M
eliminating with vents, 1999 V2: 35 symbols for, 1998 V1: 21
fall-off pressure, 1999 V2: 122
fixture requirements, 1999 V2: 129
vacuum cleaning systems, 1999 V2: 272–274,
1999 V2: 274
N
flow and air, 1999 V2: 2 vacuum exhauster sizing, 1999 V2: 274
friction head loss and, 1998 V1: 2 vacuum pressures, 1999 V2: 258, 1999 V2: 263 O
friction loss and, 1999 V2: 130 pressure-equalizing lines in sovent systems, 1999
gas boosters, 1999 V2: 178–183 V2: 60
hot-water system pressures, 1999 V2: 157, 1999 pressure gauge measurements, 1999 V2: 254 P
V2: 166–167 pressure gauges with gauge cocks (PG), 1998 V1:
hydraulic shock, 1998 V1: 7 13 Q
hydrostatic pressure, 1999 V2: 4 pressure loss. See pressure drops
induced siphonage, 1999 V2: 40 pressure maintenance (jockey] pumps, 1998 V1: 32
low-pressure switches on gas boosters, 1999 V2: pressure media filters, 1999 V2: 300 R
179 pressure piping, joints in, 1998 V1: 82
measurements, 1998 V1: 41, 1999 V2: 253 pressure-regulating or reducing valves (PRV) S
natural gas pressure, 1999 V2: 173, 1999 V2: acoustic design and pressure, 1998 V1: 206
174, 1999 V2: 183 glossary, 1999 V2: 152–154
pneumatic pressures in sanitary drains, 1999 symbols for, 1998 V1: 12 T
V2: 2–3 types of, 1999 V2: 153–154
pressure-regulating valves, 1999 V2: 152–154 pressure regulators U
pressure surges, 1999 V2: 35 cold-water systems, 1999 V2: 122
pressure-volume relationships (gas laws), 1999 gas train vents, 1999 V2: 177
V2: 179 natural gas systems, 1999 V2: 174, 1999 V2: V
pressure waves. See water hammer 214
relief valves, 1999 V2: 166–167, 1999 V2: 167 outlet pressure protection in gas boosters, 1999 W
residual pressure, 1999 V2: 123, 1999 V2: 131 V2: 183
stack flow capacity and, 1999 V2: 4 water storage tanks, 1999 V2: 248–249 XYZ
pressure-relief lines in sovent systems, 1999 V2: 61 sizing, 1999 V2: 272, 1999 V2: 274–275 A
pressure-relief outlets in deaerators, 1999 V2: 56 product water. See treated water
pressure-relief valves (RV), 1998 V1: 12 production wells in geothermal energy, 1998 V1:
Pressure Sewer Demonstration at the Borough of 132 B
Phoenixville, Pennsylvania, 1999 V2: 238 Products section in specifications, 1998 V1: 66,
pressure sewers, 1999 V2: 226 1998 V1: 77 C
pressure surges, 1999 V2: 35 profits in cost estimates, 1998 V1: 82
pressure switches (PS), 1998 V1: 13 project manuals, 1998 V1: 64–65
pressure vacuum breakers, 1999 V2: 145, 1999 V2: administration of specifications, 1998 V1: 68 D
148 CSI format, 1998 V1: 65–66
pressure-volume relationships (gas laws), 1999 V2: divisions, 1998 V1: 71–74 E
179 document categories, 1998 V1: 65–66
pressure water filters, 1999 V2: 244 master specifications, 1998 V1: 67–68
pressure waves. See water hammer plumbing specifiers and engineers, 1998 V1: 69 F
pretreatment in pure water systems, 1999 V2: 321 software, 1998 V1: 68
pri, PRI (primary), 1998 V1: 21 writing specifications, 1998 V1: 66–67 G
PRIM (primary), 1998 V1: 21 promenade drains, 1999 V2: 83
primary (pri, PRI, PRIM), 1998 V1: 21 propagation velocity, 1998 V1: 7
primary barriers for infectious wastes, 1999 V2: propane, 1999 V2: 194, 1999 V2: 214. See also H
343 fuel-gas piping systems
primers, 1998 V1: 144 propeller water meters, 1999 V2: 116 I
prism-like soils, 1999 V2: 218 prophylactic additives to water, 1999 V2: 245
private sewage-disposal systems proportions of septic tanks, 1999 V2: 228
aerobic waste-water treatment plants, 1999 V2: protected end of galvanic series, 1998 V1: 140 J
232–233 protective coatings, 1998 V1: 143–144. See also
collection and treatment alternatives, 1999 V2: coated metal K
226–227 protective potential, defined, 1998 V1: 152
distribution boxes, 1999 V2: 231
PRV (pressure-regulating or reducing valves). See
pressure-regulating or reducing valves
L
estimating sewage quantities, 1999 V2: 233–238 prying actions in seismic protection, 1998 V1: 191–
inspection, 1999 V2: 238 193 M
introduction, 1999 V2: 217 PS (pressure switches), 1998 V1: 13
large systems, 1999 V2: 231–232
primary collection and treatment systems, 1999
pseudo-dynamic elastic analysis, 1998 V1: 161–162
psf, PSF (pounds per square foot)
N
V2: 217 psf absolute (psfa, PSFA), 1998 V1: 21, 1999 V2:
septic tanks, 1999 V2: 227–231 254 O
soil-absorption systems, 1999 V2: 217–224 psf gage (psfg, PSFG), 1998 V1: 21, 1999 V2: 254
private sewers, 1998 V1: 35 symbols for, 1998 V1: 21
private use, defined, 1998 V1: 35 psfa, PSFA (psf absolute), 1998 V1: 21 P
private water systems psfg, PSFG (psf gage), 1998 V1: 21
drinking water demand, 1999 V2: 243–244 psi, PSI (pounds per square inch) Q
initial operation and maintenance, 1999 V2: 252 psi absolute (psia, PSIA), 1998 V1: 21, 1999 V2:
introduction, 1999 V2: 239–240 254
matching water storage to pump flow, 1999 V2: psi gage (psig, PSIG), 1998 V1: 21, 1999 V2: 254 R
248 symbols for, 1998 V1: 21
pipe installation, 1999 V2: 250–252 psia, PSIA (psi absolute), 1998 V1: 21, 1999 V2: S
sources of supply, 1999 V2: 239–240 254
system equipment, 1999 V2: 245–250 psig, PSIG (psi gage), 1998 V1: 21, 1999 V2: 254
water quality, 1999 V2: 244–245 public, educating on gray-water systems, 1999 V2: T
wells, 1999 V2: 240–243 33
problems in seismic protection, 1998 V1: 191–193, public areas U
1998 V1: 194 estimating sewage quantities, 1999 V2: 236
Proceedings of the Third National Conference on heel-proof grates, 1999 V2: 10
Individual On Site Wastewater Systems, 1999 sediment buckets, 1999 V2: 12 V
V2: 238 Public Building Service, 1998 V1: 204
producers (vacuum) public hydrants, 1998 V1: 15 W
defined, 1999 V2: 266–269, 1999 V2: 268 Public Law 90-480, 1998 V1: 100
locating, 1999 V2: 270 Public Law 93-112, 1998 V1: 100 XYZ
Index 405
public sewers putrefaction, 1998 V1: 35 A

defined, 1998 V1: 35 Putting Industrial Vacuum to Work, 1999 V2: 277
discharging into, 1999 V2: 328 PV (plug valves), 1998 V1: 11
neutralizing acid wastes for, 1999 V2: 334–337 PVBs (pressure vacuum breakers), 1999 V2: 145, B
public storm sewer systems, 1999 V2: 67, 1999 1999 V2: 148
V2: 98, 1999 V2: 105 PVC (polyvinyl chloride), 1998 V1: 36 C
radioactive waste systems and, 1999 V2: 342 PVC plastic piping
public use, defined, 1998 V1: 35 aboveground piping, 1999 V2: 68
pulsation noise, 1999 V2: 15 D
electric fans, 1998 V1: 201 sanitary drainage, 1999 V2: 14
magnetic field pulsation, 1998 V1: 201 sizing, 1999 V2: 89–92 E
pump bases, 1999 V2: 243, 1999 V2: 245 volatile organic compounds, 1999 V2: 284
pump discharge lines (PD), 1998 V1: 9 PVDF (polyvinyl-fluoridine), 1998 V1: 36
pump heads, 1999 V2: 105 PVDF piping, 1999 V2: 14 F
pumped sewage-disposal systems, 1999 V2: 226 PW (pure water), 1999 V2: 320. See also water
pumper connections, 1998 V1: 15 purification G
pumping head, 1999 V2: 245 pyramids, calculating volume, 1998 V1: 5
pumping septic tanks, 1999 V2: 227, 1999 V2: 230 pyrogens, 1999 V2: 282, 1999 V2: 310
pumping wells, 1999 V2: 241–243 H
pumps Q
acoustics, 1998 V1: 201, 1998 V1: 202, 1998 V1:
Q factor (coefficient of transmissibility), 1999 V2:
I
203, 1998 V1: 206
101–102
bearings, 1998 V1: 202
design of, 1998 V1: 205
Q (heat transfer), 1998 V1: 19 J
QAIR (air flow rates), 1998 V1: 19
earthquake protection, 1998 V1: 165
efficiency, 1998 V1: 8
QAR (air flow rates), 1998 V1: 19
QFL (fluid flow rates), 1998 V1: 19
K
in geothermal energy systems, 1998 V1: 132
QGA, QGAS (gas flow rates), 1998 V1: 19, 1999 V2:
gravity tank systems, 1999 V2: 150–152
hydropneumatic-tank systems, 1999 V2: 150
173 L
qt, QT (quarts), 1998 V1: 21, 1998 V1: 48
impellers, 1998 V1: 201
liquid-waste decontamination systems, 1999 V2:
quads, converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 48
quality of water, 1999 V2: 33, 1999 V2: 244–245.
M
344
See also water analysis; water purification
matching water storage to pump flow, 1999 V2:
248
quarts (qt, QT) N
open-type bases, 1999 V2: 243
plant noise, 1998 V1: 202
quick-response sprinklers, 1998 V1: 38
O
pulsation in, 1998 V1: 201
quick valve closure, 1999 V2: 131, 1999 V2: 132
pump affinity laws, 1998 V1: 7–8
pump journals, 1998 V1: 201
quieting pipes, 1999 V2: 15 P
pump speeds, 1998 V1: 206
pump suction, 1999 V2: 249 R Q
static deflection for vibration, 1998 V1: 211 R, R- (refrigerants), 1998 V1: 21, 1998 V1: 149
submersible, 1999 V2: 243
sulfuric acid and, 1999 V2: 332
°R, R (rankines), 1998 V1: 21
R, R (thermal resistance), 1998 V1: 22
R
sump pumps in sanitary drainage systems, 1999 R (hydraulic radii), 1998 V1: 1–2
V2: 9 R (radii), 1998 V1: 21 S
systems for water supplies, 1999 V2: 245–247 ra, RA (return air), 1998 V1: 21
vibration isolation, 1998 V1: 212, 1998 V1: 214
well pumps, 1999 V2: 245–247
rad, RAD (radians). See radians
RAD (radiating or radiators), 1998 V1: 21
T
Pumps and Pump Systems Handbook, 1998 V1: 49, RAD (radiation). See radiation
1999 V2: 152 rad/s (radians per second), 1998 V1: 41 U
pure tones, 1998 V1: 216 rad/s2 (radians per second squared), 1998 V1: 41
pure water. See water purification
pure-water systems, 1999 V2: 279. See also water
radians (RAD)
measurement unit conversions, 1998 V1: 41
V
purification radians per second, 1998 V1: 41
purified water (PW), 1999 V2: 320. See also water radians per second squared, 1998 V1: 41 W
purification symbols for, 1998 V1: 21
push-seal gasketed outlets, 1999 V2: 18 radiating (RAD), 1998 V1: 21 XYZ
radiation (RADN, RAD) homogeneity in, 1998 V1: 142 A

