INTRODUCTION

The two phase separator is a device used to separate gas and liquid phases.
The separation of liquids into oil and water components is covered in the IPIMS
presentation on three phase separators. The purpose of this document is to provide
the user an understanding of two phase separators, to describe how they work and
to develop and apply the design procedures for sizing them.

In two phase separator design, the gas and liquid phases of a stream are
mechanically separated at a specific temperature and pressure. Proper separator
design is important because a separation vessel is normally the initial processing
vessel in the surface facility. Improper design of this process component can
bottleneck and reduce the capacity of the entire facility.

Due to the multi-component nature of hydrocarbons, gas and liquid formation may
require us to place two phase separators, or scrubbers, upstream of compressors,
dehydration equipment, metering equipment, etc. Similarly, as the oil and water
are processed further, gas may evolve requiring additional separators, or flash
vessels, to stabilize the liquids.
EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION
Separators are designed and manufactured in horizontal, vertical, spherical and
various other configurations. All of these separation types have four common
elements: inlet diverter, gravity settling section, coalescing section and pressure
controller.

Horizontal Separators
Figure 1 (Schematic of a horizontal separator) shows a horizontal separator
configuration.

Figure 1

The fluid enters the separator and hits an inlet diverter, causing a sudden change in
momentum. The initial gross separation of liquid and vapor occurs at the inlet
diverter. The force of gravity causes the liquid to fall to the bottom of the vessel
and gas to rise to the vapor space. It also provides a surge volume, if necessary, to
handle intermittent slugs of liquid. The liquid then leaves the vessel through the
liquid dump valve, which is regulated by a level controller. The level controller
senses changes in liquid level and controls the dump valve accordingly. Normally,
horizontal separators are operated half full of liquid to maximize the surface area of
the gas-liquid interface.

The gas flows over the inlet diverter and then horizontally through the gravity-
settling section above the liquid. As the gas flows through this section, small drops
of liquid, which were entrained in the gas and not separated by the inlet diverter,
are separated by gravity-settling; they fall to the gas-liquid interface.

Some small diameter droplets are not easily separated in the gravity-settling
section. Before the gas leaves the vessel, it passes through a coalescing section, or
mist extractor. This section uses elements of vanes, wire mesh, or plates to
coalesce and remove the very small droplets of liquid in one final separation step.
Large droplets of liquid in the gas can flood the mist chamber. Thus, in separators
containing a mist extractor, the gravity-settling section provides treatment of the
gas leaving the inlet separator so that it does not flood the mist extractor.

The pressure in the separator is maintained by a pressure controller. The pressure

controller senses changes in the pressure within the separator and sends a signal
either to open or close the pressure control valve accordingly. By controlling the
rate at which gas leaves the vapor space of the vessel, this system maintains the
pressure in the vessel.

Vertical Separators
In a vertical separator Figure 2 (Schematic of a vertical separator), the inlet flow
enters the vessel through the side.

Figure 2

As in the horizontal separator, the inlet diverter provides the initial gross
separation. The liquid flows down to the liquid collection section of the vessel and
continues to the liquid outlet. As the liquid reaches equilibrium, gas bubbles flow
counter to the direction of the liquid flow and eventually migrate to the vapor
space. The level controller and liquid dump valve operate in the same manner as in
a horizontal separator.

The gas flows over the inlet diverter and then vertically upward toward the gas
outlet. In the gravity settling section, the liquid drops fall vertically downward
counter to the gas flow. Gas goes through the mist extractor section before it
leaves the vessel. Pressure is maintained as in a horizontal separator.

Spherical and other Configurations

A typical spherical separator is shown in Figure 3 (Schematic of a spherical
separator).

Figure 3

The same four common elements can be found in this vessel. Spherical separators
are a special case of a vertical separator where there is no cylindrical shell between
the two heads. They may be very efficient from a pressure containment standpoint,
but, because they have limited liquid surge capability and they present fabrication
difficulties. They are not widely used in the oil industry. For this reason, we will not
be discussing spherical separators in further detail.

Two-barrel separators are common where there is a very low liquid flow rate. In
this type of separator, the gas and liquid chambers are separated, as shown in
Figure 4 (Schematic of a double-barrel separator).
 Figure 4

The flow-stream enters the vessel in the upper barrel and strikes the inlet diverter.
The free liquids fall to the lower barrel through a flow pipe. The gas flows through
the gravity settling section and encounters a mist extractor en route to the gas
outlet. Small amounts of gas entrained in the liquid are liberated in the liquid
collection barrel and flow up through the flow pipes. In this manner the liquid
accumulation is separated from the gas stream so that there is no chance of high
gas velocities re-entraining liquid as it flows over the interface. Two-barrel
separators are typically used as gas scrubbers on the inlet to compressors, glycol
contact towers and gas treating systems in which the liquid flow rate is extremely
low relative to the gas flow rate.

A special case of a two-barrel separator is a single-barrel separator with a liquid

sump at the outlet end, as shown in Figure 5 (Schematic of a single-barrel
separator with a liquid sump).
 Figure 5

The main body of the separator operates essentially dry as in a two-barrel

separator. The small amounts of liquid in the bottom flow to the sump at the end,
which provides the liquid collection section. These vessels are less expensive than
two-barrel separators, but they also contain less liquid handling capability.

Another type of separator that is frequently used in some high gas/low liquid flow
applications is a filter separator. These separators may be either horizontal or
vertical in configuration. A horizontal two-barrel filter separator is shown in Figure 6
(Schematic of a typical horizontal filter separator).
 Figure 6

Filter tubes in the initial separation section cause coalescence of any liquid mist into
larger droplets as the gas passes through the tubes. A secondary section of vanes
or other mist extractor elements removes these coalesced droplets. In addition to
promoting coalescence, the filter tubes can be used to remove small solid particles.
This type of vessel can remove 100 percent of all particles larger than 2 microns
and 99 percent of those down to about 1/2 micron. Filter separators are commonly
used on compressor inlets in field compressor stations, final scrubbers upstream of
glycol contact towers, and instrument/fuel gas applications. The design of filter
separators is proprietary and dependent upon the type of filter element employed.

Some separators are designed to operate using centrifugal force. This type
separator is becoming more common, particularly offshore, but is used primarily for
liquid/solid separation, not gas/liquid separation. Although such designs can result
in significantly smaller space requirements, they are not commonly used in
production operations because their design is rather sensitive to flow rate and they
require greater pressure drop than the standard configurations. The design of these
separators is proprietary, and, therefore, will not be covered.
SELECTION CRITERIA
Horizontal separators are normally more efficient at handling large volumes of
gas than vertical separators. In the gravity-settling section of the vessel, the liquid
droplets fall perpendicular to the gas flow, and, thus, are more easily settled out of
the gas-continuous phase. Also, since the interface area is larger in a horizontal
separator than a vertical separator, it is easier for the gas bubbles, which come out
of solution as the liquid approaches equilibrium, to reach the vapor space. Thus,
from a pure gas/liquid separation viewpoint, horizontal separators would be
preferred. However, they do have several drawbacks, which could lead to a
preference for a vertical separator in certain situations.

