Math Basic tutorial

WHAT TO EXPECT

AREA: MATHEMATICS
Competencies:
1. Properties of Numbers
2. Number Theory
3. Integers
4. Fractions and Decimals
5. Operations with whole numbers, decimals, fractions and
decimals
6. Ratio and Proportion
7. Percents
8. Measurement
9. Plane and Solid Geometry
10. Basic Statistics and Probability
11. Basic Algebra
12. Basic Trigonometry and Analytic Geometry

Refreser Course

PART I: Content Update

I. PROPERTIES OF NUMBERS
A. SETS OF NUMBERS

Real Numbers (R)

2 1
-9, −√6, − 3, 0, 1, 4, 𝜋, √21, 5

Rational Numbers (Q) Irrational Numbers (H)

2 1
-9, − 3, 0, 1, 4, 5 −√6, 𝜋, √21

Integers (Z) Non-Integers

… -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 2 1
- 3, 4
…
 Negative Integers Whole Numbers (W)
… -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …

Zero Natural Numbers (N)

0 1, 2, 3, …

The Real Number System

Set Definition

▪ All numbers that we encounter everyday

Real Numbers (R)
▪ Consist of rational and irrational numbers

▪ Numbers that can be expressed as the quotient or ratio of two integers a and b, represented

as , where b ≠ 0
▪ Have a specific place on the number line.
▪ Can be written as terminating (e.g. 1.75, 2.5) or repeating decimals (e.g. 0.1111…, 2.
Rational Numbers 090909…)
(Q)
Subsets Definition

Natural Numbers (N) ▪ Consist of the numbers 1, 2, 3, ….

Whole Numbers (W) ▪ Consist of the natural numbers and zero

Integers ▪ Consist of the natural numbers, their negatives, and zero

Irrational ▪ Numbers that cannot be expressed as fractions
Numbers (H) ▪ Have decimal representations that are non-terminating and non-repeating

B. THE ORDER OF OPERATIONS

When performing multiple operations, remember PEMDAS:
P Parentheses (grouping symbols)
E Exponents
MD Multiply and divide from left to right
AS Add and subtract from left to right

C. NUMBER PROPERTIES

Property Definition Examples

▪ When we add or multiply any element in a set of 14 + 25 + 44 + 52 = 135
Closure Property numbers, the sum or product is a unique real
number which belongs to that same set. 23 x 14 x 10 = 3 220
▪ states that changing the position of the addends 33 + 10 = 10 + 33
Commutative Property or the factors does not affect the sum or the
product 18 x 9 = 9 x 18
▪ states that changing the grouping of addends in (5 + 6) + 7 = 5 + (6 + 7)
Associative Property a sum or the grouping of factors in a product
does not change the resulting sum or product 2 x (4 x 6) = (2 x 4) x 6
▪ The sum of any number and
Addition zero is the same number. 512 + 0 = 512
▪ 0 is the identity.
Identity Property
▪ The product of any number
Multiplication and one is the same number. 512 x 1 = 512
▪ 1 is the identity
Distributive Property of
▪ states that multiplication distributes over 7(9 + 12) = 7(9) + 7(12)
Multiplication over Addition
addition and subtraction
/ Subtraction

II. NUMBER THEORY

A. DIVISIBILITY RULES

Divisibility by Rule

2 If the number is an even number

3 If the sum of all individual digits in the number is divisible by 3

4 If the last two digits of the number is divisible by 4

5 If the last digit of the number is 0 or 5

6 If the number is even and is divisible by 3

Double the last digit. Subtract the doubled last digit from the number without the last digit. If the
7
difference is a multiple of 7, then it is divisible by 7.
8 If the last three digits of the number is divisible by 8

9 If the sum of the individual digits in the number is divisible by 9

10 If the last digit of the number is 0

11 If after subtracting and adding the digits successively the result is divisible by 11

B. FACTORS and MULTIPLES

❖ The factors of integer n are the positive integers that divide n evenly without remainder.
Ex: factors of 24: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24

❖ The multiples of n are the integers that n divides without any remainder.
Ex: multiples of 7: 7, 14, 21, 28, 35…

C. PRIME and COMPOSITE NUMBERS

❖ Prime Numbers – counting numbers that have exactly two distinct, positive divisors
e.g. 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19 …

❖ Composite Numbers – counting numbers greater than 1 that have positive factors other than 1 and itself
e.g. 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16…

Prime Factorization
→ expressing a number as a product of factors, each of which is a prime number

Methods in Finding the Prime Factors of a Given Number

 Factor Tree Method Continuous Division Method

56 2 56
2 28
2 14
7 8
7

56 = 7 x 8 56 = 7 x 8
2 4 = 7 x (2 x 4)
= 7 x (2 x 4)
=7x2x2x2 =7x2x2x2
56 = 23 x 7 56 = 23 x 7
2 2

D. GCF and LCM

❖ Greatest Common Factor (GCF)
→ Refers to the largest common factor of two or more numbers

Ex: Find the GCF of 45 and 60

METHODS
Intersection of Sets
For each of the given numbers, list their factors in ascending order, and pick out the factor that is
common to both lists.
Factors of 45  {1, 3, 5, 9, 15, 45}
Factors of 60  {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, 30, 60}
Common Factors  {1, 3, 5, 15}

GCF  15

Prime Factorization Repeated Division by Primes

3 45
60
5 15
45  3 ∙ 3 ∙ 5
20
60  2 ∙ 2 ∙ 3 ∙ 5 3
4
GCF  3 ∙ 5 = 15 The resulting quotients, 3 and 4 have no common factors.
Therefore, the GCF of 45 and 60 is the product of their
common factors:
(3)(5) = 15

GCF  15

❖ Least Common Multiple (LCM)

→ Refers to the smallest number that two or more numbers will divide without remainder

Ex: Find the LCM of 18 and 20

METHODS
Intersection of Sets
For each of the given numbers, list their multiples in ascending order, and pick out the smallest non-
zero multiple that is common to both lists.
Multiples of 18  {18, 36, 54, 72, 90, 108, 126, 144, 162, 180, 198…}
Multiples of 20  {20, 40, 60, 80, 100, 120, 140, 160, 180, 200}
Common Multiple  180
LCM  180

Prime Factorization Repeated Division by Primes

Write the prime factorization for each of the given
numbers in such a way that common, and only 2 18
 common, prime factors are in the same column. 20
The LCM is the product of the highest powers 2 9
occurring in a column of any of the prime 10
factorizations. 3 9
5
1 3
= 2 x 2 3
8 5
2 2
= 2 x x 5
0
2 3 18 LCM  2 ∙ 2 ∙ 3 ∙ 3 ∙ 5
2
x 2 x 5 =
0  180

LCM  180

III. INTEGERS
❖ Integers – refer to the set of whole numbers and their opposites
❖ Absolute Value – the number of units a number is away from 0 in a number line
Ex: -7 = 7

❖ Integer Operations

Operation Like Signs Unlike Signs

Add the integers and keep the sign.
Subtract the integers and take the sign of the
integer with the largest absolute value.
Examples:
Addition Examples:
5+3=8
7 + (-4) = 3
(-6) + (-10) = -16
(-9) + 4 = -5

Change the sign of the subtrahend, and then proceed to addition.

Examples:
Subtraction
4 – (-6) = 4 + 6 (-9) – (-5) = (-9) + 5
4 + 6 = 10 (-9) + 5 = -4
If the signs are different, the product/quotient is
If the signs of the factors or dividend/divisors
Multiplication are the same, the product/quotient is negative.
and positive.
DivisioExamples: Examples:
n (3)(7) = 21 (-9)(5) = -45
(-32) ÷ (-8) = 4 100 ÷ (-10) = -10

IV. FRACTIONS
❖ Fractions
→ A number whose value can be expressed as the quotient or ratio of any two numbers a and b,

represented as , where b ≠ 0. It is a part of a whole or a set.

❖ Reducing Fractions to Lowest Terms

Divide the numerator and the denominator by its GCF.
Example:
18 6 3
÷ =
24 6 4

❖ Conversions
 Mixed Number to Improper Fraction Improper Fraction to Mixed Number

1. Multiply the denominator to the whole number. 1. Divide the numerator by the denominator.
2. Add the product to the numerator. 2. The quotient is the whole number for the mixed
3. The sum is the new numerator, then copy the number.
same denominator. 3. The remainder is the new numerator over the
Example: same denominator.
Example:

= (3 x 3) + 1 = 10 → new numerator = 77 ÷ 6 = 12 r. 5

=
=

❖ FRACTION OPERATIONS
A. Addition and Subtraction
a. Of Similar Fractions:
→ Just add/subtract the numerators and copy the denominator.
Examples:
2 4 6 5 2 3
+ = - =
7 7 7 8 8 8
b. Of Dissimilar Fractions:
→ Convert the fractions first to similar fractions. Then add/subtract the numerators and keep
the denominators. Reduce to lowest terms if necessary.

Changing Dissimilar Fractions to Similar Fractions

→ Find the LCM of the denominators involved (hence called Least Common Denominator or
LCD). Divide the LCD by each of the denominators, and then multiply each quotient to
their corresponding numerators.
Examples:
The LCD of 5 and 6 is 30
30 ÷ 5 x 3 = 18
+ = = 30 ÷ 6 x 1 = 15

The LCD of 7 and 8 is 56

56 ÷ 8 x 6 = 42
- = = or 56 ÷ 7 x 1 = 8

B. Multiplication of Fractions
→ Simply multiply the numerators, and multiply the denominators. Reduce the product to lowest
terms, if necessary.
Example:

x =

÷ =

C. Division of Fractions
→ Take the first fraction and multiply it by the reciprocal of the second fraction.

Example:

÷ = x =

÷ =

❖ Complex Fractions
→ Fractions whose numerator and/or denominator is/are also fraction/s
→ To simplify these fractions, remember that the fraction bar means to divide. Rewrite the fraction as a
division problem, and follow the procedure for dividing fractions.
Example:
 Simplify .

= ÷4

= x = or

V. RATIO and PROPORTION

Ratio Rate Proportion

An equation or statement that expresses
the equality of two ratios.
A comparison of two or more Refers to a ratio whose two
amounts or quantities, such as a amounts represent different
May be expressed as:
and b, which can be expressed in quantities
the following equivalent ways: a:b,
Examples: 1) = , or
𝑚𝑚 𝑚 2) a : b = c : d
, 35 , 5
𝑚 𝑚

In each form, b and c are called means,

and a and d are called extremes.

Extremes-Means Property:
→ In any proportion, the product of the means is equal to the product of the extremes.

From = or a : b = c : d, we get ad = bc

❖ Finding the Missing Terms of a Proportion

→ To find the missing term of a proportion, use the Extremes-Means Property and solve for the unknown.
Example:

4 : x = 8 : 10

(8)(x) = (10)(4)
8x = 40
x = 5

❖ TYPES OF PROPORTIONS
A. Direct Proportion
→ As one quantity increases, the other also increases.

Example:
If 4 kg of mangoes cost as much as 3 kg of guavas, how many kg of mangoes would cost as much
as 75 kg of guavas?

Solution:
Equate the ratio of the terms in the first condition to the ratio of the terms in the second condition.
So, we have:

First Condition Second Condition

4 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑚 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
=
3 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 75 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

Using the Extremes-Means Property, solve for the unknown.

(4 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)(75 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)
n=
3 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
n = 100
 Answer: 100 kg of mangoes would cost as much as 75 kg of guavas.

B. Inverse Proportion
→ As one quantity increases, the other quantity decreases, and vice versa.

Example:
If the food in a crate is sufficient to feed 15 castaways in 14 days, how many days would it last for 30
castaways?

Solution:
Equate the product of the terms in the first condition to the product of the terms of the second condition.
So, we have:

First Condition Second Condition

(15 castaways)(13 (30 castaways)(n
=
days) days)

(15 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)(14 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)

n=
30 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
n=7

Answer: The food supply will last for only 7 days for 30 castaways.

