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Abstract—This paper presents a novel primary control strategy Cfi LC filter capacitance of converter in MGi
based on output regulation theory for voltage and frequency reg- D Generator damping coefficient
ulations in microgrid systems with fast-response battery energy
Efi Excitation voltage of generator in MGi
storage systems (BESS). The proposed control strategy can
accurately track voltage and frequency set points while miti- Edqi Transient EMF of generator in MGi
gating system transients in the presence of disturbance events. idqLDi Load current of microgrid MGi
Therefore, it overcomes the key weaknesses of droop-based con- idqLDk Load current at network bus k
trol methods such as large steady-state voltage and frequency
deviations and poor transient performance. Throughout this idqLNl Current of network line l
paper, four control schemes are derived with tradeoffs between idqXFi Current of transformer for MGi
communication requirement and system dynamic performance. ildqCNVi Output current of pulse-width modulation
Their effectiveness is validated through MATLAB Simulink
in MGi
simulation studies involving a medium-voltage microgrid with
both synchronous generation resources and BESS. Although the i∗ldqCNVi Output current set points of pulse-width mod-
proposed control schemes are centralized, practical implementa- ulation in MGi
tion is possible with available communication links in microgrids iodqCNVi Output current of converter in MGi
and embedded hardware technologies. kd Droop constant of generator turbine governor
Index Terms—Microgrids, voltage and frequency regulation, Kpc , Kic PI parameters of converter current controller
output regulation theory, droop control, battery energy storage KP , KI PI parameters of generator excitation system
systems, power electronic converters.
Kp , Ki PI parameters of converter phase lock loop
Lci Inductance of converter coupling inductor
in MGi
N OMENCLATURE
Lfi LC filter inductance of converter in MGi
δDGi Synchronous generator internal voltage angle M Generator moment of inertia
of microgrid MGi (radian) MGi The ith microgrid, i=1, 2 and 3
δCNVi Phase angle of converter in MGi (radian) Pei Electrical power output of generator in MGi
γdqi Integration of the current difference at the Pmi Prime mover mechanical power of generator
current controller in MGi
λi Actual eigenvalues of the closed loop system Prefi Active power set point of generator in MGi
in control scheme II rdi Ground resistance of converter in MGi
λ∗i Desired eigenvalues of the closed loop system RLDi , LLDi Resistance and inductance of the load in MGi
in control scheme II RLDk , LLDk Resistance and inductance of the RL load at
ωcom Rotor speed of common reference frame network bus k
(radian/s) RLNl , LLNl Resistance and inductance of the network line l
ωDGi Synchronous generator rotor speed of MGi RXFi , LXFi Resistance and inductance of transformer
(radian/s) for MGi
i Integration of the q-axis voltage of the phase T dq0 Generator transient time constant(s)
lock loop
TR , Ts Time constants of the excitation system(s)
τt , τg Time constants of generator turbine
VAi , VBi Excitation system states of generator in MGi
governor(s)
vcdqCNVi LC filter voltage of converter in MGi
Manuscript received October 17, 2016; revised March 7, 2017 and vdqn Voltage of bus i in reference frame of the
June 14, 2017; accepted July 26, 2017. Date of publication August 18, 2017;
date of current version December 19, 2018. Paper no. TSG-01428-2016.
system
(Corresponding author: Mingguo Hong.) vdqPCCi PCC voltage in reference frame of the system
The authors are with the Department of Electrical Engineering and vidqCNVi Actual voltage of the pulse-width modulation
Computer Science, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106
USA (e-mail: mxh543@case.edu). v∗idqCNVi Demand voltage of the pulse-width modulation
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available Vrefi Terminal voltage set point of generator in MGi
online at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TSG.2017.2741668 X dqi Transient reactance of generator in MGi
1949-3053 c 2017 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
ZHAO et al.: VOLTAGE AND FREQUENCY REGULATION OF MICROGRID WITH BESSs 415
p.u. Per unit power boost droop control [9], power angle droop control [11],
PCC Point of common coupling and hybrid voltage-frequency and active-reactive power droop
PWM pulse-width modulation. control [12]. It is noted that some proposed primary con-
trol strategies use battery energy storage systems (BESS) for
frequency and voltage regulations [13]–[16]. Most of these
I. I NTRODUCTION control strategies embed the droop principle while exploiting
ICROGRIDS as small-scale power systems capable the fast response capability of BESS to stabilize microgrid
M of operating in both the grid-connected and islanded
modes, can provide important operational benefits with
operation.
Nonetheless, there have been two fundamental performance
enhanced energy security and grid resiliency [1], [2]. They issues with droop-based control methods: 1) large steady-
will play an important role in the development of the next state frequency and voltage deviations, and 2) poor tran-
generation electric power grid [3]. Some important challenges sient performance and potential system instability [5], [17].
exist for microgrid operation, however, especially in the area While the voltage and frequency deviations are often cor-
of power quality management when microgrids are operating rected through making set point adjustments by the secondary
in the islanded mode. The challenges are primarily associ- controls [18]–[20], the microgrid dynamic stability issues
ated with the relative low system inertia to absorb network are mitigated through modified droop gains to create vir-
disturbances, high resistance to reactance ratios (R/X) of dis- tual inertia [21], adaptive transient droop functions [22] or
tribution lines, and the coupling between active and reactive coordination of the hierarchical controls across multiple time
power of voltage dependent loads in distribution systems. scales [23]. Although these methods provide some remedial
Consequently, significant challenges arise in maintaining volt- solutions, the fundamental performance issues of droop-based
age and frequency stability and regulation during network control methods remain to be tackled.
events. In fact, microgrid voltage and frequency deviations This work presents a primary control strategy based on
after the loss of generation or load can go far outside the the output regulation theory [24] by taking advantage of the
prescribed security margins [4]. fast-response capabilities of BESS with coupling power elec-
These control challenges are well known to the power and tronic converters and the high-bandwidth communication links
energy research community. In general, microgrid voltage and available within microgrids. The proposed primary control
frequency regulations are performed along with power gener- strategy can accurately track voltage and frequency set points
ation dispatch in a 3-tier hierarchical control structure [5], [6]. while mitigating microgrid system transients, and hence over-
In this control structure, the tertiary controls schedule genera- comes the key shortcomings of droop-based control methods.
tion set points on long-term time horizons to ensure resource With the help of the output regulation theory, four individ-
availability; the secondary controls compute and implement ual control schemes are developed with various requirements
generation set points for the short-term time horizon to ensure on sensing and communication. Each of the four control
imminent power balance, and frequency and voltage regula- schemes has been validated through simulation case stud-
tions; and the primary controls are implemented at the local ies involving a medium voltage (MV) microgrid system with
device level to ensure real-time frequency and voltage stability both synchronous resources and BESS. Although the proposed
upon disturbance. Among the 3-tier hierarchical controls, pri- control strategy is centralized, the communication require-
mary controls are considered to be the most challenging [6]. ments can be largely reduced in some of the derived control
So far, most common primary control schemes proposed have schemes (control schemes II, III and IV) with moderate com-
been based on the droop principle where generation active promises on the system dynamic performance. With advances
and reactive power outputs are adjusted in proportion to the of hardware technology in both embedded control systems and
local frequency and voltage deviations. The main benefit of high-bandwidth communication, practical implementations of
droop-based control methods is that they are decentralized and the proposed control schemes can be pursued.
can enable power sharing among generators without requiring Among its main contributions, this work has developed a
site-to-site communication. dynamic model for MV microgrid systems to facilitate control
Traditionally, the conventional droop control method system studies, with integrated distribution system network,
(P-f/Q-V) separately adjusts active and reactive powers based facility-scale microgrids, conventional generation resources
on frequency and voltage deviations, and has been successfully and the BESS. This effort is important in light of the urgent
applied in the operation of bulk power systems where the trans- need to address issues of dynamic interactions among dis-
mission lines are mostly inductive [7]. The conventional droop tributed energy generation and the mitigation. Furthermore,
control method, however, encounters significant difficulty in this work has identified a primary control strategy that both
microgrid applications where active power sharing and reac- tracks microgrid steady-state operating set points and miti-
tive power sharing are coupled in the resistive system networks gates dynamic transients following disturbances. Considering
with voltage dependent loads. To overcome the difficulty, the the special requirements for system model and real-time com-
conventional droop method has been modified with virtual munication, a potential area of practical application is the
frame transformation [8], virtual output impedance [9] and vir- special protection system in a microgrid against the loss of
tual droop curve [10] that consider system network model and a major generation resource or load.
operational parameters. The other proposed droop-based meth- The remainder of the paper is organized as follow: Section II
ods include the voltage-active power and frequency-reactive discusses the development of the microgrid dynamic model;
416 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SMART GRID, VOL. 10, NO. 1, JANUARY 2019
use the so-called output regulation theory to develop control such that the error signal e asymptotically decays to zero
schemes that achieve asymptotic regulation of the voltage and while maintaining asymptotic stability of the closed-loop
frequency of the microgrid system, based on the linearized system (11). More specifically, the output regulation problem
system (10). is to find, if possible, the matrices K and G and thus the
controller (13), such that
III. C ONTROLLER D ESIGN FOR VOLTAGE S1) When w = 0, the closed-loop system ẋ = (Asys +
AND F REQUENCY R EGULATION Bsys K)x is asymptotically stable, i.e., the matrix Asys + Bsys K
Modern regulator theory is an effective approach for regu- has all eigenvalues on the open left-half plane;
lating the voltage and frequency of the linearized system (10) S2) In the presence of w, the solution (x(t), w(t)) of the
closed-loop system:
to reference set points. In what follows, we first review output
regulation theory for linear dynamic systems [24], [32]. ẋ = (Asys + Bsys K)x + (P + Bsys G)w
(14)
ẇ = Sw
A. The Output Regulation Problem has the property that
The output regulation problem has been investigated for lim e(t) = lim (Cx(t) + Qw(t)) = 0 (15)
linear systems of the form: t→∞ t→∞
⎧ for any initial condition (x0 , w0 ).
⎨ ẋ = Asys x + Bsys u + Pw It has been shown in [24] that the output regulation problem
ẇ = Sw (11) is solvable under two conditions: (C1) all eigenvalues of the
⎩
e = Cx + Qw matrix S are on the closed right-half plane; (C2) the pair (A, B)
where the state vector x, control vector u and matrices Asys and is stabilizable.
Bsys are defined in eq. (10). The input vector w consists of the Under these conditions, a necessary and sufficient condi-
disturbance signals to be rejected and the reference trajecto- tion for the solvability of the output regulation problem is as
ries to be tracked, and both are generated by the exosystem follows.
ẇ = Sw. Proposition 1: Suppose C1 and C2 hold. The problem of
In this study, the disturbance represents an abrupt change output regulation can be solved by the full-information feed-
in generation or demand at some bus k, and is modeled as a back controller (13), if and only if there exist matrices
and
step change in the bus current injection, i.e., Idk and Iqk . satisfying the linear matrix equations:
at the desirable locations. For improved system dynamic elements of matrix Kp . The GA-based optimization problem
performance, the poles should be assigned carefully. A general is briefly described as follows.
rule of thumb is to place a pair of conjugate poles nearby the Fitness function:
imaginary axis, while setting the rest poles far away from the
minimize λ i − λ ∗ 2
imaginary axis. i
Step iii): Solve equation (16) to find the matrices
and i
. When there are multiple solutions, one can select the most That is, the fittest candidate matrix Kp will minimize
suitable solution by taking into account the control signal con- the sum of squares of the distances between eigenvalues of
straints and the transient performance. In other words, the Asys + Bsys Kp and the desirable eigenvalues. There are two
control signals of (17) should respect the normal operation constraints:
ranges of the synchronous generator terminal voltage and con- a) All the eigenvalues of Asys + Bsys Kp are on the open
verter output current. Furthermore, the suitable matrices
and left-half plane;
should be chosen to achieve the desirable overshoot and set- b) Controller u is within the normal operating range.
tling time requirements for the regulated signals Vb and ωDG1 . The GA-based optimization procedure involves selection of
In general, it is a challenging task to establish numerical guid- initial solution candidate population, fitness evaluation of can-
ances on choosing matrices
and . In our study, we tried a didate solutions, and iterative update of candidate solutions
number of matrices before finding the suitable ones that lead through genetic crossover and mutation until convergence.
to desirable performance outcome. Implementation of the algorithm procedure is supported by
Step iv): Design the controller according to equation (17). many available solver tools such as the Matlab Optimization
Control Scheme I can achieve disturbance rejection and Toolbox.
reference tracking simultaneously, while mitigating system
transients. The practical application is, however, limited for
D. Control Scheme III—Without State Measurements
the reason that not all the state measurements are available
in real-time. In the next subsections, three practically feasi- It is noted that system (10) is already asymptotically stable
ble approaches are proposed to reduce the requirement of full without state feedback. If the gain matrix Kp is set to zero,
state information for the control design. then no state measurement information will be required. The
controller design now reduces to:
C. Control Scheme II—Using a Subset of u = w (19)
State Measurements
A partial state feedback controller that requires only measur- Using only information on the disturbance and tracking ref-
able signals is more desirable from a practical implementation erences, the controller design according to eq. (19) is the most
standpoint. In this control design, one follows the same steps economical. In this control design, the system is stable since
as the controller design of control scheme I except that the pole all eigenvalues of matrix Asys are on the open left half plane; a
assignment in Step ii) cannot be performed due to the restric- proper selection of the matrix can help reduce the overshoot
tions on the matrix K imposed by requirement 2) below. In of system transients.
the new control scheme, choose the gain matrix K = Kp to
fulfill the following requirements: E. Control Scheme IV—Using Measurement Feedback
1) All of the eigenvalues of matrix Asys + Bsys Kp are on the To further improve the transient performance and the accu-
open left-half plane; racy of the regulation of the voltage and frequency of the
2) The columns corresponding to the unmeasurable states in linearized system (10), one can apply the so-called error feed-
matrix Kp are set to zero. In this study, only 12 of the total 73 back control strategy [24]. This strategy can be summarized
states are required to be measurable. These measurable states as follows: 1) use only the measurable signals to estimate
correspond to the dq components of the current injections from the unmeasurable components of the state x in (10) and
the microgrid loads and converters. As a result, matrix Kp w = [Idk Iqk ω∗ Vb∗ ]T by developing a linear observer,
contains 12 nonzero columns. and then 2) implement the controller (17) by its estimated
The matrix Kp can be selected to help further improve the signals (x̂, ŵ) instead of the unmeasurable signals (x, w). The
system dynamic performance, even though all eigenvalues of price one has to pay is the complexity of the error feedback
matrix Asys are already on the open-left half plane. Once a controller due to the introduction of an observer. A realizable
suitable matrix Kp is found, a controller that requires only the dynamic controller is given by
measurable states is given by:
ξ̇ = Fξ + Ge
u = Kp x + − Kp
w (20)
(18) u = Hξ
where the matrices
and are selected following step iii) where the matrices F, G, H are determined by the following
of control scheme I. algorithm:
For further improvement of the controller performance, Step i): Verify that the pair (Asys , Bsys ) is stabilizable and
an evolutionary optimization algorithm such as the Genetic A P
the pair ( sys , [C Q]) is detectable.
Algorithm (GA) [28] is well suited for selecting the non-zero 0 S
420 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SMART GRID, VOL. 10, NO. 1, JANUARY 2019
B. System Stability Under Small Disturbances and will be similarly calculated for control schemes II,
Before the control strategies are implemented, the eigen- III and IV.) Finally, the full state feedback control law is
values of the matrix Asys of (11) are first calculated. The computed using eq. (17). After the controller is implemented,
eigenvalues determine the stability of the system at an oper- voltage and frequency are regulated to the reference set points
ation equilibrium under small system disturbances. As shown of ω∗ = 60 HZ, Vb∗ = 0.97 p.u. by t = 15s, as shown in
in Fig. 5, all eigenvalues are on the open left half plane. Fig. 7-a. In the meantime, voltage and frequency deviations
Therefore, the microgrid system is asymptotically stable under from the set points are mitigated to under 1% p.u. during the
small disturbances. A further parametric analysis shows that event.
ZHAO et al.: VOLTAGE AND FREQUENCY REGULATION OF MICROGRID WITH BESSs 421
Fig. 7. System responses of (a) control scheme I (b) control scheme II Fig. 8. Synchronous generator control signals of (a) control scheme I
(c) control scheme III (d) control scheme IV. (b) control scheme II (c) control scheme III (d) control scheme IV.
TABLE I TABLE II
S YNCHRONOUS G ENERATOR PARAMETERS C ONVERTER PARAMETERS
TABLE III
M ICROGRID L OAD PARAMETERS
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energy storage systems for frequency support in microgrids and with was a Power Systems Engineer with ALSTOM
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response in microgrids using virtual inertia,” IEEE Trans. Power Del., University, Cleveland, OH, USA. His research interests include nonlinear
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droop controller to preserve power sharing stability of paralleled invert- refereed journals and conferences in the above areas.
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ON AUTOMATIC C ONTROL , and the Journal of Control Theory and
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vol. 22. Basel, Switzerland: Birkhäuser, 2012. Ph.D. degree in systems and control engineering
[25] Q. Lu, Y. Sun, and S. Mei, Nonlinear Control Systems and Power System from Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland,
Dynamics, vol. 10. New York, NY, USA: Springer, 2013. OH, USA, in 1977. He is the Nord Professor of
[26] A. Yazdani and R. Iravani, Voltage-Sourced Converters in Power engineering, and the Chair with the Department of
Systems: Modeling, Control, and Applications. Hoboken, NJ, USA: Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Case
Wiley, 2010. Western Reserve University. His current research
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testing of autonomous operation of an inverter-based microgrid,” IEEE ear systems with applications to large-scale electric
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NJ, USA: Wiley, 2004. figurable control.
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Syst., vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 975–985, Aug. 1991. held numerous positions in the IEEE Control System Society.