nature of, 1999 V2: 337–338 oxygen content, 1998 V1: 142
radiation equivalent to man (rem), 1999 V2: 339 temperature, 1998 V1: 142
rads (radioactive dosage), 1999 V2: 339 velocity in, 1998 V1: 142 B
symbols for, 1998 V1: 21 rate of flow. See flow rates
treatment facilities, 1999 V2: 340 rated vacuum levels, 1999 V2: 257–258 C
radiators (RAD), 1998 V1: 21 Rational Method, 1998 V1: 8, 1999 V2: 95–98,
radicals (ions), 1998 V1: 140, 1998 V1: 151, 1999 1999 V2: 98, 1999 V2: 107
V2: 329 raw sewage, 1998 V1: 36 D
radii (R), 1998 V1: 21 raw water. See feed water
radioactive waste drainage and vents RCIR (recirculate), 1998 V1: 21 E
allowable radiation levels, 1999 V2: 339 RCRA (Resource Conservation and Recovery Act),
approval process and applications, 1999 V2: 340 1999 V2: 345
diluting radwaste, 1999 V2: 342 rcvr, RCVR (receivers), 1998 V1: 21, 1998 V1: 204, F
introduction, 1999 V2: 337 1999 V2: 260, 1999 V2: 262
measuring radiation, 1999 V2: 338–339 reaction forces in earthquakes, 1998 V1: 189 G
nature of radiation, 1999 V2: 337–338 reactive silica, 1999 V2: 283
pipe selection, 1999 V2: 341–342 reagent grade water, 1999 V2: 317, 1999 V2: 319
radioactive-material-processing plants, 1999 V2: rear wall grab bars, 1998 V1: 110 H
147 REC (receivers), 1998 V1: 21, 1998 V1: 204, 1999
radioactive materials, 1999 V2: 340 V2: 260, 1999 V2: 262 I
shielding systems, 1999 V2: 339–340 receivers (rcvr, RCVR, REC)
system design criteria, 1999 V2: 340–343 receivers of noise, 1998 V1: 204
radioactivity symbols for, 1998 V1: 21 J
defined, 1999 V2: 337 in vacuum systems, 1999 V2: 260, 1999 V2: 262
radioactive half lives, 1999 V2: 340 receptors, 1998 V1: 36 K
radioactive isotopes, 1999 V2: 337, 1999 V2: 340 recessed-box hose bibbs, 1998 V1: 12
radiological characteristics of drinking water, 1999
V2: 284, 1999 V2: 317
recessed fire-hose cabinets, 1998 V1: 14
recessed sprinklers, 1998 V1: 38
L
Radiological Safety Officers, 1999 V2: 340 rechargeable air chambers, 1999 V2: 132, 1999 V2:
radium 226, 1999 V2: 340 143 M
RADN (radiation). See radiation recharging aquifers, 1999 V2: 240
radon gas in water, 1999 V2: 284, 1999 V2: 317
radwaste (waterborne radioactive waste), 1999 V2:
reciprocating (rotary) piston pumps, 1999 V2: 259
recirculate (recirc., RECIRC, RCIR, RECIR), 1998
N
337 V1: 21
Raeber, John A., 1998 V1: 80 recirculating sand filter sewage systems, 1999 V2: O
rainwater and precipitation 227, 1999 V2: 232
cisterns, 1999 V2: 247 recirculation systems for hot water, 1999 V2: 165
flow rates, 1999 V2: 68 reclaimed water. See gray-water systems P
in gray-water systems, 1999 V2: 21 Recommendations for a New ADAAG, 1998 V1: 122
precipitation, 1998 V1: 35 Recommended Minimum Requirements for Plumbing Q
rainfall rates, 1999 V2: 69–78, 1999 V2: 97 in Dwellings and Similar Buildings, 1999 V2:
rainwater drains (SD, ST). See storm-drainage 65
systems recovered energy, 1998 V1: 133 R
slow-release storm-water systems, 1999 V2: 106 recovering heat from water heaters, 1999 V2: 158–
storing in controlled flow systems, 1999 V2: 93– 159 S
94 recovery in reverse osmosis, 1999 V2: 309
storm-drainage systems, 1999 V2: 67–68, 1999 recreational establishments
V2: 95–107 estimating sewage quantities, 1999 V2: 235, T
subsurface water and, 1999 V2: 99–105 1999 V2: 237
ramp-drain grates, 1999 V2: 11 septic tank/soil-absorption systems for, 1999 V2: U
rankines (°R, R), 1998 V1: 21 231–232
rapid sand/direct filtration package plants, 1999 rectangles, calculating area, 1998 V1: 4
V2: 318 rectangular bath seats, 1998 V1: 121 V
rate of corrosion rectangular gutters, 1999 V2: 81, 1999 V2: 86
acidity, 1998 V1: 141 rectangular leaders, 1999 V2: 81 W
Faraday’s Law, 1998 V1: 141 rectangular solids, calculating volume, 1998 V1: 5
film formation, 1998 V1: 142 rectifiers, 1998 V1: 147, 1998 V1: 149 XYZ
Index 407
recycled water systems. See gray-water systems Relative Importance of Time and Surface Temperature A
red brass, 1998 V1: 141 in the Causation of Cutaneous Burns, 1999
reduced noise transmission, 1999 V2: 15 V2: 170
reduced pressure relief valves B
conditions in water storage tanks, 1999 V2: 248 hot-water systems, 1999 V2: 166–167
in pressure-regulated valves, 1999 V2: 152 liquefied petroleum gas, 1999 V2: 197 C
reduced-pressure backflow preventers, 1999 V2: sizing, 1999 V2: 167
115, 1999 V2: 144, 1999 V2: 145, 1999 water storage tanks, 1999 V2: 248
V2: 148, 1999 V2: 149 relief vents D
reduced-size venting circuit and loop venting, 1999 V2: 43
confluent vent sizing, 1999 V2: 51 defined, 1998 V1: 36, 1999 V2: 64 E
example, 1999 V2: 53, 1999 V2: 54 soil and waste stacks, 1999 V2: 44, 1999 V2: 45
installation, 1999 V2: 52 sovent systems, 1999 V2: 61
introduction, 1999 V2: 49 remote earth (remote electrodes), 1998 V1: 152 F
reduced size vents, defined, 1998 V1: 36 remote electrodes, 1998 V1: 152
sizing, 1999 V2: 50–53 remote-readout water meters, 1999 V2: 116 G
Reduced-size Venting Design, 1999 V2: 65 Remove Organics by Activated Carbon Adsorption,
reduced water flow rates, 1998 V1: 124–125 1999 V2: 325
reduced zone backflow preventers (RZBP), 1998 V1: rems (radiation equivalent to man), 1999 V2: 339 H
12 Report on Hydraulics and Pneumatics of Plumbing
reducers, defined, 1998 V1: 36 Drainage Systems, 1999 V2: 19 I
references res, RES (resistance or resistors), 1998 V1: 22
cold water systems, 1999 V2: 155 RES (thermal resistance), 1998 V1: 22
conserving energy, 1998 V1: 133 research facilities, radiation in, 1999 V2: 340 J
designing for physically challenged individuals, reservoirs, private, 1999 V2: 239
1998 V1: 122 residential sprinklers, 1998 V1: 38 K
formulae, symbols, and terminology, 1998 V1: 49 residential systems
gray-water systems, 1999 V2: 34
plumbing specifications, 1998 V1: 79–80, 1998
cold-water systems, 1999 V2: 115–116, 1999 V2:
154–155
L
V1: 80 estimating sewage quantities, 1999 V2: 233
sanitary drainage systems, 1999 V2: 19 fixture drainage loads, 1999 V2: 3 M
seismic protection, 1998 V1: 195 hot-water systems. See hot-water systems
special-waste drainage systems, 1999 V2: 350
liquefied petroleum gas, 1999 V2: 194
natural gas appliance demand, 1999 V2: 175
N
vents, 1999 V2: 65 reduced-size venting, 1999 V2: 50
water treatment and purification, 1999 V2: 325 sewage-disposal systems. See private sewage- O
reflecting pools, 1998 V1: 36 disposal systems
refrigerants (R, R-), 1998 V1: 21, 1998 V1: 149 typical gray-water supply and demand, 1999 V2:
refrigeration mechanical rooms, 1998 V1: 168 25 P
refrigeration systems residual pressure, 1998 V1: 36, 1999 V2: 123,
heat reclamation, 1998 V1: 131 1999 V2: 131 Q
waste heat usage, 1998 V1: 128, 1998 V1: 129 residual radiation, 1999 V2: 341
refuse bins, 1998 V1: 201 resilient mounts
refuse disposal installations, soundproofing, 1998 illustrated, 1998 V1: 213 R
V1: 201 noise and vibration control, 1998 V1: 204, 1998
regenerable ion exchange, 1999 V2: 301 V1: 212 S
regenerants, dealkalizing and, 1999 V2: 295 pipe run installations, 1998 V1: 215
regeneration cycle seismic danger and, 1998 V1: 214
in dealkalizing, 1999 V2: 295 resilient pipe supports, 1998 V1: 204, 1998 V1: T
in deionizing, 1999 V2: 302, 1999 V2: 304 214
in ion exchange, 1999 V2: 305 resin beads, 1999 V2: 304–305 U
in water softeners, 1999 V2: 307 resins, ion-exchange
regional authorities, 1999 V2: 327 continuous deionization, 1999 V2: 306
regulators. See specific types of regulators defined, 1999 V2: 300 V
Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (93-112), 1998 V1: 100 in diluting compartments, 1999 V2: 307
reject stream from reverse osmosis, 1999 V2: 309 overview, 1999 V2: 301–302 W
relative humidity (rh, RH), 1998 V1: 20, 1998 V1: regenerating, 1999 V2: 304
21 strong-acid and weak-acid, 1999 V2: 302 XYZ
volatile organic compounds in, 1999 V2: 284 ring-securing methods around drains, 1999 V2: 17 A
resistance (res, RES, OHMS), 1998 V1: 21 rinsing in regeneration cycle, 1999 V2: 304, 1999
resistivity V2: 305
defined, 1998 V1: 152 riser clamps, 1999 V2: 86 B
soil, 1998 V1: 147 risers
resistors (res, RES, OHMS), 1998 V1: 21 bracing, 1998 V1: 173 C
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, 1999 V2: bracing for hubless pipes, 1998 V1: 180
345 defined, 1998 V1: 36
response in pressure-regulated valves, 1999 V2: earthquake protection and joints, 1998 V1: 169 D
152 riser down (elbows), 1998 V1: 13
response spectrum in earthquakes, 1998 V1: 160– riser up (elbows), 1998 V1: 13 E
162, 1998 V1: 189 symbols for, 1998 V1: 15
restaurants, 1999 V2: 231–232. See also food- rises or drops, 1998 V1: 13
processing areas and kitchens risk cabinets, 1999 V2: 344 F
restrained-spring mountings, 1998 V1: 210 riveted steel piping, 1999 V2: 122
restraint systems for earthquakes, 1998 V1: 168, rock fill in seepage beds, 1999 V2: 224 G
1998 V1: 194 rock salt, 1999 V2: 307
restricted areas (facilities with radiation), 1999 V2: Roentgens, 1999 V2: 339
339 roll-in shower compartments, 1998 V1: 116, 1998 H
return air (ra, RA), 1998 V1: 21 V1: 117
return circuits, 1998 V1: 135 roof design considerations in seismic protection, I
return offsets, 1998 V1: 36 1998 V1: 191
return periods in rainfall history, 1999 V2: 69–78 roof drainage, 1999 V2: 79–94
reusing water. See gray-water systems adjacent buildings and surfaces, 1999 V2: 80 J
rev, REV (revolutions), 1998 V1: 21 avoiding septic tank disposal, 1999 V2: 231
revent pipes, 1998 V1: 36. See also individual vents codes and standards, 1998 V1: 59 K
reverse osmosis controlled flow systems, 1999 V2: 88, 1999 V2:
cartridges, 1999 V2: 289
continuous deionization and, 1999 V2: 307
93–94
coordination with other designers, 1999 V2: 79,
L
defined, 1999 V2: 308–309 1999 V2: 81, 1999 V2: 84
membrane configurations, 1999 V2: 309 drain locations, 1999 V2: 79–80 M
membrane selection, 1999 V2: 310 drain types and components, 1999 V2: 80–81
polymer membranes, 1999 V2: 311
silica and, 1999 V2: 283
expansion, 1999 V2: 85, 1999 V2: 87
Form 4-1, 1999 V2: 109
N
small drinking water systems, 1999 V2: 318 gutters and downspouts, 1999 V2: 81
VOCs in membranes, 1999 V2: 284 horizontal branches, 1999 V2: 88 O
Reverse Osmosis and Nanofiltration System Design, insulation, 1999 V2: 85
1999 V2: 325 leaders, 1999 V2: 81, 1999 V2: 87
reversible potential, defined, 1998 V1: 152 piping system design, 1999 V2: 81 P
revolutions (rev, REV) roof drain sizes, 1999 V2: 69
defined, 1998 V1: 21 roof drains, defined, 1998 V1: 36 Q
revolutions per minute (rpm, RPM), 1998 V1: 21 scuppers, 1999 V2: 93
revolutions per second (rps, RPS), 1998 V1: 21 sizing pipes, 1999 V2: 85, 1999 V2: 89–92
Reynold’s number for turbulence, 1998 V1: 2, 1999 storm-drainage systems and, 1999 V2: 67 R
V2: 41 root problems in leaching trenches, 1999 V2: 222
rgh, RGH (roughness), 1998 V1: 21. See also Rosen, Harold J., 1998 V1: 80 S
roughness rotary lobe (roots) pumps, 1999 V2: 259
rh, RH (relative humidity), 1998 V1: 20, 1998 V1: rotary piston pumps, 1999 V2: 259
21 rotary vance, once-through-oil pumps, 1999 V2: T
RHO (density). See density 259
rhomboids, calculating area, 1998 V1: 4 rotors U
rhombuses, calculating area, 1998 V1: 4 in gas boosters, 1999 V2: 179
RI (Ryzner stability index), 1999 V2: 292 in pump engines, 1998 V1: 202
Richardson, D.W., Sr., 1999 V2: 325 rough vacuum, 1999 V2: 253 V
right-angle triangles, calculating area, 1998 V1: 4 roughing in, 1998 V1: 36
rims roughness (rgh, RGH, E), 1998 V1: 21 W
defined, 1998 V1: 36 roughness of pipes
on urinals, 1998 V1: 113 factors in, 1999 V2: 88 XYZ
Index 409
fairly rough pipe, 1999 V2: 141 Safe Handling of Acids, 1999 V2: 350 A
fairly smooth pipe, 1999 V2: 140 safety. See also hazards
galvanized fairly rough pipe, 1999 V2: 136 controlled substance spills, 1999 V2: 277
rough pipe, 1999 V2: 142 flammable and volatile liquids, 1999 V2: 347– B
smooth pipe, 1999 V2: 139 349
turbulence and, 1999 V2: 41 gas appliances, 1999 V2: 178 C
types of pipes and, 1999 V2: 122 gas boosters, 1999 V2: 179
round leaders, 1999 V2: 81 gases in septic tanks, 1999 V2: 230
RPBDs (reduced-pressure backflow preventers) hot-water systems, 1999 V2: 157, 1999 V2: 169– D
as cross-connection control devices, 1999 V2: 170
144 liquefied petroleum gas, 1999 V2: 194, 1999 V2: E
at building meters, 1999 V2: 115 197
degrees of protection, 1999 V2: 145 radioactive waste-drainage systems, 1999 V2:
flow rates, 1999 V2: 148 341 F
installation, 1999 V2: 148–149 Radiological Safety Officers, 1999 V2: 340
rpm, RPM (revolutions per minute), 1998 V1: 21 safety factors (sf, SF), 1998 V1: 21 G
rps, RPS (revolutions per second), 1998 V1: 21 sanitary precautions for wells, 1999 V2: 243
RSOs (Radiological Safety Officers), 1999 V2: 340 types of acids, 1999 V2: 332–334
rubber-in-shear isolators, 1998 V1: 165 vacuum cleaning system issues, 1999 V2: 276 H
rubber isolation devices safety cabinets, 1999 V2: 344
concrete bases and, 1998 V1: 211 safety shut-off devices, 1999 V2: 214 I
defined, 1998 V1: 210 salt splitting, 1999 V2: 295
dishwashers, 1998 V1: 199 salts (ions in reverse osmosis), 1999 V2: 280
reducing water hammer, 1998 V1: 203 samples J
vibration control, 1998 V1: 208 infectious waste systems, 1999 V2: 345
rubble drains, 1998 V1: 33. See also french drains pure water systems, 1999 V2: 324 K
rule of thumb tank capacity equation, 1999 V2: 151 radioactive waste effluent, 1999 V2: 342
runoff
calculation sheet, 1999 V2: 111
San Diego Gas & Electric Company, 1998 V1: 133
San Francisco Earthquake, 1998 V1: 163–164
L
coefficients in site storm drains, 1999 V2: 95 SAN (sanitary sewers), 1998 V1: 9, 1998 V1: 36.
diversion ditches for leaching trenches, 1999 V2: See also sanitary drainage systems M
223 sand filtration
Rational method for calculating, 1998 V1: 8,
1999 V2: 95, 1999 V2: 98, 1999 V2: 107
drinking water, 1999 V2: 244, 1999 V2: 318
earthquake damages to filters, 1998 V1: 163
N
slow-release storm-water systems, 1999 V2: 106 laboratory water, 1999 V2: 300
weighted runoff coefficients, 1999 V2: 97 pure water systems, 1999 V2: 322–323 O
runways, piping underneath, 1999 V2: 250 sand filters defined, 1998 V1: 36
rust sewage treatment, 1999 V2: 227, 1999 V2: 232
formation in iron pipes, 1998 V1: 135 sand points, 1999 V2: 241 P
rusting, defined, 1998 V1: 152 sands
RV (pressure-relief valves), 1998 V1: 12. See also backfilling around water system pipes, 1999 V2: Q
pressure-regulating or reducing valves 250
Ryzner stability index (RI), 1999 V2: 292 fill above subsurface drainage pipes, 1999 V2:
RZBP (reduced zone backflow preventers), 1998 V1: 103 R
12 gray-water irrigation systems and, 1999 V2: 26,
1999 V2: 27 S
S in soil texture, 1999 V2: 218
sanitary building drains, 1998 V1: 27. See also
s, SEC (seconds), 1998 V1: 22, 1998 V1: 41
sanitary drainage systems T
S (entropy), 1998 V1: 18, 1998 V1: 41
sanitary drainage systems
s (seconds), 1998 V1: 22, 1998 V1: 41
S (siemens), 1998 V1: 41
building sewers (house drains), 1999 V2: 15 U
components, 1999 V2: 9–14
S (soil sewers), 1998 V1: 9
defined, 1999 V2: 1
S (surfaces), 1998 V1: 22
drainage loads, 1999 V2: 3 V
s traps (unvented traps), 1999 V2: 46
fixture discharge characteristics, 1999 V2: 3
sa, SA (supply air), 1998 V1: 22
sacrificial anodes, 1998 V1: 144
floor leveling around drains, 1999 V2: 17 W
flow in, 1999 V2: 1–2
Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974, 1999 V2: 244,
gray-water systems and, 1999 V2: 22 XYZ
1999 V2: 279, 1999 V2: 316
joining methods, 1999 V2: 17–18 natural gas piping, 1999 V2: 177 A
kitchen areas, 1999 V2: 16–17 schools
materials for, 1999 V2: 14–15 septic tank systems for, 1999 V2: 231–232
pneumatic pressures in, 1999 V2: 2–3 shower room grates, 1999 V2: 11 B
protection from damage, 1999 V2: 18–19 vacuum calculations for, 1999 V2: 269
research, 1999 V2: 19 screening C
sanitary sewers (SAN, SS), 1998 V1: 9, 1998 V1: in downspouts, 1999 V2: 81
36 in gray-water treatment, 1999 V2: 27
sanitation and cleaning, 1999 V2: 16 vacuum exhaust piping, 1999 V2: 274 D
sloping drain capacities, 1999 V2: 5–9 screw pumps, 1999 V2: 259
sovent systems, 1999 V2: 19, 1999 V2: 20 screw threads, 1998 V1: 24 E
stack capacities, 1999 V2: 3–5 screwed fittings, 1998 V1: 163
storm-drainage systems and, 1999 V2: 67 screwed mechanical joints, 1999 V2: 334
thermal expansion, 1999 V2: 18 “scuff-buff” grates, 1999 V2: 11 F
waterproofing, 1999 V2: 17 scum in septic tanks, 1999 V2: 227, 1999 V2: 228,
sanitary tees 1999 V2: 229, 1999 V2: 230 G
common vents and, 1999 V2: 43 scuppers, 1999 V2: 79, 1999 V2: 88, 1999 V2: 93
flow capacity and, 1999 V2: 4 SD (storm or rainwater drains). See storm-drainage
sanitation. See also cleanouts systems H
feed water, 1999 V2: 289 SDI (silt density index), 1999 V2: 288–289
precautions for wells, 1999 V2: 243 sea level (sl, SL, SE) I
sanitary seals on wells, 1999 V2: 240 symbols for, 1998 V1: 21
water softeners, 1999 V2: 308 vacuum ratings, 1999 V2: 257
Sansone, John T., 1999 V2: 114 sealing grouts in wells, 1999 V2: 243 J
saturation (sat., SAT) seals
of soils, 1999 V2: 219 acoustic pipe-penetration seals, 1998 V1: 207 K
symbols for, 1998 V1: 21 flashing rings, 1999 V2: 12
of water with calcium carbonate, 1999 V2: 291
Saybolt seconds Furol (ssf, SSF), 1998 V1: 21
floor drains in infectious waste systems, 1999
V2: 345
L
Saybolt seconds Universal (ssu, SSU), 1998 V1: 21 seal liquids in vacuum pumps, 1999 V2: 260
SAZ (solar azimuth), 1998 V1: 17 sound insulation, 1998 V1: 198 M
SBCCI (Southern Building Code Congress Interna- trap seals in floor drains, 1999 V2: 10
tional, Inc.), 1998 V1: 60, 1999 V2: 114
SC (shading coefficients), 1998 V1: 22
well fixtures, 1999 V2: 243
seasonable condensate drains, 1999 V2: 13
N
scalding water, 1999 V2: 157, 1999 V2: 169–170 seats
scaling accessible shower compartments, 1998 V1: 117 O
boilers, 1999 V2: 314 bathtub and shower seats, 1998 V1: 114, 1998
chlorides and sulfates, 1999 V2: 283 V1: 115, 1998 V1: 121
cooling towers, 1999 V2: 316 secondary containment of infectious wastes, 1999 P
hardness and, 1999 V2: 283 V2: 343
Langelier saturation index, 1999 V2: 291–292 secondary storm-drainage systems Q
magnesium and, 1999 V2: 283 controlled-flow systems, 1999 V2: 94
predicting water deposits and corrosion, 1999 pipe sizing, 1999 V2: 69
V2: 290–292 piping systems, 1999 V2: 81 R
removing with water softening, 1999 V2: 307 planning for in design, 1999 V2: 70
Ryzner stability index, 1999 V2: 292 rainfall frequency and, 1999 V2: 79 S
total dissolved solids and, 1999 V2: 288 scuppers, 1999 V2: 93
water deposits and corrosion, 1999 V2: 289–290 types of, 1999 V2: 88
water piping systems, 1999 V2: 244 seconds (s, SEC), 1998 V1: 22, 1998 V1: 41 T
scanning electron microscopy, 1999 V2: 282 section numbers in MASTERFORMAT, 1998 V1: 66
scfh (standard cfh), 1999 V2: 180 sections in Manual of Practice, 1998 V1: 75–79 U
scfm, SCFM (standard free air at atmospheric sections of pump equipment, 1999 V2: 245
pressure), 1998 V1: 18, 1999 V2: 255–256, sediment
1999 V2: 257, 1999 V2: 263 removing, 1999 V2: 294 V
scfs, SCFS (cubic feet per second), 1998 V1: 41 in water, 1999 V2: 282
school laboratories. See also laboratories sediment buckets W
diversity factor calculations for vacuums, 1999 kitchen drains, 1999 V2: 16
V2: 263 materials, 1999 V2: 14 XYZ
Index 411
in oil collectors, 1999 V2: 13 self-venting in sovent systems, 1999 V2: 19, 1999 A
in sanitary drainage systems, 1999 V2: 12 V2: 54
sediment pits, 1999 V2: 105 semi-instantaneous water heaters, 1999 V2: 160
sedimentation SEMI (Semiconductor Equipment Manufacturers B
in gray-water treatment, 1999 V2: 27 Institute), 1999 V2: 279, 1999 V2: 317
in water treatment, 1999 V2: 294 semiambulatory individuals C
seepage beds, 1999 V2: 217, 1999 V2: 220, 1999 semiambulatory disabilities, 1998 V1: 101
V2: 224–225, 1999 V2: 232 water closet requirements, 1998 V1: 113
seepage flanges, 1999 V2: 17 semicircular gutters, 1999 V2: 81, 1999 V2: 86 D
seepage pits, 1998 V1: 36, 1999 V2: 27, 1999 V2: Semiconductor Equipment Manufacturers Institute,
220, 1999 V2: 225–226 1999 V2: 279, 1999 V2: 317 E
SEFF (surface efficiency), 1998 V1: 18 Sendelbach, M.G., 1999 V2: 325
seiches, 1998 V1: 158 sensible heat (SH)
seismic, defined, 1998 V1: 195 defined, 1998 V1: 133 F
Seismic Design for Buildings, 1998 V1: 185, 1998 sensible heat gain (SHG), 1998 V1: 19, 1998 V1:
V1: 195 22 G
seismic joints, crossing, 1998 V1: 163 sensible heat ratio (SHR), 1998 V1: 22
seismic protection symbols for, 1998 V1: 22
calculating seismic forces, 1998 V1: 186–189 sensitivity in pressure-regulated valves, 1999 V2: H
causes and effects of earthquakes, 1998 V1: 152
156–159 separating systems I
codes and standards, 1998 V1: 185–186 for acid waste, 1999 V2: 329, 1999 V2: 334
computer analysis of piping systems, 1998 V1: for oil, 1999 V2: 347–349
189 separators in vacuum cleaning systems J
damage from earthquakes, 1998 V1: 158–159 kinds of materials, 1999 V2: 275
design considerations, 1998 V1: 191 location, 1999 V2: 270 K
earthquake measurement and seismic design, pressure loss, 1999 V2: 274
1998 V1: 159–162
equipment protection, 1998 V1: 164–168
types of systems, 1999 V2: 266, 1999 V2: 268
septic tanks
L
glossary, 1998 V1: 193–195 biological treatment of sewage in, 1999 V2: 227
introduction, 1998 V1: 155–157 chemicals in, 1999 V2: 230–231 M
learning from past earthquakes, 1998 V1: 162– cleaning, 1999 V2: 229–230
164
pipe restraints, 1998 V1: 168–184, 1999 V2: 14,
clogging materials, 1999 V2: 231
N
1999 V2: 19 compartments, 1999 V2: 229
potential problems, 1998 V1: 191–193, 1998 V1: defined, 1998 V1: 36 O
194 estimating sewage quantities, 1999 V2: 233–238
references, 1998 V1: 195 grease interceptors, 1999 V2: 230
seismic loads, defined, 1998 V1: 155 institutional and recreational establishments, P
seismic risk maps, 1998 V1: 155, 1998 V1: 156, 1999 V2: 231–232
1998 V1: 157 liquid discharge from, 1999 V2: 217 Q
vibration isolation and, 1998 V1: 214 percolation rates and, 1999 V2: 238
Seismic Restraint Manual Guidelines for Mechanical single septic tank installations, 1999 V2: 231
Systems, 1998 V1: 195 sizing, 1999 V2: 227 R
selective attack corrosion, 1998 V1: 138 solids removal, 1999 V2: 227–228
selectivity coefficients, 1999 V2: 302 specifications, 1999 V2: 228–229 S
self-bracing problems in seismic protection, 1998 usefulness and area served, 1999 V2: 231
V1: 192 venting, 1999 V2: 231
self-contained breathing units, 1999 V2: 332, 1999 septum filters, 1999 V2: 318 T
V2: 333 serial distribution of leaching trenches, 1999 V2:
self-jetting well points, 1999 V2: 241 223–224 U
self-regulating heat-trace systems, 1999 V2: 165– service cocks, 1999 V2: 154
166 service deionization, 1999 V2: 305–306
self-scouring traps, 1999 V2: 36 set opening pressure, relief valves and, 1999 V2: V
self-siphonage 167
defined, 1999 V2: 36 set pressure in pressure-regulated valves, 1999 V2: W
in fixture drains, 1999 V2: 2 152
tests, 1999 V2: 38 settlement. See bedding and settlement; creep XYZ
severe backflow hazard, 1999 V2: 145, 1999 V2: enclosures, 1998 V1: 118 A
146 fixture-unit loads, 1999 V2: 3
sewage, defined, 1998 V1: 36. See also effluent grab bars, 1998 V1: 118
sewage-disposal systems. See private sewage- grates in school shower rooms, 1999 V2: 11 B
disposal systems; public sewers gray-water supply and demand, 1999 V2: 25
sewage effluent. See effluent installation man-hour estimates, 1998 V1: 83 C
sewage ejectors, 1998 V1: 36 rates of sewage flows, 1999 V2: 237
sewage treatment plants, 1999 V2: 22, 1999 V2: reduced water usage, 1998 V1: 125
24, 1999 V2: 147 resilient-mounting design, 1998 V1: 212 D
sewer video equipment, 1999 V2: 10 seats, 1998 V1: 121
sewers. See building sewers; private sewage- shower compartment accessibility, 1998 V1: E
disposal systems; public sewers; specific 115–119
types of sewers shower head acoustic ratings, 1998 V1: 199
sf, SF (safety factors), 1998 V1: 21 spray units, 1998 V1: 114, 1998 V1: 117 F
sft hp, SFT HP (shaft horsepower), 1998 V1: 22 thresholds, 1998 V1: 118
sfu (supply fixture units), 1998 V1: 32 SHP (shaft horsepower), 1998 V1: 22 G
SGPH (standard gallons per hour), 1998 V1: 19 SHR (sensible heat ratio), 1998 V1: 22
SH (sensible heat), 1998 V1: 19, 1998 V1: 22, 1998 Shreir, L.L., 1998 V1: 152
V1: 133 Shrive, Charles A., 1998 V1: 80 H
shading coefficients (SC), 1998 V1: 22 Shumann, Eugene R., 1999 V2: 114
shaft horsepower (sft hp, SFT HP, SHP), 1998 V1: shut-off devices, defined, 1999 V2: 214 I
22 shut-off valves
shafts, piping and acoustic design for, 1998 V1: earthquake-sensitive valves, 1998 V1: 164
200 gas hose connectors, 1999 V2: 196 J
shaking vacuum filter bags, 1999 V2: 268 natural gas, 1999 V2: 176
“shall” in specifications, 1998 V1: 67 SI units. See International System of Units K
shallow fill, building sewers and, 1999 V2: 15 siamese fire department connections, 1998 V1: 15
shallow septic tanks, 1999 V2: 228
shallow wells, 1999 V2: 240, 1999 V2: 247
siamese fittings, 1998 V1: 36. See also fire protec-
tion systems
L
shear motions, preventing, 1998 V1: 164, 1998 V1: side reach for wheelchairs, 1998 V1: 106, 1998 V1:
193, 1998 V1: 194 107 M
Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors’ side vents, 1998 V1: 36
National Association (SMACNA), 1998 V1:
172, 1998 V1: 195
side wall grab bars, 1998 V1: 110
sidesway prevention, 1998 V1: 194
N
Sheet Metal Industry Fund of Los Angeles, 1998 V1: sidewalk fire department connections, 1998 V1: 15
195 sidewall sprinklers, 1998 V1: 16, 1998 V1: 38 O
shell-and-tube heat exchangers, 1998 V1: 132 Siegrist, R., 1999 V2: 34
shelving siemens, 1998 V1: 41
accessibility in toilet and bathing rooms, 1998 sight disabilities, 1998 V1: 101 P
V1: 108 significant digits, 1998 V1: 40
ambulatory accessible toilet compartments, 1998 silencers on vacuum systems, 1999 V2: 268 Q
V1: 111 silica, 1999 V2: 283
Sherlin, G.C., 1999 V2: 65 silicates, 1999 V2: 282
SHG (sensible heat gain), 1998 V1: 19, 1998 V1: 22 silicon, 1999 V2: 281 R
shielding on radioactive drainage systems, 1999 V2: silicon iron piping, 1999 V2: 15
339–340 silt S
shine. See radiation removing, 1999 V2: 294
shock absorbers. See water hammer arresters silt density index, 1999 V2: 288–289
shock intensity of water hammer, 1999 V2: 132 in soil texture, 1999 V2: 218 T
shopping centers, 1999 V2: 25 in water, 1999 V2: 282
short-circuiting installations, 1998 V1:148 silt density index (SDI), 1999 V2: 288–289 U
Short-form specs, 1998 V1: 80 silver, 1998 V1: 137, 1998 V1: 140, 1998 V1: 141
shot-in concrete anchors, 1998 V1: 165, 1998 V1: silver solder, 1998 V1: 140
193 A Simple Method for Retention Basin Design, 1999 V
showers V2: 114
acoustic ratings of, 1998 V1: 199 simplex gas booster systems, 1999 V2: 181 W
emergency showers, 1999 V2: 332, 1999 V2: simultaneous operators of vacuum systems, 1999
333, 1999 V2: 344 V2: 269, 1999 V2: 272 XYZ
Index 413
single-acting altitude valves, 1999 V2: 249 natural gas piping, 1999 V2: 174–176, 1999 V2: A
single-compartment septic tanks, 1999 V2: 229 183–194, 1999 V2: 197–211
single-degree-of-freedom systems, 1998 V1: 160, by NFPA formula, 1999 V2: 186, 1999 V2:
1998 V1: 161 187, 1999 V2: 188, 1999 V2: 189 B
single-seated pressure-regulated valves, 1999 V2: by Spitzglass formula, 1999 V2: 210–211
152 by Weymouth formula, 1999 V2: 190, 1999 C
single-side-entry fittings in sovent systems, 1999 V2: 191, 1999 V2: 198, 1999 V2: 209
V2: 62 pressure drops and, 1999 V2: 192, 1999 V2:
single-stage distillation, 1999 V2: 295 193 D
single-step deionization (mixed bed), 1999 V2: 302, nominal pipe size, 1999 V2: 253
1999 V2: 303, 1999 V2: 305 pressure and temperature relief valves, 1999 V2: E
sink-disposal units. See garbage disposers 167
sinks and wash basins. See also lavatories pressure-regulated valves, 1999 V2: 153–154
accessibility, 1998 V1: 113–114 roof drainage systems, 1999 V2: 81, 1999 V2: F
fixture-unit loads, 1999 V2: 3 85, 1999 V2: 89–92
gray-water supply and demand, 1999 V2: 25 septic tanks, 1999 V2: 227 G
infectious waste drainage, 1999 V2: 344 special-waste system pipes, 1999 V2: 328–329,
installation man-hour estimates, 1998 V1: 83 1999 V2: 329, 1999 V2: 330, 1999 V2: 331
laboratory sink drainage rates, 1999 V2: 337 storm drainage calculation form, 1999 V2: 110 H
neutralizing acid from, 1999 V2: 336 subsurface pipes, 1999 V2: 104
rates of sewage flows, 1999 V2: 237 sump pits for LSDS systems, 1999 V2: 344 I
sound damping materials, 1998 V1: 200 toilet compartments, 1998 V1: 110
suds problems, 1999 V2: 37, 1999 V2: 39 vacuum systems, 1999 V2: 262–266
vents, 1999 V2: 37 vacuum cleaning inlets, tools, and tubing, J
siphonage 1999 V2: 269–270
eliminating with vents, 1999 V2: 35 vacuum cleaning piping network, 1999 V2: K
factors in trap seal loss, 1999 V2: 36 270–274, 1999 V2: 274
reducing trap seal losses, 1999 V2: 39–40
water closets and, 1999 V2: 36
vacuum cleaning system separators, 1999 V2:
275–276
L
site storm drainage, 1999 V2: 95–107 vacuum exhaust pipes, 1999 V2: 263
equations, 1999 V2: 107–108 vacuum piping, 1999 V2: 263 M
exterior piping and inlets, 1999 V2: 98–99 vacuum producers (exhausters), 1999 V2: 272
Rational Method formulas, 1998 V1: 8, 1999 V2:
95–98, 1999 V2: 98, 1999 V2: 107
vacuum pumps, 1999 V2: 263–264
vents, 1999 V2: 41–43, 1999 V2: 50–63
N
storm-water detention, 1999 V2: 105–107 vertical stacks, 1999 V2: 5, 1999 V2: 6
subsurface drainage, 1999 V2: 99–105, 1999 V2: water hammer arresters, 1999 V2: 143–144 O
100 water meters, 1999 V2: 116
sites water storage tanks, 1999 V2: 247–248
geological stability of, 1999 V2: 26 wells, 1999 V2: 240 P
overland flow times for sites, 1999 V2: 96, 1999 sl, SL (sea level), 1998 V1: 21, 1999 V2: 257
V2: 97, 1999 V2: 98, 1999 V2: 111 slabs Q
site conditions and storm drainage, 1999 V2: 69 below-slab drainage, 1999 V2: 103
slope of site, 1999 V2: 101, 1999 V2: 224 in radioactive waste systems, 1999 V2: 342
sizing slack cables in earthquake protection, 1998 V1: R
acid-waste drainage system pipes, 1999 V2: 334 167–168
building storm-drainage systems, 1999 V2: 69 slaughterhouses, 1999 V2: 16 S
cleanouts, 1999 V2: 9 sliding motions
cold-water system pipes, 1999 V2: 116–131, preventing for pipes or equipment, 1998 V1: 164
1999 V2: 121–131, 1999 V2: 133–142, of seismic plates, 1998 V1: 156 T
1999 V2: 136 sliding vane pumps, 1999 V2: 262
floor drains, 1999 V2: 10 slime, 1999 V2: 289 U
friction loss basis for pipes, 1999 V2: 127 slime bacteria, 1999 V2: 282
gas boosters, 1999 V2: 182–183 slope of sites, 1999 V2: 26, 1999 V2: 101, 1999 V2:
gas piping, 1998 V1: 8 224 V
grab bars, 1998 V1: 119 sloping drains
gutters, 1999 V2: 86 fixture loads, 1999 V2: 7, 1999 V2: 9 W
hot-water circulation systems, 1999 V2: 165 Manning formula, 1998 V1: 1
natural gas fittings, 1999 V2: 184 minimum slope of piping, 1999 V2: 7 XYZ
sanitary drainage systems, 1999 V2: 5 individual waste-water treatment plants, 1999 A
steady flow in, 1999 V2: 6–7 V2: 232
slow-release storm-water detention systems, 1999 inspection, 1999 V2: 238
V2: 105–107 institutional and recreational establishments, B
slow sand filtration, 1999 V2: 318 1999 V2: 231–232
sludge leaching trenches, 1999 V2: 220 C
defined, 1998 V1: 36, 1999 V2: 289 locations, 1999 V2: 220
from water softeners, 1999 V2: 244 mound systems, 1999 V2: 226
in septic tanks, 1999 V2: 227, 1999 V2: 228, percolation rates for soils, 1999 V2: 219–220 D
1999 V2: 229, 1999 V2: 230 seepage beds, 1999 V2: 224–225
slugs of water, 1999 V2: 2, 1999 V2: 4, 1999 V2: seepage pits, 1999 V2: 225–226 E
38, 1999 V2: 226 selecting systems, 1999 V2: 220–221
SMACNA (Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Con- Soil Conservation Service, 1999 V2: 107, 1999 V2:
tractors’ National Association), 1998 V1: 172, 114 F
1998 V1: 195 soil pipes, 1998 V1: 36
small bore pipes, 1999 V2: 341 soil sewers (S, SS), 1998 V1: 9 G
small-diameter gravity sewers, 1999 V2: 226 soil vents. See stack vents
Smith, Dana K., 1998 V1: 80 soils
smoke detectors, 1998 V1: 29 color, 1999 V2: 218–219 H
smooth piping, 1999 V2: 139 depth, 1999 V2: 219
sniffer systems for gas, 1999 V2: 197 gray-water irrigation systems and, 1999 V2: 26, I
snubbing devices for earthquake protection, 1998 1999 V2: 27
V1: 165, 1998 V1: 166, 1998 V1: 167, 1998 infiltration rates, 1999 V2: 96
V1: 189 K factors of, 1999 V2: 101, 1999 V2: 104–105 J
soaps maps of, 1999 V2: 218
in gray water, 1999 V2: 29 in seismic force calculations, 1998 V1: 185 K
in septic tanks, 1999 V2: 230 soil percolation tests, 1999 V2: 219–220
socket welding
defined, 1999 V2: 341
soil resistivity, 1998 V1: 147
structure, 1999 V2: 218
L
socket-weld end connections, 1998 V1: 31 swelling characteristics, 1999 V2: 219
sodium, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: 283 texture, 1999 V2: 218 M
sodium aluminate, 1999 V2: 294 SOL (solar), 1998 V1: 22
sodium bicarbonate, 1999 V2: 283
sodium bisulfate, 1999 V2: 245
solar (SOL), defined, 1998 V1: 22
solar azimuth (SAZ), 1998 V1: 17
N
sodium carbonate, 1999 V2: 283 solar energy, 1998 V1: 132, 1998 V1: 133
sodium chloride, 1999 V2: 283 soldering O
sodium cycle ion exchange, 1999 V2: 307 corrosion and, 1998 V1: 143
sodium hexametaphosphate, 1998 V1: 149, 1999 soldered joints and earthquake protection, 1998
V2: 244 V1: 169 P
sodium hydroxide, 1999 V2: 230, 1999 V2: 305 solenoid valves
sodium hypochlorite, 1999 V2: 245 solenoid valve trap primers, 1999 V2: 14 Q
sodium silicate, 1998 V1: 149 symbols for, 1998 V1: 12
sodium sulfate, 1999 V2: 281 solid angles, 1998 V1: 41
sodium thiosulfate, 1999 V2: 245 solid waste disposal R
soft conversions, 1998 V1: 40 as energy source, 1998 V1: 132
soft water (SW), 1998 V1: 9. See also water soften- solid waste incineration systems, 1998 V1: 132 S
ers solids removal in septic tanks, 1999 V2: 227–228
softening water. See water softeners solids, rectangular
softness of vibration control materials, 1998 V1: calculating volume, 1998 V1: 5 T
208 solids in water, 1999 V2: 288
software. See computer programs soluble silica, 1999 V2: 283 U
soil-absorption sewage systems, 1999 V2: 217–224 solute. See treated water
allowable rates of sewage application, 1999 V2: sound power
237 defined, 1998 V1: 216 V
estimating sewage quantities, 1999 V2: 233–238 levels, 1998 V1: 198, 1998 V1: 216
estimating soil absorption potential, 1999 V2: sound pressure, 1998 V1: 216, 1998 V1: 217 W
217–220 sounds. See acoustics in plumbing systems
source water. See feed water XYZ
Index 415
sources, vacuum, 1999 V2: 259–261, 1999 V2: references, 1999 V2: 350 A
262, 1999 V2: 263–264 separating systems, 1999 V2: 329
sources of acoustic problems, 1998 V1: 204 sizing piping, 1999 V2: 328–329, 1999 V2: 329,
Southern Building Code Congress International, 1999 V2: 330, 1999 V2: 331 B
Inc. (SBCCI), 1998 V1: 60, 1999 V2: 114 special wastes defined, 1998 V1: 36
sovent aerators, 1999 V2: 54–56, 1999 V2: 60, system approval requirements, 1999 V2: 328 C
1999 V2: 62 specific conductance, 1999 V2: 287
sovent deaerators, 1999 V2: 54, 1999 V2: 56, 1999 specific energy, converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 47
V2: 60, 1999 V2: 61, 1999 V2: 62 specific gravity (SG) D
sovent single-stack plumbing systems defined, 1999 V2: 214
building drain connections, 1999 V2: 60–61 fuel gases, 1999 V2: 212 E
components and sizing, 1999 V2: 54–63 natural gas, 1999 V2: 173, 1999 V2: 185
illustrated, 1999 V2: 20 symbols for, 1998 V1: 22
installation, 1999 V2: 62 specific heat (sp ht, SP HT, C) F
introduction, 1999 V2: 19 measurements, 1998 V1: 41
pressure-equalizing lines, 1999 V2: 60 sp ht at constant pressure (cp, cp, CP), 1998 V1: G
sizing, 1999 V2: 57–62 22
venting, 1999 V2: 46–47 sp ht at constant volume (cv, cv, CV), 1998 V1: 22
sp, SP (static pressure), 1998 V1: 21, 1998 V1: 22 symbols for, 1998 V1: 22 H
sp ht, SP HT (specific heat) specific resistance in water, 1999 V2: 285–287
measurements, 1998 V1: 41 specific volume (sp vol, SP VOL, V, CVOL) I
sp ht at constant pressure (cp, cp, CP), 1998 V1: measurements, 1998 V1: 41
22 symbols for, 1998 V1: 22
sp ht at constant volume (cv, cv, CV), 1998 V1: 22 Specifications, 1998 V1: 79 J
symbols for, 1998 V1: 22 specifications (spec, SPEC). See also construction
SP (static pressure), 1998 V1: 21, 1998 V1: 22 contract documents; project manuals K
sp vol, SP VOL (specific volume). See specific additional information and addresses, 1998 V1:
volume
space heating with natural gas, 1999 V2: 174
80
administration of, 1998 V1: 68
L
spacing bibliography, 1998 V1: 80
grab bars for accessibility, 1998 V1: 119 CSI sections, 1998 V1: 66 M
of leaching trenches, 1999 V2: 222 labor units, 1998 V1: 84
of vacuum inlets, 1999 V2: 269
spec, SPEC (specifications). See specifications
master specifications, 1998 V1: 67–68
plumbing specifiers and engineers, 1998 V1: 69
N
Spec is a Four-Letter Word, 1998 V1: 80 references, 1998 V1: 79–80
Spec Writing Made Easier, 1998 V1: 80 software, 1998 V1: 68 O
special conditions in contract documents, 1998 V1: “specifications” as incorrect term, 1998 V1: 64
63 symbols for, 1998 V1: 22
special sprinklers, 1998 V1: 38 writing specifications, 1998 V1: 66–67 P
special-waste drainage systems Specifications for Making Buildings and Facilities
acid-waste systems, 1999 V2: 329, 1999 V2: Usable by the Physically Handicapped, 1998 Q
332–334 V1: 99
chemical-waste systems, 1999 V2: 345–346 SPECSystem, 1998 V1: 68, 1998 V1: 80
codes and standards, 1999 V2: 327–328 SPECTEXT, 1998 V1: 68 R
fire-suppression water drainage, 1999 V2: 346– speed of pumps, 1998 V1: 7–8
347 Speller, Frank N., 1998 V1: 152 S
flammable and volatile liquids, 1999 V2: 347– Spencer Turbine Co., 1999 V2: 277
349 spherical soil structure, 1999 V2: 218
future growth of systems, 1999 V2: 329 spigot outlets, 1999 V2: 18 T
general design considerations, 1999 V2: 329 spills
infectious and biological waste systems, 1999 V2: acids, 1999 V2: 332 U
343–345 controlled substances, 1999 V2: 277
introduction, 1999 V2: 327 oil, 1999 V2: 347–349
pH values in waste, 1999 V2: 329 spiral wound modules V
piping and joint selection, 1999 V2: 328 in cross-flow filtration, 1999 V2: 311
planning for larger systems, 1999 V2: 329 in reverse osmosis (SWRO), 1999 V2: 289, 1999 W
radioactive waste drainage and vents, 1999 V2: V2: 309
337–343 XYZ
Spitzglass formula, 1998 V1: 8, 1999 V2: 183, 1999 stages in pump equipment, 1999 V2: 245 A
V2: 210–211 stainless steel
splash screens for backflow devices, 1999 V2: 148 electromotive force series, 1998 V1: 141
split-case, horizontal, end-suction pumps, 1999 V2: passivation, 1998 V1: 143 B
245 stainless steel drains, 1999 V2: 342
sply., SPLY (supplies), 1998 V1: 22 stainless steel grates, 1999 V2: 16 C
sponge rubber isolators, 1998 V1: 210 stainless steel piping, 1999 V2: 14, 1999 V2: 262,
spout location on water fountains, 1998 V1: 107 1999 V2: 324, 1999 V2: 341
spray nozzle waterfall aerators, 1999 V2: 293 stainless steel storage tanks, 1999 V2: 323 D
spray units stairwell drains, 1999 V2: 69
in bathtubs, 1998 V1: 114 stale sewage, 1998 V1: 38 E
in showers, 1998 V1: 117 standard (std, STD), 1998 V1: 22
spring isolators standard air, 1998 V1: 25
concrete bases and, 1998 V1: 211 standard atmospheric pressure in vacuums, 1999 F
problems in seismic protection, 1998 V1: 191– V2: 254
193, 1998 V1: 194 standard cartridge depth filtration, 1999 V2: 300 G
pump isolation and, 1998 V1: 212 standard cfh (scfh), 1999 V2: 180
stored energy in, 1998 V1: 165 standard fire protection symbols, 1998 V1: 15–16
spring-operated, double-check valve devices, 1999 Standard for Health Care Facilities, 1999 V2: 262 H
V2: 149 Standard for Hypochlorites, 1999 V2: 155
spring-operated, pressure-regulating devices, 1999 Standard for Liquid Chlorine, 1999 V2: 155 I
V2: 122 Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems,
spring supports, 1998 V1: 189 1998 V1: 195
sprinkler systems standard free air J
defined, 1998 V1: 36–37 adjusting, 1999 V2: 257
firefighting water drainage, 1999 V2: 346–347 at atmospheric pressure (scfm), 1998 V1:18, K
lawn sprinklers, 1999 V2: 121 1999 V2: 255–256, 1999 V2: 257, 1999
sediment buckets in drains, 1999 V2: 12
seismic protection and, 1998 V1: 186
V2: 263
in vacuum sizing calculations, 1999 V2: 263
L
sprinkler types, 1998 V1: 37 standard gallons per hour, 1998 V1: 19
water demands, 1999 V2: 243–244 Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, 1998 M
squares (sq., SQ) V1: 1, 1998 V1: 49
calculating area, 1998 V1: 4
standard plumbing and piping symbols, 1998 V1:
9–14
N
symbols for, 1998 V1: 22 Standard Plumbing Code, 1999 V2: 79, 1999 V2:
sr (steradians), 1998 V1: 41 114 O
SS (sanitary sewers), 1998 V1: 9, 1998 V1: 36. See standard time meridian (STM), 1998 V1: 22
also sanitary drainage systems standards. See codes and standards
SSD (subsoil or footing drains), 1998 V1: 9, 1998 standby losses in circulating systems, 1998 V1: P
V1: 38 127–128
ssf, SSF (Saybolt seconds Furol), 1998 V1: 21 standpipe systems, 1998 V1: 38 Q
ssu, SSU (Saybolt seconds Universal), 1998 V1: 21 standpipes
ST (storm or rainwater drains). See storm-drainage defined, 1998 V1: 38
systems flat land storage tanks, 1999 V2: 247 R
stability index (Ryzner), 1999 V2: 292 standpipe air chambers, 1999 V2: 132, 1999 V2:
stabilization ponds, 1999 V2: 232 143 S
stack groups, 1998 V1: 38 standpipe systems defined, 1998 V1: 31
stack inlets in deaerators, 1999 V2: 56 symbols for, 1998 V1: 16
stack vents system classes of service, 1998 V1: 38 T
air in, 1999 V2: 2 system types, 1998 V1: 38
defined, 1998 V1: 38, 1999 V2: 64 startup conditions for gas appliances, 1999 V2: 178 U
fixtures and, 1999 V2: 41, 1999 V2: 43 state agencies, 1999 V2: 327, 1999 V2: 340
overview, 1999 V2: 47–49 state rainfall rate tables, 1999 V2: 69–78
sizing, 1999 V2: 50 static deflection for pump vibration, 1998 V1: 211 V
stack venting defined, 1998 V1: 38 static head, 1999 V2: 245
vent headers, 1999 V2: 45 calculating, 1998 V1: 2 W
stacks. See vertical stacks velocity head and, 1998 V1: 6
staged evaporation, 1999 V2: 298 static pressure (SP), 1998 V1: 21, 1998 V1: 22 XYZ
Index 417
static pressure loss, 1999 V2: 123 of rainwater, 1999 V2: 93–94 A
static wells, 1999 V2: 241–243 of sewage in septic tanks, 1999 V2: 228–229
stationary meter flow indicators, 1998 V1: 13 storage plants, 1999 V2: 147
std, STD (standard), 1998 V1: 22 storage tanks. See tanks B
std gph (standard gallons per hour), 1998 V1: 19 storm building drains. See storm-drainage systems
steady flow Storm Drainage Design and Detention using the C
in horizontal drains, 1999 V2: 6–7, 1999 V2: 9 Rational Method, 1999 V2: 114
roof drainage, 1999 V2: 88 storm-drainage systems
steady-state heat balance equations, 1999 V2: 158 building drainage systems, 1999 V2: 68–94 D
steam controlled-flow systems, 1999 V2: 88, 1999 V2:
distilling water from, 1999 V2: 295–298 93–94 E
geothermal, 1998 V1: 132 equations, 1999 V2: 107–108
high-pressure steam supply, 1998 V1: 11 forms for calculations, 1999 V2: 109–113
low-pressure steam, 1998 V1: 20 introduction, 1999 V2: 67–68 F
low-pressure steam supply, 1998 V1: 11 materials, 1999 V2: 68
medium-pressure steam, 1998 V1: 20 rainfall rate tables, 1999 V2: 69–78 G
medium-pressure steam supply, 1998 V1: 11 Rational method, 1998 V1: 8, 1999 V2: 95, 1999
steam atmospheric vents, 1998 V1: 11 V2: 98, 1999 V2: 107
steam traps, 1998 V1: 14 sewer inspection checklist, 1998 V1: 96 H
waste heat usage of condensate, 1998 V1: 128 site drainage, 1999 V2: 95–107
steam deaerators, 1999 V2: 294 storm drains (SD, ST), 1998 V1: 9 I
steam plants, 1999 V2: 147 storm sewers defined, 1998 V1: 38
steel, 1998 V1: 140, 1998 V1: 141. See also stain- Storm Water Retention Methods, 1999 V2: 114
less steel STPs (sewage treatment plants), 1999 V2: 22, 1999 J
steel beam connections in pipe bracing, 1998 V1: V2: 24, 1999 V2: 147
177, 1998 V1: 178 strain, defined, 1998 V1: 38 K
steel fittings, 1999 V2: 196 strainers
steel floor decks in earthquakes, 1998 V1: 169
steel piping. See also galvanized steel piping;
backflow preventers, 1999 V2: 149
downspouts, 1999 V2: 81
L
stainless steel piping roof drains, 1999 V2: 80, 1999 V2: 82
liquefied petroleum gas, 1999 V2: 196 sanitary drainage systems, 1999 V2: 10–12 M
radioactive wastes, 1999 V2: 341 sediment buckets, 1999 V2: 12
sizing, 1999 V2: 89–92
surface roughness, 1999 V2: 122
strata of sites, 1999 V2: 101
N
water systems, 1999 V2: 250 stratification in water heaters, 1999 V2: 160, 1999
steel roofing drains, 1999 V2: 82 V2: 165 O
steel slabs, 1998 V1: 208 stray current corrosion, 1998 V1: 138–139, 1998
steel springs, 1998 V1: 210 V1: 152
steel substrate roofing drains, 1999 V2: 82 streamline fittings (avoiding suds formation), 1999 P
steel water tanks, 1999 V2: 247 V2: 37
Steele, Alfred, 1998 V1: 49, 1998 V1: 80, 1999 V2: streams, irrigation systems and, 1999 V2: 27 Q
114 street gutters, 1999 V2: 99
Stenzel, Mark H., 1999 V2: 325 street inlets in site storm systems, 1999 V2: 98
steradians, 1998 V1: 41 stress R
sterilization conversion factors, 1998 V1: 45
feed water, 1999 V2: 289 measurements, 1998 V1: 41 S
infectious waste systems, 1999 V2: 345 stress-accelerated corrosion, 1998 V1: 152
pure water systems, 1999 V2: 324 stress corrosion, 1998 V1: 152
Stevens Institute of Technology, 1999 V2: 65 stress-corrosion cracking, 1998 V1: 138, 1999 V2: T
Stevens’s Building Technology Research Laboratory, 290
1999 V2: 49 strip-chart recorder water meters, 1999 V2: 116 U
stills, 1999 V2: 295–298 strong-base regeneration, 1999 V2: 302, 1999 V2:
STM (standard time meridian), 1998 V1: 22 305
stop valves, 1998 V1: 38 strongbacks, 1998 V1: 165 V
storage strontium 90, 1999 V2: 340
of gray water, 1999 V2: 23, 1999 V2: 26, 1999 structural angle bracing, 1998 V1: 173 W
V2: 27 structural channel bracing, 1998 V1: 173
of pure water, 1999 V2: 323–324 structural strength XYZ
bath and shower seats, 1998 V1: 121 ground water disposal, 1999 V2: 105 A
grab bars, 1998 V1: 119 liquid-waste decontamination systems, 1999 V2:
structure-borne sound, 1998 V1: 201, 1998 V1: 344
204 roof drainage and, 1999 V2: 79, 1999 V2: 80, B
strut bracing, 1998 V1: 175, 1998 V1: 177 1999 V2: 88
sub-micron cartridge filtration, 1999 V2: 300 sanitary drainage systems, 1999 V2: 9 C
subdrains, building, 1998 V1: 27 storm drains and, 1999 V2: 69
submain sewers, 1998 V1: 38 subsurface water disposal, 1999 V2: 106
submersible pumps, 1999 V2: 243, 1999 V2: 245, sump pumps defined, 1998 V1: 38 D
1999 V2: 247 sumps defined, 1998 V1: 38
subsoil drains (SSD), 1998 V1: 9, 1998 V1: 38 vibration isolation, 1998 V1: 214 E
substances, amount (moles), 1998 V1: 41 Sun, T.Y., 1998 V1: 195
subsurface drainage sunlight, protecting against, 1999 V2: 19
determining quantities of water, 1999 V2: 100 SUP (supplies), 1998 V1: 22 F
filter materials, 1999 V2: 103–104 supercritical flow, 1999 V2: 67. See also hydraulic
ground water disposal, 1999 V2: 105 jumps in flow G
site drainage, 1999 V2: 99–105 SuperSpec, 1998 V1: 68, 1998 V1: 80
site investigation, 1999 V2: 100 superstrut bracing, 1998 V1: 172
trenching, 1999 V2: 102–103 supervisory (tamper) switches, 1998 V1: 38 H
types of piping, 1999 V2: 102 supplementary conditions, 1998 V1: 64
subsurface drip irrigation systems, 1999 V2: 27 supplementary units of measurement, 1998 V1: 41 I
subsurface waste-disposal systems. See soil- supplies (sply., SPLY, SUP), 1998 V1: 22
absorption sewage systems supply air (sa, SA), 1998 V1: 22
subsurface water. See ground water supply fixture units, 1998 V1: 32 J
SUC (suction), 1998 V1: 22 supports and hangers
successive leaching trenches, 1999 V2: 223–224 alternate attachment to hangers, 1998 V1: 176 K
suct., SUCT (suction), 1998 V1: 22 defined, 1998 V1: 38
suction (suct., SUCT, SUC), 1998 V1: 22
suction inlets in storage tanks, 1999 V2: 248
hanger rod connections in bracing, 1998 V1: 179
hanger rod gravity forces in earthquakes, 1998
L
suction piping, 1998 V1: 207, 1998 V1: 208, 1999 V1: 189
V2: 248, 1999 V2: 249 installation man-hour estimates, 1998 V1: 83 M
suction-type pumps, 1999 V2: 241, 1999 V2: 245 isolation hangers, 1998 V1: 208
suds
factors in trap seal loss, 1999 V2: 36
natural gas pipes, 1999 V2: 176
N
pressure zones, 1999 V2: 37, 1999 V2: 38, 1999 pipe hangers, 1998 V1: 16
V2: 39 resilient pipe hangers, 1998 V1: 204 O
relief vents, 1999 V2: 37, 1999 V2: 39 roof drainage, 1999 V2: 88
sovent single-stack plumbing systems and, 1999 in sanitary drainage systems, 1999 V2: 14
V2: 54 symbols for, 1998 V1: 16 P
venting, 1999 V2: 36–37, 1999 V2: 39 vacuum cleaning tubing, 1999 V2: 269
sulfate-reducing bacteria, 1999 V2: 282 SUR (surfaces), 1998 V1: 22 Q
sulfates, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: 283, 1999 V2: SURD (surfaces, dry), 1998 V1: 22
302 surface abrasions
sulfites, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: 315 corrosion and, 1998 V1: 143 R
sulfur, 1999 V2: 281 grab bars, 1998 V1: 119
sulfur-based joint compound, 1999 V2: 223 surface efficiency (SEFF), 1998 V1: 18 S
sulfuric acid, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: 305, 1999 surface fault slips, 1998 V1: 158
V2: 332–333 surface-mounted fire hose cabinets, 1998 V1: 14
sulfurous acid, 1999 V2: 281 surface-mounted pumps, 1999 V2: 245 T
SUM (summary, summation), 1998 V1: 22 surface runoff. See runoff
Sum of the Parts, 1998 V1: 80 surface water U
summary, summation (SUM), 1998 V1: 22 as feed water for pure water systems, 1999 V2:
sump pits, 1999 V2: 344 321
sumps and sump pumps defined, 1999 V2: 282 V
acoustic problems, 1998 V1: 202 private water systems, 1999 V2: 239
duplex sump pump systems, 1999 V2: 9 pumps for, 1999 V2: 245 W
fixture-unit values, 1999 V2: 9 Surface Water Treatment Rule, 1999 V2: 316
floor drains and, 1999 V2: 10 surfaces (SUR, S) XYZ
Index 419
dry (SURD), 1998 V1: 22 symbols for, 1998 V1: 22 A

wet (SURW), 1998 V1: 22 T
surge loads in wet-vented systems, 1999 V2: 45–46 B
∆t, TD (temperature differences), 1998 V1: 22,
surge pressure. See water hammer
surge tanks, irrigation systems and, 1999 V2: 27
1998 V1: 133
t (metric tons), 1998 V1: 42
C
surges
T STAT (thermostats), 1998 V1: 22
in horizontal drains, 1999 V2: 5
pressure surges, 1999 V2: 35
T (temperature). See temperature D
T (tera) prefix, 1998 V1: 42
vacuum surges, 1999 V2: 35
surgical vacuum (SV), 1998 V1: 11
T (teslas), 1998 V1: 41
T (time). See time
E
SURW (surfaces, wet), 1998 V1: 22
T-Y fittings, 1999 V2: 61
suspended equipment
fixed suspended equipment, 1998 V1: 165
tab, TAB (tabulation), 1998 V1: 22 F
tablespoons, converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 48
vibration-isolated, suspended equipment, 1998
V1: 167–168
tabulation (tab, TAB), 1998 V1: 22
Take the Guesswork out of Demineralizer Design,
G
suspended piping, earthquake recommendations,
1999 V2: 325
1998 V1: 163
suspended solids
takeoff lists, 1998 V1: 81 H
tamper switches, 1998 V1: 38
defined, 1999 V2: 280
filtration, 1999 V2: 298
tamping fill
leaching trenches, 1999 V2: 223
I
man-hour estimates, 1998 V1: 84
total suspended solids, 1999 V2: 287–288
turbidity, 1999 V2: 282
sewers, 1999 V2: 16 J
subsurface drainage pipes, 1999 V2: 102, 1999
suspended tanks, 1998 V1: 164
suspension, defined, 1999 V2: 280
V2: 103
water pipes, 1999 V2: 250
K
SV (surgical vacuum), 1998 V1: 11
Tanaka, T., 1999 V2: 325
SW (soft water), 1998 V1: 9
swamp gas, 1999 V2: 284
tangential-flow filtration, 1999 V2: 300, 1999 V2: L
308
sway bracing
acceptable types, 1998 V1: 190
tank farms, 1998 V1: 147
tank refilling acoustics, 1998 V1: 198–199
M
horizontal loads for, 1998 V1: 187–188
tanks. See also septic tanks
lateral and longitudinal, 1998 V1: 183–184, 1998
V1: 187
design considerations in seismic protection, 1998 N
V1: 191
longitudinal and transverse, 1998 V1: 181–182
potential problems, illustrated, 1998 V1: 194
determining demand and capacity, 1999 V2: 151
drinking water storage, 1999 V2: 247–248
O
sway in piping, 1998 V1: 163
earthquake damage, 1998 V1: 162, 1998 V1: 163
Sweet Search electronic index, 1998 V1: 68, 1998
V1: 80
earthquake protection, 1998 V1: 165, 1998 V1: P
191–193, 1998 V1: 194
swelling characteristics of soils, 1999 V2: 219
swimming pools
gravity tank systems, 1999 V2: 150–152
holding tanks for firefighting drainage, 1999 V2:
Q
347
grate materials, 1999 V2: 15
swing check valves, 1999 V2: 249
holding tanks for radioactive wastes, 1999 V2: R
342
SWRO (spiral wound modules), 1999 V2: 289, 1999
V2: 309
hydropneumatic-tank systems, 1999 V2: 150
kill tanks, 1999 V2: 344–345
S
symbols
liquefied natural gas tanks, 1999 V2: 194
fire protection, 1998 V1: 15–16
references, 1998 V1: 49
pure water storage tanks, 1999 V2: 323–324 T
suspended, 1998 V1: 165
standardized plumbing and piping symbols, 1998
V1: 9–14
thermal expansion tanks, 1999 V2: 167
vibration isolation, 1998 V1: 212–214
U
water hammer arresters, 1999 V2: 143, 1999 V2:
water storage tanks, 1999 V2: 239
144
synthetic resins, 1999 V2: 302
tapping illegally into water lines, 1999 V2: 115 V
taste of drinking water, 1999 V2: 245, 1999 V2:
SYS (systems), 1998 V1: 22, 1998 V1: 133
Systeme International and d’Unites, 1998 V1: 40
316
TAU (transmissivity), 1998 V1: 23
W
systems (SYS)
tc, TC (thermocouple), 1998 V1: 22
defined, 1998 V1: 133 XYZ
TCPL (thermocouple), 1998 V1: 22
TD (temperature differences), 1998 V1: 22, 1998 temperature-pressure-relief valves (TPV), 1998 V1: A
V1: 133 12, 1999 V2: 166, 1999 V2: 167
TD (turndown ratio), 1999 V2: 182 tempered water
TDIF (temperature differences), 1998 V1: 22, 1998 defined, 1998 V1: 39 B
V1: 133 tempered hot water (TEMP. HW, TW), 1998 V1: 9
TDS (total dissolved solids), 1999 V2: 288, 1999 V2: tempered hot water recirculating (TEMP. HWR, C
316 TWR), 1998 V1: 9
TE (temperature entering), 1998 V1: 22 templates for specifications, 1998 V1: 67–68
technetium 99, 1999 V2: 340 Tension 360 bracing, 1998 V1: 171 D
tectonic plates, 1998 V1: 156–158 tension problems in seismic protection, 1998 V1:
tee-wyes, flow capacity and, 1999 V2: 4 193 E
tees (TEE) TENT (temperature entering), 1998 V1: 22
joints in, 1998 V1: 82 Tentative Provisions for the Development of Seismic
symbols for, 1998 V1: 12, 1998 V1: 22 Regulations for Buildings, 1998 V1: 185, 1998 F
Teflon, 1999 V2: 341 V1: 195
TEM (total energy management), 1998 V1: 123 “tera” prefix, 1998 V1: 42 G
temp., TEMP (temperatures). See temperature terminal elements, defined, 1998 V1: 133
TEMP. HW (tempered hot water), 1998 V1: 9 terminal length, defined, 1999 V2: 1
TEMP. HWR (tempered hot water recirculating), terminal velocity H
1998 V1: 9 defined, 1999 V2: 1
temperature (temp., TEMP, T) stack capacities and, 1999 V2: 4 I
bathtub water notes, 1998 V1: 115 stack terminal velocity, 1998 V1: 3
conversion factors, 1998 V1: 45, 1998 V1: 46 terminal vents. See vent stack terminals
deaeration water temperatures, 1999 V2: 294 tertiary treatment of gray water, 1999 V2: 28, 1999 J
feed water temperature and deposits, 1999 V2: V2: 29
291, 1999 V2: 312, 1999 V2: 321–322 teslas, 1998 V1: 41 K
flue gas temperatures, 1999 V2: 178 test block conditions in gas boosters, 1999 V2: 182
high-temperature withstand for hot-water
systems, 1999 V2: 166
test headers, 1998 V1: 15
test station cathodic protection, 1998 V1:148
L
hot water properties, 1999 V2: 168 testing
hot water relief valves, 1999 V2: 166–167 acoustic ratings of fixtures and appliances, 1998 M
hot water temperatures, 1999 V2: 159, 1999 V2: V1: 198–200
161–165, 1999 V2: 165
maintenance hot-water temperatures, 1999 V2:
cold-water systems, 1999 V2: 154
hot-water relief valves, 1999 V2: 166
N
166 hydraulic soil conditions, 1999 V2: 217–220
measurements, 1998 V1: 41 liquefied petroleum gas systems, 1999 V2: 197 O
microbial control in water, 1999 V2: 312 percolation rates for soils, 1999 V2: 219–220
mixed-water temperatures, 1999 V2: 159–160 pipes for radioactive waste systems, 1999 V2:
natural gas, 1999 V2: 179, 1999 V2: 180 342 P
non-SI units, 1998 V1: 42 welders for radioactive pipe systems, 1999 V2:
operating hot-water temperatures, 1999 V2: 166 342 Q
pipe expansion and contraction, 1998 V1: 4 wells, 1999 V2: 243
rate of corrosion, 1998 V1: 142 text, abbreviations in, 1998 V1: 17–23
scalding water, 1999 V2: 169–170 texture of soils, 1999 V2: 218 R
shower compartments, 1998 V1: 117 theaters, vacuum calculations for, 1999 V2: 269
special-waste effluent, 1999 V2: 328 theft of backflow preventers, 1999 V2: 149 S
specific resistance and, 1999 V2: 286 therm, converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 48
symbols for, 1998 V1: 22 thermal conductivity (k, K)
temperature differences (TD, ∆t, TDIF), 1998 V1: measurements, 1998 V1: 41 T
22, 1998 V1: 133 symbols for, 1998 V1: 22
temperature differentials, 1998 V1: 124 thermal efficiency U
temperature entering (TE, TENT), 1998 V1: 22 defined, 1998 V1: 39, 1998 V1: 133
temperature leaving (TL, TLEA), 1998 V1: 22 water heaters and, 1999 V2: 169
thermal support systems and earthquakes, 1998 thermal expansion V
V1: 170 converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 47
water heaters, 1999 V2: 157, 1999 V2: 160 hot-water systems and, 1999 V2: 167–168 W
Temperature Limits in Service Hot Water Systems, plastic pipe thermal expansion, 1999 V2: 251
1999 V2: 170 sanitary drainage systems, 1999 V2: 18 XYZ
Index 421
thermal expansion coefficients (TXPC), 1998 V1: toilet compartments. See also water closets A
22 accessibility, 1998 V1: 108, 1998 V1: 110
thermal expansion tanks, 1999 V2: 167 ambulatory accessible toilet compartments, 1998
water pipes and, 1999 V2: 251–252 V1: 111 B
thermal expansion loops, 1998 V1: 163 trap primers in, 1999 V2: 13
thermal insulation toilet paper C
codes and standards, 1998 V1: 59 dispensers, 1998 V1: 110
thickness, 1998 V1: 125–127 in septic tanks, 1999 V2: 231
thermal movement, sound insulation and, 1998 V1: toilets. See also water closets D
198 accessibility design, 1998 V1: 109–113
thermal resistance (R, R, RES), 1998 V1: 22 acoustic ratings of, 1998 V1: 198–199 E
thermal-shock protection, 1998 V1: 117 conserving water in, 1999 V2: 232
thermal stability for hot-water systems, 1999 V2: installation man-hour estimates, 1998 V1: 83
166 rates of sewage flows, 1999 V2: 237 F
thermal support systems, earthquakes and, 1998 typical gray-water demand, 1999 V2: 25
V1: 170 typical use, 1999 V2: 25 G
thermocompression distillation, 1999 V2: 295–298 tolerance, 1998 V1: 40
thermocouple (tc, TC, TCPL), 1998 V1: 22 tons (TON)
thermometers, 1998 V1: 13 converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 48 H
thermostats (T STAT), 1998 V1: 22 symbols for, 1998 V1: 23
thickness (thkns, THKNS, THK) tons of refrigeration (tons, TONS), 1998 V1: 23 I
of soils, 1999 V2: 219 tools
symbols for, 1998 V1: 22 tool access in cleanouts, 1999 V2: 9
THK (thickness), 1998 V1: 22, 1999 V2: 219 for vacuum cleaning systems, 1999 V2: 269–270 J
thkns, THKNS (thickness), 1998 V1: 22, 1999 V2: top coats, 1998 V1: 144
219 top-entry fittings in sovent systems, 1999 V2: 62 K
thousand circular mils (Mcm, MCM), 1998 V1: 22 torque
thousand cubic feet (Mcf, MCF), 1998 V1: 22
thousand foot-pounds (kip ft, KIP FT, KIPFT), 1998
L
V1: 22 measurements, 1998 V1: 41
thousand pounds (kip, KIP), 1998 V1: 22 torrs, 1999 V2: 254 M
threaded end connections, 1998 V1: 31 TOT (total), 1998 V1: 123
threaded joints, 1998 V1: 169
threaded outlets, 1999 V2: 18
TOT HT (total heat), 1998 V1: 23
total (TOT), 1998 V1: 23
N
thresholds in shower compartments, 1998 V1: 118 total alkalinity, 1999 V2: 283
thrust bearings, 1998 V1: 201 total dissolved solids (TDS), 1999 V2: 288, 1999 V2: O
thrust blocks, 1999 V2: 250–251 316
“tight” piping systems, 1998 V1: 169 total dynamic head, 1999 V2: 245
tiles in leaching trenches, 1999 V2: 221 total energy management, 1998 V1: 123 P
time (T) total flooding systems, 1998 V1: 33
of concentration in runoff, 1999 V2: 97 total head, 1999 V2: 245 Q
intervals in hydraulic shock, 1998 V1: 7 total heat (tot ht, TOT HT), 1998 V1: 23
in measurements, 1998 V1: 41 total organic carbon (TOC), 1999 V2: 288
non-SI units, 1998 V1: 42 total pumping head, 1999 V2: 245 R
symbols for, 1998 V1: 23 total suspended solids, 1999 V2: 287–288
time history total work force in vacuum systems, 1999 V2: 259 S
computer analysis, 1998 V1: 189 T&P valves (temperature and pressure relief), 1999
earthquakes, 1998 V1: 159, 1998 V1: 160 V2: 166, 1999 V2: 167
tin TPV (temperature-pressure-relief valves), 1998 V1: T
corrosion, 1998 V1: 137 12, 1999 V2: 166, 1999 V2: 167
galvanic series, 1998 V1: 140 trace elements in water, 1999 V2: 283–284 U
tin piping, 1999 V2: 122 Trace Level Analysis of High Purity Water, 1999 V2:
tipping prevention, 1998 V1: 194 325
titanium, 1998 V1: 140, 1998 V1: 141 tractor-type grates, 1999 V2: 11 V
TL (temperature leaving), 1998 V1: 22 traffic loads
TLEA (temperature leaving), 1998 V1: 22 automotive traffic and grates, 1999 V2: 11 W
TOC (total organic carbon), 1999 V2: 288 cleanouts and, 1999 V2: 9
toe clearance in toilet compartments, 1998 V1: 110 grates and strainers, 1999 V2: 10 XYZ
trailer parks trenches. See also leaching trenches A