C. Partitive Proportion
→ One quantity is being partitioned into different proportions.

Example:
A piece of wood 150 cm long is cut in the ratio 2:3:5. Find the measure of each part.

Solution:
1. Add the terms of the ratio.
2 + 3 + 5 = 10
2. Divide the whole measure that was partitioned by the sum of the terms.
150 cm ÷ 10 = 15 cm
3. Multiply the quotient to each term of the ratio to find the measure of each part.
2 (15 cm) = 30 cm
3 (15 cm) = 45 cm
5 (15 cm) = 75 cm

Answer: The measures of the cut parts of wood are 30 cm, 45 cm, and 75 cm.

❖ APPLICATIONS INVOLVING RATIOS and PROPORTIONS

A. Scales
When working with scale models, the scale is often given as the ratio:
model measurement : actual measurement

Example:
If the scale model of a boat measures 6 inches and the model has a scale of 1:20, what is the
actual measurement of the boat?
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 1 6
Solution: = =
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 20 𝑚
1 6
=
20 𝑚
x = 120
Answer: The actual measurement of the boat is 120 in., or 10 ft.
B. Similarity
→ When figures have corresponding sides that are in proportion with one another and corresponding
angles with the same measure, the figures are similar.
→ Proportions can be used to determine that figures are similar, and calculate the missing part/s of
known similar figures

Example: Solution:
Find the missing side of the larger triangle.
AB BC 10 6
D = → =
A DE EF 15 x
10x = 90
x=9
 10 cm 15 cm

B C
6 cm
E F
x

Answer: The measure of the missing side of the larger triangle is 9 cm.

VI. DECIMALS

Hu T O T
Hundred Ten Thou Hun Thou Ten Hundred
ndr e n en
Thousan Thous sand dre sandt Thousa Thousan
ed n e th
ds ands s dths hs ndths dths
s s s s

100 000 10 000 1 000 100 10 1 0 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001 0.00001

A. CONVERSIONS

Decimal to Fraction / Mixed Number Fraction to Decimal Mixed Number to Decimal

Separate and keep the whole number part

Recognize that a fraction bar means ‘to
Simply use the place value and then (this is the number to the left of the
divide’. Thus, to change a fraction
reduce to lowest terms, if decimal point). Then divide the
to a decimal, simply divide the
necessary. fractional part as described on the
numerator by the denominator.
left.

Example: Example: Example:

18.6 = 18 + 0.6

= 6 ÷ 15 = 12 +
= 18 + ( ) = 12 + (0.75)

= 0.4
= 18 + ( ) = 12.75

18.6 = 18

B. DECIMAL OPERATIONS
a) Addition and Subtraction
→ Make sure to LINE UP the decimal points first. Add trailing zeroes if necessary to avoid careless
mistakes. Then perform the indicated operation.

b) Multiplication
Steps:
1. Multiply the numbers without regard to the decimal point to obtain a whole number product.
2. Count the number of digits that are to the right of the decimal point of BOTH factors.
3. Alter the whole number product to have the same number of digits to the right of the decimal point,
as counted in step 2.

c) Division
Steps:
1. Set up the long division problem.
2. Count how many digits there are to the right of the decimal point in the divisor.
3. Move the decimal point in the dividend with the amount from step 2.
4. Raise the newly placed decimal point up to the quotient.
5. Divide as usual, as if there were no decimal points.

VII. PERCENTS
❖ Percent
 → Literally meaning ‘per hundred’, it refers to a special ratio that compares a numerical quantity to 100.

❖ CONVERSIONS

Between Decimals and Percents Between Fractions and Percents

A. Percent to Decimal A. Percent to Fraction
→ Remove the percent symbol (%) and move 𝑚 𝑚
the decimal point two places to the left. → Use the proportion = , and cross-
100 𝑚
multiply to solve for the variable x.
B. Decimal to Percent
1. Multiply the decimal by 100; or B. Fraction to Percent
2. Move the decimal point two places to the → Remove the percent symbol (%) and
right and write a percent symbol 1
multiply the number by .
100

❖ PERCENTAGE, BASE, and RATE

Percent Formula:
Part = Percent x Whole

Remember, in Mathematics:
▪ “Of” usually means multiply.
▪ “Is” usually means equals.

75 is 30% of 250

Percentage (P) Rate (R) Base (B)

(the number usually before (the number usually in (the number usually before
or after the word “is”) “percent”) or after the word “of”)

Formulas:

P=RxB R= B=

❖ APPLICATIONS INVOLVING PERCENT

A. Percent Increase or Decrease
→ To increase a number by a certain percent, (1) add 100% to the given percent, (2) convert the
sum to a decimal, and (3) multiply the number by that decimal.

Example: increase 40 by 45%

Solution: 45% + 100% = 145% = 1.45
40 x 1.45 = 58

B. Simple Interest Rate

I  interest charged or paid out
I = Prt P  principal amount that is saved or borrowed
r  percentage rate written as a decimal
t  time in years
Example:
If Cedric borrows P15,000 at an interest rate of 17% for 18 months, how much will he have paid in simple
interest at the end of the 18 months?

Solution:
 P  P15,000 I = Prt
r  17% I = (P15,000)(17%)(1.5)
t  18 months = 1.5 years
I = P3,825

Answer: At the end of 18 months, Cedric will pay P3,825 in simple interest.

C. Compound Interest
To compute for compound interest:
1. Use the simple interest formula, I – Prt, where t is the period of time
for compounding.
2. Add the interest to the principal to create a new value for the
principal
3. Continue the first and second steps until the entire period is covered
The interest on an investment is reflected every
4. 3 months if compounded quarterly
5. 2 months if compounded bimonthly
6. 6 months if compounded semiannually, and
7. 12 months if compounded annually
Example:
What is the interest on P100,000 borrowed for 4 years at 16% interest rate per year compounded annually.
Solution:
Compute the compound interest at the end of each year.
After year 1: P100, 000 x 0.16 = P16,000
After year 2: (P100,000 + P16,000) x 0.16 = P18, 560
After year 3: (P116,000 + P18,500) x 0.16 = P21, 529.60
After year 4: (P134, 560 + P21,529.60) x 0.16 = P24,974.34
Total Interest after 4 years = P16,000 + P18,560 + P21,529 + P24,974 = P81,063.94

D. Discount
D Discount
D=Pxr P  marked price
N=P-D r  discount rate written as a decimal
N  net price

Example:
Find the net price and discount on a product with marked price of P120 at a discount rate of 70%.
P  P15,000 D=Pxr
r  70% D = (P1200)(70%)
D = P840
N=P–D
N = P1200 – P840
N = P360

VIII. PLANE GEOMETRY

A. BASIC NOTIONS
LINEAR NOTIONS
Term Definition Illustration

Point
point A, point B

Line
line m, line AB or BA

Collinear Points
Points that lie on the same line
Line l contains points D, E, and F.
Points D, E, and F belong to line l.
Points D, E, and F are collinear.
 Point D, E, and G are not collinear.
A subset of a line that contains two points
Line Segment of the line and all points between
those two points

A subset of a line that contains the

Ray endpoint and all points on the line
on one side of the point.

PLANAR NOTIONS
Term Definition Illustration

Coplanar PointsPoints that lie in the same plane

Coplanar Lines Lines that lie in the same plane

Points A, B, and C are coplanar.
Points A, B, C, and D are noncoplanar.

Lines AB, BC, and AC are coplanar.

Two coplanar lines with exactly one
Intersecting Lines
point in common.
Lines AB and AC are intersecting lines. They
intersect at point A.
Concurrent LinesLines that contain the same point
Lines AC, BC, and DC are concurrent.
Lines that do not intersect, and there is
Skew Lines Lines AB and CD are skew lines.
no plane that contains them

l
Two distinct coplanar lines that have
Parallel Lines m
no points in common.
l is parallel to m, written as l  m.

Lines in the same plane that intersect

Perpendicular Lines at one point and form four 90°
angles.

B. OTHER PLANAR NOTIONS

❖ ANGLES
→ An angle is formed by two distinct rays sharing the same endpoint.

a. Classification of Angles
 Type of Angle Description

Acute Measure is between 0° and 90°

Right Measures exactly 90°

Obtuse Measure is between 90° and 180°

Straight Measures exactly 180°

b. Special Angle Pair Relationships

Term Definition Illustration

Any two angles whose combined measures equal

Complimentary Angles
to 90°.

Any two angles whose combined measures equal

Supplementary Angles
to 180°.

Formed when two lines intersect;

Two angles that share a common vertex but share
A transversal cuts through two
Vertical Angles no common sides parallel lines:

Ex: ∠1 ≅ ∠4; ∠2 ≅ ∠3; ∠5 ≅ ∠ 8; ∠ 6 ≅ ∠7

Two angles on the same side of the transversal,
but one is in the interior of the parallel
Corresponding Angles lines, the other on the exterior
1 2
3 4
Ex: ∠1 ≅ ∠5; ∠2 ≅ ∠6; ∠3 ≅ ∠ 7; ∠ 4 ≅ ∠8
Two angles on different sides of the transversal,
5 6
both in the interior of the parallel lines
Alternate Interior Angles 7 8

Ex: ∠3 ≅ ∠6; ∠4 ≅ ∠5
Two angles on different sides of the transversal,
Alternate Exterior both in the exterior of the parallel lines
Angles
Ex: ∠1 ≅ ∠8; ∠2 ≅ ∠7

C. POLYGONS
❖ Polygon
→ A simple and closed geometric figure which have sides that are line segments
→ A point where two sides of a polygon meet is a vertex.

❖ TRIANGLES

TRIANGLE

According to the Angles According to the Sides

Acute Obtuse Scalene Isosceles

Triangle Triangle Triangle Triangle
Right
Triangle
Equilateral
Triangle
 Name Definition Illustration

A triangle containing one right

Acute Triangle
angle

According to the
A triangle in which all the angles
Angle Right Triangle
are acute
Measures

A triangle containing one obtuse

Obtuse Triangle
angle
CLASSIFI
C
A
TI A triangle with no congruent
Scalene Triangle
O sides
N

According to the
A triangle with at least two
Measures of Isosceles Triangle
congruent sides
Sides

A triangle with three congruent

Equilateral Triangle
sides

❖ QUADRILATERALS
QUADRILATERAL

Kite Trapezoid

Parallelogram Isosceles
Trapezoid

Rhombus Rectangle

Square

Name Definition Illustration

A quadrilateral with at least one pair of parallel

Trapezoid
sides

A quadrilateral with two adjacent sides congruent

Kite
and the other two sides also congruent

A trapezoid with exactly one pair of congruent

Isosceles Trapezoid
sides
 A quadrilateral in which each pair of opposite
Parallelogram
sides is parallel

Rectangle A quadrilateral with 4 right angles

Rhombus A quadrilateral with all sides congruent

A quadrilateral with 4 right angles and 4 congruent

Square
sides

IX. MEASUREMENT

PLANE FIGURES
Formula
Figure Name of Figure
Perimeter Area

Rectangle 2l + 2w lw

s Square 4s s2

b
a Parallelogram 2a + 2b bh
h

b1
a1 h a2
Trapezoid a1 + a2 + b1 + b2
( )h
b2

s s Triangle s+s+s ½ bh
h
s

Circumference:
Circle r2
2 r

SOLID FIGURES
Formula
Figure Name of Figure
Total Surface Area Volume
 Rectangular Prism 2lw + 2wh + 2hl lwh

6e2
Cube e3
(e = edge)

Cylinder 2 r2 + 2 rh r2h

s2 + 2sl
s = side of the base
Pyramid ⅓ bh
l = slant height of the
pyramid

Cone r2 + rs ⅓ r2h

Sphere 4 r2
r3

❖ METRIC SYSTEM
Metric System
Dimension
Prefix Equivalent
Length Capacity Mass
kilo 1000

Greek hecto 100

deca 10
meter liter gram
deci 1/10

Latin centi 1/100

milli 1/1000

❖ UNIT CONVERSIONS

Length: 1 foot (ft) = 12 inches (in)

1 yard (yd) = 3 feet
1 mile (mi) 5280 feet 1760
= =
yards
1 inch 2.54
=
centimeters
1 foot = 0.3 meter
1 meter = 1.1 yards
1 mile = 1.6 kilometers

Area: 1 acre = 43,560 sq. ft.

1 sq. m. = 640 acres
=
Mass: 1 pound (lb) = 16 ounces (oz)
1 ton = 2000 pounds
1 kilogram = 2.2 pounds

Time 1 minute 60 seconds (s)

=
(min)
1 hour (hr) = 60 minutes
1 day (d) = 24 hours
1 year (yr) = 365 days
1 decade = 10 years
1 millennium = 1000 years

Volume: 1 gallon (gal) = 4 quarts (qt)

1 quart = 2 pints (pt)
1 cup = 16 tablespoons
 1 liter = 1.06 quarts

❖ PYTHAGOREAN THEOREM
→ In every right triangle, the sum of the squares of the legs is equal to the square of the hypotenuse.

c2
b2 Hypotenuse
1. Side that is opposite
of the right angle
Legs a2
2. sides of the
triangle that
c2 = a2 + b2
form the right
X. PROBABILITYangle
A. SIMPLE PROBABILITY
→ The probability (P) of an event (E) is defined as:

P(E) =
Example:
A gumball machine has 18 pieces remaining (6 blue, 5, yellow, 7, red). The probability of getting a blue

gumball is or .

B. COUNTING TECHNIQUES
a) Permutation
→ refers to the number of possible arrangements for a given set of objects

Case 1: All of the objects are considered for each different arrangement
(nPn, read as “the permutation of n objects taken n at a time”)
This is represented by this operation:
nPn = n! (read as “n factorial”)

The factorial of a whole number is the product of that whole number and each of the natural
numbers less than the number.
n! = n x (n – 1) x (n – 2) x … x 1

Example:
In how many ways can 6 books be placed on a shelf?

Solution: 6! = 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 720
Answer: There are 720 ways that 6 books can be placed on a shelf.

Case 2: Not all of the objects are considered for each different arrangement
(nPr, read as “the permutation of n objects taken r at a time”)

nPr =
Example:
How many different arrangements of 5 students can be made in a row of 3 desks?

Solution:

nPr =

5P3 = → 5P3 = = = 5 ∙ 4 ∙ 3 = 60
 Answer:
There are 60 different arrangements of 5 students that can be made in a row of 3 desks.

b) Combination
→ refers to the total number of groupings of a set of objects.
→ The order of the objects is not important when dealing with combinations.

nC r =
Example:
How many different 4-person committees can be formed from a total of 8 people?

Solution:

nC r =

8C4 = → = = = 70

Answer: There are 70 different 4-person committees that can be formed from 8 people.

XI. BASIC ALGEBRA

A. ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS
❖ TRANSLATING ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS
Add Subtract Multiply Divide Equal
(+) (-) (x) (÷) (=)
plus, sum, increased
minus, difference, times, multiplied by,
divide by, quotient,is,into
result, total, equal
by, more than, decreased by, product, of, to
exceeds less than,
reduced

Algebraic Expression – contains numbers, variables, and operations to state a relationship

Examples: 5, 7n, 3x + 2, x2+4x+4

Equation – two algebraic expressions set equal to each other

Example: 3x + 5 = x + 7
❖ EXPONENTS
Exponent or Power – the total number of times a base is used as a factor
a) Multiplying and Dividing Like Bases
Multiplication Division
When multiplying like bases, add the exponents: When dividing like bases, subtract the exponents:
xm · xn = xm+n 𝑥𝑥
= xm-n
Example: 𝑥𝑥
a3 · a2 = a3+2 = a5 Example:
𝑚5
= b5-2 = b3
𝑏2
b) Operations with Powers
Simply multiply the exponents:
(xm)n = xmn
Raising a Power to a Power
Example:
(a2)3 = a(2)(3) = a6
Raise each base number and/or variable to that
exponent:
Raising a Product to a Power (xmyn)t = xm·t yn·t
Example:
(4x2)3 = (41·3)(x2·3) = 64x6
Raise both numerator and denominator to that
Raising a Quotient/Fraction to a Power
exponent and simplify the expression:
 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥𝑥
(𝑥) =
𝑥𝑥
Example:
3 22·3 26
22 64
(𝑥) = = =
𝑥3 𝑥3 𝑥3
c) Negative Exponents
To simplify an expression with negative exponents, remember that:
1
x-m =
𝑚𝑚
❖ POLYNOMIALS
a) Adding and Subtracting Polynomials
When adding and subtracting polynomials, only like terms can be combined.
Examples:
5z + 6z = 11z 18x2 - 8x2 = 10x2
b) Multiplying Polynomials
1. Monomial by a monomial
→ Multiply the coefficients and then follow the rules for multiplying the exponents for like
bases.
Example: Solution:
2x ∙ 4x
3 4 2x3 ∙ 4x4 = (2)(4)∙(x3)(x4) = 8x7

2. Monomial by a Polynomial
→ Use the distributive property
Example: Solution:
2
3a (2a + 4) 3a2 (2a + 4) = (3a2)(2a) + (3a2)(4)
= 6a3 + 12a2
3. Binomial by a Binomial
→ Use FOIL (First, Outer, Inner, Last)
Example:
(x – 3)(x + 4)
Terms Factors Product
First x∙x x2
Outer x∙4 4x
Inner -3 ∙ x -3x
Last -3 ∙ 4 -12
(x – 3)(x + 4) = x + 4x – 3x – 12
2

= x2 + x – 12
4. Any polynomial by a polynomial
→ Use the distributive property

Example:
(2x – 1)(3x2 – 5x + 2)

Solution:
(2x – 1)(3x2 – 5x + 2) = 6x3 – 10x2 + 4x - 3x2 + 5x – 2
= 6x3 – 13x2 + 9x – 2

❖ FACTORING
a) Using GCF
→ To find the GCF of any polynomial, look for common factors in the coefficients, and common
variables between each term.
Example:
Factor 4x4 + 12x3.

Solution:
The GCF of 4x4 + 12x3.is 4x3, so factor out 4x3 from each term.
4x4 + 12x3 = 4x3 (x + 3)

b) Difference Between Two Perfect Squares

→ To factor the difference between two perfect squares, take the square root of each term. Then,
express the factors in the following form:
 (x – a)(x + a)

Example: Solution:
Factor x2 – 49. x2 – 49 = (x – 7)(x + 7)

c) Polynomials in the form ax2 + bx + c

→ When factoring any factorable polynomial in the form ax2 + bx + c, where a = 1, the constant
terms of the factors have a sum of b and a product of c. If the value of a ≠1, use the factors of
c with trial-and-error to find the factors.
Example:
Factor x2 + 5x + 6

Solution:
x2 + 5x + 6
a = 1, b = 5, c = 6

1. List the factors of 6 (c): 1 and 6, -1 and -6, 2 and 3, -2 and -3

2. Find the pair of factors that has a sum of 5 (b). Here that pair is 2 and 3.
3. Use the factors 2 and 3 as the second terms in the binomial factors.
(x + 2)(x + 3)

Answer: The factors of x2 + 5x + 6 are (x + 2)(x + 3).

d) Perfect Square Trinomials

→ Has two equal binomial factors; they have two forms and factored as follows:
x2 + 2ax + a2 = (x + a)2 x2 – 2ax + a2 = (x – a)2

Example: Solution:
Factor b2 – 10b + 25. b2 – 10b + 25.= (b – 5)(b – 5)
= (b – 5)2
e) Factoring Completely
→ To factor polynomials completely, the expression must be broken down into its smallest
possible factors.
Steps:
1. Factor out the GCF, if it exists.
2. Factor the difference between two squares.
3. Factor the trinomial into two binomials (FOIL).
❖ RATIONAL EXPRESSIONS
𝑚
→ Expressions that may involve constants and/or variables in the form , where b ≠ 0.
𝑚

a) Simplifying
→ When simplifying rational expressions, factor first and make sure to only cancel factors.
Example: Solution:
𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 6 𝑥2− 𝑥 − 6
=
(𝑥−3)(𝑥+2)
𝑥2− 9 (𝑥−3)(𝑥+3)
𝑥2 − 9
(𝑥+2)
=
(𝑥+3)

b) Adding and Subtracting

Steps:
1. Find a common denominator (LCD) by finding the smallest expression that each
denominator will divide into without a remainder.
2. When this denominator is found, multiply both the numerator and denominator of the
rational expressions by the missing factor needed to make the LCD.
3. Combine the expressions.
4. Keep the common denominator.

Example:
 7𝑚 4 7𝑚 4 7𝑚 4 ∙2
2 + + = +
2𝑚 𝑚2 2𝑚 2 𝑚2 2𝑚2 2𝑚2
7𝑚 8
= 2 +
2𝑚 2𝑚2
7𝑥 + 8
=
Solution: 2𝑥2
c) Multiplying and Dividing
Steps:
1. Factor each numerator and denominator of the fractions when possible.
2. Cancel out any common factors between the numerators and denominators.
3. Multiply across any remaining factors.
4. When dividing, simply take the reciprocal of the fraction being divided by and then multiply
as explained in steps (1) to (3).

Example: Solution:
2𝑚 − 4 4 − 𝑚2 2𝑚 − 4 𝑚2 − 4 2𝑚 − 4 3𝑚
÷ ÷ = x
𝑚 3𝑚 𝑚 3𝑚 𝑚 𝑚2 − 4
2(𝑚 – 2) 3𝑚
= x
𝑚 (𝑚 − 2)(𝑚 + 2)
3
=2∙
(𝑚 + 2)

6
=
(𝑥 + 2)

B. ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS
❖ Solving Equations
Here are the steps to ensure success when solving an equation:
1. Simplify each side of the equation separately:
▪ Apply the distributive property when needed.
▪ Combine like terms when needed.
2. Move the variable to one side of the equation.
3. Perform the inverse operations of either addition or subtraction.
4. Perform the inverse operations of multiplication or division.
5. Check your answer by substituting the value of the variable into the original equation.

Example 1: -2(x + 8) = 32

Solution:

-2(x + 8) = 32 Given

(-2 ∙ x) + (-2 ∙ 8) = 32 Apply the distributive property to get rid of the

-2x – 16 = 32 parentheses.

-2x – 16 + 16 = 32 + 16
Add 16 to both sides.
-2x = 48
−2𝑚 48
=
−2 −2 Divide both sides of the equation by -2.
x = -24

Check: Substitute in the equation the value of -24 for x:

-2(x + 8) = 32
-2(-24 + 8) = 32
-2(-16) = 32
32 = 32

Example 2: 4x – 6 – 7x = 27
Solution:
 4x – 6 – 7x = 27 Given

4x – 7x – 6 = 27 Apply the commutative property.

-3x – 6 = 27 Combine like terms

-3x – 6 + 6 = 27 + 6
Add 6 to both sides of the equation
-3x = 33
−3𝑚 33
=
−3 −3 Divide both sides of the equation by -3.
x = -11

Check: Substitute in the equation the value of -24 for x:

4x – 6 – 7x = 27
4(-11) – 6 – 7(-11) = 27
-44 – 6 +77 = 27
-50 + 77 = 27
27 = 27

C. SEQUENCES and SERIES

❖ Sequence
→ An ordered set whose elements consist of consecutive natural numbers

Types of Sequences:
1. Arithmetic Progression
→ a sequence of numbers in which the difference between any two successive terms is constant;
the constant difference is called the common difference (d)

Elements of an Arithmetic Progression:

a1 = the first term d = the common difference
an = general term Sn = sum of the first n terms
n = no. of terms

To find any term (nth term): an = a1 + (n – 1)d

To find the sum of n terms (Sn) of an arithmetic progression:

Sn = (a1 + an)

2. Geometric Progression
→ a sequence of numbers in which the ratio of every pair of successive terms is constant; the
constant ratio is called the common ratio (r).

Elements of a Geometric Progression:

a1 = the first term
an = general/nth term
n = no. of terms
r = the common ratio
Sn = sum of the first n terms

To find any term (nth term): an = a1rn – 1

To find the sum of n terms (Sn) of a geometric progression:

Sn = a1 where r ≠ 1

3. Infinite Geometric Progression

→ A geometric progression with an infinite number of terms

To find the sum of n terms (Sn) of an infinite geometric progression:

Sn = where │r│< 1

4. Harmonic Progression
 → A sequence of numbers whose reciprocals form an arithmetic progression
Example:
AP: 2, 5, 8, 11, 14
1 1 1 1 1
HP: , , , ,
2 5 8 11 14

❖ BASIC TRIGONOMETRY

RIGHT ANGLES: angles that measure 90-degrees. A right angle is often shown with a small square

drawn in the corner of the angle. ¬

RIGHT TRIANGLE:

a=leg c=hypotenuse – by definition, the side opposite

the right angle.

b=leg

Pythagorean Theorem: , where c is the hypotenuse.

OTHER IMPORTANT INFORMATION:

1. The sum of the angles of any triangle is 180-degrees.

2. The sum of the two acute angles of the right triangle is 90-degrees.

3. A triangle without a right angle (an ‘oblique triangle’) can be worked with by first creating two right triangles.
Working from the known values, the two triangles can be solved and results combined to give the desired
angles and sides of the oblique triangle.

4. The Trigonometric Functions are: , another way of remembering this information is as

follows:

The other three basic Trigonometric Functions are as follows:

cosecant (csc) secant(sec) cotangent(cot)

csc θ = hypotenuse
opposite
sec θ = hypotenuse
adjacent
cot θ = adjacent
opposite

- Notice that the sin, cos, and tan are reciprocals of the csc , sec, and cot respectively.
 Therefore, the following are true:
csc θ = _ 1__ sec θ = 1__ _ cot θ = 1 ___
sin θ cos θ tan θ

Examples:
If sin θ = 4_ or 0.8 , then find the other five trig. function values.
5
- we can use the Pythagorean Thm. to find the missing leg. The opposite leg must be 4 and the hypotenuse
is 5 so,
(adj.leg)2 + 42 = 52 and adj. leg = 3
- cos θ = 3 _ tan θ = 4_ csc θ = 5_ sec θ = 5_ cot θ = 3_
5 3 4 3 4
or 0.6 or 1.3333 or 1.25 or 1.6667 or 0.75
- Inverses of the basic trig. functions are used when you know the value of the trig. function but you would
like to know the measure of the angle that goes with it. (symbol for inverse is -1 )
Examples:
sin-1 (½) = 30° because the sin 30° = ½
cos-1 (.5667) = 56.2°

Solving a Right Triangle – if you know the measures of any two sides of a right triangle or the measure of any one
side and one of the acute angles, you can find all the missing measures. This is called solving the right triangle.
A
- Examples: c ABC is a right triangle
b

C a B
Ex 1.
If a = 10 “ and Angle B = 35°, then solve the right triangle.

Step 1 tan 35° = b_ , 0.7002 = b_ , b = 7.0”

10 10
Step 2 90° - 35° = 55° , Angle A = 55°

Step 3 cos 35° = 10_ , 0.8192 = 10_ , c = 12.2”

c c
or
102 + 7.02 = c2 , √ 149 = c , c = 12.2”

So,
a = 10” b = 7.0” c = 12.2”
Angle A = 55° Angle B = 35° Angle C = 90°
Ex 2.
If b = 6 cm and c = 13 cm , then solve the right triangle.
Step 1 a2 + 62 = 132 , a2 + 36 = 169 , a = √133 , a = 11.5 cm
Step 2 sin-1 6_ = Angle B , Angle B = 27.5°
13
Step 3 90° - 27.5° = 62.5° , Angle A = 62.5°

So,

a = 11.5 cm b = 6 cm c = 13 cm
Angle A = 62.5° Angle B = 27.5° Angle C = 90°
SLOPE OF A LINEAR EQUATION, Ax + By = C
The slope of a line is a ratio of the vertical change to the horizontal change between any two points on a line.
Slope is denoted as "m".
Slope can be referred to in the following ways given below.
slope = vertical change = change in y = Δ y = rise
horizontal change change in x Δx run

FINDING SLOPE WHEN GIVEN TWO POINTS, (x1, y1) and (x2, y2):

The slope, m, of any two points, (x1, y1) and (x2, y2), on a line is defined by

slope = m = or
EXAMPLES:
1) Find the slope of a line that passes through the points (5, 9) and (-2, 4).
m = 9 - 4 = 5 is the slope.
5 - (-2) 7
Note: if you set up the formula as such, 4-9 = -5 = 5 , the slope is still 5.
-2 - 5 -7 7 7

2) Find the slope of a line that passes through the points, and

m = = = is the solution .
Note: Complex fractions should be reduce to simple fractions for the final slope solution
To simplify: numerator ÷ denominator
3) Find the slope of a line that passes through the points (3, 7) and (3, -10).
m = 7 - (-10) = 17 . The slope is undefined.
3-3 0

NOTE: When the slope is undefined, then the graph of the line that passes through those points is a vertical line
4) Find the slope of a line that passes through the points (5, -4) and (6, -4).
m = -4 - (-4) = 0 = 0. The slope is zero.
5-6 -1
NOTE: When the slope is zero, then the graph of the line that passes through those points is a horizontal line.

FINDING SLOPE FROM THE EQUATION OF A LINE:

Definition: y = mx + b is the slope-intercept form of the linear equation.
where m is the slope. (m is the coefficient of x)
b is the y-intercept, (0, b). (b is the constant)
(x, y) are the ordered pair values.
STEPS:
1) Convert the equation into slope-intercept form, if necessary, by solving for
"y" completely.
2) Identify the slope. (m = the coefficient of x)
EXAMPLES:
1) Find the slope in the linear equation, y = 3x - 5.
Since the equation of the line is in slope-intercept form, then m = 3.
2) Find the slope in the linear equation, 5x - 12y = 10.
Solve for y: 5x – 12y = 10
– 12y = 10 – 5x

is in slope-intercept form.

Identify the slope: The slope is .

3) Find the slope in the linear equation, 2(x - 4) - (3 - y) = 4x + 5y - 7.
Solve for y: 2x – 8 – 3 + y = 4x + 5y – 7
2x – 11 + y = 4x + 5y – 7
2x – 11 – 4y = 4x – 7
– 4y = 2x + 4

is in slope-intercept form.

Identify the slope: The slope is .

4) Find the slope in the linear equation, 3y + 9 = 15.
Solve for y: 3y = 6
y = 2 is in slope-intercept form.
Identify the slope:
There is no "x" variable. However, it is understood to be there when we rewrite the equation as
y = 2 + 0x. Therefore, the slope is zero and we know the line is horizontal.
5) Find the slope in the linear equation, 5x - 2y = 10 - 2y.
Solve for y: 5x = 10
x=2
Identify the slope:
There is no "y" variable. However, it is understood to be there when we rewrite the equation as 0y + x = 2. When we

solve for y, the equation is and the slope is which is undefined. Therefore, when the equation
does not have a "y" variable to solve for, the slope is undefined and the line will be vertical.

SLOPES OF PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES

DEFINITIONS:

Two lines are parallel if the two lines never intersect.

Two lines are perpendicular if the two lines form a right angle (90 degrees).
THEOREM:
1) If two lines are parallel, then they have equal slopes (m 1 = m2).
Example: L1: 2x - 3y = 14 (y = 2/3x - 14/3) then m = 2/3
L2: y = 2/3x + 5 then m = 2/3
Lines L1 and L2 are parallel.
2) If two lines are perpendicular, then the slopes are negative reciprocals,
(m1∙ m2 = -1).
Example: L1: 2x - 3y = 1 (y = 2/3x - 1/3) then m = 2/3
L2: y = -3/2x + 6 then m = -3/2
to check if slopes are negative reciprocals, 2/3 ∙ -3/2 = -1.

Lines L1 and L2 are perpendicular.

WRITE AN EQUATION OF A LINE
The equation of a line can be written in Standard Form (Ax + By = C) or in Slope-Intercept Form (y = mx + b). In either
form, you will need two pieces of information to write the equation of a line: 1) slope and 2) y-intercept.
You will decide what approach to find the equation of the line depending on the information given.
If the information given is the slope and y-intercept:
substitute the given values of slope and y-intercept into the y = mx + b form.
EXAMPLES:
1) Write the equation of a line in slope-intercept form with a slope, 3/4, and passes through the y-intercept, -2
use y = mx + b: y = 3/4x - 2
2) Write the equation of a line in standard form with a slope, -2, and passes through the point, (0, 5).
It should be recognized that (0, 5) is the y-intercept point and therefore, 5 = b.
m = -2 and b = 5 then y = -2x + 5 (slope-intercept form)
2x + y = 5 in Standard Form.
Point-Slope Formula is given by the following:
y - y1 = m(x - x1) where x1 and y1 are from the ordered pair
m is the slope
x and y are the variables
The point-slope formula is best used when you have slope and ordered pair.

If the information given is the slope and an ordered pair, (x 1, y1):

● substitute the given slope and ordered pair into the point-slope formula
● solve for y
EXAMPLES:
1) Write the equation of a line in slope-intercept form with slope, -3/5, and passes through the point (5, -2).
m = -3/5, x1 = 5 and y1 = -2
Substitute y - (-2) = -3/5(x - 5)
y + 2 = -3/5x + 3
y = -3/5x + 1
2) Write the equation of a line in standard form with slope, 4, and passes through the point,
(-1/3, 6).
m = 4, x1 = -1/3 and y1 = 6
Substitute y - 6 = 4(x - (-1/3))
y - 6 = 4(x + 1/3)
y - 6 = 4x + 4/3
y = 4x + 22/3
-4x + y = 22/3
3) Write an equation of a line in slope-intercept form with slope, 0, and passes through the point, (8, -4).
m = 0, x1 = 8 and y1 = -4
Substitute y - (-4) = 0(x - 8)
y+4=0
y = -4
Recall: if a slope is zero, then the graph is a horizontal line and has the equation of the form,
y = a, where a is some constant.
Therefore, if you remember this information, example #3 could have been arrived in one step.
If information given is two ordered pairs, (x1, y1) and (x2, y2):
● find the slope
● substitute the slope and one of the ordered pairs into the point-slope formula
● solve for y
EXAMPLES:
1) Write the equation of a line in slope-intercept form that passes through the points (-5, 7) and (4, -9).
m = 7 - (-9) = 16
-5 - 4 -9
m = -16/9, using the point, (4, -9) x1 = 4 and y1 = -9
Substitute y - (-9) = -16/9(x - 4)
y + 9 = -16/9x + 64/9
y = -16/9x - 17/9
NOTE: the point (-5, 7) could have been substituted and the same equation would have resulted.
2) Write the equation of a line that passes through the points, (9, 2) and (9, 7).
m = 2 - 7 = -5
9-9 0
The slope is undefined. Therefore, the graph of the line is a vertical line. The equation of a vertical line is in the form,
x = a where a is the constant.
Therefore, the equation of the line is x = 9.
RECALL information about parallel lines and perpendicular lines and their slopes.
EXAMPLES:
1) Write an equation of a line that passes through the point (0, 4) and is perpendicular to 4x + 5y = 25.
Need to find slope. The slope of the perpendicular line (y = -4/5x + 5) is -4/5. Then, take the negative reciprocal
which is 5/4.
m = 5/4, x1 = 0 and y1 = 4,
Substitute y - 4 = 5/4(x - 0)
y - 4 = 5/4x
y = 5/4x + 4
2) Write an equation of a line that passes through the point (1, 3) and is parallel
to y = 2x.
Need to find slope. The slope of the parallel line is 2.
m = 2, x1 = 1 and y1 = 3,
Substitute y - 3 = 2(x - 1)
y - 3 = 2x - 2
y = 2x + 1