WHAT IS BRIDGE ENGINEERING

Bridge engineering is a field of engineering (particularly a significant branch of structural

engineering) dealing with the surveying, plan, design, analysis, construction,
management, and maintenance of bridges that support or resist loads.

Bridge engineering is not just the domain of structural engineers. There are many other
disciplines involved, members of which serve on the team to make it happen, namely:

•Traffic engineering for traffic counts and road signs

•Geotechnical engineering for soil investigation
•Construction engineering for site staff and supplying the labor
•Mechanical engineering for cranes and construction equipment
•Electrical engineering for bridge lighting and sensors
•Other supporting disciplines like software engineering
Through their objective of “building a better world,” engineers are supposed to manage,
maneuver, manufacture, and bring together multiple disciplines (i.e., they have the
capacity to bring together a host of other disciplines to achieve results). The
construction industry provides jobs and livelihoods to millions of workers not just in
America but worldwide.
Although the role played by some construction team members is not clearly defined, as
“sleeping partners” their actions and contributions may also affect the quality of work
and the finished products.
Bridge Engineering is one aspect of structural engineering. Bridges are key structures
that serve our communities in different aspects. They are vital linkages for
transportation networks but can also become iconic symbols of a city. Bridges can be of
different materials, such as concrete, steel and timber, but also of different types like
trusses, arches, cable-stayed and suspension bridges. Bridge designers need to find
the most suitable bridge typology and construction technique in order to make the
design cost-competitive.

A Bridge is not designed for sustaining just the traffic loads. It is also highly exposed to
the environment. A bridge has to be designed to “live” for at least 100 years and has to
be designed for sustaining loads induced by natural hazards such as earthquakes,
floods and tsunami.
FACTORS AFFECTING
The Engineering Process
The engineering process is an extension of the scientific method. Teaching students to
use this process when they begin to build their bridges will provide them with valuable
skills to use when it comes to solving problems or creating a project. The engineering
process includes basic procedures that engineers use to identify the problem and
determine an adequate solution to the challenge they have undertaken. The
engineering process can be broken down into the following eight simple steps: (Isidro-
Cloudas and Cassis, Glenn)
(1) Identify the Problem
Before the engineer can begin work, the problem or task that is going to be undertaken
must be known.
(2) Determine the Constraints
Constraints are the limitations that must be considered before you begin designing your
bridge. Even though they are not limited to the materials, size, and money, you have to
consider them the problem or task.
Preliminary Design
____(A) Brainstorming- Once both the problem or task has been determined and the
constraints have been identified the group needs to think of as many ways to possible to
solve the problem. The ideas should be broad enough to allow for unique solutions to
arise. The class, meeting in smaller groups, may find that rough sketches are extremely
helpful to stimulate a lot of different ideas. Even though all of the ideas may not be good
ones, but they may inspire another idea that may lead to a solution to the problem.
____(B) Focus- Once all reasonable ideas are listed and the sketches are drawn, the
group should choose the best two or three ideas for further development. The rough
sketches should be converted to scaled or measured drawings.
(3) Analysis of Design
During this step, the designs are studied based on their merit in relationship to strength,
cost, market appeal, and manufacturability. Models, drawings and calculations can be
presented at this stage. A decision should be made at this point on which design to use
or rather to begin a new design.
(4) Design Refinement
This step begins after a design has been analyzed. Any problems or unresolved
considerations with the design should have been made apparent by now. Each design
team should attempt to rectify the problems by making improvements in the design.
After the corrections have been made, then each team should go back and analyze the
design once again.
(5) Implementation Plan
Once the final design has been approved, it must be translated from an idea on paper to
the real thing. Before the plan can be implemented, plans need to be made outlining the
construction process. The methods of construction together with the strategy for
scheduling involved a list of the tools; machinery and materials needed to complete the
project. A listing of the parts and the dimension of the project are drawn up. The order is
which the bridge is to be built is also written down and the specifications are compiled.
(6) Modify for Implementation
Any obstacles that may arise during the building of the bridge must be analyzed in order
to find out if it is a big enough problem to cause a change in the original plan.
(7) Implementation
The final step is to manufacture the individual parts as prescribed in the implementation
plans. Even though the steps are listed in a specific order, in real life two or more of
these steps maybe combined or done in a different order. In the field of engineering,
sometimes one person may specialize in a certain step, but the method is always
followed in one respect or the other.

Engineers have learned from experience that a bridge failure is

caused frequently either by an undermining of its foundations or by a
movement of its abutments from the development of pressures from
backfill material greatly in excess of the pressures for which the abut-
ments were designed. The scope of this paper is restricted to the
presentation of some data and theory pertaining to scour and earth
pressure, and to a discussion of the importance of considering these
factors carefully in the design of substructures supporting bridges over
inland waterways.
Let us first consider the problem of scour. During flood flows, the
shape and size of a channel change continuously in order to provide a
minimum of resistance to the flow of water. These changes are effected
by erosion at locations of high resistance to flow and a deposition of
material at locations of comparatively low resistance. There is a con-
tinuous interchange of material along the entire stream bed. At
sections where the change in velocity is great the quantity of material
scoured out during flood stage will exceed that which is replaced simul-
taneously by sedimentation. The rise in the stage of the stream at such
locations does not reflect the total increase in size of the stream channel.

TYPES OF BRIDGE

Beam Bridges
A beam bridge is one of the simplest types of bridge. A perfect example being a basic
log bridge – something you may see while out on a country walk.
The deck area traditionally consists of wood plank or stone slabs (often referred to as a
clapper bridge). These are supported either side by two beams running between
abutments/piers.
Very often you will find other beams, positioned in between the main beams, offering
additional support and stability.
The area over which people or vehicles travel will be a simple decking positioned
vertically across the underlying beams. This is often referred to as a “simply supported”
structure. There is no transfer of stress which you see in arch structures and other types
of bridges.

Truss bridges

The truss bridge has been around for literally centuries and is a load-bearing
structure which incorporates a truss in a highly efficient yet very simple design. You will
notice an array of different variations of the simple truss bridge but they all incorporate
triangular sections. The role of these triangular elements is important because they
effectively absorb tension and compression to create a stressed structure able to
accommodate dynamic loads. This mixture of tension and compression ensures the
structure of the bridge is maintained and the decking area remains uncompromised
even in relatively strong winds.
Cantilever bridges

When the first cantilever bridge was designed it was seen as a major engineering
breakthrough. The bridge works by using cantilevers which may be simple beams or
trusses. They are made from pre-stressed concrete or structural steel when used to
accommodate traffic. When you consider that the horizontal beams making up the
cantilever arm are only supported from one side it does begin to sound a little
dangerous. However, the two cantilever arms are connected by what is known as the
“suspended span” which is effectively a centrepiece which has no direct support
underneath. The bridge load is supported through diagonal bracing with horizontal
beams as opposed to typical vertical bracing. Extremely safe and very secure, the
design of cantilever bridges is one which still lives on today.

Arch Bridges
There are many different types of arch bridge but they all have central elements in
common. Each bridge has abutments, which are used to support the curved arch
structure under the bridge. The most common type of arch bridge is a viaduct, a long
bridge made up of many arches. The lateral pressure created by the arch span is
transferred into the supporting abutments. It is therefore essential that these parts of the
bridge remain solid, intact and well founded. You will see many arch bridges with
decorative brickwork which is an integral part of the design. Simple yet so very effective
an arch bridge can carry everything from pedestrians to heavy rail.
Tied Arch Bridges
The tied arch bridge is a fascinating design which incorporates an arch structure
(usually metal) supported by vertical ties between the arch and the deck. The tips of the
arch structure are connected by a bottom chord. This acts in a similar fashion to the
string of a bow. The downward pressure from the arch structure to the deck of the
bridge is translated into tension by the vertical ties. Many people assume that the
abutments ensure that the tied arch bridge and arch structure stay in place. However it
is the decking/strengthened chord which connects the tips of each end of the arch
together. The best example of this is a bowstring which absorbs pressure, keeping both
sides of the bow in contact, until it eventually flattens out.
Suspension Bridges
The structure of a stereotypical suspension bridge looks very simple but the design is
extremely effective. The deck of the suspension bridge is the load-bearing element of
the structure. This is held in place by vertical suspenders which support the cables. The
suspension cables extend out beyond each side of the bridge and are anchored firmly
into the ground. It will depend upon the size of the bridge but a number of towers will be
installed to hold up the suspension cables. Any load applied to the bridge is transformed
into tension across the suspension cables which are the integral part of the structure. As
there is some “give” in the suspension cables this can translate into slight, but
measured, bridge movement in difficult weather conditions.
Cable-stayed bridges
A cable stayed bridge is dependent upon towers/pylons which are the load-bearing
element of the structure. Cables are connected from the pylons to the deck below.
Either directly from the top of the tower or at different points of the column. When
connected at different points of the column this creates a fan like pattern. This is the
feature many people associate with cable stayed bridges. This type of structure tends to
be used for distances greater than those achieved with a cantilever bridge design but
less than a suspension bridge. One of the main issues with this type of bridge is that the
central connection of the cables can place horizontal pressure on the deck. Therefore,
the deck structure needs to be reinforced to withstand these ongoing pressures.

Since the use of first simple bridges made from a single beam that had to endure all the
forces of tension, compression, torsion and shear forces by itself, engineers and
architects tried to develop new and better techniques for spanning the gaps between
one point of terrain to another. Eventually, the entire engineering field was formed, and
dozens upon dozens of bridge designs were created utilizing many components, parts
and brand new terminology that describe them.

All the basic components are placed inside three main bridge areas – Foundation
(which holds the shallow or deep base of the bridge and transfers it’s load to the bearing
strata, this includes foundations below the main span of the bridge and the abutments
below starting points of the bridge), Substructure (piers, abutments, spandrels, caps,
bearings, and other components that holds the upper construction) and Superstructure
(all the parts of the bridge that are mounted on top of the supporting substructure
system, it covers elements such as decking, girders, slab, and everything placed above
the main deck such as posts, steel truss system, bridge girder, cable-stayed system,
cable suspended systems and more).
All the basic components are placed inside three main bridge areas – Foundation
(which holds the shallow or deep base of the bridge and transfers it’s load to the bearing
strata, this includes foundations below the main span of the bridge and the abutments
below starting points of the bridge), Substructure (piers, abutments, spandrels, caps,
bearings, and other components that holds the upper construction) and Superstructure
(all the parts of the bridge that are mounted on top of the supporting substructure
system, it covers elements such as decking, girders, slab, and everything placed above
the main deck such as posts, steel truss system, bridge girder, cable-stayed system,
cable suspended systems and more).

Superstructure Components of Bridges

The superstructure of the bridge structure consists of deck slab, girder, truss etc. These
components vary based on the type of bridge (whether concrete or steel or composite).
Superstructure of the bridge bears the load passing over it. This helps in transmitting
the forces formed by the loads to the below substructures.

Decks
The decking is considered as the road or the rail surface of the bridge. The decks are
supported by the girders or the huge beams that is in turn supported by the piers. The
whole arrangement is supported with a deep foundation mainly piles and cap
arrangement.

The loads received by the decks are properly and safely transmitted to the substructure
with the help of bearings. These are components of bridge that enables even
distribution of load on the substructure material. This transmission is very essential in
situations where the substructure is not designed to take the load action directly.
The bearings in bridges allows the longitudinal movement of the girders. This movement
is created due to the forces acting on the longitudinal direction. The forces due to the
moving loads and the variation in temperature are the main causes for longitudinal
forces.
The selection of bearing is dependent on certain parameters, which are: Loads acting,
the geometry, the extent of maintenance, the clearance available, the displacement,
rotation and deflection policy, availability, preference of the designer, the construction
tolerances, and the cost criteria.
For the bridge design, all the above-mentioned aspect is considered for the design and
the choice of bearings. The designer must consider the bearing arrangement in the
bridge construction as a separate system.

In most of construction practice, the bearing is selected or the decision for bearing is
done in the last moment. This results in increase of maintenance in the future, which
must be avoided.

Substructure Components of Bridges

The components involved in substructure of bridges are:

Piers
Abutments
Wing Walls and the Returns
Foundation
Piers
The piers are vertical structures used to support deck or the bearings provided for load
transmission to underground soil through foundation. These structures serve as
supports for the bridge spans at intermediate points.
The pier structure has mainly two functions:
Load transmission to the Foundation
Resistance to the horizontal forces
Most of the cases, piers are designed to resist the vertical loads alone. In areas which
lie in the seismic zone, it is recommended to design the pier for lateral loads also.
Most of the piers are constructed using concrete. Steel for the construction of pier is
used in very few cases till now. Use of composite columns i.e. steel columns filled with
concrete is used as new technology of pier construction.
The pier is a vertical member that resist the forces by means of shear mechanism.
These forces are mainly lateral forces. The pier that consist of multiple columns are
called as bent.

EXPANSION JOINT
Bridge expansion joints (or movement joints) are designed to enable continuous
traffic between two structures and are necessary to accommodate structural
movements due to creep and shrinkage effects, temperature variations or deformations
under live load. Expansion joints are vital to the life of a bridge itself and must be
correctly installed and maintained in order to function properly. The two major causes of
joint failure are improper installation and insufficient maintenance of the joint.

Types of Expansion Joint

Based on the location of joint, expansion joints are divided into following types,

1. Bridge Expansion Joint

Bridge expansion joints are designed to allow for continuous traffic between structures
while accommodating movement, shrinkage, and temperature variations on reinforced
and prestressed concrete, composite, and steel structures.
 Fig 2: Expansion joint in bridges.
2. Masonry Expansion Joint
Clay bricks expand as they absorb heat and moisture. This places compression stress
on the bricks and mortar, encouraging bulging or flaking. A joint replacing mortar with
elastomeric sealant will absorb the compressive forces without damage.

3. Railway Expansion Joints

Usually, expansion joints are not provided in the railways tracks, but if the track is laid
on a bridge having expansion joint, providing a expansion joint in the track becomes
mandatory to mitigate the expansion in base concrete structure.

Fig 3: Expansion joint in railway tracks.

4. Pipe Expansion Joints
Pipe expansion joints are necessary in systems that convey high temperature
substances such as steam or exhaust gases, or to absorb movement and vibration.

Based on the type of material used in making of joint, expansion joints are further
classified into following types,

1. Rubber expansion joint

2. Fabric expansion joint
3. Metal expansion joint
4. Toroidal expansion joint
5. Gimbal expansion joint
6. Universal expansion joint
7. In-line expansion joint
8. Refractory lined expansion joint