septic tank systems for, 1999 V2: 231–232 absorption trenches, 1999 V2: 220
sewers, 1998 V1: 39 man-hour estimates, 1998 V1: 83, 1998 V1: 85
tranfer-type showers, 1998 V1: 116, 1998 V1: 119 near water pipes, 1999 V2: 250 B
transmissibility, coefficient of (Q factor), 1999 V2: in subsurface drainage, 1999 V2: 102–103
101 Trends in Formats, 1998 V1: 80 C
transmission loss (sound), 1998 V1: 217 Trends in Plumbing Specifications, 1998 V1: 79
transmission of noise, 1998 V1: 204 Tri-Services Manual, 1998 V1: 185
transmissivity (TAU), 1998 V1: 23 triangles, calculating area, 1998 V1: 4–6 D
transverse bracing, 1998 V1: 169, 1998 V1: 173, tributary areas for runoff, 1999 V2: 97
1998 V1: 195 trihalomethanes, 1999 V2: 311 E
transverse sway bracing, 1998 V1: 181 triplex vacuum pump arrangements, 1999 V2: 263
trap arms trisodium phosphate, 1999 V2: 13
defined, 1999 V2: 64 TROs (tubular modules in reverse osmosis), 1999 F
fixture vents and, 1999 V2: 38, 1999 V2: 39 V2: 309, 1999 V2: 310
length of, 1999 V2: 50 truss-type bracing, 1998 V1: 192 G
trap primers, 1999 V2: 13–14 tsunamis, 1998 V1: 158
trap seals tube bundles, 1998 V1: 131
controlling induced siphonage, 1999 V2: 40 tube ozone units, 1999 V2: 313 H
defined, 1998 V1: 39, 1999 V2: 64 tuberculation, 1998 V1: 152
factors in trap seal loss, 1999 V2: 36 tubing I
floor drains, 1999 V2: 10 joints, 1999 V2: 196
maintaining, 1999 V2: 14 liquefied petroleum gas, 1999 V2: 196
reduced-size venting and, 1999 V2: 49 vacuum cleaning hose capacity, 1999 V2: 270 J
reducing trap seal losses, 1999 V2: 39–40 vacuum cleaning systems, 1999 V2: 269–270
stack venting and, 1999 V2: 47 tubular-bag separators, 1999 V2: 268 K
trap siphonage and, 1999 V2: 35 tubular modules in reverse osmosis, 1999 V2: 309,
vents and, 1999 V2: 36
trapeze
1999 V2: 310
turbidity
L
bracing pipes on trapeze, 1998 V1: 177, 1998 clarification of, 1999 V2: 294
V1: 180 defined, 1999 V2: 282 M
potential problems in bracing, 1998 V1: 194 drinking water, 1999 V2: 316
trapeziums, calculating area, 1998 V1: 4
trapezoids, calculating area, 1998 V1: 4
measuring, 1999 V2: 287–288
N
traps turbine pumps, 1999 V2: 246, 1999 V2: 247
building traps, defined, 1998 V1: 27 turbine water meters, 1999 V2: 115, 1999 V2: 116, O
defined, 1998 V1: 39 1999 V2: 117
eliminating siphonage with vents, 1999 V2: 35 turbo pumps, 1999 V2: 259
fixture traps and vents, 1999 V2: 40 turbulence P
roof drains, 1999 V2: 84 defined, 1998 V1: 39
special-waste drainage systems, 1999 V2: 328 measurements, 1999 V2: 41 Q
unvented traps, 1999 V2: 46 in rate of corrosion, 1998 V1: 142
vents and, 1999 V2: 36 turbulent flow in pipes, 1998 V1: 2
TRC (tubular modules in reverse osmosis), 1999 V2: turndown ratio (TD), 1999 V2: 182 R
309, 1999 V2: 310 turrets, gas, 1999 V2: 177
treated water. See also water treatment TW (tempered hot water), 1998 V1: 9 S
defined, 1999 V2: 280 two. See also entries beginning with double-, dual-,
from reverse osmosis, 1999 V2: 309 or multiple-
systems. See gray-water systems two-compartment septic tanks, 1999 V2: 229 T
Treating Cooling Water, 1999 V2: 325 two-pipe venturi suction pumps, 1999 V2: 241
treatment of black water, 1999 V2: 28, 1999 V2: two-stage reduction, 1999 V2: 153 U
227, 1999 V2: 232–233 two-step deionization (dual-bed), 1999 V2: 302,
treatment of gray water, 1999 V2: 22, 1999 V2: 23, 1999 V2: 303
1999 V2: 27–29, 1999 V2: 28 two-valve parallel pressure-regulated valves, 1999 V
treatment of oil in water, 1999 V2: 347–349 V2: 153
tree root problems in leaching trenches, 1999 V2: TWR (tempered hot water recirculating), 1998 V1: 9 W
222 TXPC (thermal expansion coefficients), 1998 V1: 22
trench drains in chemical plants, 1999 V2: 346 Type A gray-water systems, 1999 V2: 31–32 XYZ
Index 423
Type B gas vents, 1999 V2: 213 in horizontal drains, 1999 V2: 6–7 A
Type B gray-water systems, 1999 V2: 31–32 Manning formula, 1998 V1: 1
Type B-W gas vents, 1999 V2: 213 Uniform Location of Subject Matter, 1998 V1: 65
Type K copper, 1999 V2: 196 Uniform Plumbing Code, 1999 V2: 22, 1999 V2: 34, B
Type L copper, 1999 V2: 68, 1999 V2: 133, 1999 1999 V2: 214
V2: 196 unions C
Type L gas vents, 1999 V2: 214 flanged, 1998 V1: 12
screwed, 1998 V1: 12
U United States agencies and departments. See US D
agencies and departments
U, U (heat transfer coefficients), 1998 V1: 19
U-factor (U), 1998 V1: 23
United States Pharmacopoeia. See US Pharmaco- E
poeia (USP)
UF membranes, 1999 V2: 284
units (UNIT)
UFAS, 1998 V1: 100
symbols for, 1998 V1: 23 F
Uhlig, Herbert H., 1998 V1: 152
units of measurement. See measurement units
UL listings
address for Underwriters Laboratories, 1998 V1:
universities. See also laboratories G
diversity factor calculations for vacuums, 1999
60
V2: 263
gas booster components, 1999 V2: 179
natural gas piping, 1999 V2: 177 H
hot-water components, 1999 V2: 166, 1999 V2:
“unless otherwise specified” in specifications, 1998
170
ultra-high vacuum, 1999 V2: 254
V1: 67 I
unobstructed reach for wheelchairs, 1998 V1: 105,
ultra-low-flow water closets, 1999 V2: 19
1998 V1: 106
ultra-pure water systems, 1999 V2: 317
unoccupied buildings, conserving energy in, 1998 J
ultrafilters and ultrafiltration
V1: 127
cross-flow filtration, 1999 V2: 300, 1999 V2:
310–311
unrestricted areas (facilities with radiation), 1999 K
V2: 339
membrane filters, 1999 V2: 308–311
oil spills, 1999 V2: 347
unsanitary, defined, 1999 V2: 64
untreated sewage. See raw sewage
L
Ultraviolet Disinfection in Biotechnology: Myth vs.
unvented traps (s traps), 1999 V2: 46
Practice, 1999 V2: 325
ultraviolet radiation treatment of water, 1999 V2:
unventilated spaces and gas systems, 1999 V2: 176 M
uplifting of buildings, 1999 V2: 99
245, 1999 V2: 311–312, 1999 V2: 318, 1999
V2: 323, 1999 V2: 324
upright fire sprinkler heads, 1998 V1: 13
upright sprinklers, 1998 V1: 16, 1998 V1: 37, 1998
N
unbalanced motors in pumps, 1998 V1: 201
V1: 38
unconsolidated aquifers, 1999 V2: 241
undamped mechanical systems, 1998 V1: 161
upstream, defined, 1998 V1: 39 O
Urban Hydrology for Small Watersheds, 1999 V2:
under-film corrosion, 1998 V1: 152
114
underground inspections, 1998 V1: 96
urinals. See also toilets; water closets P
underground piping, 1998 V1: 39
accessibility design, 1998 V1: 113
acid-waste piping, 1999 V2: 334
coatings, 1998 V1: 144
acoustic ratings of, 1998 V1: 199 Q
exclusion from gray-water systems, 1999 V2: 21
cost estimates, 1998 V1: 89
gray water in, 1999 V2: 21, 1999 V2: 25
materials for, 1999 V2: 14–15
installation man-hour estimates, 1998 V1: 83 R
natural gas systems, 1999 V2: 176
typical use, 1999 V2: 25
water pipes, 1999 V2: 251
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Manual, 1999 V2: 214 S
US Architectural and Transportation Barriers
underground site drainage, 1999 V2: 99–105
Compliance Board (ATBCB), 1998 V1: 100,
Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. (UL)
1998 V1: 101 T
US Army Corps of Engineers, 1998 V1: 68
gas booster components, 1999 V2: 179
hot-water components, 1999 V2: 166, 1999 V2:
US Department of Commerce, National Information U
Services, 1999 V2: 34
170
US Department of Defense, 1998 V1: 161, 1998 V1:
uniform attack corrosion, 1998 V1: 137
185, 1998 V1: 195 V
Uniform Building Code (UBC), 1998 V1: 185, 1998
US Department of Health and Environmental
V1: 195
Uniform Federal Accessibility Standard, 1998 V1:
Control, 1999 V2: 170 W
100
uniform flow XYZ
US Department of Housing and Urban Develop- components, 1999 V2: 266–269, 1999 V2: 268 A
ment, 1998 V1: 60, 1998 V1: 99, 1998 V1: friction losses, 1999 V2: 272–274, 1999 V2: 274
100 inlet locations and spacing, 1999 V2: 269
US Department of the Army, 1999 V2: 114 piping, 1999 V2: 269 B
US Department of Transportation, 1999 V2: 194 separators, 1999 V2: 275–276
US Environmental Protection Agency simultaneous operators, 1999 V2: 269 C
address, 1998 V1: 60 sizing exhausters, 1999 V2: 272, 1999 V2: 274–
aggressiveness index, 1999 V2: 292 275
chemical waste system codes and, 1999 V2: 345 types, 1999 V2: 266 D
potable water treatment technologies, 1999 V2: Vacuum Cleaning Systems, 1999 V2: 277
279 vacuum deaerators, 1999 V2: 294, 1999 V2: 295 E
publications, 1999 V2: 238 vacuum levels
Safe Drinking Water Act and, 1999 V2: 244 defined, 1999 V2: 253–254
special waste drainage codes and, 1999 V2: 328 in exhauster sizing, 1999 V2: 274 F
US Federal Housing Administration, 1998 V1: 204 vacuum producers (exhausters), 1999 V2: 266–269,
US Federal Specifications (FS), 1998 V1: 33, 1998 1999 V2: 268, 1999 V2: 270, 1999 V2: 272, G
V1: 60 1999 V2: 274–275
US Food and Drug Administration, 1999 V2: 279, vacuum pumps, 1999 V2: 259, 1999 V2: 263–264
1999 V2: 321, 1999 V2: 324, 1999 V2: 328 vacuum relief valves, 1998 V1: 39 H
US General Services Administration, 1998 V1: 195, Vacuum Sewage Collection, 1999 V2: 238
1998 V1: 204, 1999 V2: 34 vacuum sewers, 1999 V2: 226 I
US Naval Facilities Command, 1998 V1: 68 vacuum sources, 1999 V2: 259–261, 1999 V2: 262,
US Occupational Safety and Health Administration, 1999 V2: 263–264
1998 V1: 60, 1999 V2: 333 Vacuum Sources, 1999 V2: 277 J
US Pharmacopoeia (USP) vacuum systems, 1999 V2: 266–277. See also
USP nomographs, 1999 V2: 317 vacuum cleaning systems K
USP purified water, 1999 V2: 320, 1999 V2: 321 altitude adjustments, 1999 V2: 257
water treatment standards, 1999 V2: 279
US Public Health Service, 1999 V2: 238
fundamentals, 1999 V2: 253–254
L
US Veterans Administration, 1998 V1: 195 introduction, 1999 V2: 253
US War Department, 1999 V2: 114 laboratory systems, 1999 V2: 262–266 M
USP. See US Pharmacopoeia (USP) leakage, 1999 V2: 265, 1999 V2: 267
utility costs, lowering, 1998 V1: 131
utility gas. See fuel-gas piping systems
piping, 1999 V2: 262
pressure drop, 1999 V2: 258
N
utility water treatment, 1999 V2: 313–314 pressure measurement, 1999 V2: 254–256
UV treatment of water, 1999 V2: 245, 1999 V2: pump curves, 1999 V2: 258 O
311–312, 1999 V2: 318, 1999 V2: 323, 1999 references, 1999 V2: 277
V2: 324 sizing, 1999 V2: 262–266
surges, 1999 V2: 35 P
V time to reach rated vacuum, 1999 V2: 257–258
v, V (valves). See valves
vacuum-pressure gauges, 1999 V2: 260 Q
vacuum reservoirs, 1999 V2: 262
V (specific volume). See specific volume
vacuum sources, 1999 V2: 259–261, 1999 V2:
V (velocity of uniform flow), 1998 V1: 1
262, 1999 V2: 263–264 R
V (velocity). See velocity
velocity calculations, 1999 V2: 258–259
V (vents). See vents and venting systems
V (volts). See volts
work forces, 1999 V2: 259 S
valence, 1999 V2: 280, 1999 V2: 281, 1999 V2: 302
v/v (volume to volume), 1999 V2: 285
valved zones in irrigation systems, 1999 V2: 26
VA (volt amperes), 1998 V1: 23
valves (v, V, VLV). See also specific types of valves T
vac, VAC (vacuum). See vacuum
acoustic problems, 1998 V1: 202
VAC (vacuum). See vacuum
vacuum (vac, VAC)
acoustic ratings, 1998 V1: 198 U
closing quickly, 1999 V2: 131
defined, 1998 V1: 39, 1999 V2: 253
codes and standards, 1998 V1: 57–58
symbols for, 1998 V1: 10, 1998 V1: 23
friction loss in, 1999 V2: 128 V
vacuum breakers. See backflow preventers
infectious waste systems, 1999 V2: 345
vacuum cleaning systems, 1999 V2: 266–277. See
also vacuum systems
joints in, 1998 V1: 82 W
pure water systems, 1999 V2: 324
cleanouts, 1999 V2: 276
in risers, 1998 V1: 13 XYZ
Index 425
sizing natural gas fittings, 1999 V2: 184 vent stacks A

sulfuric acid and, 1999 V2: 332 air in, 1999 V2: 2
symbols for, 1998 V1: 23 defined, 1998 V1: 39, 1999 V2: 64
valve flow coefficients, 1998 V1: 17 vent headers, 1999 V2: 45 B
in yard boxes (YB), 1998 V1: 12 ventilated sleeves and gas piping, 1999 V2: 176
vandalism vents and venting systems (V, vent, VENT). See also C
backflow preventers, 1999 V2: 149 vent stack terminals; vent stacks
fasteners on grates and strainers, 1999 V2: 11 acid-waste systems, 1999 V2: 332, 1999 V2: 334
protecting against, 1999 V2: 19 arterial vents, 1999 V2: 52 D
VAP (vapor pressure), 1998 V1: 21 chemical-waste systems, 1999 V2: 346
vap pr, VAP PR (vapor pressure), 1998 V1: 21 chimney heights, 1999 V2: 178 E
vap prf, VAP PRF (vaporproof), 1998 V1: 23 circuit and loop venting, 1999 V2: 43–44
vapor-compression distillation, 1999 V2: 295–298 combination waste and vent systems, 1999 V2:
vapor pressure, 1998 V1: 21 45–46 F
vaporproof (vap prf, VAP PRF), 1998 V1: 23 common vents, 1999 V2: 41
vapors, hazardous, 1999 V2: 284, 1999 V2: 332, confluent vents, 1999 V2: 51 G
1999 V2: 333 duct seismic protection, 1998 V1: 155
var, VAR (variables), 1998 V1: 23 end venting, 1999 V2: 41
variable air volume (VAV), 1998 V1: 23 factors in trap seal loss, 1999 V2: 36 H
variable-speed multiple pumps, 1998 V1: 131 fire-suppression drainage and, 1999 V2: 347
variables (var, VAR), 1998 V1: 23 fixture units, 1999 V2: 40–41 I
varnishes in septic tanks, 1999 V2: 230 fixture vents, 1999 V2: 37–39
VAV (variable air volume), 1998 V1: 23 glossary of terms, 1999 V2: 64
vegetable oil, 1999 V2: 10 gravity vents for gas appliances, 1999 V2: 178 J
vehicular traffic infectious waste systems, 1999 V2: 345
grates and, 1999 V2: 11 introduction, 1999 V2: 35 K
leaching trenches and, 1999 V2: 223 loop venting, 1998 V1: 39, 1999 V2: 64
vel., VEL (velocity). See velocity
velocity (vel., VEL, V). See also dynamic pressure;
natural gas appliance vents, 1999 V2: 177–178
offsets, 1999 V2: 44–45
L
velocity of flow oil separators, 1999 V2: 349
acoustic pump problems, 1998 V1: 201 Philadelphia system, 1999 V2: 46, 1999 V2: 47, M
conversion factors, 1998 V1: 45 1999 V2: 48
earthquakes, 1998 V1: 159
purposes, 1999 V2: 35
reduced-size venting, 1999 V2: 49, 1999 V2: 53,
N
measurements, 1998 V1: 41 1999 V2: 54
non-SI units, 1998 V1: 42 references, 1999 V2: 65 O
propagation velocity, 1998 V1: 7 relief vents, 1999 V2: 44, 1999 V2: 45
in rate of corrosion, 1998 V1: 142 septic tank vents, 1999 V2: 231
symbols for, 1998 V1: 23 sewer vents, 1999 V2: 35 P
wind (w vel., W VEL), 1998 V1: 23 sizes and lengths, 1998 V1: 3, 1999 V2: 41–43,
velocity head (h), 1998 V1: 6 1999 V2: 50–63 Q
velocity of flow sovent systems, 1999 V2: 46–47, 1999 V2: 54–63
cold-water systems, 1999 V2: 121–122 special-waste drainage systems, 1999 V2: 328
flow from outlets, 1998 V1: 7 storm-drainage stacks, 1999 V2: 67 R
open-channel flow, 1998 V1: 1 suds venting, 1999 V2: 36–37, 1999 V2: 39
site storm drainage, 1999 V2: 98 sumps, 1999 V2: 105 S
sizing method for pipes, 1999 V2: 131 symbols for, 1998 V1: 9, 1998 V1: 23
terminal velocity, defined, 1999 V2: 1 traps and trap seals, 1999 V2: 36, 1999 V2: 39–
vacuum cleaning systems, 1999 V2: 270–272 40 T
vacuum systems, 1999 V2: 258–259 vent headers, 1999 V2: 45
water hammer and, 1998 V1: 203, 1999 V2: 144 vented inlet tees in septic tanks, 1999 V2: 228 U
water supply piping and, 1999 V2: 249 wet vents, 1999 V2: 43, 1999 V2: 49
vent connectors, defined, 1999 V2: 214 venturi-meters, 1998 V1: 202
vent gases, defined, 1999 V2: 214 venturi suction pumps, 1999 V2: 241 V
vent stack terminals vertical (vert., VERT), 1998 V1: 23
defined, 1999 V2: 35–36, 1999 V2: 64 vertical forces, 1998 V1: 194 W
liquefied petroleum gas, 1999 V2: 197 vertical leaders, 1999 V2: 85–88, 1999 V2: 109
natural gas, 1999 V2: 177 vertical pipes, 1998 V1: 39 XYZ
vertical pressure media filters, 1999 V2: 300 vitrified sewer pipes, 1998 V1: 39 A
vertical risers for vacuum systems, 1999 V2: 269 VLV (valves). See valves
vertical seismic load, 1998 V1: 189 VOCs (volatile organic compounds), 1999 V2: 284,
vertical shaft turbine pumps, 1998 V1: 32 1999 V2: 292 B
vertical stacks vol., VOL (volume). See volume
calculating terminal velocity and length, 1998 volatile liquids, 1999 V2: 13, 1999 V2: 347–349 C
V1: 3 volatile organic compounds (VOCs), 1999 V2: 284,
defined, 1998 V1: 38 1999 V2: 292
fittings, 1999 V2: 1 volcanoes, 1998 V1: 156 D
flow in, 1999 V2: 1–2 volts (V, E, VOLTS)
hydraulic jumps and, 1999 V2: 2 decomposition potential defined, 1998 V1: 151 E
loading tables, 1999 V2: 4 measurement conversions, 1998 V1: 41
maximum fixture-unit values, 1999 V2: 4, 1999 symbols for, 1998 V1: 23
V2: 5 volt amperes (VA), 1998 V1: 23 F
multistory stacks, 1999 V2: 5 volume (vol., VOL)
pneumatic pressure in, 1999 V2: 2 calculating, 1998 V1: 4–6 G
sizing, 1999 V2: 5, 1999 V2: 6 conversion factors, 1998 V1: 45
sovent systems, 1999 V2: 57 measurements, 1998 V1: 41
stack capacities, 1999 V2: 3–5 non-SI units, 1998 V1: 42 H
storm-drainage stacks, 1999 V2: 67 symbols for, 1998 V1: 23
vertical turbine pumps, 1999 V2: 245, 1999 V2: volume flow rate measurements, 1998 V1: 41 I
246, 1999 V2: 247 volume to volume (v/v), 1999 V2: 285
VFR (volumetric flow rates), 1998 V1: 23 volumetric flow measurements, 1999 V2: 255
viable-count essays, 1999 V2: 282 volumetric flow rates (VFR), 1998 V1: 23 J
vibrating fill above sewers, 1999 V2: 16 vortexes
vibration and vibration isolation in drains, 1999 V2: 38 K
defined, 1998 V1: 217 from pumps, 1998 V1: 201
earthquakes
earthquake vibration periods, 1998 V1: 160
from sumps, 1998 V1: 202
vp, VP (dynamic pressure or velocity), 1998 V1: 21
L
floor-mounted equipment, 1998 V1: 165–167
isolators and, 1998 V1: 214 W M
piping and, 1998 V1: 169
W, W (humidity ratios), 1998 V1: 20
suspended equipment, 1998 V1: 167–168
equipment vibration criteria, 1998 V1: 206
W (walls). See walls N
W (waste sewers), 1998 V1: 9
fixtures, isolating, 1998 V1: 212, 1998 V1: 213
natural or free vibration, 1998 V1: 160
W (watts). See watts
W/m K (watts per meter per kelvin), 1998 V1: 41
O
noise and vibration control, 1998 V1: 204–205
w vel., W VEL (velocity, wind), 1998 V1: 23
piping, 1998 V1: 169. See also water hammer
pumps, 1998 V1: 211, 1998 V1: 212, 1998 V1:
w/w (weight to weight), 1999 V2: 285 P
wafer butterfly valves, 1999 V2: 268
214
static deflection for pump vibration, 1998 V1:
wages in cost estimates, 1998 V1: 82
WAL (walls). See walls
Q
211
wall azimuth (WAZ), 1998 V1: 17
types of vibration control devices, 1998 V1: 208–
212
wall cleanouts (WCO), 1998 V1: 14 R
wall hydrants (WH), 1998 V1: 12, 1998 V1: 15
vibration isolation mounts, 1998 V1: 163, 1998
V1: 164
walls (W, WAL)
piping and acoustic design, 1998 V1: 200
S
vibration isolators, 1998 V1: 204
video equipment, 1999 V2: 10
vinyl coatings, 1998 V1: 144
wall penetrations of pipes, 1998 V1: 206 T
wander. See also drift
viruses in feed water, 1999 V2: 282, 1999 V2: 311–
313
drift defined, 1998 V1: 30
Warren, Alan W., 1999 V2: 114
U
visc., VISC (viscosity), 1998 V1: 2, 1998 V1: 23,
wash basins. See sinks and wash basins
1998 V1: 41
viscosity (visc, VISC, MU)
washing floors with gray water, 1999 V2: 22 V
washing machines. See laundry systems and
calculating values of, 1998 V1: 2
washers
waste, defined, 1998 V1: 39
W
waste brines, 1999 V2: 231, 1999 V2: 307
vitrified clay piping, 1999 V2: 122, 1999 V2: 346 XYZ
waste-disposal units. See garbage disposers
Index 427
waste heat usage, 1998 V1: 127, 1998 V1: 128–131 defined, 1999 V2: 279 A
waste oil (WO), 1998 V1: 10 water-conditioning or treating devices, 1998 V1:
waste oil vents (WOV), 1998 V1: 10 39
waste or soil vents. See stack vents water conservation. See conserving water B
waste pipes, 1998 V1: 39 water coolers
waste sewers (W), 1998 V1: 9 access to, 1998 V1: 107–108 C
Waste-water Engineering: Treatment/Disposal/ central water cooler systems, 1998 V1: 131
Reuse, 1999 V2: 238 gray-water output, 1999 V2: 25
waste-water heat recovery, 1998 V1: 130 installation man-hour estimates, 1998 V1: 83 D
waste-water management. See also gray-water wheelchair space around, 1998 V1: 106
systems; private sewage-disposal systems water deposits, 1999 V2: 289, 1999 V2: 290–292 E
individual aerobic waste-water treatment, 1999 Water Distributing Systems for Buildings, 1999 V2:
V2: 232–233 155
treatment of gray water, 1999 V2: 27–29 water-distribution pipes and systems. See also cold- F
WAT (watts). See watts water systems; hot-water systems
Water: Use of Treated Sewage on Rise in State, 1999 acoustic design, 1998 V1: 200 G
V2: 34 defined, 1998 V1: 39
water (WTR). See also water analysis; water chemis- weight of water-filled pipes, 1998 V1: 186
try water-distribution systems H
as seal liquid in liquid ring pumps, 1999 V2: 260 water supply and distribution symbols, 1998 V1:
density, 1999 V2: 116 15 I
kinematic viscosity, 1999 V2: 121 water supply systems, 1998 V1: 39
samples of, 1999 V2: 155 water for injection (WFI), 1999 V2: 317, 1999 V2:
subsurface water, 1999 V2: 99–105 320, 1999 V2: 321, 1999 V2: 324 J
water analysis water glass, 1998 V1: 149
aggressiveness index, 1999 V2: 292 water hammer K
codes and standards, 1999 V2: 279 acoustic control of, 1998 V1: 206
example report, 1999 V2: 286
introduction, 1999 V2: 284–285
air locks, 1998 V1: 207
controlling water hammer, 1999 V2: 132, 1999
L
pH, 1999 V2: 285, 1999 V2: 291 V2: 143
predicting water deposits and corrosion, 1999 defined, 1998 V1: 39, 1999 V2: 131–144 M
V2: 290–292 flow velocity and water hammer, 1998 V1: 203
references, 1999 V2: 325
Ryzner stability index, 1999 V2: 292
shock intensity, 1999 V2: 132
sizing of arresters, 1999 V2: 143–144
N
silt density index, 1999 V2: 288–289 symbols on arresters, 1999 V2: 143
specific conductance, 1999 V2: 287 system protection and control, 1999 V2: 132, O
total dissolved solids, 1999 V2: 288 1999 V2: 143–144
total organic carbon, 1999 V2: 288 velocity and, 1999 V2: 121
total suspended solids, 1999 V2: 287–288 water hammer arresters (WHA) P
water chemistry acoustic design in water pipes, 1998 V1: 200
elements, acids, and radicals in water, 1999 V2: as protection and control, 1999 V2: 132 Q
281 defined, 1998 V1: 39
introduction, 1999 V2: 280–284 flow velocity and, 1998 V1: 203
water impurities, 1999 V2: 280–284 shock absorbers, 1998 V1: 203, 1998 V1: 206 R
water closets. See also toilets; urinals sizing, 1999 V2: 143–144
accessibility design, 1998 V1: 109–113 symbols, 1998 V1: 13, 1999 V2: 143 S
acoustic design, 1998 V1: 205, 1998 V1: 206 water heaters. See also hot-water systems
acoustic ratings of, 1998 V1: 198–199 avoiding standby losses, 1998 V1: 127–128
conserving water in, 1999 V2: 232 booster water heaters, 1998 V1: 124, 1998 V1: T
exclusion from gray-water systems, 1999 V2: 21 127
fixture-unit loads, 1999 V2: 3 conserving energy, 1998 V1: 123, 1998 V1: 126 U
gray water usage, 1999 V2: 21, 1999 V2: 25 earthquake damages, 1998 V1: 163
sovent systems, 1999 V2: 59, 1999 V2: 62 earthquake protection, 1998 V1: 164, 1998 V1:
typical use, 1999 V2: 25 165 V
ultra-low-flow, 1999 V2: 19 “energy efficient,” 1998 V1: 131
Water Conditional Manual, 1999 V2: 325 explosions, 1999 V2: 157 W
water conditioning. See also water purification; gas water heaters, 1998 V1: 123, 1998 V1: 131
water softeners; water treatment heat recovery, 1999 V2: 158 XYZ
overview, 1999 V2: 160–165 water-seal, self-scouring traps, 1999 V2: 36 A

stratification in water heaters, 1999 V2: 160, water-service pipes, defined, 1998 V1: 39
1999 V2: 165 water softeners
temperature, 1999 V2: 157, 1999 V2: 160 B
thermal efficiency, 1999 V2: 169 hardness of water, 1999 V2: 283
water impurities ion-exchange, 1999 V2: 300 C
alkalinity, 1999 V2: 282–283 leakage, 1999 V2: 308
analysis and measurement, 1999 V2: 284–289 pressure losses and, 1999 V2: 125
biological fouling, 1999 V2: 289, 1999 V2: 316 pure water systems, 1999 V2: 323 D
dissolved gases, 1999 V2: 284 types of, 1999 V2: 244, 1999 V2: 307–308
hardness, 1999 V2: 283 utility water, 1999 V2: 314 E
microorganisms, 1999 V2: 282 waste brines, 1999 V2: 231
specific resistance, 1999 V2: 285–287 water-storage tanks
suspended solids, 1999 V2: 282 earthquake damage, 1998 V1: 163 F
treatment methods, 1999 V2: 292–313 pipe installation, 1999 V2: 250–252
volatile organic compounds, 1999 V2: 284 piping, 1999 V2: 249–250 G
water mains pressure regulators, 1999 V2: 248–249
defined, 1998 V1: 39 private water systems, 1999 V2: 239
inspection checklist, 1998 V1: 96 types of, 1999 V2: 247–248 H
Water Management: A Comprehensive Approach for water-air ratio in tanks, 1999 V2: 150
Facility Managers, 1999 V2: 34 water levels in, 1999 V2: 151, 1999 V2: 248 I
water meters water supply systems. See cold-water systems; hot-
domestic water meters, 1999 V2: 115–116 water systems; private water systems;
estimating sewage disposal from, 1999 V2: 233 water-distribution systems; wells J
flow-pressure loss averages, 1999 V2: 117 Water Systems for Pharmaceutical Facilities, 1999
friction losses, 1999 V2: 127 V2: 325 K
loss of pressure, 1999 V2: 123 water tables in wells, 1999 V2: 241–243
water pressure
booster-pump system, 1999 V2: 152
Water Tanks for Fire Protection, 1999 V2: 247
water-to-water heat exchanges, 1998 V1: 132
L
excess water pressure, 1999 V2: 152–154 water treatment
gravity-tank systems, 1999 V2: 150–152 aeration, 1999 V2: 292–294 M
hydropneumatic-tank systems, 1999 V2: 150 boiler feed water, 1999 V2: 314–315
inadequate water pressure, 1999 V2: 149–152
pressure-regulating devices, 1999 V2: 122
clarification, 1999 V2: 294
N
water hammer and, 1999 V2: 144 cooling towers, 1999 V2: 315–316
water purification corrosion inhibitors, 1998 V1: 149 O
central purification equipment, 1999 V2: 323– deaeration, 1999 V2: 294–295
325 dealkalizing, 1999 V2: 295
codes and standards, 1999 V2: 279, 1999 V2: decarbonation, 1999 V2: 295 P
317 defined, 1999 V2: 279
feed water, 1999 V2: 320 distillation, 1999 V2: 295–298 Q
pharmaceutical systems, 1999 V2: 320 drinking water, 1999 V2: 316–317, 1999 V2: 318
polishers and, 1999 V2: 308 filtration, 1999 V2: 298, 1999 V2: 300
pure-water systems defined, 1999 V2: 279 ion-exchange and removal, 1999 V2: 300–308 R
references, 1999 V2: 325 membrane filtration and separation, 1999 V2:
specific resistance of pure water, 1999 V2: 286 300, 1999 V2: 308–311 S
system design, 1999 V2: 321 microbial control, 1999 V2: 311–313
water impurities, 1999 V2: 280–284 references, 1999 V2: 325
water quality utility water treatment, 1999 V2: 313–314 T
grades of laboratory water, 1999 V2: 317 water impurities, 1999 V2: 280–284
gray-water systems, 1999 V2: 33 water purification, 1999 V2: 317–325 U
introduction, 1999 V2: 244 water softening, 1999 V2: 307
references, 1999 V2: 325 Water Treatment for HVAC and Potable Water
water resistivity meters, 1999 V2: 286 Systems, 1999 V2: 325 V
water reuse systems, 1998 V1: 131. See also gray- Water Use in Office Buildings, 1999 V2: 34
water systems Water Uses Study, 1999 V2: 34 W
water risers, 1998 V1: 39 water wells. See wells
water-saving fixtures, 1998 V1: 131 XYZ
Index 429
waterborne radioactive waste (radwaste), 1999 V2: pumps, 1999 V2: 245–247 A
337 system equipment, 1999 V2: 245–250
waterfall aerators, 1999 V2: 293 water demand and, 1999 V2: 243–244
waterfront facilities, 1999 V2: 147 water quality, 1999 V2: 244–245 B
waterproofing drains, 1999 V2: 17, 1999 V2: 79 wet-bulb temperature (wbt, WBT), 1998 V1: 23
watt-hours (Wh, WH), 1998 V1: 23 wet bulbs (wb, WB), 1998 V1: 23 C
watts (W, WAT) wet floors in chemical plants, 1999 V2: 346
converting to SI units, 1998 V1: 48 wet-pipe systems, 1998 V1: 37
measurement conversions, 1998 V1: 41 wet standpipes, 1998 V1: 38 D
symbols for, 1998 V1: 23 wet surfaces, 1998 V1: 22
W/m K (watts per meter per kelvin), 1998 V1: 41 wet vacuum cleaning systems (WVC) E
wave actions in water (tsunamis), 1998 V1: 158 defined, 1999 V2: 266
WAZ (wall azimuth), 1998 V1: 17 illustrated, 1999 V2: 276
wb, WB (wet bulbs), 1998 V1: 23 pitch, 1999 V2: 277 F
Wb (webers), 1998 V1: 41 separators, 1999 V2: 268
wbt, WBT (wet-bulb temperature), 1998 V1: 23 symbols for, 1998 V1: 11 G
WCO (wall cleanouts), 1998 V1: 14 wet venting
WD (wind). See wind bathroom groups, 1999 V2: 43
wdir, WDIR (wind direction), 1998 V1: 23 combination waste and vent systems, 1999 V2: H
weak-base regeneration, 1999 V2: 302, 1999 V2: 45–46
305 defined, 1998 V1: 39, 1999 V2: 64 I
weakly-acidic resins, 1999 V2: 308 illustrated, 1999 V2: 49
weakly-basic resins, 1999 V2: 308 Weymouth formula, 1998 V1: 8, 1999 V2: 183,
webers, 1998 V1: 41 1999 V2: 190, 1999 V2: 191, 1999 V2: 198– J
weep holes, 1999 V2: 17 1999 V2: 209
weight (wt, WT) WFI (water for injection), 1999 V2: 317, 1999 V2: K
horizontal loads of piping, 1998 V1: 186 320, 1999 V2: 321, 1999 V2: 324
of piping, earthquake protection and, 1998 V1:
169
Wh, WH (watt-hours), 1998 V1: 23
WH (wall hydrants), 1998 V1: 12, 1998 V1: 15
L
in seismic force calculations, 1998 V1: 186 WHA (water hammer arresters). See water hammer
symbols for, 1998 V1: 23 arresters M
weight loss in corrosion, 1998 V1: 141 What Future Role for Pressure Sewers?, 1999 V2:
weight to weight (w/w), 1999 V2: 285
weighted runoff coefficients, 1999 V2: 97
238
wheelchairs
N
weirs, 1999 V2: 93 adult-sized, dimensions, 1998 V1: 102
welding anthropometrics for wheelchairs, 1998 V1: 103– O
corrosion and, 1998 V1: 143 107
earthquake protection techniques, 1998 V1: 169 approaches and reaches, 1998 V1: 104
problems in seismic protection, 1998 V1: 192 clear space for, 1998 V1: 103 P
weld decay defined, 1998 V1: 152 toilet and bathing rooms, 1998 V1: 108
welded fittings, 1998 V1: 32 White, George Clifford, 1999 V2: 155 Q
welded joints in radioactive waste systems, 1999 WI (width), 1998 V1: 23
V2: 341 wide seepage beds, 1999 V2: 225
wells width (WI), 1998 V1: 23 R
bored wells, 1999 V2: 241 “will” in specifications, 1998 V1: 67
driven wells, 1999 V2: 241 wind (WD) S
dug wells, 1999 V2: 240 direction (wdir, WDIR), 1998 V1: 23
equilibrium equations for wells, 1999 V2: 242– gas appliances and, 1999 V2: 178
243 symbols for, 1998 V1: 23 T
gray-water irrigation systems and, 1999 V2: 26 velocity, 1998 V1: 23
hydraulics of, 1999 V2: 241 vent stack terminals and, 1999 V2: 36 U
initial operation and maintenance, 1999 V2: 252 wind pressure (wpr, WPR, WP, WPRES), 1998 V1:
introduction, 1999 V2: 240 23
jetted wells, 1999 V2: 241 withstand for hot-water systems, 1999 V2: 166 V
matching water storage to pump flow, 1999 V2: WO (waste oil), 1998 V1: 10
248 wood shrinkage, protecting against, 1999 V2: 19 W
pipe installation, 1999 V2: 250–252 wood stave piping, 1999 V2: 122
protection of, 1999 V2: 243 Woodcock, J.J., 1999 V2: 34 XYZ
word processors and project manuals, 1998 V1: 68 yellow brass, 1998 V1: 141 A
wording in specifications, 1998 V1: 67 yoke vents, 1998 V1: 39
work yr, YR (years), 1998 V1: 23, 1998 V1: 42
conversion factors, 1998 V1: 43 Yrjanainen, Glen, 1999 V2: 114 B
measurements, 1998 V1: 41 Z C
working deionizers, 1999 V2: 301, 1999 V2: 302
z, Z (zones), 1998 V1: 23, 1998 V1: 185
working pressure
fuel gas, 1999 V2: 212
Zelmanovich, Y., 1999 V2: 325 D
zeolite process, 1999 V2: 244
relief valves and, 1999 V2: 167
vacuum systems, 1999 V2: 259, 1999 V2: 262
zeolites, 1999 V2: 302
zero-flow potential, 1998 V1: 152
E
worst case possibilities, radiation and, 1999 V2:
zeta potential, 1999 V2: 294
341
WOV (waste oil vents), 1998 V1: 10
zinc F
anodes, 1998 V1: 147
WP (wind pressure), 1998 V1: 23
wpr, WPR (wind pressure), 1998 V1: 23
electromotive force series, 1998 V1: 141
G
WPRES (wind pressure), 1998 V1: 23
galvanic series, 1998 V1: 140
wrapped piping
plastic-wrapped steel piping, 1999 V2: 196
ZN (zones), 1998 V1: 23, 1998 V1: 185 H
zones (z, Z, ZN)
sound damping, 1998 V1: 200, 1998 V1: 206–
207
in seismic force calculations, 1998 V1: 185
I
wrapped storm piping, 1999 V2: 68
Wright, Victor E., 1998 V1: 80
writing specifications J
administration of specifications, 1998 V1: 68
overview, 1998 V1: 66–67 K
software, 1998 V1: 68
wrought iron piping, 1999 V2: 122, 1999 V2: 176,
1999 V2: 196
L
wt, WT (weight). See weight
WVC (wet vacuum cleaning). See wet vacuum M
cleaning systems
wyes
avoiding suds formation, 1999 V2: 37
N
sovent systems, 1999 V2: 61
Wyly, R.S., 1999 V2: 4, 1999 V2: 19, 1999 V2: 65 O
X P
x-rays, 1999 V2: 337
X#A (compressed air). See compressed air (A, X#,
X#A)
Q
XP explosion-proof construction, 1999 V2: 179
XP junction boxes, 1999 V2: 179 R
XPAN (expansion. See expansion
Y
S
y (years), 1998 V1: 23, 1998 V1: 42
yards (yd, YD)
T
symbols for, 1998 V1: 23 U
yards and lawns
storm-drainage systems and, 1999 V2: 67
yard cleanouts (CO), 1998 V1: 14
V
YB (valves in yard boxes), 1998 V1: 12
yd, YD (yards), 1998 V1: 23, 1998 V1: 48 W
years (yr, YR), 1998 V1: 23, 1998 V1: 42
Yeh, K.L., 1999 V2: 325 XYZ
How To Navigate Info.1
Data Book
How To Get Around the Data Book and Other
General Information
The following information is excerpted from the Adobe Reader Help sections.
For complete instructions on using the Adobe Reader features see the Readers Guide.
Navigating in the Data Book

Within this document links to sections and pages for Data Book Volume 1 are
shown in Green and for Data Book Volume 2 they are in Red (Only applies to
CD–Roms with multiple Data Book Volumes). Links to other areas within a sec-
tion are shown in Magenta. See instructions on following a link in the Navigating
in PDF Documents section below.
Navigating in PDF Documents

You can navigate in PDF documents by paging through them or by using navi-
gational structures. You can also retrace your steps through documents to
return to where you started.
Paging through documents

Acrobat provides buttons, keyboard shortcuts, and menu commands for paging
through a PDF document.
Note: If you use the number keys on your keyboard’s number pad, make sure
Num Lock is off.
To go to another page:
Do one of the following:
- To go to the next page, click the Next Page button in the command
bar or status bar, press the Right Arrow key, press Ctrl (Windows) or
Option (Mac OS) and the Down Arrow key, or choose Document > Next
Page.
- To go to the previous page, click the Previous Page button in the
command bar or status bar, press the Left Arrow key, press Ctrl (Win-
dows) or Option (Mac OS) and the Up Arrow key, or choose Document
> Previous Page. To move down one line, press the Down Arrow key. To
move up one line, press the Up Arrow key.
Note: The Down and Up Arrow keys move you one line at a time when
you are not in Fit in Window view. In Fit in Window view, these keys
move you one page at a time.
- To move down one screenful, press Page Down or Return.
- To move up one screenful, press Page Up or Shift+Return.
- To go to the first page, click the First Page button in the command bar
or status bar, press the Home key, or choose Document > First Page.
- To go to the last page, click the Last Page button in the command bar
or the status bar, press the End key, or choose Document > Last Page.
To jump to a page by its number:

- Select the current page number in the status bar, type the page number
to jump to, and press Return.
Info.2 ASPE Data Book CDRom
If the Use Logical Page Numbers option is selected in General prefer-

ences, and if your document’s page numbers are different from the page
position in the PDF file, the page position appears in parentheses in the
status bar. For example, if a first page is numbered “iii”, the numbering
might appear as “iii(1 of 10)”. You can double-click inside the parenthe-
ses, edit the page-position number, and press Return to go to that page.
- Choose Document > Go To Page, type the page number, and click OK.
If the Use Logical Page Numbers option is selected in General prefer-
ences, and your document’s page numbers are different from the page
position in the PDF file, you can enter the page-position number in pa-
rentheses in Go To Page to go to that page.
- Drag the vertical scroll bar until the number of the page you want to
jump to is displayed.
To follow a link:
1 Select the hand tool , a zoom tool, or a selection tool.
2 Position the pointer over the linked area on the page until the pointer
changes to a hand with a pointing finger . (The hand has a plus sign
in it if the links point to the Web.) Then click the link.
Note: Clicking a link might perform an action, such as playing a movie, instead
of taking you to another location. It depends on how the link was defined.
Retracing your viewing path

After you have paged through documents or used navigational structures to
move through documents, you can retrace your path back to where you started.
You can go 64 steps back in Acrobat, or 32 steps back for documents in exter-
nal browser windows.
To retrace your viewing path:

Do one or more of the following:
- To retrace your path within a PDF document, click the Go To Previous
View button in the command bar, or choose Document > Go Back for
each step back. Or click the Go To Next View button , or choose Docu-
ment > Go Forward for each step forward.
- To retrace your viewing path through other PDF documents, choose
Document > Go Back Doc for each step back or Document > Go For-
ward Doc for each step forward. Or hold down Shift, and click the Go
Back or Go Forward button. This command opens the other PDF docu-
ments if the documents are closed.
Finding words in PDF documents

You can use the Find command to find a complete word or part of a word in the
current PDF document. Acrobat looks for the word by reading every word on
every page in the file, including text in form fields. If a full-text index has been
created for your PDF document, you can search the index for a word rather
than using the Find command. A full-text index is an alphabetized list of all the
words used in a document or, more typically, in a collection of documents. Search-
ing with an index is much faster than using the Find command, because when
Acrobat looks for a word in the index it goes right to the word in the list rather
than reading through the documents.
To find a word using the Find command:

1 Click the Find button , or choose Edit > Find.
2 Enter the text to find in the text box.
3 Select search options if necessary:
- Match Whole Word Only finds only occurrences of the complete
word you enter in the text box. For example, if you search for the
word stick, the words tick and sticky will not be highlighted.
- Match Case finds only words that contain exactly the same capitali-
zation you enter in the text box.
- Find Backwards starts the search from the current page and goes
backward through the document.
4 Click Find. Acrobat finds the next occurrence of the word.
To find the next occurrence of the word:

- Choose Edit > Find Again.
- Reopen the Find dialog box, and click Find Again. ( The word must
already be in the Find text box.)
Printing PDF documents (Not Applicable for Data Books)

You can specify a range of pages to print in the Acrobat Print dialog box, or you
can specify noncontiguous pages or a particular page area to print before opening
the dialog box.
To print a PDF document:

1 If necessary, do one of the following:
- To select pages to print, click thumbnails in the Thumbnails pal-
ette. You can Ctrl-click (Windows) or Command-click (Mac OS)
thumbnails to select non-contiguous pages, or Shift-click to se-
lect a contiguous range of pages. You can also select a contigu-
ous page range in the Print dialog box.
- To select an area on a page to print, select the graphics select
tool , and drag on the page to draw the area you want.
2 Use File > Page Setup to set general printing options. The available
options will vary with different printers and drivers. See your printer driver
documentation for details.
3 Click the Print button , or choose File > Print. Specify the printer,
page range, number of copies, and other options, and click OK. Most of
the options are the same as they are for other applications, but note the
following:
- Selected Pages Or Selected Graphic (Windows) or Selected
Thumbnails/Graphic (Mac OS) prints only the pages or page
area you selected before opening the Print dialog box.
- Page From/To prints a range of pages. In Windows, if the Use
Logical Page Numbers option is selected in General preferences,
you can enter page-position numbers in parentheses to print
those pages. For example, if the first page of a document is
numbered “iii”, you can enter (1) to print that page.
- Annotations prints Acrobat annotation graphics on the pages.
The annotations are always printed as closed, even if they are
open on the pages online. Fit To Page scales pages up or down
(and if necessary rotates them) to fit the paper size currently

installed in your printer. This is not available in most other appli-
cations.
- Print As Image (Windows) prints the pages as bitmap images.
(In Mac OS, this is set in the Print Method pop-up menu.) You
may want to print pages as images if they have too many fonts
to print as PostScript or if the pages use non-embedded Asian
fonts not available on your system.
- Print Method, in Windows, specifies which level of PostScript
to generate for the pages. Choose the level of PostScript appro-
priate for your printer. In Mac OS, this specifies whether to print
using PostScript (without selecting level) or to print pages as
bitmap images.
- Force Language Level 3 (Mac OS) prints the pages using
LanguageLevel 3 PostScript. Select this option if you’re printing
PostScript to a file rather than to a printer and you want to use
LanguageLevel 3 PostScript. (When you send PDF to a printer,
let the printer driver specify what level of PostScript to use.) This
is available only when you choose PostScript in the Print Method
pop-up menu; if you choose PostScript in the menu and do not
select this option, PostScript Level 2 is used.
Note: Some fonts cannot be downloaded to a printer, either because the font
is a bitmap or because embedding of the font is restricted in that docu-
ment. In these cases, a substitute font is used for printing, and the printed
output may not match the screen display exactly. See Previewing sub-
stituted fonts for information on seeing what substituted fonts will look
like on another system.
Using the Search command

The Search command allows you to perform a search on PDF documents. You
can search for a simple word or phrase, or you can expand your search query
by using wild-card characters and operators. You can use the search options to
further refine your search. And if document and date information were provided
for the documents you are searching, you can use that information to narrow
your search.
To perform a full-text search:

1 Launch Acrobat Reader 4.0, and choose Edit > Search > Query.
2 Type the text you want to search for in the Find Results Containing Text
box: The text that you type in can be a single word, a number, a term, or
a phrase. It can be a word, with or without wild-card characters (*, ?), or
any combination of letters, numbers, and symbols. Because you can
use Boolean operators in the text box, you must enclose any search
term that includes and, or, or not in quotes. You can also use the opera-
tors =, ~, and != with text, but only to perform exact matches, contains,
and does not contain searches, respectively. You can use comparison
operators (<, <=, >, >=) with values of the same type. For more informa-
tion, see Tips on defining search queries.
To clear the search dialog box and redefine the search, click Clear.
3 To refine your search query, select one or more of the search options:
Word Stemming, Sounds Like, Thesaurus, Match Case, or Proximity. If

the search options are not displayed in the Acrobat Search dialog box,
restore them by choosing File > Preferences > Search, and selecting
Show Options. For information on how these options affect your search
query, see Setting the search options.
4 To refine your search query using document and date information, enter
document information values in the Title, Subject, Author, and Keywords
text boxes, and enter date information in the creation and modification
date text boxes. If these text boxes are not displayed in the Acrobat
Search dialog box, restore them by choosing File > Preferences > Search,
and selecting Show Fields.
5 Select Search. The Search dialog box is hidden, and documents that
match your search query are listed in the Search Results window in
order of relevancy.
6 Double-click a document that seems likely to contain the relevant infor-
mation, probably the first document in the list. The document opens on
the first match for the text you typed.
7 Click the Search Next button or Search Previous button to go to other
matches in the document. Or choose another document to view.
Alternatively, you can redefine the query by typing new text in the Acro-
bat Search dialog box or by using other techniques to expand the search
to include more documents or to limit the search to fewer documents.
For more infor-mation, see Limiting searches.
Viewing documents returned from searches

A search returns a list of indexed documents containing items that match your
search query. The results are displayed in the Search Results window. When
you open a document in the list, you view only pages containing matches. All
the matches on a page are highlighted.
Documents more likely to contain relevant information are listed first on the list.
The relevancy ranking of each document is indicated by an icon. The degree of
fill in the circle in the icon indicates the probability that the document contains
the search information. A solid fill indicates a high proba-bility that the docu-
ment contains your search term; an empty circle indicates a low probability that
the document contains your search term.
Relevancy ranking for search results
The relevancy ranking also depends on how you defined your search query:
- When you use ordinary search text, the relevancy ranking indicates how
frequently the search word appears in the document. This means both
in absolute terms and relative to the number of other words in the docu-
ment.
- When you use a Boolean OR operator between two words or phrases in
a search, documents that contain both items have a higher relevancy
ranking than documents that contain just one item.
- When you use the Proximity option, the closer the matches are within a
document, the higher the relevancy ranking of that document.
To view a document returned from a search:

1 Double-click the document name to open the document.
2 Use the Search buttons on the tool bar to view all the matches for your
query.
3 Review the search results that automatically appear in the text box:
- To highlight the next occurrence of a match in the document, click
Search Next.
- To highlight the previous occurrence of a match in a document, click
Search Previous.
- To highlight the first occurrence of a match in the next document
listed or previous document listed, Shift-click Search Next or Search
Previous.
- To view any other document listed, select Search Results to redisplay
the list, then double-click the document name.
Refining your searches

If your search returns too many documents or provides too many matches in
individual documents, you can pair down the search results by confining the
search to documents returned by a previous search, or you can more narrowly
define your search term, use the document and date information, and use the
general search options and the Word Assistant. Alternatively, if your search did
not provide the information you were looking for, you can broaden your search
query using the search options, for example.
Note: If the search options and document and date information text boxes are
not displayed in the Acrobat Search dialog box, restore them by choos-
ing File > Preferences > Search, and selecting Show Options.
Refining searches in progress

If you want to narrow a search further, you can refine or confine your search to
documents listed in a prior search. For example, you can first search for (and
find) all documents by an author, and then define a earch query for that subset
of documents. The result would be a subset of documents that are authored by
the specified author and that contain the search string.
To refine a search:
1 Choose Edit > Search > Query to display the Search Results window.
Select and show the results of a previous search.
2 In the Search dialog box, refine or replace the query that produced the
list of documents.
If you used a simple text string for the search query, you might consider
refining the search query by using the search options, by including docu-
ment and date information in the search, or by using Word Assistant.
For more infor-mation, see Using Word Assistant.
3 Press Ctrl (Windows) or Option (Mac OS). The button label changes
from Search to Refine.
4 Click Refine. This produces a Search Results list of documents that are
a subset of the previous list and that match the new query.
Setting the search options

You can expand your search term by using the search options Sounds Like,
Word Stemming, or Thesaurus.
To set the search options:

In the Search dialog box, select one or more of the options:
- Word Stemming finds words that contain part of (a word stem) the
specified search word. It applies to single words, not phrases; does not
apply to words that contain wild-card characters (*, ?); finds words that
end in ing, ed, s, ion, and so on, but not er; and cannot be used with the
Match Case option. Word Stemming works only for indexes built with
this option.
- Sounds Like finds different spellings for proper names. It applies to
single words, not phrases; does not apply to words that contain wild-
card characters; and cannot be used with the Match Case option. Sounds
Like works only for indexes built with this option.
- Thesaurus finds similar words that appear in the documents you are
searching, not necessarily all the similar words you might find in a com-
plete thesaurus. It applies to single words, not phrases; does not apply
to words that contain wild-card characters; and cannot be used with the
Match Case option.
- Match Case limits the results of the search by finding only those docu-
ments that contain words with the same capitalization. It can be used
with a Boolean expression and with terms that use wild-card characters.
Characters matched by wild-card characters can be either uppercase or
lowercase.
- Proximity limits the results of simple AND searches to one pair of
matches per document—the pair closest together. The two matches
must be within three pages or fewer of each other. This option is useful
for locating a document that concentrates on some topic of interest.
Proximity affects relevancy ranking in searches. The closer the matches
are within a document, the higher the ranking. Proximity does work with
complex AND searches—such as, Hawaii AND (cruise OR fly). If you
want to keep the search dialog box small, you can hide (or keep hidden)
the options and type in their names in the Find Results Containing Text
box. Along with the text box names, you need to use operators such as
= (equals) and > (greater than). For the options, type in /st (stemming),
/so (sounds like), /th (thesaurus), /ca (match case), or /pr (proximity).
Expanding searches
- Use wild-card characters in the search text to increase the number of
matches for the text.
- Use an asterisk (*) to match zero, one, or more characters; use a ques-
tion mark (?) to match any one character.
- Use wild-card characters in a term that is part of a Boolean expression.
- Use wild-card characters to specify Document Info text box values. How-
ever, you cannot use wild-cards to represent separator characters such
as the hyphen (-) and the slash (/).
- Use Boolean expressions in Document Info text box values.
- Use a Boolean OR operator between two words to return documents
containing either word.
- Use the Sounds Like, Word Stemming, and Thesaurus options to in-
crease the number of matches for the text.
- Use a comma (,) or vertical bar (|) to separate items in an OR search.
Limiting searches
- Use a Boolean NOT operator before a word or search term to exclude
documents containing the word or search term.
- Use an exclamation point (!) as another way to specify a NOT search.
However, be sure to place a space between the exclamation point and
the search item.
- Use a Boolean AND operator between two words to return only docu-
ments containing both words.
- Use the Proximity option to limit AND searches. This specifies that words
must be in close proximity to each other—within three pages or fewer.
Use the Match Case option to match exact capitalization.
Using Boolean operators

To avoid building inaccurate search queries, follow these guidelines:
- When NOT is used with either or both of the AND and OR operators, it
is evaluated before either the AND or OR. For example, evolution AND
NOT Darwin finds all documents that contain the word evolution but not
the word Darwin.
- When you combine AND and OR in the same expression, AND is evalu-
ated before OR. For example, Darwin OR origin AND species finds all
documents that contain Darwin or that contain both origin and species.
- When you use parentheses, you change the default order of evaluation
for Boolean operators. For example, (Darwin OR origin) AND species
finds all documents that contain either Darwin and species or that con-
tain origin and species. Parentheses can be nested.
- When you use a literal phrase that contains an operator name, a symbol
for an operator name (such as & for AND), or parentheses, the phrase
must be enclosed in quotation marks. For example: “cats and dogs”
finds all documents that contain the phrase cats and dogs, not all docu-
ments that contain either the word cats or the word dogs. The phrase
cats & dogs also needs quotes to be interpreted literally.
In addition to and, or, not, and parentheses, the symbols that require
quotation marks are
& AND
| and, OR
! NOT
However, quoted search phrases that contain parentheses or vertical
bars can produce unexpected results.
Using operators
- You can use operators in text and Document Info text boxes.
- You can use =, ~, and != with text only to perform exact matches, con-
tains, and does not contain searches, respectively.
- You can use comparison operators (<, <=, >, >=) with values of the
same type.
For complete instructions on using the Adobe Reader features see the Readers Guide.

02 Plumbing Systems PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

02 Plumbing Systems PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Table of Contents i

American Society of Plumbing Engineers

American Society of Plumbing Engineers

American Society of Plumbing Engineers

Copyright © 2000 by American Society of Plumbing Engineers

American Society of Plumbing Engineers

Volume 1 Fundamentals of Plumbing Engineering (Revised 1999)

Volume 3 Special Plumbing Systems (Estimated date: 2000)

Volume 4 Plumbing Components and Equipment (Estimated revision date: 2002)

CHAPTER 1 Sanitary Drainage Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

CHAPTER 2 Gray-Water Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

CHAPTER 3 Vents and Venting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

CHAPTER 4 Storm-Drainage Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

CHAPTER 5 Cold-Water Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Installation Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

CHAPTER 6 Domestic Water-Heating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

CHAPTER 7 Fuel-Gas Piping Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

CHAPTER 8 Private Sewage-Disposal Systems ............ . . . . . . . . . . 217

Construction Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

CHAPTER 9 Private Water Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

CHAPTER 10 Vacuum Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

Simplified Method of Calculating Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258

CHAPTER 11 Water Treatment, Conditioning, and Purification . . . . . . . . . 279

Ion Exchange and Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300

CHAPTER 12 Special-Waste Drainage Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327

Codes and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 345

Climate, Schedule 40 Plastic Vents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Figure 5-7 Pipe Sizing Data, Smooth Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

Carbon Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301

Table 3-6 Size of Vent Stacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Table 5-13 Guide to the Assessment of Hazard and Application

Table 8-6 Typical Waste-Water Flows from Commercial Sources . . . . . . . . . 234

Table 11-12 NCCLS Reagent-Grade Water Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319

INTRODUCTION of the stack at the level of entry. In any event, as

is attained within 10 to 15 ft (3.05 to 5.22 m) of Flow in Fixture Drains

FIXTURE DISCHARGE Bathtub 2

Figure 1-1 Procedure for Sizing an Offset Stack

Hazen and Williams formula This formula is Equation 1-5a

Equation 1-5 Load or Drainage Piping

Table 1-4 Values of R, R2/3, AF, and AH

1½ (40) 0.0335 (1.02) 0.1040 (3.17) 0.01412 (0.0013) 0.00706 (0.0006)

2 (50) 0.0417 (1.27) 0.1200 (3.66) 0.02180 (0.0020) 0.01090 (0.0009)

2½ (65) 0.0521 (1.59) 0.1396 (4.24) 0.03408 (0.0031) 0.01704 (0.0015)

3 (80) 0.0625 (1.90) 0.1570 (4.78) 0.04910 (0.0046) 0.02455 (0.0023)

4 (100) 0.0833 (2.54) 0.1910 (5.82) 0.08730 (0.0081) 0.04365 (0.0040)

5 (125) 0.1040 (3.17) 0.2210 (6.74) 0.13640 (0.0127) 0.06820 (0.0063)

6 (150) 0.1250 (3.81) 0.2500 (7.62) 0.19640 (0.0182) 0.09820 (0.0091)

8 (200) 0.1670 (5.09) 0.3030 (9.23) 0.34920 (0.0324) 0.17460 (0.0162)

10 (250) 0.2080 (6.33) 0.3510 (10.70) 0.54540 (0.0506) 0.27270 (0.0253)

12 (300) 0.2500 (7.62) 0.3970 (12.10) 0.78540 (0.0730) 0.39270 (0.0364)

15 (380) 0.3125 (9.53) 0.4610 (14.05) 1.22700 (0.0379) 0.61350 (0.0570)

14 (31.8) 3.40 (0.21) 1.78 (45.5)

a n = Manning coefficient, which varies with the roughness of the pipe.

1½ (40) 2.04 (1.3) 2.04 (1.3) Grates/Strainers

Figure 1-2 Basic Floor-Drain Components:

on the wheels of hand-trucks and other vehicles.

Accessories Oil Interceptors

THERMAL EXPANSION sis is to be performed due to excessive stresses

Figure 1-11 (A) Traditional Two-Pipe System,

INTRODUCTION Gray-water systems have been used in vari-

Figure 2-1 Plumbing System Flow Charts:

System Components DESIGN CRITERIA FOR GRAY-

Figure 2-3 Water Treatment Systems: