Pipe FlowFinal

KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY
Faculty of Engineering
Department of Civil and Building Engineering
HYDRAULICS
Fundamentals
Lecturer: Charles Onyutha
conyutha@kyu.ac.ug
C. Onyutha (2018). Hydraulics:
Lecture Slides, KyU, Uganda
Fundamentals
Hydraulics
 a branch of scientific and engineering discipline that deals with the
mechanical properties of fluids, mainly water.
It is widely applied in;

o dams,
o harbor and port,
o bridge,
o irrigation
o hydro-power,
o pumps and turbines,
o water retaining structures, etc
2
Fundamentals
Control volume
 a purely imaginary region within a body of flowing fluid
 the region is normally at a fixed location
 the region is of a fixed size
 inside the region, all the dynamic forces cancel each other
 attention if focused on forces acting externally on the control volume
Example
3
Fundamentals
Streamlines
 imaginary line joining points of equal velocity (i.e. velocity contours)
Some points to know about streamlines

 In steady flow, the position of streamlines does not change
 In unsteady flow, position of streamlines can change with time
The fluid moves in the same direction as the streamlines, therefore, the fluid
can not cross a streamline
 Streamlines can not cross each other. If they were to cross this would indicate
two different velocities at the same point. This is not physically possible.
 The above point implies that any particles of fluid starting on one streamline
will stay on that same streamline throughout the fluid.
Streamtube => collection of streamlines in a tubular surface
4
Fundamentals
Ideal flow
 frictionless and incompressible (i.e. non-viscous)
Compressible or incompressible flow
 All fluids (even water) are compressible - their density will change as pressure changes.
 Under steady conditions, and provided that the changes in pressure are small, it is
usually possible to simplify analysis of the flow by assuming it is incompressible and has
constant density.
 Actually, liquids are quite difficult to compress - so under most steady conditions they
are treated as incompressible. In some unsteady conditions very high pressure
differences can occur and it is necessary to take these into account - even for liquids.
 Gasses, on the contrary, are very easily compressed, it is essential in most cases to treat
these as compressible, taking changes in pressure into account.
5
Some definitions related to fluids in motion
Uniform flow
 If the flow velocity is the same magnitude and direction at every
point in the fluid it is said to be uniform.
Non-uniform flow
 If at a given instant, the velocity is not the same at every point the
flow is non-uniform.
In practice, by this definition, every fluid that flows near a solid boundary will
be non-uniform – as the fluid at the boundary must take the speed of the
boundary, usually zero. However if the size and shape of the of the cross-
section of the stream of fluid is constant the flow is considered uniform.
Source: Sleigh Andrew (2001). Notes For the First Year Lecture Course: An Introduction to Fluid Mechanics.
School of Engineering, University of Leeds.
6
Some definitions related to fluids in motion
Steady flow
 one in which the conditions (velocity, pressure and cross-section)
may differ from point to point but DO NOT change with time.
Unsteady flow
 If at any point in the fluid, the conditions change with time, the flow
is described as unsteady.
In practice there is always slight variations in velocity and pressure, but if the
average values are constant, the flow is considered steady.
Source: Sleigh Andrew (2001). Notes For the First Year Lecture Course: An Introduction to Fluid Mechanics.
School of Engineering, University of Leeds.
7
Flow classification
Steady uniform flow
 Conditions do not change with position in the stream or with time.

An example is the flow of water in a pipe of constant diameter at constant velocity.
Steady non-uniform flow

 Conditions change from point to point in the stream but do not change with time.
An example is flow in a tapering pipe with constant velocity at the inlet - velocity
will change as you move along the length of the pipe toward the exit.
Unsteady uniform flow

 At a given instant in time the conditions at every point are the same, but will
change with time.

An example is a pipe of constant diameter connected to a pump pumping at a constant
rate which is then switched off.
Unsteady non-uniform flow

 Every condition of the flow may change from point to point and with time at
every point. Example - waves in a channel.
8
Newtonian’s law of viscosity
The shearing force F acts on the area on the top of the element.
The deformation which this shear stress causes is measured by the size of the
angle ϕ and is know as shear strain.
9
If the particle at point E moves under the

shear stress to point E’ and it takes time t
to get there, it has moved the distance x.
For small deformations we can write
10
is the change in velocity u with y, or the velocity gradient
and the velocity gradient can be written the differential form
The constant of proportionality is

known as the dynamic viscosity, μ
This is known as Newton’s law of viscosity.
11
Newtonian versus Non-Newtonian fluids
Newtonian fluid (most of the fluids e.g. water)
 fluid which obeys Newton’s law of viscosity

 fluid for which the value of μ (absolute viscosity) is constant
is the velocity gradient
Assumptions of the equation

 Non-Newtonian fluids are studied by Rheology (i.e. the science of deformation & flow
 The continuum approximation:
(the properties of the fluid can be represented by continuous fields representing averages over
many molecules (The exception is when we are dealing with gases at low pressures)
12
Non-Newtonian fluid
 fluid which do not obey Newton’s law of viscosity

 fluid for which the value of μ is not constant
Various
categories
where
A, B and n are constants.
For Newtonian fluids

A = 0, B = μ and n = 1.
13
Non-Newtonian fluid
• Plastic: Shear stress must reach a certain minimum before flow commences.
• Bingham plastic: As with the plastic above a minimum shear stress must be achieved.
With this classification n = 1. An example is sewage sludge.
•Pseudo-plastic: No minimum shear stress necessary and the viscosity decreases with
rate of shear, e.g. colloidial substances like clay, milk and cement.
• Dilatant substances: Viscosity increases with rate of shear e.g. quicksand.
• Thixotropic substances: Viscosity decreases with length of time shear force is applied
e.g. thixotropic jelly paints.
•Rheopectic substances: Viscosity increases with length of time shear force is applied
•Viscoelastic materials: Similar to Newtonian but if there is a sudden large change in
shear they behave like plastic.

14
Properties of fluids and flow description
Properties
•Density: Mass per unit volume (kg/m3)
• Specific gravity: Ratio of the substance’s density and water’s density at 4oC
• Pressure: Normal fluid force divided by area over which it acts (N/m2)
• Viscosity: is the property of a fluid, due to cohesion and interaction between
molecules, which offers resistance to shear deformation.
Flow description
There are two approaches
• Lagrangian approach: follow individual fluid element as it moves about
• Eulerian approach: focus on a fixed location and consider how the fluid properties
change at that location as time goes on.
15
Laws that govern motion of fluids
Conservation of mass (also called equation of continuity)
• mass can be neither created nor destroyed.
Conservation of energy
• energy can be neither created nor destroyed.
Conservation of momentum
• body in motion cannot gain or lose momentum unless some external force is applied
16
Fluid statics versus fluid dynamics
Fluid statics
• is the study of fluids at rest
• a static fluid can have no shearing force acting on it, and
• any force between the fluid and the boundary acts at right angles to the boundary.
Hydrostatics deals with the pressures and forces resulting from the weight of fluids at rest.
Fluid dynamics
• is the study of fluids in motion
• dynamic fluid experiences dynamic forces
17
Laminar versus turbulent flow
Laminar
• flow in discrete layers with no mixing
Turbulent flow
• flow with eddying or mixing action
18
Momentum Equation
mass=density × volume
volume/∆t = Q
Two steps
i) Calculate the total momentum force
ii) Find out where this force is sourced.
19
Momentum Equation
It is more convenient to use scalar forms by

separating the momentum force into three basic
components:
20
Momentum Equation
Applications
1) A jet normal to a fixed plate
a) In the horizontal direction, the total momentum force is
Here,
b) There is only one force FR acting on the water jet, the total momentum force = FR
21
Momentum Equation
Applications
2) Force exerted by a nozzle
a) The total momentum force is
b) Force balance
From Bernoulli’s principle =>
The value of p1 can be substituted in to F=p1A1-FR
22
KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY
Faculty of Engineering
Department of Civil and Building Engineering
HYDRAULICS
Pipe flow
Lecturer: Charles Onyutha
conyutha@kyu.ac.ug
Pipe flow
Consider two Points 1 and 2 within a pipe such that:
• Z1 = Elevation of point 1
• Z2 = Elevation of point 2
• L = Length of the pipe between points 1 and 2
L
2
Z1
Z2
Datum
24
Pipe flow
Forces responsible for the motion
1) Gravity
2) Pressure (force)
3) Acceleration due to change in velocity
L
2
Z1
Z2
Datum
25
Pipe flow
Total energy at any point comprises
1) Potential energy = due to the virtue of elevation
2) Pressure energy = work done in pushing the water
3) Kinetic energy = due to motion of the body
L
2
Z1
Z2
Datum
26
Pipe flow
(1) Potential Energy (PE) per unit weight (PEW)
PE = m × g × z
Weight (W) = m × g where m = mass in Kg
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
z = height (m) above datum
PEW = PE/W = z
27
Pipe flow
PE = m × g × z
PEW = PE/W = z
(2) Work done (WD) in pushing volume V by fluid pressure = p × V

m m g W
if ρ=density V  
   g g
p
WD per unit weight WDW 
g
28
Pipe flow
PE = m × g × z
PEW = PE/W = z
(2) Work done (WD) in pushing volume V by fluid pressure = p × V

m m g W
if ρ=density V  
   g g
p
WD per unit weight WDW 
g
1 1 W 2
(3) Kinetic Energy KE  mV 2   V where V=velocity (m/s)
2 2 g
V2
KE per unit weight KEW 
2g
29
Pipe flow
Total energy (H) at any point comprises
1) Potential head = z (m)
p
2) Pressure head = (m)
g
3) Velocity head = V 2 (m)

2g
1
L
2
Z1
Z2
Datum
30
Pipe flow
Total energy (H)
p V2
H( m)  z  
 g 2g
p1 V12 p2 V22
H( m)  Z1    Z2   ENERGY EQUATION
 g 2g  g 2g
L
2
Z1
Z2
Datum
31
Pipe flow
Total energy (H) Bernoulli's theorem
p V2 holds for
H( m)  z  
 g 2g
=> steady continuous streamline
p1 V12 p2 V22 => an ideal incompressible fluid
H( m)  Z1    Z2   ...............(1)
 g 2g  g 2g
L
2
Z1
Z2
Datum
32
Pipe flow
Total energy (H)
p V2
H( m)  z  
 g 2g
p1 V12 p2 V22
H( m)  Z1    Z2   ...............(1)
 g 2g  g 2g
For real incompressible fluid flow
 introducing a loss term for the frictional resistances caused by:
 Viscous & turbulent shear stresses
 Sudden changes in sections (contractions, expansions, etc)
 correcting velocity term for true velocity distribution
p1 1V12 p2  2V22
Z1    Z2    Losses...............( 2)
 g 2g g 2g
where α = velocity (kinetic) energy correction factor
33
Pipe flow
Velocity (kinetic) energy correction factor
Total KE = ∑ (KE of individual particles of mass, m)
Uniform distribution
Each particle moves with velocity V and its KE  1 mV 2
2
1 1 W 2 V2
Total KE over the section TKE  ( m  m  m  m  ....)V  ( )V 
2
2 2 g 2g
V2
TKE  per unit weight of the fluid
2g
34
Pipe flow
Nonuniform distribution => Particles move with different velocities

Mass (m) of individual elements through an elementary area dA m    dA  v
mv2     dA  v   v2
1 1
KE of individual mass element KE 
2 2
Total KE over the section TKE1  

1
2
 
  v3 dA
A
35
Pipe flow
Nonuniform distribution => Particles move with different velocities
By using the average velocity V at the section we apply  TKE2   

1
2
   AV  V  dA
3
1 v
From TKE1 =TKE 2      dA
A A V 
α=2 (laminar flow)

α = Coriolis coefficient
1.03< α<1.3 (turbulent flow) 36
Pipe flow
Velocity distribution
Mean velocity
Laminar flow
Turbulent flow
37
Pipe flow
FRICTIONAL LOSS
Head loss due to friction (hf ) = total head loss along a specified length of a pipeline
p1 1V12 p2  2V22
Z1    Z2    h f ...............(3)
 g 2g g 2g
hf can be given by Darcy-Weisbash equation
 L  v2
hf  f   ...............................................( 4)
 D  2g
f = frictional coefficient (also denoted as λ)
D = diameter of the pipe (m)
0L g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
hf  v = flow velocity (m/s) in the pipe
 gRh τ0 = boundary shear stress (N/m2)
Rh = hydraulic radius (D/4 for circular pipe)
38
Pipe flow
Frictional coefficient f
Type of design problems which require f;
• determining pressure drop given the L (m) and D (m) for a specified Q (m3/s) or v (m/s)
• determining Q (m3/s) if L (m) and D (m) are given for a specified pressure drop
• determining D (m) if L (m) and Q (m3/s) are given for a specified pressure drop.
where L = pipe length (m)
v = flow velocity (m/s) in the pipe
39
Pipe flow
To determine f, Reynold’s number Re is required
 vD vD
Re  
  D = diameter of the pipe (m)
ν = kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
v = flow velocity d in the pipe (m/s)
μ = dynamic viscosity (N s/m2)
ρ = density (Kg/m3)
Viscosity = measure of the inherent resistance of a fluid to flow

• Kinematic
• Dynamic
40
Pipe flow
Viscosity
 kinematic = when only gravity is acting

on it (no external forces are
applied)
 Dynamic = when an external force is
applied to the fluid
Kinematic viscosity = absolute (or dynamic)
viscosity divided by density of the fluid
41
Pipe flow
FOR LAMINAR FLOW (when Re ≤ 2000)
hf can be given by Hagen-Pouiseuille equation
32 LV
hf  .................................(5)
 gD 2
 L  v2
Thus in Equation (4), hf  f  
 D  2g
64
f for laminar flow
Re
42
Pipe flow
FOR TURBULENT FLOW (when Re > 2000)
In 1913, Blasius showed using experiment on smooth pipes that
0.3164
f 1
.....................................(6)
R 
e
4
Later,
Prandtl and Nikuradse using smooth and artificially roughened pipes
identified three zones
43
Pipe flow
(i) Smooth turbulent zone in which f is a function of Re
1 Re f
 2 log .....................................(7)
f 2.51
(ii) Transitional turbulent zone in which f is a function of (k/D) and Re
where k is roughness coefficient
(iii) Rough turbulent zone in which f is a function of (k/D)
1 3.7 D
 2 log .....................................(8)
f k
Equations (7) and (8) are called Karman-Prandtly equations
44
Pipe flow
In 1939, Colebrook and White found that combining equations (7) and (8)
1  k 2.51 
 2 log    .....................................(9)
f  3.7 D Re f 
 
Problem: Equation (9) is implicit!
REMEDY 1: Moody produced an approximation
 1

  k 106  3

f  0.0055 1   20000    .....................................(10)
 D Re
   
 
45
Pipe flow
46
Pipe flow
REMEDY 2: Barr produced another approximation

 
1
 2 log  k

5.1286  .....................................(11)
 
 Re 
0.89
f  3.7 D
 
47
Pipe flow
FRICTIONAL LOSS
Head loss due to friction (hf ) = total head loss along a specified length of a pipeline
p1 1V12 p2  2V22
Z1    Z2    h f ...............(3)
 g 2g g 2g
hf can also be given from the expression of Hazen-Williams equation
V  0.85  C  R0.63  S0.54 .............................................(12)
S = Slope of the hydraulic grade line (hf/L)

Make hf as the subject C = Friction coefficient
from Equation (12) R = Hydraulic radius (R=D/4 for circular pipe)
v = Flow velocity (m/s) in the pipe 48
Pipe flow
FRICTIONAL LOSS
Hazen-Williams equation
Advantage:
• the coefficient C is not a function of the Reynolds number
Disadvantage:
• valid for water
• accurate for water temperatures of 4oC – 25oC
• does not account for the temperature or viscosity of the water
Values for Hazen-Williams equation
C C
Pipe Material
Low High
Asbestos-cement 140 140
Cast iron 100 140
Cement-Mortar Lined Ductile Iron Pipe 140 140
Concrete 100 140
Copper 130 140
Steel 90 110
Galvanized iron 120 120
Polyethylene 140 140
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 130 130
Fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP) 150 150
49
Pipe flow
Pressure Head and Energy gradient
• Head loss due to friction (hf) = total head loss along a specified length of a pipeline
hf
• Energy gradient (Sf) or rate of energy loss S 
f
L
• Energy Grade Line (EGL) – a line that shows the total energy in the fluid
• Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) – a line that shows potential energy and
pressure energy in the fluid
 Pipelines follow the natural ground contours up and down the hills.
 Eventually, pressure changes because of differences in ground levels
50
Pipe flow
51
Pipe flow
52
Pipe flow
53
Pipe flow
54
Pipe flow
HGL and EGL for a negative pressure system
55
Pipe flow
Source: https://southwestvalve.com/cavitation/
HGL and EGL for a vena contracta
56
Pipe flow
Energy loss, HGL and EGL

for a turbine system
57
Pipe flow
For a pressurized conduit system, the one-dimensional steady flow form of energy equation
p1 1V12 p2  2V22
Z1    hp  Z2    h f  ht ...............(13)
 g 2g g 2g
hp = added head from a

pump
ht = added head extracted

by a turbine
γ=ρg
Definition sketch of the energy terms
58
Pipe flow
For a pressurized conduit system, the one-dimensional steady flow form of energy equation
p1 1V12 p2  2V22
Z1    hp  Z2    h f  ht ...............(13)
 g 2g g 2g
hp= The head supplied by a pump is in terms of the mechanical

power supplied to the flow
Q ghp
Pp  ...............(14)

η = “wire-to-water” efficiency
Pp = power supplied to the motor
If Pt =the power which can be extracted by the turbine
Pt  Q ght ...............(15)

Again, η = “wire-to-water” efficiency
59
Pipe flow
HGL and EGL can be vital to locate potential trouble spots in a hydraulic system
Some hints:
• EGL is greater than HGL by a distance equal to the velocity head
• HGL and EGL coincide with the liquid surface when velocity is zero (e.g. in a reservoir)
• EGL and HGL drop abruptly if energy is extracted from the system e.g. by a turbine
• If pressure is zero (e.g. in a reservoir open to the atmosphere, or where the pipe discharges to the atmosphere)
HGL coincides with the liquid surface
• At expansion, velocity head is converted to pressure head.
60
Pipe flow
HGL and EGL can be vital to locate potential trouble spots in a hydraulic system
Some hints:
• When HGL falls below the pipe elevation, the pressure head is negative
• If a pipe is of the same cross section and material properties (especially
roughness), EGL and HGL will have constant slope along that pipe section.
• If a pipeline has two sections each of a different material or property, velocity
will change. Thus, distance between EGL an HGL will change. The slope of the
EGL will also change since head loss per unit length will be larger in the section
with greater velocity.
• Head loss is typical of the EGL sloping downward in the flow direction. However, when a
pump adds energy and pressure to the flow, EGL rises abruptly from the suction (upstream)
side of the pump to the discharge (downstream) side.
61
PIPE FLOW
QUESTION: Calculate the pressure at point 2 if the pressure at point 1 is
150 kN/m2 and point 2 is 7.5 m above point 1.
62
Pipe flow
Assuming no energy loss along the pipeline, Total energy at 1 =Total energy at 2
p1 V12 p2 V22
Z1    Z2  
 g 2g  g 2g
Since the pipe diameter is the constant, velocity will be the same and the KE terms cancel out
p1 p
Z1   Z2  2
g g
Re-arranging:
p1 p2
  Z2  Z1 But Z2-Z1 was given as 7.5 m
g g
p1 p2
  7.5
g g
 p1  p2  7.5   g  7.5m 1000Kgm3  9.81ms2  73575 N/m2  75.6kN/m2
63
Pipe flow
known pressure at point 1 (p1) = 150 kN/m2
p1  p2  73.6
p2 = 150 - 73.6 = 76.4 kN/m2
Remark:
The drop in pressure at point 2 is directly attributed to the elevation
rise in the pipeline:
 p1  p2  7.5   g  7.5m 1000Kgm3  9.81ms2  73575 N/m2
64
Pipe flow
A 200 mm diameter pipeline 2000 m long is connected to a reservoir
and its outlet is 15 m below the reservoir water level and discharges
freely into the atmosphere. Calculate the discharge from the pipe
when the friction factor is 0.014..
Energy equation between point 1 at the surface of the reservoir and point 2 just
inside the water jet emerging from the pipe outlet
65
Pipe flow
p1 V12 p2 V22
Z1    Z2    hf
 g 2g  g 2g
 p1 is at atmospheric pressure thus p1 = zero.
 p2 is very near atmospheric pressure because the position of 2 is in the jet as it
emerges from the pipe into the atmosphere; therefore, p2 ≈ zero
 water velocity v1 is zero in the reservoir
 v2 at the outlet is very small in comparison with the potential energy of 30 m
and therefore, v2 ≈ zero
fLV 2
Z1  Z2  h f 
2 gD
0.014  2000  V 2
15 
2  9.81 0.2
 V  1.45m / s
 D2   0.22
Q  VA  1.45   1.45   0.045m3 / s
4 4 66
Pipe flow
A 200mm-diameter pipe of length 30 km is connected to a reservoir. Consider that the water is
allowed to discharge freely into the atmosphere, and the water’s dynamic viscosity is 1.002×10-3 Ns/m2 .
Calculate the discharge if the pipe is of surface roughness coefficient equal to 0.004 and the difference
in elevation between the pipe outlet and the reservoir surface where the pipe is connected is 45 m.
Assume the flow is turbulent and use Moody’s approximation of frictional coefficient.
p1 V12 p2 V22
Z1    Z2    hf Assuming local losses are negligible
 g 2g  g 2g
 p1 ≈ p2 = zero, i.e. at atmospheric pressure

 velocity v1 is zero in the reservoir
 v2 just at the outlet point ≈ zero
fLV 2
Z1  Z2  h f 
2 gD
fLV 2 f  30000  V 2
45  
2 gD 2  9.81 0.2
45  2  9.81 0.2
V2  .....................(i )
f  30000
67
Pipe flow
45  2  9.81 0.2
f .....................(i )
V  30000
2

 vD 1000  V  0.2
Re   μ = dynamic viscosity (N s/m2)
 1.002 103 V = flow velocity d in the pipe (m/s)
 VD 1000  v  0.2
Re   ...........(ii )
 1.002 103
Moody’s approximation of f
 1
  3 
 1    
  6 3 
k 10     0.004 10 6  
f  0.0055 1   20000   0.0055 1   20000   
  D R     0 .2  1000  V  0.2   
  e 
 
  3   
 
   1.002 10  
 
 1
  5.01  3 
f  0.0055 1   400    ......................( iii)
 
  V  

 
68
Pipe flow
Equating (i) to (iii)
 1

1 0.0055   5.01  
3
  1   400  
V 2
0.005886   V  
 
V LHS RHS Error
0.345 8.401596 7.901619 0.499977
0.355 7.934934 7.899327 0.035607
0.359 7.759096 7.898445 -0.13935
The value of V for which LHS=RHS or Error = at its minimum is given by
V= 0.3558 m/s
V    D2 0.3558    0.22
Q   0.011178  0.0112m3s1
4 4
69
Pipe flow
Using Barr’s approximation of frictional coefficient, determine the frictional head loss per kilometer in
a 50mm diameter pipe transmitting flow of 4.5m3/h given that the pipe’s absolute roughness is
0.00007m. Assume that the density of water is 997.1 kg/m3, and the dynamic viscosity, μ is 0.894 x 10-3
Pa.s Compute the shear stress at the pipe’s wall. What power is required to be supplied per km length?
4Q 4  0.00125
4.5m3 V   0.64ms1
Q  0.00125m3s1 D 2
 50 
2
3600s   
 1000 
 vD 997.1 0.64  0.05
Re    35690.38 Re > 2000, the flow is turbulent
 0.894 10 3
 
 2 log  
1 k 5.1286

 3.7 D 
 e
0.89
Using Barr’s approximation of f f R
 
 
 2 log  
1 0.00007 5.1286
 f  0.0264
 3.7  0.05 
 
0.89
f 35690.38
 
fLV 2 0.0264 1000  0.642

hf    11.02287m
2 gD 2  9.81 0.05
70
Pipe flow
Boundary shear stress
Dh f
 0   gRhS f   g
4L
1000  9.81 0.05 11.02287

0   1.3517 Nm2
4 1000
Power consumed
  gQh f
 1000  9.81 0.00125 11.02287  0.1352kW / km
71
Pipe flow
LOCAL LOSSES
Apart from the frictional head loss (hf ), at bends, valves, changes in cross
section, etc, mechanical energy is lost due to the effect of viscosity
p1 1V12 p2  2V22
Z1    hp  Z2    h f  ht  hL ...............(14)
 g 2g g 2g
Where hL denotes the local losses (also called minor losses)
In a system without a pump and turbine,
p1 1V12 p2  2V22
Z1    Z2    h f  hL
 g 2g g 2g
72
Pipe flow
LOCAL LOSSES
Minor losses can be due to
1. Pipe entrance or exit
2. Sudden expansion or contraction
3. Bends, elbows, tees, and other fittings
4. Valves (opened or partially closed)
5. Gradual expansions or contractions
73
Pipe flow
LOCAL LOSSES
Pipe entrance
V2
hL  k e
2g
Contraction
V22
hL  kC
2g
74
Pipe flow
LOCAL LOSSES
Expansion
V2
hL  k E
2g
75
Pipe flow
LOCAL LOSSES
90⁰ smooth bend
Threaded pipe fittings
76
Pipe flow
A uniform pipeline, 5000 m long, 200 mm in diameter and roughness size 0.03 mm, conveys water at
15⁰ C between two reservoirs. The difference in water level between the two reservoirs is 50 m. Apart
from the entry loss of 0.5V2/(2g), a valve produces a head loss of 10V2/(2g). Taking the correction factor
α for the velocity head as 1.0, determine the steady discharge between the reservoirs using Moody's
approximation.
Sketch
77
Pipe flow
Thus,
The problem is that there are two unknowns V and λ within one equation and the term λ
depends on k, D, and Re. Furthermore, Re depends on D as well as V which we are looking
for. So, we have to proceed by approximation in an iterative way.
78
Pipe flow
ITERATION 1
Initial guess, V=2.0 m/s
At 15⁰C, kinematic viscosity ν = 1.13×10-6 ms-2
VD 2.0  0.2
Re    3.54  105
 1.13 106
 1
  1

  k 106  3
   0.00003 106  
3
f  0.0055 1   20000     0.0055 1   20000   
 D Re 0.2 .  5
      3 54 10  
   
f  0.015
2  9.81 50
V  1.593ms1
0.015  5000
11.5 
0.2
We then revise the Re using the new V

79
Pipe flow
ITERATION 2
New V=1.593 m/s
At 15⁰C, kinematic viscosity ν = 1.13×10-6 ms-2
1.5930  0.2
VD
Re    281946.903
 1.13 10 6
 1

  0.00003 10 6
 3

f  0.0055 1   20000   
  0.2 281946.903  
 
f  0.015789
2  9.81 50
V  1.554ms1
0.015789  5000
11.5 
0.2
The difference between V=1.593 and 1.554m/s is small and we can take V = 1.544 m/s
80

Pipe FlowFinal

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Pipe FlowFinal

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

Lecturer: Charles Onyutha

 a branch of scientific and engineering discipline that deals with the

mechanical properties of fluids, mainly water.

It is widely applied in;

 a purely imaginary region within a body of flowing fluid

 the region is normally at a fixed location

 the region is of a fixed size

 attention if focused on forces acting externally on the control volume

 imaginary line joining points of equal velocity (i.e. velocity contours)

Some points to know about streamlines

Streamtube => collection of streamlines in a tubular surface

 frictionless and incompressible (i.e. non-viscous)

Compressible or incompressible flow

are treated as incompressible. In some unsteady conditions very high pressure

these as compressible, taking changes in pressure into account.

 If the flow velocity is the same magnitude and direction at every

point in the fluid it is said to be uniform.

section of the stream of fluid is constant the flow is considered uniform.

 one in which the conditions (velocity, pressure and cross-section)

 Conditions do not change with position in the stream or with time.

Steady non-uniform flow

Unsteady uniform flow

change with time.

Unsteady non-uniform flow

If the particle at point E moves under the

For small deformations we can write

is the change in velocity u with y, or the velocity gradient

and the velocity gradient can be written the differential form

The constant of proportionality is

This is known as Newton’s law of viscosity.

 fluid which obeys Newton’s law of viscosity

is the velocity gradient

Assumptions of the equation

 fluid which do not obey Newton’s law of viscosity

For Newtonian fluids

With this classification n = 1. An example is sewage sludge.

• Dilatant substances: Viscosity increases with rate of shear e.g. quicksand.

e.g. thixotropic jelly paints.

•Viscoelastic materials: Similar to Newtonian but if there is a sudden large change in

shear they behave like plastic.

•Density: Mass per unit volume (kg/m3)

• Viscosity: is the property of a fluid, due to cohesion and interaction between

molecules, which offers resistance to shear deformation.

There are two approaches

• Lagrangian approach: follow individual fluid element as it moves about

change at that location as time goes on.

Conservation of mass (also called equation of continuity)

• mass can be neither created nor destroyed.

• energy can be neither created nor destroyed.

• is the study of fluids at rest

• a static fluid can have no shearing force acting on it, and

• is the study of fluids in motion

• dynamic fluid experiences dynamic forces

• flow in discrete layers with no mixing

• flow with eddying or mixing action

i) Calculate the total momentum force

ii) Find out where this force is sourced.

It is more convenient to use scalar forms by

1) A jet normal to a fixed plate

a) In the horizontal direction, the total momentum force is

2) Force exerted by a nozzle

a) The total momentum force is

From Bernoulli’s principle =>