Welding Processes, Welding Faults, Defects & Discontinuities For Non-Destructive Testing Technicians

Part 3
The purpose of this series is to outline to NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING TECHNICIANS the basics of the
common welding processes. It is important that NDT technicians involved in the inspection of welds have a
basic understanding of the popular welding processes. Welding is an extremely interesting and varied process,
and there are a variety of different welding processes in use today. Some of the more popular welding processes
in use in industry are SMAW (stick), GMAW (MIG), FCAW, (FLUX CORED)), GTAW (TIG) SAW (SUB
ARC). Fabricators may choose from a variety of metal alloys and a range of filler metals and shielding gases.

SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING - BASICS

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

Shielded Metal Arc Welding is a welding process where the heat for welding is generated by an electric arc
between a flux covered metal electrode and the work. The filler metal is deposited from the core wire and the
electrode covering (flux) that also provides the arc shielding along with other essentials. Other names for this
process include the European term "Manual Metal Arc Welding" (MMAW), “stick welding” or “stick electrode
welding”.

The shielded metal arc welding process is a simple and versatile arc welding process. This process is used
predominantly to weld ferrous metals above 2mm thick in all the welding positions. The welding arc is visible
and under the control of the welder. The electrode is clamped in an electrode holder and the welder manipulates
the tip of the electrode in relation to the material being welded. The arc is struck, maintained and stopped
manually by the welder.

Welding Positions
The welding position is the orientation of the electrode with respect to the work piece to deposit the molten
material, these positions are down hand (flat), horizontal, vertical (up or down), and overhead.

Equipment
The equipment for the shielded metal arc welding process consists of a power source, welding leads, electrode
holder, and work clamp or attachment. A diagram of the equipment is shown below.
Applications
SMAW is widely mostly used for medium to heavy fabrication, and for maintenance and repair (including
surfacing). It is particularly suited to onsite/field work such as buildings and bridges, and for pipelines for gas,
oil or water. Materials that can Welded with SMAW include:
• Carbon and low alloy steels, cast irons (ductile and gray), copper and its alloys, aluminium and aluminium
alloys, stainless steels, nickel and its alloys.

Thickness range: all thicknesses over 2mm.

Power Source
• Constant current (CC) static characteristic.
• Either AC or DC depends on type of electrode, joint type and position, power source. In DC the electrode can
be positive (+ve) or negative (-ve).
• Choice of electrode polarity can be used to advantage. Electrode negative (DCEN or "straight polarity")
generally produces a higher deposition rate. Electrode positive (DCEP or "reverse polarity") is generally used
where deep penetration is needed. The polarity to be used is often governed by the type of electrode.
• Open circuit voltage (OCV) of 50 or 70 volts to reliably establish the AC arc.
• Arc voltage range of 16 to 40 volts (also strongly dependant on the arc length).
• Welding current will be set in the range 30 to 550 amps.

Types of Electrodes for Welding Steel

Most electrodes fall into 1 of 3 general types; cellulosic, rutile or basic. There are coatings that do not fall into
these categories including non-ferrous and stainless steel types

Electrode Classification
The codes and standards commonly encountered in Canada, USA and internationally include:
ANSI/AWS A5.1/A5.1M:2004, Specification for Carbon Steel Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding
ISO 2560:2009, Welding consumables – Covered electrodes for manual metal arc welding of non-ally and fine
grained steels.

The electrode classification system for mild steel and low alloy steel covered electrodes consists of the letter “E”
and four or five digits. Sometimes a suffix is added to the classification following the digits for additional
information. The letter “E” indicates an electrode. The first two or three digits indicate the minimum tensile
strength. The third and fourth digits indicate the positions the electrode can be used, the type of current and the
coating type*. Sizes available for example are: 2.5, 3.2, 4.0, 4.8, 5.0, 6.0 mm.

*Sample Electrode Classification in SI units: E4818 – 4H5R

*Sample Electrode Classification in Imperial units e.g. USA: E7018 – 1H4 R

Advantages of SMAW
• SMAW is a widely accepted, versatile and well developed welding process.
• High quality welds are readily achieved on all steels in both the workshop and on site.
• The equipment is relatively simple, inexpensive and portable.
• The shielding gas provided by the burning flux is less sensitive to wind and drafts when compared to a process
with an external shielding gas.

Limitations of SMAW
• Deposition rate is generally lower than GMAW, FCAW or SAW.
• A layer of solidified slag that needs to be removed covers the deposited weld.
• A high welder skill level is required for high quality welds.

Discontinuities and Defects Common to SMAW

The AWS refers to discontinuities and defects of various types and sizes. Below some given acceptable level
these are not considered harmful, however above that level they are considered defects. The following weld
problems may occur; these are a collection of the more common types of flaws: Overlap, Slag inclusions, Weld
spatter, Incomplete penetration, Incompletely filled groove, Excess penetration, Undercut, Craters, Crater pipes,
Uneven profile, Uneven root penetration, Unequal leg lengths, Burn through, Wormholes, Arc strikes

Lack of fusion may occur in the following forms: Lack of inter-run fusion, Lack of sidewall fusion, Lack of root
fusion.

Porosity may occur as: Isolated, Group, Linear, Uniform or Stop-start.

Cracking that may occur is Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) in low alloy and alloy materials. Other types of cracking
can also occur.