Horizontal separators are not as good as vertical separators in handling solids.

The liquid dump of a vertical separator can be placed at the center of the bottom
head so that, solids will not build up in the separator but continue to the next
vessel in the process. As an alternate, a drain could be placed at this location so
that solids could be disposed of periodically while liquid leaves the vessel at a
slightly higher elevation. In a horizontal vessel, it is necessary to place several
drains along the length of the vessel. Since the solids will have an angle of repose
of 45° to 60°, the drains must be spaced at very close intervals. Attempts to
lengthen the distance between drains, by providing sand jets in the vicinity of each
drain to fluidize the solids while the drains are in operation, are expensive and have
been only marginally successful in field operations.

Horizontal vessels require more plan area (horizontal cross-section) to perform the
same separation as vertical vessels. While this may not be of importance at an
onshore location, it could be very important offshore. If several separators are
used, however, this disadvantage may be overcome by stacking one horizontal
separator on top of another.

Most horizontal vessels have less liquid-surge capacity. For a given change in
liquid surface elevation, there is typically a larger increase in liquid volume for a
horizontal separator than for a vertical separator sized for the same flow rate.
However, the geometry of most horizontal vessels causes any high-level shutdown
device to be located close to the normal operating level. In very large diameter
(greater than 1.8 m (6 ft)) horizontal vessels and in vertical vessels, the shutdown
could be placed much higher, allowing the level controller and dump valve more
time to react to the surge. In addition, surges in horizontal vessels could create
internal waves, which could activate a high level sensor prematurely.

Care should be exercised when selecting small-diameter horizontal separators. The

level controller and level switch elevations must be considered. The vessel must
have a sufficiently large diameter so that the level switches may be spaced far
enough apart, vertically, to avoid operating problems. This is particularly important
if surges in the flow or slugs of liquids are expected to enter the separator.

It should be pointed out that vertical vessels have some drawbacks which are not
process-related and which must be considered in making a selection. For example,
the relief valve and some of the controls may be difficult to service without special
ladders and platforms. The vessel may have to be removed from a skid for trucking
due to height restrictions.

Overall, horizontal vessels are most economical for normal oil-gas separation,
particularly where there may be problems with emulsions, foam, or high gas-oil
ratios (GOR). Vertical vessels work most effectively in low-GOR applications. They
are also used in some very high-GOR applications, such as scrubbers in which only
fluid mists are being removed from the gas and where extra surge capacity is
needed to allow a shutdown to activate before liquid is carried out the gas outlet
(e.g., compressor suction scrubber).
INTERNAL COMPONENTS
Inlet Diverters

There are many types of inlet diverters. Figure 1 (Two basic types of inlet
diverters) shows two basic types of devices that are commonly used.

Figure 1

The first is a deflector baffle. This can be a spherical dish, flat plate, angle iron,
cone or just about anything that will accomplish a rapid change in direction and
velocity of the fluids. The rapid change of the fluid velocity disengages the liquids
from the gas due to kinetic energy differences. At the same velocity the higher
density liquid possesses more kinetic energy, and, thus, does not change direction
or velocity as easily as the gas. Therefore, the gas tends to flow around the diverter
while the liquid strikes the diverter and then falls to the bottom of the vessel. The
design of the deflector is governed principally by the structural support required to
resist the impact-momentum load. The advantage of using devices such as a half
sphere is that they may help in distributing flow of liquid more evenly over the
cross-sectional area of the separator.

The second device shown in Figure 1 is a cyclone inlet that uses centrifugal force to
disengage the oil and gas. This inlet can have a cyclonic chimney, as shown, or
may use a tangential fluid race around the walls. These devices are proprietary, but
generally use an inlet nozzle sufficient to create a fluid velocity of about 6 m/s (20
ft/s) around a chimney whose diameter is no longer than two thirds that of the
vessel diameter. The advantage of a cyclone is that it can be designed to efficiently
separate the liquid while minimizing the possibility of foaming or emulsifying
problems. The disadvantage is that their design is rate sensitive. At low velocities
they will not work properly. Thus, they are not normally recommended for
producing operations where rates are not expected to be steady.

Wave Breakers

In large horizontal vessels, wave breakers may be used to limit wave propagation
in the vessel. The waves may result from surges of liquid entering the vessel. The
wave breakers consist of plates perpendicular to the flow located at the liquid level.
On floating or compliant structures where internal waves may be set up by the
motion of the foundation, wave breakers may also be required parallel to the flow
direction. The wave actions in the vessel must be minimized so level controls, level
switches, and weirs may perform properly.

Stilling Wells

Even where wave breakers are not needed, it may be beneficial to install a stilling
well around any internal floats for level control. The stilling well is a slotted pipe,
which protects the float from currents, waves, etc., which could cause it to sense an
incorrect level.

Defoaming Plates

Foam at the interface may occur when gas bubbles are liberated from the liquid.
Foam can be reduced with the addition of chemicals at the inlet, however, a more
effective solution is to force the foam to pass through a series of inclined parallel
plates or tubes, as shown in Figure 2 (A schematic of defoaming plates).

Figure 2
These defoaming plates aid in the coalescence of bubbles.

Vortex Breakers

It is normally a good idea to include a simple vortex breaker, as shown in Figure 3

(Three views of a typical vortex breaker.), to keep a vortex from developing when
the liquid control valve is open.

Figure 3

A vortex could suck gas out from the vapor space and re-entrain it in the liquid
outlet.

Mist Extractors

Figure 4 (Schematic of two types of mist extractors)

 Figure 4

and Figure 5 (A common mist-extraction device using vanes) show two of the most
common mist extraction devices: wire mesh pads and vanes.
 Figure 5

Wire mesh pads are made of finely woven mats of stainless steel wire wrapped into
a tightly packed cylinder. The liquid droplets impinge on the matted wires and
coalesce. The proper velocity range of gas can have a large impact on the
effectiveness of wire mesh. If the velocity is low, the vapor just drifts through the
mesh pad without the droplets impinging and coalescing. Alternately high velocity
gas can strip the liquid droplets from the wire mesh and carry the droplets out the
gas outlet.

Vane-type mist extractors force the gas flow to be laminar between parallel plates,
which contain directional changes. As the gas flows through the plates droplets
impinge on the plate surface. The droplets coalesce, fall, and are routed to the
liquid collection section of the vessel. Vane-type extractors are sized by their
manufacturers to assure both laminar flow and a certain minimum pressure drop.

Some separators have centrifugal mist extractors, which cause the liquid
droplets to be separated by centrifugal force. These can be more efficient than
either wire mesh or vanes and are the least susceptible to plugging. However, they
are not widley used in production operations because their removal efficiencies are
sensitive to small changes in flow. In addition, they require relatively larger
pressure drops to create the centrifugal force.

The selection of a type of mist extractor involves a typical cost benefit analysis.
Wire mesh pads are the cheapest, but mesh pads are the most susceptible to
plugging with paraffins, gas hydrates, etc. With age, mesh pads also tend to
deteriorate and release wires and/or chunks of the pad to the gas stream. This can
be extremely damaging to downstream equipment, such as compressors. Vane
units, on the other hand, are more expensive. Typically, vane units are less
susceptible to plugging and deterioration than mesh pads. The selection of a type of
mist extractor is affected by the fluid characteristics, the system requirements, and
the cost.

It is recommended that the sizing of mist extractors should be left to the

manufacturer. No specific sizing technique has been identified for mist extractors,
and, therefore, no method is presented in this tutorial. Experience indicates that if
the gravity-settling section is designed to remove liquid droplets of 500 micron or
smaller diameter, there will be sufficient space to install a mist extractor.

Sand Jets and Drains

In horizontal separators, one concern is the accumulation of sand and solids at the
bottom of the vessel. Excessive accumulation of these solids can upset the
separator operations. Generally the solids settle to the bottom and become well
packed.

To remove the solids, sand drains are opened in a controlled manner, and then high
pressure fluid, usually produced water, is pumped through jets to agitate the solids
and flush them down the drains. The sand jets are normally designed with a 6 m/s
(20 ft/s) jet tip velocity and aimed in such a manner to give good coverage of the
vessel bottom.

To prevent the settled sand from clogging the sand drains, sand pans or sand
troughs are used to cover the outlets. These are inverted troughs with slotted side
openings as shown in Figure 6 (Cutaway schematic showing sand jets and piping
inside horizontal separator).

Figure 6
To properly remove the sand without upsetting the separation process in the
vessel, separate units consisting of a sand drain and its associated jets must be
installed at intervals not exceeding 1.5 m (5 ft). It is not possible to stir the bottom
of a long horizontal vessel with a single sand jet header.
POTENTIAL OPERATING PROBLEMS
Foamy Crude

The major causes of foam are impurities, other than water, in the crude oil that are
impractical to remove before the stream reaches the separator. Foam presents no
problem within a separator if the internal design assures adequate time or sufficient
coalescing surface for the foam to "break."

Foaming in a separating vessel is a threefold problem. Mechanical control of liquid

level is aggravated because any control device must deal with essentially three
phases instead of two. Foam has a large volume-to-weight ratio, therefore, it can
occupy a large amount of the vessel space, otherwise used for liquid collection or
gravity settling. In an uncontrolled foam bank, it becomes impossible to remove
separated gas or degassed oil from the vessel without entraining some of the foamy
material in either the liquid or gas outlets.

It is possible to determine foaming tendencies of an oil with laboratory tests.

Service companies can run laboratory tests on oil samples to qualitatively
determine an oil's foaming tendency. One such test is ASTM D 892, which involves
bubbling air through the oil. Alternately, the oil may be saturated with its
associated gas and then expanded in a glass container. This second test more
closely models the actual separation process. Both of these tests are qualitative.
There is no standard method for measuring the amount of foam produced or the
difficulty in breaking the foam. Foaming is not possible to predict ahead of time
without laboratory tests. However, foaming should be expected where CO 2 is
present in even small amounts (one percent to two percent). It should be noted
that the amount of foam is dependent on the pressure drop to which the inlet liquid
is subjected, as well as the characteristics of the liquid at separator condition.

In some cases, the effect of temperature may be found to be quite spectacular.

Changing the temperature at which a foamy oil is separated has two opposite
effects on the foam. The first effect is to change the oil viscosity. That is, an
increase in temperature will decrease the oil viscosity, making it easier for the gas
to escape from the oil. The second effect is to change the gas-oil equilibrium. A
temperature increase will increase the amount of gas, which evolves from the oil.

It is difficult to predict the effects of temperature on foaming tendencies, but some

general trends can be identified. For heavy oils with a low GOR, an increase in
temperature will typically decrease foaming tendencies. Similarly, for light oils with
a high GOR, temperature increases typically decrease foaming tendencies.
However, for light oils with a low GOR, a temperature increase may increase
foaming tendencies. Oils in this last category are typically rich in mid-range
components, which will evolve to the gas phase when the temperature increases.
Therefore, increasing the temperature significantly increases the gas evolution,
and, thus, the foaming tendencies.

Foam-depressant chemicals are available that often will do a good job in increasing
the capacity of a given separator. However, in sizing a separator to handle a
particular crude, the use of an effective depressant should not be assumed because
characteristics of the crude and of the foam may change during the life of the field.
Also, the cost of foam-depressants for high-rate production may be prohibitive.
Sufficient capacity should be provided in the separator to handle the anticipated
production without use of a foam depressant. Ideally foam depresants are used
once in operation to allow more throughput than the design capacity.
Paraffin

Separator operation can be adversely affected by an accumulation of paraffin.

Coalescing plates in the liquid section and mesh-pad mist extractors in the gas
section are particularly prone to plugging by accumulations of paraffin. Where it is
determined that paraffin is an actual or potential problem, use of vane-type or
centrifugal mist extractors should be considered. Manways, handholes and nozzles
should be provided to allow steam, solvent or other types of cleaning of the
separator internals.

Sand

Sand can be very troublesome in separators by causing cutout of valve trim,

plugging of separator internals and accumulation in the bottom of the separator.
Special hard trim can minimize effects of sand on the valves. Accumulations of sand
can be alleviated by the use of sand jets and drains in horizontal separators, and
cone bottoms in vertical separators.

Plugging of the separator internals is a problem that must be considered in the

design of the separator. A design that will promote good separation and have a
minimum of traps for sand accumulation may be difficult to attain, since the design
that provides the best mechanism for separating the gas, oil, and water phases
probably will also provide areas for sand accumulation. A practical balance for these
factors is the best solution.

Carryover and Blowby

Carryover and blowby are two common operating problems. Carryover occurs when
free liquid escapes with the gas phase. It can be an indication of high liquid level,
damage to vessel internals, foam, plugged liquid outlets, or exceeding the design
rate of the vessel.

Blowby occurs when free gas escapes with the liquid phase, and it can be an
indication of vortexing or level control failure. This is a particularly dangerous
problem. If there is a level control failure and the level dump valve is open, the gas
flow entering the vessel will exit the liquid line and will have to be handled by the
next vessel in the process. Unless that vessel is designed for the gas blowby
condition, it can be over-pressured.

Liquid Slugs

Two phase flow lines and pipelines tend to accumulate liquids in low spots in the
lines. When the level of liquid in these low spots rises high enough to block the gas
flow then the gas will push the liquid along the line as a slug. Depending on the
flow rates, flow properties, length and diameter of the flow line, and the elevation
change involved, these liquid slugs may contain large liquid volumes.

Situations in which liquid slugs may occur should be identified prior to the design of
a separator. The normal operating level and the high-level shutdown on the vessel
must be spaced far enough apart to accommodate the anticipated slug volume. If
sufficient vessel volume is not provided, then the liquid slugs will trip the high-level
shutdown.

When liquid slugs are anticipated, slug volume for design purposes must be
established. Then the separator may be sized for liquid flow-rate capacity using the
normal operating level. The location of the high-level set point may be established
to provide the slug volume between the normal level and the high level. The
separator size must then be checked to ensure that sufficient gas capacity is
provided even when the liquid is at the high-level set point. This check of gas
capacity is particularly important for horizontal separators because, as the liquid
level rises, the gas capacity is decreased. For vertical separators, sizing is easier as
sufficient height for the slug volume may be added to the vessel seam-to-seam
length.

Often the potential size of the slug is so great that it is beneficial to install a large
pipe volume upstream of the separator. The geometry of these pipes is such that
they operate normally empty of liquid, but fill with liquid when the slug enters the
system. This is the most common type of slug catcher used when two phase
pipelines are routinely pigged.
SEPARATOR DESIGN THEORY

Settling
In the gravity-settling section of a separator, liquid droplets are removed using the
force of gravity. The liquid droplets in the gas settle at a velocity called their
terminal velocity. At this velocity, the force of gravity on the droplet equals the
drag force exerted on the droplet due to its movement through the gas phase. The
drag force on a droplet may be determined as follows:

Equation 1

If the flow around the drop were laminar, then Stokes’ Law would govern and:
Equation 2

It can be shown that in such a gas the droplet settling velocity would be given by:
Equation 3

SI Units:

Oilfield:

Unfortunately for production facility design, Stokes’ Law does not govern gas/liquid
separation. The following more complete formula for drag coefficient must be used:
Equation 4

Equating drag and buoyant forces, the terminal settling velocity is given by:

Equation 5

SI Units:

Oilfield:

Equations (4) and (5) may be solved by a reiterative process. Start by assuming a
value of CD, such as 0.34, and solve Equation (5) for V t. Then, using Vt, the
following may be solved for Re:

Equation 6

SI Units:

Oilfield:

Then, Equation (4) may be solved for C D. If the calculated value of C D equals the
assumed value, the solution has been reached. If not, then the procedure should be
repeated using the calculated CD as a new assumption. The original assumption of
0.34 for CD was used because this is the limiting value for large Reynolds numbers.

Retention Time
To assure that the liquid reaches phase equilibrium at the separator pressure and
temperature, a certain liquid storage is required. Liquid retention time is defined
as the average time a molecule of liquid is retained in the vessel, assuming plug
flow. The retention time is, thus, the volume of the liquid storage in the vessel
divided by the liquid flow rate.

For most applications, retention times of between 30 seconds and three

minutes have been found to be sufficient. Where a foaming crude is present,
retention times up to four times this amount may be required.
Droplet Size
To apply the settling equations to separator sizing, a liquid droplet size to be
removed must be selected. The purpose of the gas separation section of most
vessels is to condition the gas for final polishing by the mist extractor. From field
experience, it appears that if 140 micron droplets are removed in this section the
mist extractor will not become flooded and will be able to perform its job of
removing those droplets between 10 and 140 micron diameter.

There are special cases where a separator is designed to remove only very small
quantities of liquid, such as liquids condensed due to temperature or pressure
changes in a stream of gas which has already passed through a separator and a
mist extractor. These separators, commonly called "gas scrubbers," could be
designed for removal of droplets on the order of 500 microns without fear of
flooding their mist extractors. Fuel-gas scrubbers, compressor-suction scrubbers,
and contact-tower inlet scrubbers are examples of vessels to which this might
apply.

Flare or vent scrubbers are designed to keep large slugs of liquid from entering the
atmosphere through the vent or relief systems. In vent systems the gas is
discharged directly to the atmosphere, and it is common to design the scrubbers for
removal of 400 to 500 micron droplets in the gravity-settling section. A mist
extractor is not included because of the possibility that it might plug, creating a
safety hazard. In flare systems, where the gas is discharged through a flame, there
is the possibility that burning liquid droplets could fall to the ground before being
consumed. It is still common to size the gravity-settling section for 400 to 500
micron removal, which the API guideline for refinery flares indicates is adequate to
insure against a falling flame. In critical locations, such as offshore platforms, many
operators include a mist extractor as an extra precaution against a falling flame. If
a mist extractor is used, it is necessary to provide safety-relief protection around
the mist extractor in the event that it becomes plugged.
HORIZONTAL SEPARATOR DESIGN THEORY
The guidelines presented in this section can be used for initial sizing
determinations. They are meant to complement, and not replace, operating
experience. Determination of the type and size of separator must be on an
individual basis. All the functions and requirements should be considered, including
the likely uncertainties in design flow rates and properties. For this reason, there is
no substitute for good engineering evaluations of each separator by the design
engineer. The "trade off" between design size and details and uncertainties in
design parameters should not be left to manufacturer recommendations or rules of
thumb.

For sizing a horizontal separator, it is necessary to choose a seam-to-seam vessel

length and a diameter. This choice must satisfy the conditions for gas capacity,
which allow the liquid droplets to fall from the gas to the liquid as the gas traverses
the effective length of the vessel. It must also provide sufficient retention time to
allow the liquid to reach equilibrium.

Horizontal Gas Capacity

The principles of liquid droplets settling through a gas can be used to develop an
equation to size a separator for a gas flow rate. By setting the gas retention time
equal to the time required for a drop to settle to the liquid interface, the following
equation may be derived.

Equation 1

SI Units:

Oilfield:
The terms  and  are related to each other by the following equation:

Equation 2

SI Units:

Oilfield:

By specifying what percentage of the vessel diameter will be full of liquid, Equation
(2) may be solved. Then, Equation (1) may be solved to size the vessel.

The majority of oil field two phase separators are designed to remove 140 micron
droplets with the liquid level at the vessel centerline. For this case  = 0.5 and  =
0.5. Substituting these values into Equation (1) yields the following simplified
equation.

Equation 3

SI Units:

Oilfield:

The density of oil decreases slightly as temperature increases. If the specific gravity
of oil is known at one temperature, it can be estimated at another temperature
using Figure 1 (Approximate Specific Gravity of Petroleum Fractions).
 Figure 1

The specific gravity of water for various temperatures is shown on Figure 2

(Specific Gravity of Water).

Figure 2

Liquid Re-entrainment

Liquid re-entrainment occurs when the gas velocity through a horizontal separator
is high enough to sweep liquid droplets up from the gas-liquid interface and
suspend them in the gas. Thus, there is a maximum acceptable gas velocity that
can exist in the separator. The maximum gas velocity, in turn, fixes a minimum
vessel inside diameter.

A procedure for predicting the onset of the re-entrainment has been developed by
Ishii and Grolmes (75), which can be applied to horizontal separators. The
maximum gas velocity depends on the flow state of the gas-liquid interface. This
state can be determined from two dimensionless numbers, the Reynolds film
number, Ref, and the viscosity number, N μ .

The Reynolds film number is defined as:

Equation 4
The hydraulic diameter, Dh, is four times the cross-sectional area of liquid divided by the wetted
perimeter. For a separator half full of liquid, the hydraulic diameter is equal to the separator
diameter. In general, the hydraulic diameter is given by:

Equation 5

SI Units:

Oilfield:

The viscosity number, N μ , is defined as:

Equation 6

The surface tension may be determined from the temperature, pressure, and API gravity
as:

Equation 7
 SI Units:

Oilfield:

Equation 7 is adapted from a graphical approach by Baker and Swerdloff (1956). In

most practical cases,  is about 0.015 to 0.03 kg/s2 (0.033 to 0.066 lbm/s2).

Three flow states, or regimes, are possible. Flow is in the low Reynolds number
regime if the film Reynolds number is less than 160. If Ref is greater than
approximately 1635, the flow is rough turbulent. A transition flow regime spans the
range between these values.

The criteria for the maximum gas velocity before re-entrainment occurs, (Vg)max, for
various Reynolds film numbers and viscosity numbers are given below.

Equation 8

From the maximum allowable gas velocity, the minimum allowable vessel inside diameter
may be determined:

Equation 9

SI Units:
 Oilfield:

Equation 10

SI Units:

Oilfield:

To actually solve for d min, Equations 10, 14 (a, b, c, d, or e), and 16 must be
recalculated with successive values of d min, until dmin is the same between iterations.
This is due to the dependence of Ref on Vl and DH. When checking a known
diameter separator, only one pass through the equations is needed.

Horizontal Liquid Capacity

Two phase separators must be sized to provide some liquid retention time so the
liquid can reach phase equilibrium with the gas. For a specified liquid flow rate and
retention time, the following may be used to determine a vessel size.

Equation 11

SI Units:

Oilfield:

Horizontal Seam-to-Seam Length

The effective length required may be calculated from Equations (1) and (11). From
this, a vessel seam-to-seam length may be estimated. The actual required seam-
to-seam length is dependent on the physical design of the internals of the vessel.

For vessels sized on a gas-capacity basis, some portion of the vessel length is
required to distribute the flow evenly near the inlet diverter. Another portion of the
vessel length is required for the mist extractor. The length of the vessel between
the inlet and the mist extractor with evenly distributed flow is the L eff calculated
from Equation (1). Typically, as a vessel's diameter increases, more length is
required to evenly distribute the gas flow. However, no matter how small the
diameter may be, a portion of the length is still required for the mist extractor and
flow distribution. Based on these concepts and on past experience, the seam-to-
seam length of a vessel may be estimated as the larger of the following:
Equation 12

Equation 13

SI Units:

Oilfield:

It should be noted that Equations (12) and (13) apply only to vessels sized based on Equation
(1) for gas capacity.

For vessels sized on a liquid-capacity basis, some portion of the vessel length is for
liquid outlet and inlet diverter flow distribution. The seam-to-seam length may be
calculated based on providing an additional one minute of liquid retention time
within the following restrictions.

Equation 14

This equation can be developed because, for a set d, the retention time is a linear function of
Leff. For applications using extremely short retention times, Equation (14) yields values for L eff,
which are too large. Therefore, the Leff should not exceed the following.

Equation 15

Regardless of the retention time, a minimum vessel length is required for even distribution.
Therefore, Leff should not be less than the following.

Equation 16

SI Units:

Oilfield:

Note Equations (14), (15) and (16) apply to vessels sized based on liquid retention
time. The seam-to-seam length should be calculated using Equation (14); however,
it is limited to the range between Equations (15) and (16).

For each vessel design, a combination of L eff and d exists which will minimize the
cost of the vessel. In general, the smaller the diameter of a vessel, the less it will
cost. However, decreasing the diameter increases the gas velocity and turbulence.
As the vessel diameter decreases, the possibility of the gas re-entraining liquids
increases. Experience indicates that the ratio of the seam-to-seam length divided
by the diameter should be between 3 and 4. This ratio is referred to as the
slenderness ratio" of the vessel. Slenderness ratios outside the 3 to 4 range may be
used, but are not as common. It is important to check to assure that re-
entrainment will not occur in vessels with high slenderness ratios.

Procedure for Sizing Horizontal Separators

1. The first step in sizing a horizontal separator is to establish the design basis. This
includes specifying the flow rates, operating conditions, droplet size to be removed,
etc.

2. The value of CD must be determined using the following Equations:

Equation 17

Equation 18

SI Units:

Oilfield:

Equation 16

SI Units:

Oilfield:

3. A table should now be prepared of the Leff for various selected values of d using Equation (1)
for gas capacity. Lss should be calculated using Equations (12) and (13).

4. For the same values of d, calculate Leff using Equation (17) for liquid capacity
and list these in the same table. Lss should be calculated using Equations (14), (15)
and (16).

5. For each d, the larger Leff should be used.

6. The slenderness ratio, 1,000 Leff /do (12 Leff /do), should be calculated and listed
for each d. A combination of d and L ss should be selected which has a slenderness
ratio in the range of 3 to 4. Lower slenderness ratios can be chosen if dictated by
available space, but they will probably be more expensive. Higher ratios can be
chosen if the vessel is checked for re-entrainment.

7. In making a final selection, it is important to keep in mind that there are more or
less standard industry sizes, which are less expensive to purchase. For most cases,
vessels with outside diameters up through 24 in. (600 mm) have nominal pipe
dimensions. Larger outside diameters are rolled from plate with increments of 6 in.
(150 mm) from 24 in. Typically the shell length, or seam-to-seam length, is
expanded in 2.5 ft (250 mm) segements and is usually from 5 ft to 10 ft (250 mm
to 1250 mm). Standard separator vessel sizes may be obtained from API
Specification 12J.

NOTE: The next two sections contain examples on horizontal separator design. The
first example is performed in SI (metric) units and the second example is in Oilfield
(customary) units.
HORIZONTAL SEPARATOR DESIGN EXAMPLE (SI UNITS)

Example Problem.
Establish the design parameters for a horizontal separator given the following
requirements:

Gas 12000 std m3/hr at 0.6 SG

Oil 320 m3/day at 40°API

Pressure 7000 kPa

Temperature 15°C

Droplet Size 140 micrometer removal

Retention time 3 min

Calculate CD.

Assume CD = 0.34

Determine
Vt:
Determine Reynolds Number:

Determine CD:

Repeat using CD = 0.711:

Repeat

Repeat

Calculate Leff and Lss for gas capacity.

Vessel 1/2 full

α = β = 0.5
For do = 406

Determine t:
Round up to next mm

Using Equation:

Using Equation:

Use Lss = 1.25

See Table 1 for additional results.

Calculate Leff and Lss for liquid capacity.

Using d = 366

Using Equation:
Using Equation:

Using Equation:

See Table 1 for additional results.

Use larger Lss for each d.

For d = 366

Use Lss = 16.7

See Table 1 for additional results.

Calculate the slenderness ratio.

Check the design for re-entrainment

For 406 mm O.D. separator (366 mm I.D.)

Calculate Ref and N μ using the following equations:

Assume liquid viscosity is 3.0 cp

Using equation:
Using equation:

Using equation:

Calculate gas velocity:

Since Re > 1635, and Nu £ 0.0667,

The actual velocity is less than this, so there is no re-entrainment problem. Any
diameter greater than 366 mm would have a lower Vg, so all of the examples in
Table 1 meet the re-entrainment criteria. Since the problem is liquid capacity
constrained, other factors influence the final selection. Re-entrainment is more
likely to be a problem when a separator is gas capacity constrained.

Table 1 : Additional results

Gas Liquid

406 366 0.85 12.5 16.7 41

508 456 0.67 8.1 11 22

610 552 0.55 5.6 7.5 12

762 692 0.44 3.5 5 6.6

914 830 0.37 2.5 3.3 3.6

1067 971 0.31 1.8 2.6 2.4

1219 1111 0.27 2.1 2.2 1.8

Make final selection.

Select 1067 mm Outside Diameter (OD) x 2.6 m seam-to-seam
length (S/S).
HORIZONTAL SEPARATOR DESIGN EXAMPLE (OILFIELD UNITS)

Example Problem.
Establish the design parameters for a horizontal separator given the following
requirements:

Gas 10 MMSCFD at 0.6 SG

Oil 2000 BPD at 40°API

Pressure 1000 psia

Temperature 60°F

Droplet size 140 micron removal

Retention time 3 min

Calculate CD.

Assume CD = 0.34

Determine Vt:
Determine Reynolds Number:

Determine CD:

Repeat using CD = 0.711

Repeat

Repeat

Repeat

Calculate Leff and Lss for gas capacity.

Vessel 1/2 full

α = β = 0.5
For do = 16

Determine t, shell thickness:

Round up to next 1/8 of an inch

Using Equation:

Using Equation:

Use Lss = 4.1

See Table 1 for additional results.

Calculate Leff and Lss for liquid capacity.

Using d = 14.25

Using Equation:
Using Equation:

Using Equation:

See Table 1 for additional results.

Use larger Lss for each d.

For d = 14.25

Use Lss = 56.3

See Table 1 for additional results.

Calculate the slenderness ratio.

Check the design for re-entrainment.

For 16 in O.D. separator (14.25 in I.D.):

Calculate Ref And N μ :

Assume liquid viscosity is 3.0 cp.

Determine Ref:
Determine density:

Determine viscosity:

Calculate gas velocity:

Since Ref >1635 and N μ ≤ 0.667.

The actual velocity is less than this, so there is no re-entrainment problem. Any
diameter greater than 14.25 in would have a lower V g, so all of the examples in
Table 1 meet the re-entrainment criteria. Since the problem is liquid capacity
constrained, other factors influence the final selection. Re-entrainment is more
likely to be a problem when a separator is gas capacity constrained.

Table 1 : Additional results

Gas Liquid

12

16 14.25 2.8 42.2 56.3 42.2

20 18.0 2.2 26.4 35.2 21.1

24 21.75 1.8 18.1 24.1 12.0

30 27.25 1.5 11.5 15.3 6.1

36 32.75 1.2 8.0 10.7 3.6

42 38.25 1.0 5.8 8.3 2.4

48 43.75 0.9 4.5 7.0 1.7

Make final selection.

Select 42" Outside Diameter (OD) x 10' seam-to-seam length (S/S).
VERTICAL SEPARATOR DESIGN
The guidelines presented in this section can be used for initial sizing
determinations. They are meant to complement, and not replace, operating
experience. Determination of the type and size of separator must be on an
individual basis. All the functions and requirements should be considered, including
the likely uncertainties in design flow rates and properties. For this reason, there is
no substitute for good engineering evaluations of each separator by the design
engineer. The "trade off" between design size and details and uncertainties in
design parameters should not be left to manufacturer recommendations or rules of
thumb.

In vertical separators, a minimum diameter must be maintained to allow liquid

droplets to separate from the vertically moving gas. The liquid retention-time
requirement specifies a combination of diameter and liquid volume height. Any
diameter greater than the minimum required for gas capacity can be chosen.

Vertical Gas Capacity

By setting the gas velocity equal to the terminal settling velocity of a droplet, the
following may be derived:

Equation 1

SI Units:

Oilfield:

For the most common case of removing 140 micron droplets Equation (1) becomes:

Equation 2

SI Units:

Oilfield:

Vertical Liquid Capacity

The following may be derived to provide a specified retention time for liquid
capacity sizing:
Equation 3

SI Units:

Oilfield:

Vertical Seam-to-Seam Length

The seam-to-seam length of vertical vessels may be estimated based on the

diameter and liquid height. As shown in Figure 1 (Approximating the seam-to-seam
length from liquid-levelheight.)(15.psd) , allowance must be made for the gas-
separation section, mist extractor and space below the liquid outlet.

Figure 1

As with horizontal separators, the specific design of the internals will affect the
seam-to-seam length. The following may be used to estimate Lss:

Equation 4

SI Units:
 Oilfield:

Equation 5

SI Units:

Oilfield:

The larger of the Lss values from Equations (4) and (5) should be used.

As with horizontal separators, the larger the slenderness ratio, the less expensive
the vessel. In vertical separators whose sizing is liquid dominated, it is common to
chose slenderness ratios no greater than 4 to keep the height of the liquid
collection section to a reasonable level. Choices of between 3 and 4 are common,
although height restrictions may force the choice of a lower slenderness ratio.

Procedure For Sizing Vertical Separators

1. The first step in sizing a vertical separator is to establish the design basis. This
includes specifying the flow rates, operating conditions, droplet size to be removed,
etc.

2. The value of CD must be determined using appropriate equations described in

chapter on Horizontal Separator Design.

3. Equation (1) may be used to determine the minimum required d. Any value
larger than this result may be used for the vessel diameter.

4. For a selected d, Equation (3) may be used to determine h.

5. From d and h, the seam-to-seam length may be estimated using Equations (4)
and (5). The larger value of Lss should be used.

6. The slenderness ratio should be checked.

7. Use should be made of standard sizes when choosing a final d o and Lss. For most
cases, vessels with outside diameters up through 24 in. (600 mm) have nominal
pipe dimensions. Larger outside diameters are rolled from plate with increments of
6 in. (150 mm) from 24 in. Typically the shell length, or seam-to-seam length, is
expanded in 2.5 ft (250 mm) segements and is usually from 5 ft to 10 ft (250 mm
to 1250 mm). Standard separator vessel sizes may be obtained from API
Specification 12J.

Vessel Weight Estimating

The weight of a vessel may be estimated from the vessel diameter, seam-to-seam
length, and design pressure. Note the vessel design pressure (sometimes
designated MAWP for maximum allowable working pressure) must be greater than
the vessel operating pressure which was used to size the vessel. Typically, design
pressures are a minimum of ten percent greater than operating pressures. Higher
percentages should be considered if a high pressure shutdown sensor is to be
installed and set between the normal operating pressure and the relief valve set
pressure. The primary relief valve must be set at the MAWP.

To estimate a vessel weight, it is necessary to determine the vessel wall thickness.

The wall thickness required for a cylindrical pressure vessel may be calculated using
the following from the ASME Code. This information is presented only for estimating
purposes and is not intended for use in performing detailed pressure vessel
mechanical design.

Equation 6

Standard plate sizes are in inches to the nearest 1/8 in. Standard metric sizes are
the metric conversions of the standard sizes in inches. The thickness calculated in
Equation (6) should be rounded up to the next larger standard size (next 1/8 in for
customary units). For carbon steel vessels, the most common material used is SA-
516-70 which has an allowable stress of 120 MPa (17,500 psi). Commonly, the joint
efficiency is one (1), and the corrosion allowance is 3 mm (1/8 in).

The thickness of 2-to-1 elliptical heads may be assumed to equal the shell thickness
for purposes of weight estimating. The geometry of the heads is not easily
evaluated, but a simple approximation may be made. The weight of the heads is
approximately equal to the weight of a cylinder with a length equal to the head
height plus the weight of a flat end-plate. This approximation consistently predicts
weights for heads, which are higher than the actual head weight. Applying this
assumption and using 7848 kg/m3 (490 lb/ft3) for carbon steel, the following
equation may be developed:

Equation 7

SI Units:

Oilfield:
Bare vessel weights calculated using Equation (7) should be used only as
preliminary estimates. The estimate makes no corrections for the number of
nozzles or amount of internals. The method used for head-weight estimating yields
high results and generally covers the nozzle and internal weights. For thin-wall
vessels, with wall thicknesses less than 1 cm (3/8 in), this method generally
underestimates weight by as much as 25 percent. On the other hand, for vessels
with wall thicknesses over 5 cm (2 in), this method may overestimate by as much
as 25 percent. The actual vessel weight is dependent on the specifics of the design,
and therefore weight estimates should be re-evaluated using fabrication drawings
when available.

Gas Physical Properties

To properly size a two phase separator, certain gas properties are required. The
relationship for droplet settling requires the gas viscosity and the gas
compressibility. These physical properties may be obtained from several sources, or
they may be estimated based on the gas specific gravity.

The compressibility of a hydrocarbon gas may be estimated from the gas-reduced

pressure and temperature. Reduced pressure and temperature are functions of the
gas pseudocritical constants and the pressure and temperature.

Equation 8

Equation 9

The gas pseudocritical constants are a function of composition and may be

estimated based on the gas gravity.

Equation 10

SI Units:
 Oilfield:

Equation 11

SI Units:

Oilfield:

The above equations were developed by Brown for sweet hydrocarbon gases. If the
gas in question contains sour or acid gas components, the Wichert-Aziz Correction
should be used to improve the accuracy of Pc and Tc.

Equation 12

Equation 13

Equation 14

SI Units:

Oilfield:

The corrected pseudocritical pressure and temperature should be used in Equations

(8) and (9) when CO2 or H2S are present.

From the reduced pressure and temperature, the gas compressibility may be
determined using a method developed by Dranchuk, Purvis and Robinson. This
method uses an iterative process to determine the gas reduced density. From the
density, the compressibility can then be calculated.

Equation 15

Equation 16
Equation 17

Equation 18

Equation (16) should be iterated until ρ r+1 equals ρ r, then Equation (15) may be
solved for Z. This procedure is valid for reduced temperatures between 1.05 and
3.0 and reduced pressures between 0 and 30.

Gas viscosities may be determined using the method of Lee, Gonzalez, and Eakin.
This method is based on the gas density, and, thus, on the gas compressibility
factor.

Equation 19

Equation 20

SI Units:

Oilfield:

Equation 21

SI Units:

Oilfield:

Equation 22
NOTE: The next two sections contain examples on horizontal separator design. The
first example is performed in SI (metric) units and the second example is in Oilfield
(customary) units.
VERTICAL SEPARATOR DESIGN EXAMPLE (SI UNITS)

Example Problem.
Establish the design parameters for a vertical separator given the following
requirements:

Gas 12000 std m3/hr at 0.6 SG

Oil 320 m3/day at 40°API

Pressure 7000 kPa

Temperature 15°C

Droplet size 140 micron removal

Retention time 3 min

Calculate CD.

Assume CD = 0.34

Determine Vt:
Determine Reynolds Number:

Determine CD.

Repeat using CD = 0.711

Repeat

Repeat

Determine minimum internal diameter.

For each d, calculate h.

Try do = 762 mm

Calculate height of the liquid volume.

Calculate wall thickness:

Round up to next mm

Determine h:

Using d = 694 mm

See Table 1 for additional results.

Estimate Lss.

Using Equation:

Use Lss = 3.67 m

See Table 1 for additional results .

Calculate the slenderness results.

Table 1 : Additional Results

762 692 1744 3.7 4.9

914 830 1190 3.1 3.4

1067 971 870 2.8 2.6

1219 1111 670 2.6 2.1

1372 1250 530 2.5 1.8

Make final selection.

Select 1067 mm outside diameter (OD) x 2.8 m seam-to-seam
(S/S).
VERTICAL SEPARATOR DESIGN EXAMPLE (OILFIELD UNITS)

Example Problem.
Establish the design parameters for a vertical separator given the following
requirements:

Gas 10 MMSCFD at 0.6 SG

Oil 2000 BPD at 40°API

Pressure 1000 psia

Temperature 60°F

Droplet size 140 micron removal

Retention time 3 min

Calculate CD.

Assume CD = 0.34

Determine Vt:
Determine Reynolds Number, Re:

Determine CD:

Repeat using CD = 0.711

Repeat

Repeat

Repeat

Determine minimum internal diameter.

Calculate height of the liquid volume.
Try do = 24

Determine shell thickness, t:

Round up to next 1/8 of an inch

No, 21.75 is less than 21.8

Try do = 30

Similarly, d = 27.25 OK

Determine the height of the liquid volume, h:

Using d = 27.25

See Table 1 for additional results.

Estimate Lss.

Using Equation

Use Lss = 11.9 ft

See Table 1 for additional results.

Calculate the slenderness results.

Table 1 : Additional Results

12

30 27.25 67.3 11.9 4.8

36 32.75 46.6 10.2 3.4

42 38.25 34.2 9.2 2.6

48 43.75 26.1 8.5 2.1

54 49.25 20.6 8.0 1.8

Make final selection.

Select 42" outside diameter (OD) x 10' seam-to-seam (S/S).
 NOMENCLATURE

A = cross-sectional area of the droplet, m2 (ft 2)

Ag = cross-sectional area of vessel available for gas settling, m 2 (ft2)

Al = cross-sectional area of vessel available for liquid retention, m 2 (ft2)

AT = total cross-sectional area of vessel, m2 (ft2)

API = API gravity of oil, °API

CA = corrosion allowance, mm (in)

CD = drag coefficient

D = drop diameter, m (ft)

D = vessel internal diameter, m (ft)

Dh = hydraulic diameter, m (ft)

d = vessel internal diameter, mm (in)

Dm = droplet diameter, µm (micron)

dmin = min. allowable vessel internal diameter to avoid re-entrainment, mm (in)

do = vessel external diameter, mm (in)

E = joint efficiency

FB = buoyant force, N (lb)

FD = drag force, N (lb)

g = gravitational constant, 9.815 kg m/Ns 2 (32.2 lbmft/lbfs2)

H = height of liquid volume, m (ft)

h = height of liquid volume, mm (in)

Hl = height of liquid in horizontal vessel, m (ft)

hl = height of liquid in horizontal vessel, mm (in)

Leff = effective length of the vessel, m (ft)

Lss = vessel length seam-to-seam, m (ft)

N μ = viscosity number, dimensionless

P = operating pressure, kPa (psia)

Pb = pressure base, 100 kPa (14.7 psia)

Pc = gas pseudocritical pressure, kPa (psia)

Pcc = corrected pseudocritical pressure, kPa (psia)

Pd = design pressure, kPa (psig)

Pr = gas reduced pressure, dimensionless

Q = flow rate, m3/s (ft3/s)

Qg = gas flow rate, std m3/hr (MMSCFD)

Ql = liquid flow rate, m3/hr (BPD)

r = vessel external radius, mm (in)

Re = Reynold's number, dimensionless

S = allowable stress, kPa (psi)

T = operating temperature, K (°R)

t = shell thickness, mm (in)

Tb = temperature base, 288.15 K (520 °R)

Tc = gas pseudocritical temperature, K (°R)

Tcc = corrected pseudocritical temperature, K (°R)

td = droplet settling time, s

tg = gas retention time, s

Tr = gas reduced temperature, dimensionless

tr = liquid retention time, min

Vg = gas velocity, m/s (ft/s)

Vl = average liquid velocity, m/s (ft/s)

Vt = terminal-settling velocity of the droplet, m/s (ft/s)

W = vessel weight, kg (lb)

yCO2 = gas mole fraction CO2

yH2S = gas mole fraction H2S

Z = gas compressibility factor, dimensionless

α = fractional cross-sectional area of liquid, dimensionless

β = fractional height of liquid within the vessel = h l /d

ΔSG = difference in specific gravity relative to water of the drop and the gas

Δρ = density difference, liquid and gas kg/m3 (lbm/ft3

ΔT = Wichert-Aziz correction, K (°R)

θ = angle used in determining α, radians (degrees)

μ = gas viscosity, Pa s (cp)

μ l = dynamic viscosity of the liquid, kg/m-s (lbm/ft-s)

μ' = gas viscosity, Pa s (lb-s/ft2)

ρ = density of the continuous phase, kg/m3 (lb/ft 3)

ρ g = density of the gas at the temperature and pressure in the separator, kg/m 3 (lb/ft3)

ρ l = density of liquid, kg/m3 (lb/ft 3)

ρ m = gas density, g/cm3

ρ r = reduced density

ρ r+1 = value of reduced density for iteration "r+1"

σ = surface tension kg/s2 (lbm/s2)

REFERENCES
PRODUCTION FACILITIES DESIGN

Two Phase Separators

API Spec 12J, Oil and Gas Separators, Seventh Edition, October 1, 1989,
Reaffirmed, September 1999 (ANSI/API Spec 12J-1992)

Arnold and Stewart, (Surface Production Operations, Volume 1 : (Design of Oil-

Handling Systems and Facilities, Gulf Publishing Company, 1986. Volume 1: second
edition, April 1999.

Arnold and Stewart, (Surface Production Operations, Volume 2 : Design of Gas-

Handling Systems and Facilities, Gulf Publishing Company, 1989. Volume 2: second
edition, October 1999

Baker and Swerdloff, "Finding Surface Tension of Hydrocarbon Liquids," Oil and Gas
Journal, January 2, 1956, p. 125.

Engineering Data Book, Gas Processors Suppliers Association, Eleventh Edition. Gas
Processors Association, 1998, Tulsa, Oklahoma.

Ishii and Grolmes, "Inception Criteria for Droplet Entrainment in Two Phase
Concurrent Film Flow," AIChE Journal, 21, no. 2, pages 308-318, (1975)

API Spec 12J, 5 th ed. (1982). Specification for Oil and Gas Separators.
American Petroleum Institute. Washington.

Worley, M.S., Laurence, L.L. (1957), "Oil and Gas Separation IS a Science", J.
Pet. Tech. (April 1957), p. 11.

Wu. F.H.: "Drum Separator Design" (1984) Chemical Engineering (April 2,

1984), p.74.

Gerunda, A.(1981): "How to Size Liquid-Vapor Separators", Chemical Engineering

(May 4, 1981), p. 81.

Sigales, B. (1975): "How to Design Reflux Drums", Chemical Engineering (March

3, 1975), p.157.

Sigales, B.(1975): "How to Design Settling Drums", Chemical Engineering (June

23, 1975), p.141.

Sigales, B.(1975): "More on Design of Reflux Drums", Chemical Engineering

(September 29, 1975), p. 87.

Barker, W.F. (1982): "Evaluating Separator Performance for Hydrocarbon

Streams", Oil and Gas Journal, (December 27, 1982), p. 186.

Arnold, K., and Ferguson P.(1999): "Designing Tomorrow's Compact Separation

Train", SPE Paper 56644 1999 Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition.