CHAPTER NO.

5 MISCELLANEOUS MEASUREMENT

Introduction:

Sound is a vibration that propagates as a typically audible mechanical wave of

pressure and displacement, through a medium such as air or water. Sound is needed
to be measure. It can be measured through sound level meter. The basic steps in
reading hazardous noise levels, including sources of error, methods of reporting the
readings and knowing where expert assistance is available form the basis for
monitoring hazardous noise levels.

Electro dynamic microphone:

Electro dynamic microphones use the electromagnetic transduction principle. A

dynamic microphone is shown in the fig.
below. An A.C. voltage is generated when
a coil is moved in a magnetic field. A
membrane is mechanically linked to a
moving coil surrounded by a permanent
magnet. The membrane and the coil are
suspended so that they can move back and
forth. The sound pressure waves force the
membrane towards the magnet, moving
the coil across the magnetic field. The
voltage developed across the coil terminals is a direct result of the motion of the coil,
which clearly depends upon the the force of pressure waves. They are self-generating
and have low sensitivity, typically -80 db and a low output impedance. Their
frequency response is limited to about 20 kHz. These are used in field applications
but are seldom used in precision measurements.

Advantages:-

1. They are self-generating type

2. They have high sensitivity and fairly wide dynamic range.

Disadvantages:-

1. They have poor linearity

2. Low sensitivity

NOTES COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 1

Application:- These are used in field applications but are seldom used in precision
measurements.

Carbon Microphone:

In this type of microphone the moving diaphragm is mounted so as to

compress together grains of carbon, thus changing the resistance in a circuit. The
device is externally powered from a constant-voltage source and the resulting
current is thus a function of the
sound pressure. The most
common application of these is
in telephones. Their frequency
range is limited to a maximum
of about 5 kHz. The output
impedance is low, and the
sensitivity is high, about -40 db.
These find little application in
the field of sound
measurements.

Advantages:-

1. They are inexpensive

2. They are rugged in construction
3. It is simple

Disadvantages:-

1. External power required

2. Very poor linear characteristics
3. They are not used for accurate sound measurement

Application:- They are generally used in telephone transmission circuits

NOTES COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 2

Humidity Measurement:

Humidity is the amount of water vapour present in air. Humidity is

important parameter for efficient and economic industrial process therefore it is
required to be controlled. Moisture affects the behaviour of many commercial
materials like paper, textile, paints , resins, soap powder, fertilizer, leather, film,
wood, biscuits, sugar, salt, etc. Humidity is important in following processes.

1. Air conditioning applications.

2. Food process industry
3. Printing press.
4. Textile.
5. Chemical processing plant.
6. Fertilizer industry.

Atmospheric air always contains water vapour. The amount of water vapour
present plays an important role in comfort air-conditioning. The science, which
deals with study of behaviour of air and water vapour mixture is known as
‘Psychrometry’.

Various properties of air and water vapour are known as ‘psychometric

properties of air’. Various psychometric properties like dry bulb temperature, wet
bulb temperature, dew point temperature, specific humidity, relative humidity,
enthalpy etc. are represented on graphical chart is known as ‘Psychometric chart’.
If we know any two properties, we can locate point on psychometric chart and rest
of the properties can be found out very easily in fraction of seconds.

Dry Air: Dry air is the mixture of nitrogen (77%) and oxygen (23%)
neglecting water vapours and other gases.

Moist Air: Moist air is a mixture of dry air and water vapour. The amount
of water vapour present in the air depends on the absolute pressure and temperature
of mixture.

Saturated Air: The mixture of air and water vapour is said to be saturated
when it contains the maximum amount of the water vapour it can hold.

NOTES COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 3

 Dry bulb temperature: It is the temperature of air recorded by ordinary
thermometer.

Wet bulb temperature: The temperature recorded by thermometer when its

bulb is covered by wet cloth (Wick) is known as Wet bulb temperature.

Dew point temperature: If mixture of air and water vapour is cooled at

constant pressure then the ability of air to hold water will reduce and it will
approach saturation condition. Further removal of heat results in condensation of
water vapour or formation of dew. Thus, the temperature at which formation of
dew starts is known as ‘dew point temperature’.

Humidity: Humidity is the moisture content in air. It may be expressed as

specific humidity in kg/kg of dry air, absolute humidity in gm/m3 or relative
humidity in %.

Hair Hygrometer:

Hair hygrometer is cheap pocket size instrument used for humidity

measurement.

Certain material such as human hair, animal membrane, wood and paper
undergo changes in linear dimensions when they absorb moisture from the
atmosphere. Human hair becomes longer as the humidity of the surrounding air
increases, and shortens when the air becomes dry. This property of hair can be
used to operate a pointer or recording pen through a system of mechanical linkage.
The indicator scale can be calibrated to give direct indication of humidity.

In hair hygrometer, transducer element

consist of strands of hair to give it increased
mechanical strength. The hair strands are
genrally arranged parallel to each other with
sufficient space between them for giving free
access to the hair sample under test. For
proper functioning the element is maintained
under light tension by the spring.

NOTES COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 4

 Hair hygrometer is not very precise instrument but can be used between
temperature limits 5o C to 35o C for humidity range 40% to 90%.

Advantages:-

1. It is quiet cheap
2. It is available in convenient packet size

Disadvantages:-

1. It is not a precision instrument

2. The accuracy is within 3-4%

Application:-

1. It is generally used for industrial purpose where readings of high precision

are not required.
2. These are useful in temperature range 5-350C and in relative humidity range
40-95%

Sling Psychrometer:

The equipment used to

measure dry bulb and wet bulb temperature
simultaneously is known as ‘Psychrometer’.
The sling psychrometer consists of two
mercury thermometers mounted on frame,
which has handle provided for rotation of
psychrometer. Thus, air movement is
obtained by whirling the thermometer in air.
One bulb among the two is covered with
wet wick to read wet bulb temperature. The
velocity recommended for rotation is 5 to
8m/min.

Sling Psychrometer

NOTES COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 5

Advantages:-

1. Simple in construction
2. Economical instrument
3. Can be easily handled

Disadvantage:-

1. Skilled operator is required

2. Gives intermittent readings
3. It is not suitable for automation and continuous recording requirement

Application:-

1. The instrument is suitable for spot checking of air conditioning installation

Liquid level measurement:

A wide variety of level measuring devices are available to meet diverse level
requirements of the processing industry. Level measurements are needed for
inventory control and accounting of product storage, inventory and distribution of
raw material for processes and proper operation of fractionating towers and
distillation columns, controlling water level in boiler drums and other similar
process control applications where accurate level determinations are required.

There are many level measurement applications where accuracy is relatively

unimportant. On the other hand there are many applications like reactor levels,
feed control vessels, steam boiler operation where precise control is necessary and
desirable because the level has a significant effect on the process quality,
controllability and/or cost.

Classification:

As with most process variables, level can be measured directly or inferred.

Therefore, level measurements may be classified broadly into two general group’s
viz. 1) Direct Methods 2) Indirect/ Inferential Methods

1. Direct Methods: Direct level measurements are simple and have been used
for a long time. They are used primarily for local indication. These methods

NOTES COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 6

involve direct measurement of distance(usually height) from the level to a datum
line as may be indicated by:
a. Direct visual observation of distance on a suitably calibrated scale, as with a
gauge stick, hook gauge, or gauge glass.
b. Determination of the position of a detecting member which rides on the
liquid surface such as a ball or other type of float.
c. Contact of electrode with a liquid surface.
d. Interruption of a light beam to a photo-electric cell.
e. Reflection of radio and radar frequency waves or sonic wave from the
surface.
f. Reflection of radio or radar frequency waves or sonic wave from the surface.

2. Indirect/Inferential Methods: Effects other than changing position of a

Liquid surface can be used in determining the liquid level in a vessel and these
methods are:
a. Measurement of fluid of hydrostatic head developed by the liquid.
b. Measurement of buoyant force created when a detecting member is partially
or completely immersed in liquid
c. Thermal determination between the liquid and vapour phases in a vessel.
d. Several electric systems by which liquid level may be inferred, based upon
physical or electrical properties of the liquid.
e. Attenuation of radiation through both liquid and vapour phases.

No doubt direct measurement methods are simple and economical but they are
not easily adapted to signal transmission techniques required for remote indication
or control. On the other hand, indirect methods are used when remote indication,
recording or control is desired.

1. Sight glass liquid level method:-

It is used for continuous indication of liquid level. It consist of a toughened
glass tube mounted on one of the side of tank such that it is parallel to the tank
wall. The measuring scale s graduated on the glass tube. The liquid whose level is
to be measured is poured into tank; the liquid level in sight glass also rises. When
some liquid is taken out of container, the level in sight glass also decreases. Thus,
level in container is directly indicated by level in sight glass

NOTES COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 7

Sight glass when used for high pressure container:-

When it is required to measure level in high pressure container, sight glass is

connected to container such
that one end of it will open in
high pressure region and
another end of sight glass from
container. When liquid level is
required to measure the valve
isolating sight glass are opened
and reading is taken. To read the liquid level, scale is provided or markings are
engraved on glass tube. Sometimes the spherical steel balls are used for blocking
flow of, in case glass tube is broken

Advantages of sight glass:-

1. It is simple in construction
2. Its cost is low
3. It is suitable for continuous indication

Disadvantages of sight glass:-

1. Accuracy depends on cleanliness of liquid

2. The liquid inside tube in cooled weather may freeze
3. It is required to mount parallel to wall of container.

Float gauges:-

The float gauges works on buoyancy method to give direct continuous reading.
The float rests on the surface of
liquid and follows the change in
level of liquid. This movement
of float is transferred to the
pointer through some suitable
mechanism. The different types
of floats can be used are hollow
metal spheres, cylindrical shape or disc shape floats. The mechanism used for
transferring movement of float to pointer as shown in the figure.
NOTES COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 8
 The simplest mechanism consist of cable wound over pulley. One end of cable
is provided with float, floating on liquid level and another end of cable is provided
with balance weight. With the change in level of liquid, float moves causing pu;;ey
to move. The pointer is mounted on pulley which moves over calibrated scale as
shown in figure 1. Or pointer may be attached to cable which moves over scale as
shown in figure 2.

Advantages of float gauge:-

1. Liquid level in tank can be obtained even if tank is kept below ground level
2. It is reliable having low cost
3. Suitable material float can be selected to avoid corrosion.

Disadvantages of float guage:-

1. It is required to be design according to tank geometry.

Float and Shaft:-

These are similar to float gauges, which utilizes float to measure liquid level.
Instead of attaching float to cable it
is attached to shaft. Another end of
shaft is pivoted therefore with the
change in liquid float rises or
lowers freely. This movement of
float is communicated to pointer
through gear and sector
arrangement as shown in figure.

Advantages of float and shaft gauge:-

1. Mechanical advantage can be obtained

2. It is excellent for precise control action

Disadvantages of float and shaft gauge:-

1. It cannot be used for wide range of liquid level measurement.

NOTES COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 9

4. Bubbler or Purge system:-
The bubbler or purge system works on the principle of calculating
hydrostatic pressure by allowing the bubbles of air to flow through the liquid and
converting this hydrostatic pressure into liquid level.
Bubbler system consist of simple hollow tube immersed in tank in which
measurement of liquid is to be done. Two connections are provided to bubbler
tube, one to air supply and another to pressure gauge to measure hydrostatic
pressure. Regulating valve is provided to control the supply of air.
When tank is empty o no liquid is present below the bottom end of tube, air
passed through the tube will shoe
zero gauge pressure. When tank is
filled with some liquid and air is
passed through the tube, the liquid
level in tank provides the
Resistance to air and pressure gauge
will show some pressure which can
be calibrated in terms of liquid level.
As the bubbles are continuously
coming out of tube and liquid do not enter into tube the tube is said to be purged.
The common purging fluid is air but if use of air is objectionable different gases
like nitrogen or carbon di oxide can be used.

Advantages:-
1. It is simple assembly
2. It can be used for corrosive liquids

Disadvantages:-

1. It requires air lines to carry air

2. Danger of bursting of air pipe
3. It cannot be used for measurement in pressurized vessel

NOTES COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 10

Capacitive System:-

In this type of liquid level

measurement method, metal tank is
used in which the liquid is filled
whose level is to be measured. The
insulated capacitance probe os
firmly fixed near and parallel to wall
tank. If liquid in tank is non
inductive the wall of the tank and
capacitance probe forms a parallel
plate capacitor and liquid in between act as a dielectric medium. If liquid is
conductive the capacitance probe and liquid form a capacitor and insulation acts as
a dielectric. The metal tank and capacitive probe form two terminals of capacitance
measuring instrument which is calibrated to read the liquid level as capacitance
changes with change in level of liquid. When level of liquid in tank rises,
capacitance increases and vice versa.
The principle of operation of capacitive level measurement system is equation
of parallel plate capacitor.
𝐾𝐴
C=
𝐷

Where, C = Capacitance in farad

K = Dielectric constant

A = Area of plate in mm2

D = Distance between two plates in mm

From above equation if A and D are constant then capacitance of capacitor is

directly proportional to dielectric constant.

Advantages:-

1. It is very useful for small system

2. It is very sensitive
3. It gives continuous indication

NOTES COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 11

Disadvantages:-

1. Its sensitivity is affected by temperature

2. Measured liquid should have dielectric qualities.
3. Performance is affected by dirt and other contamination which changes
dielectric properties of liquid

Gamma Ray Liquid Level Sensor:-

It is contactless method of measuring liquid level. It is generally used where

other methods of measurement are not suitable.

It consist of tank in which liquid is filled whose level is to be measured. A

gamma ray source holder is placed at one of top side of tank and receiver is placed
exactly opposite bottom side of
tank to receive the gamma rays
emitted by source. The gamma
ray source holder is mounted
such that it covers the entire wall
of tank. When gamma ray source
ho;der is switched ‘ON’ it
transmit the thin band of gamma
rays, which covers the entire tank
wall and passes through medium
in tank. A radiation detector is
placed parallel to the tank wall,
which will detect a radiation level of gamma rays. It converts the radiation level
into its equivalent electrical signal, which will be measured by measuring device.
The reading shown by measuring device is directly calibrated in terms of liquid
level.

When the gamma ray source is switched’ON” and the tank is empty then
gamma rays passed through air in the tank and tank wall. As a result of this its
energy level decreases and detector detects the radiation energy level. When liquid
level is to be measured, gamma rays passes through liquid and tank wall, due to
which the radiation level again decrease which is detected by the detector.

NOTES COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 12

Therefore the difference between the two readings shown by detector is directly
proportional to the rise of liquid level in tank.

Advantages:-

1. Its accuracy is very high

2. There is no physical contact with liquid
3. It has high sensitivity
4. It can be used for measurement of level of hazardous liquid

Disadvantages:-

1. It is very costly
2. Radiation source holder may be heavy and bulky
3. Mounting of gamma ray source holder may be difficult.

Force and Shaft Power Measurement:

Force measurement:

Force is defined as

F= m x a N

Where,

m = mass; kg

a = acceleration; m/s2

Therefore a standard for force depends on standards for mass and

acceleration. Mass is considered as a fundamental quantity, and its unit is
kilogram. A kilogram is equal to the mass of international prototype of mass. This
prototype is a hollow cylinder of platinum iridium alloy kept at the International
Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sevres in France. Other masses, such as
national standards of mass, are calibrated against this international unit of mass.

NOTES COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 13

 The measurement of torque is intimately related to measurement of force.
Therefore, torque standards as such are not necessary, since force and length are
sufficient to define torque.

Similarly measurement of power transmitted by a rotating shaft is related to

measurement of torque and the power is equal to the product of torque and rotating
angular velocity.

Tool Dynamometer (Mechanical Type):

 This is the simplest type of tool

dynamometer as shown in fig.
 It consists of dial indicator for the
measurement of forces.
 The dial indicator is calibrated to
read the cutting forces.
 The calibration is done by
considering the deflection. This
deflection produced is directly
proportional to the cutting force.
 The dial indicator is the instrument
used to measure or checking fine linear dimension.
 The dial consists of graduated circular scale, plunger and gear pinion.
 The dial indicator is always placed in direction of cutting force to find
deflection. Mechanical tool dynamometer is simple and easy for operation.

Advantages:-

1. Simple method of tool force measurement

2. It is economical method

Disadvantages:-

1. Chances of error
2. It cannot give digital read out

NOTES COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 14

 Application:-

1. To find out various cutting forces acting in metal cutting on tool

Shaft Power Measurement:

The conventional methods of determining the power delivered to (or

absorbed by) rotating machinery require simultaneous measurement of
torque and shaft speed Machines used for torque measurements under test-
bed conditions are called Dynamometers. The dynamometers are classified
as:

1. Absorption Dynamometers,
2. Transmission dynamometers,
3. Driving dynamometers.

The type of dynamometer to be used depends on the nature of the machine

to be tested. If the machine is a power absorber, the dynamometer must
provide both the power source as well as the load.

Eddy Current Dynamometer:

 Eddy current is the type of absorption type dynamometer.

 It consists of non-magnetic solid metallic rotor, which moves in the
magnetic field of stator.

The stator winding is excited by a D.C. supply as shown in fig

NOTES COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 15

  When the solid rotor moves in the field produced by stator windings an emf
is produced in it resulting in a large loss of power due to eddy current.
 This power is dissipated as heat in the rotor and therefore water is circulated
through air gap between stator and rotor.
 Torque on the stator casing may be measured in the usual manner.
 Following are the few advantages and limitations:

Advantages:

1. They are small in size, as compare to any other of the same capacity.
2. The absorption power can be changed by changing D. C. circuit.
3. It can measure high power output at all speeds.
4. Torque developed is smooth and continuous under all operating conditions.
5. The power range of eddy current brake is up to 300 H.P. and maximum
speed is 6000 rpm.

Limitations:

1. It cannot produce any torque at zero speed.

2. It produces only small torques at low speed.

Application:-

1. Measure power of combustion engine

2. Measure power of hybrid, electric, Hydraulic engine
3. Measure power of pneumatic pumps, propeller etc.

Strain Gauge Transmission Dynamometer:

This is also inline rotating torque sensor, which measures torque. Fig. below
shows the arrangement of strain gauge dynamometer.

Construction and measurements:

 It consists of metal shaft fitted with bonded strain gauge.

 Here strain gauges are fitted at 45o to shaft axis as shown in fig.
 In this type of arrangement 2 strain gauges are subjected to tensile stress and
while other 2 is subjected to compressive stress.
 Strain gauge 1 and 3 must be diametrically opposite to strain gauge 2 and 4.

NOTES COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 16

  Due to torsion, strain gauge senses compressive as well as tensile
deformation.
 Further this strain gauges
are connected to
Wheatstone circuit.
 The output of Wheatstone
bridge is proportional to
torsion and hence applied
torque on shaft.
 The bridge power and
output of bridge is
connected to the sensor through slip ring and bushes as shown in fig.
 Following are few advantages of strain gauge dynamometer.

Advantages:

1. It is sensitive to torque.
2. It has full temperature compensation.
3. It provides automatic compensation for bending and axial loads.
4. It gives an instantaneous result.

Disadvantages:

1. The slip ring may wear out and causes maintenance problems
2. The device is generally expensive
3. Initial settings need skill and is time consuming.

Application:-

1. It is used to measure torque from range 6Nm to 1000KNm with full scale
output of 40 mV.
2. Torque measurement of rotating shaft.

Speed Measurement:

Measurement of speed is important in machine tool and textile machinery.

The speed can be measured with tachometer in most convenient manner. For the
NOTES COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 17
shaft, which is not accessible to tachometer, its speed can be measured by
frequency type tachometer.

Definition of Tachometer:

The tachometer may be defined as:

a) An instrument used for measurement for angular velocity of shaft either by

registering the total number of revolutions during the period of contact or by
indicating directly the number of revolutions per minute.
b) An instrument, which either continuously indicates the value of rotary speed
or continuously displays a reading of average speed over short intervals of
time.

Eddy Current generation type tachometer:

 This instrument is useful for measurement of rotational speed. The essential

components of a tachometer are: 1) Soft iron casing 2) Pointer 3) Spindle 4)
Aluminum Cup 5) A magnet 6) A drive cable. The tachometer assembly is
shown in the figure below.
 The shaft whose speed is to be
measured is made to drive a
V-shaped magnet. This
magnet rotates inside a soft-
iron casing.
 An aluminum cup is
suspended between the magnet and the iron casing. This makes the field of
the magnet pass through the aluminum. With the relative rotation of the
magnet with respect to the cup, a circulating current (called the eddy current)
is generated; in the region of the cup.
 This eddy current develops its own magnetic field. This field is attracted to
the field of the rotating magnet.
 As a result of this, the cup tends to be carried round by a magnetic torque.
This torque is proportional to the eddy current, which in turn is proportional
to the speed of the magnet.
 The cup is carried by a spindle which is free to rotate through part of a
revolution. It rotates to a position in which the magnetic torque on the cup
NOTES COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 18
 balances the torque of a torsion spring opposing the rotation. The pointer
attached to the end of the spindle, indicates the speed on the dial of the
instrument.
 In the hand-held tachometer; the drive to the magnet is provided by friction
through a rubber one.
 This cone is pressed into a conical centre-hole in the shaft whose speed is to
be measured. The drive transmitted through a miniature gearbox so that the
tachometer can be used over several speed ranges.
 In the speedometer of automobiles, the magnet of the tachometer is driven
by a cable rotated by a gear driven off the final drive shaft of the gearbox of
the automobile. In this case the dial is calibrated in kilometers per hour,
instead of revolutions per minute.

Digital Transducers (Shaft encoders):

Digital transducers convert mechanical displacement into digital output by

suitable electromechanical or electro-optical arrangement. They are of two types:

1. Incremental type and

2. Absolute type.

1. Incremental type:
 Optical devices detect motion by sensing the presence or absence of light.
Fig shows two types of optical discs used in rotational sensing. Fig(a) shoes
an incremental optical shaft encoder. Light from the Light-Emitting Diode
(LED) shines through windows in the disc on to an array of photodiodes
 As the shaft turns, the position of the image moves along the array of diodes.
 At the end of the array, the image of the next slot is at the start of the array.
The relative positions of the wheel with respect to its previous location can
be obtained by counting the number of photodiodes traversed and
multiplying them by the number of slots monitored.
 The diode array enhance of slots in the disc divided by the number of diodes
in the array. The slots can also be replaced by reflective strips, in which case

NOTES COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 19

 the light from the LED is reflected back to a photodiode array. Only one slot
in the disc is required to measure rate per minute.

2. Absolute Type:

Fig. (b) Shows an absolute position encoder. An array of LEDs (one for each
window) with a corresponding photo detector for each window can give the
position of the wheel at any time.

 Only three windows are shown in the fig(b) for greater accuracy more slots
would be used. The pattern shown on the disc is for the grey code. Other
patterns may be used on the disc such as binary code.
 Optical devices have many uses in industry other than for the measurement
of the positon and speed of rotating conveyer belts on a production line,
measurement and control of the speed of a conveyer belt, location and
postion of objects on a conveyer, location of registration marks for
alighnment, bar code reading, measurement and thickness control, and
detecting for breaks in filaments and so forth.
 Power lasers can also be included with optical devices as they are used for
scribing and machining of metals, laminates, and the like. As the accuracy of
the position of the slots, i.e. the resolution of the sensor is 360o divided by
the number.

Mechanical Tachometer:

Mechanical tachometer, employ only mechanical parts and mechanical

movements for the measurement of speed.

Disadvantage of Mechanical Tachometers:

1. Mechanical tachometers impose load on the surface to which they are

connected.

NOTES COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 20

 2. On account of inertia of mechanical parts, the mechanical tachometers are
not able to follow the variations in the speed. They indicate only the average
speed over a period of time.

Mechanical tachometer normally use an arrangement where a counter is used for

counting the number of revolutions and stop-watch is used for measurement of
time. The speed is calculated from the readings of two. This involves large error
especially when stopwatch is operated manually

Types of Mechanical Tachometer:

a) Revolution counter and timer

b) Slipping clutch tachometer
1. Revolution Counter and timer:

Revolution counters are also called as ‘speed counters’. It consists of worm

and worm wheel. The shaft whose speed is to be measured is connected to
worm. Along with shaft, worm rotates and depending on velocity ratio, worm
wheel to move by one tooth. A pointer on worm wheel can be directly
calibrated to give number of
revolutions made by shaft
within prescribed time. From
the total revolution in a given
time, average speed is
calculated. It is used to measure
speed upto 3000 rpm.

Advantages of Revolution Counter and Timer:

1. It is simple in construction
2. It can be used conveniently to measure speed of shaft, pulley, gear etc.

Disadvantages of Revolution Counter and Timer:

1. It gives average speed instead of instantaneous speed.

2. Its use is limited to slow speeds.

NOTES COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 21

Application:-

1. A properly designed and manufactured revolution counter would give a

satisfactory speed measure upto 2000-3000 rpm

2. Slipping Clutch Tachometer:

In slipping clutch tachometer, clutch is used to connect the driving shaft with
indicating shaft. Pointer attached to indicator shaft moves over calibrated scale.

The rotating shaft drives an

indicating shaft through a slipping
clutch. A pointer attached to the
indicator shaft moves over a
calibrated scale against the torque
of the spring. The pointer position
gives a measure of the shaft speed.

Advantages:-

1. It is simple to operate
2. Construction is simple
3. Measure the speed of shaft accurately

Disadvantages:-

1. Its use limited to low speed only

2. More chances of occurrence of error
3. It gives average speed instead of instantaneous speed

Application:-

1. Speed measurement of low speed engine and motor

2. It is used to connect the driving shaft to indicating shaft

NOTES COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 22

Electrical Tachometer:

Electrical tachometer converts the rotational speed of shaft into proportional

electrical signal, which can be measured and calibrated to give rotational speed.

The various electrical tachometers are:

1. Drag Cup Tachometer

2. Cumulated Capacitor Tachometer
3. Tachogenerators

Drag Cup tachometer:

Drag cup tachometer is electrical type tachometer, which works on eddy

current. The shaft whose speed is to be measured is connected to permanent
magnet at its end. A non-magnetic cup generally made of aluminum is provided
very close to magnet, which is connected to pointer through spring. Rotation of
magnet induces voltage in a cup and set circulating eddy current in cup material.
This eddy current interacts with the magnetic field to produce a torque on the cup
in proportion to the relative velocity of magnet and cup. This causes the cup to turn
through small angle. Low torque measuring transducer is used to measure torque
and it is calibrated to get the speed of shaft.

The various tachometers working on this principle are:

NOTES COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 23

 1. Mechanically coupled magnet type tachometer: This type of arrangement
is shown in fig. The magnet is directly coupled to shaft whose speed is to be
measured. The automobile speedometer works on this principle.
2. Stationary magnet: in this type of arrangement the permanent magnet is
kept stationary and soft iron rotor is connected to shaft whose speed is to be
measured. The soft iron rotor produces a revolving magnetic field. It is
rugged in construction and generally used to measure locomotive speed.

Advantages of Drag Cup Tachogenerator:

1. Linear characteristics of output voltage and speed of shaft.

2. It is rugged in construction.
3. It is inexpensive.
4. Requires very little maintenance.

Disadvantages of Drag Cup Tachogenerator:

1. To calibrate it input voltage must be maintained absolutely constant.

2. At very high speed, it gives non-linear characteristics of output voltage and
speed of shaft.

Application:-

1. Speed measurement in automobiles

2. Speed measurement in locomotive engine

Contactless Electrical Tachometer:

Contactless electrical tachometer does not have contact with the shaft whose
speed is to be measured. This tachometer produces pulse from rotating shaft, which
is calibrated to give shaft speed.

The different contactless electrical tachometers are:

a) Inductive pick-up
b) Capacitive pick-up
c) Photoelectric Tachometer

NOTES COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 24

 d) Stroboscope

Inductive Pick-up:

Inductive pick-up consists of permanent magnet with a coil wound on it.

This permanent magnet is placed near the metallic toothed rotor mounted on shaft
whose speed is to be measured.

When rotor rotates, the reluctance of air gap

between pick-up and toothed rotor changes
giving rise to an induced emf in the pick-up
coil. This output is in the form of pulse. The
frequency of induced emf will depend upon
number of teeth of rotor and speed of rotor. The
number of teeth of rotor is constant, hence
output emf is directly proportional to speed of rotor.

Let, T is number of teeth on rotor,

P is number of pulse per sec,

N is speed of rotation is r.p.s.

Then,
𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐.(𝑃) 𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐.(𝑃)
Speed, n= r.p.s. = x 60 rpm
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ (𝑇) 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ (𝑇)

The typical rotor has 60 teeth. Thus, if the counter counts the pulse in
seconds, the counter will directly display the speed in rpm. It is used to measure
very low speed as well as very high speed about 70,000 rpm with very high
accuracy

Advantages of Inductive Pick-up:

1. It is simple in construction
2. It requires very less maintenance
3. It is easy to calibrate.
4. It has very high accuracy
5. It can be used for very flow as well as very high speed measurement.
NOTES COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 25
Disadvantages:-

1. Complicated electronics circuit

2. Costlier than other similar devices.

Application:-

1. It is used to speed measurement of rotating shaft

2. It is used for speed measurement of engine and motor.

Capacitive Pick-up:

Capacitive pick-up is used to measure rotational speed and translation

motion of shaft. It utilizes the principal, ‘Due to rotary motion, capacitance of
variable capacitor is changed’. The
resulting change in capacitance can
be converted into useful electrical
signal by means of various circuits.
Capacitance type pick-up requires
complicated electronics than that of
simple transducers. The most
common form of variable capacitor used is parallel plate capacitor with the
variable air gap. For measurement of rotational speed of shaft, the shaft is attached
with vane. When shaft rotates it changes the capacitance of parallel plate
condenser.

Fig shows the basic form of a capacitive transducer utilizing effect of change
of capacitance with change in distance between the two plates.

One plate of capacitor is kept fixed and other plate is moved. The
capacitance varies inversely with the distance‘d’ between the plates of capacitor.

The capacitance of such arrangement is given as,

Ɛ ×A
C=
𝑑

Where, C is capacitance
A is area of plate
d is distance between plate
NOTES COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 26
 Ɛ is permeability constant.

Advantages of Capacitive Pick-Up:

1. It has very small loading effect

2. It has high sensitivity

Disadvantages of Capacitive Pick-up:

1. It has complicated electronic circuit

2. It is used to measure only the small displacements.

Application:-

1. It is used for speed measurement of rotating shaft

2. It is used for speed measurement of mechanical equipment
3. They are used for speed measurement of engines and motors

Stroboscope:

The stroboscope is simple, manually operated portable device which is used

for measurement of speed. Stroboscope has variable frequency flashing light. An
oscillator is provided to control flashing frequency. The speed is measured by
adjusting frequency so that the moving object (target) is visible at specific
intervals. If strong light is caused to flash on moving object, the object will appear
stationary. The source of light is known as ‘strobotron’.

Strobotron is hot cathode gaseous discharge tube. It consists of one cathode, one
anode and two grids i.e. inner grid and outer grid and outer grid. Conduction starts
when potential of outer grid is increased or potential of inner grid is decreased. The
started conduction can be stopped by removing anode potential. The tube has
capacity to flash 300 flashes per second.

NOTES COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 27

 The flashing light is directed on rotating member, which usually has some
spoke, gear teeth or some other feature. If rotating member do not have any of such
features, a paper having black and white stripes is attached to it or some marking is
done as target.

The frequency of lamp flashing is adjusted until the target appears

stationary. Under this condition, speed is equal to flashing frequency. The scale of
stroboscope can be calibrated to read the speed directly.

If there are several marks on the shaft, various errors may occur in
measurement. If disc has m number of marks, then disc will appear stationary,
𝑓
The speed (n) =
𝑚

Where, f = number of flashes per sec.

m = Number of marks on disc.

To avoid confusion, approximate speed is calculated by other available methods.

The value of exact speed can be found out as:

Single line image is obtained by flashes. The flashing rate is gradually reduced and
flashing frequencies are noted for all single line images. If single line images are
obtained at m different flashing rates say f2, f2, f3, f4,……fm.
fm f1 (m−1)
Then the speed of shaft (n) =
fm−f1

Where, f1 = lowest flashing frequency

fm = highest flashing frequency

m = Number of flashing points

The range of lamp frequency is 110 to 25,000 rpm. The accuracy of this method is
± 1% It is generally adopted for measurement of speed between 600 to 20,000 rpm.

Advantages of Stroboscope:

1. It is contactless method

NOTES COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 28

 2. It does not impose any load on shaft whose speed is to be measured.
3. It is useful method where physical contact method cannot be used.
4. It requires no special attachment with shaft.

Disadvantages of Stroboscope:

1. Variable frequency of oscillator cannot be stabilized to give fixed frequency

2. This method is less accurate therefore requires the use of digital meters
3. Stroboscope cannot be used where surrounding light is above some level

Application:-

1. Speed measurement of low power machinery

2. In addition to checking and measuring speeds of shaft and other parts of
machinery, stroboscopes are used for high speed photography

Strain Measurement:

Load carrying capacity of material without excessive deformation or failure

is characterized by a term ‘stresses. The stress is defined as ‘the force experienced
per unit area and is expressed in pressure units. The stress itself cannot be
measured directly and is normally deduced from the changes in mechanical
dimensions and the applied load. The mechanical deformation formed due to stress
is measured with strain gauge elements. The relation between the load and
elongation is characterized in terms of strain, which is defined as ‘the change ‘δl’
in length ‘l’ i.e. percentage in dimension of the object’.

Stress-Strain relation:

The stress-strain relationship in simple tension or compression test is shown

in fig below.

The strain may be given as,

New length−Original length δl
Axial strain = Ɛa = =
Original length l

New Diameter−Original Diameter δd

Lateral Strain = Ɛi = =
Original DIameter 𝑑

NOTES COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 29

For elastic materials, stress-strain relationship is linear, i.e. if stress is removed,
deformation is vanished.
Stress
Modulus of elasticity, E =
Strain

Stress has a unit of N/m2 while strain is ration, which does not have unit.
Therefore, Modulus of elasticity is in N/m2.

When member is subjected to simple uniaxial stress in the elastic range, the
relation between lateral strain and axial strain is given by the equation,
Lateral strain
Poisson’s ratio = µ = -
Axial strain

Note: - ve sign refer as compression rather than elongation.

DERIVATION OF STRAIN GAUGE:

Let,

L = Length of the wire

D = Diameter of wire

ρ = Resistivity of the wire

R = Resistance of the wire

Now, W.K.T.
ρL
R= ………(i)
A

Assuming that the wire is subjected to tensile stress

NOTES COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 30

Let, ΔL = Change in length

ΔD = Change in diameter

ΔA = Change in Area

ΔR = Change in resistance
dR ρ δL ρL δA L δρ
= − + ………(ii)
dS A δS A2 δS A δS

Dividing eq.(ii) by eq.(i)

1 dR ρ A δL ρL A δA L A δρ
∴ = × × − × + × ×
R dS A ρL δS A2 ρL δS A ρL δS

1 dR 1 δL 1 δA 1 δρ
∴ = − +
R dS L δS A δS ρ δS

ΔR ΔL ΔA Δρ
∴ = − +
R L A ρ

π
Now, Area = d2
4

δA π δD
∴ =2 D
dS 4 δS
π
1 δA 2 D δD
4
∴ = π 2 ×
A δS D δS
4

1 δA 2 δD
∴ =
A δS D δS

1 dR 1 δL 2 δD 1 δρ
∴ = − +
R dS L δS D δS ρ δS

δD
( )
D
∴ µ= − δL
L

δD δL
∴ = −µ
D L

1 dR 1 δL 2 δL 1 δρ
∴ = + µ +
R dS L δS δS L ρ δS

NOTES COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 31

 ΔR ΔL δL Δρ
∴ = + 2µ +
R L L ρ

ΔR
R
∴ G.F> = ΔL
L

ΔR ΔL
∴ = G. F.×
R L

ΔL ΔL δL Δρ
∴ G. F.× = + 2µ +
L L L ρ

ΔL δL Δρ
+ 2µ +
L L ρ
∴ G. F. = ΔL
L

Δρ
ρ
∴ G. F. = 1 + 2µ + ΔL
L

For many metals, the resistivity does not vary with strain

∴ G. F. = 1 + 2µ

TYPES OF STRAIN GAUGES:

The strain gauges are used for:

1. To analyze dynamic strain in complex structure such as bridge, automobiles,

roads etc.
2. To measure tension, torque, force and stresses in structures
3. Measurement of force in load cell

Strain gauges are + Ve passive transducer. If strip of elastic material is subjected to

tension or positively strained, its longitudinal dimension will increase while there
will be reduction in lateral dimension. Thus, the length increases and area
decreases. As resistance is proportional to length and inversely proportional to
area, the resistance of gauge increases with positive strain. It is +Ve passive
transducer as increase in the resistance of strain gauge wire is directly proportional
to the mechanical stress applied on it.

NOTES COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 32

Classification of Strain Gauges:

Strain gauges may be classified depending upon the principle of operation and its
constructional features as follows.

1. Mechanical gauges: These measures change in length and magnify it by

using various mechanical elements like levers and gears. Mechanical starin
gauges are comparatively larger in size. These gauges are used for static
strain measurement.
2. Optical gauges: In these gauges magnification is obtained by using mirrors
or prisms. The accuracy of these gauges is very high. In its simple form it
consists of plain mirror rigidly attached to movable knife edge space. When
subjected to stress, mirror rotates through an angle and reflect a beam of
light. This reflection can be calibrated to give strain.
3. Electrical strain gauges: The principle of electrical strain gauge is based on
measurement of changes in resistance, capacitance or inductance that is
proportional to strain applied on test specimen. In general, resistance type
strain gauges are used. It works on principle of change in resistance of wire
with change in strain. The change in resistance is measured by using
Wheatstone bridge. The output of Wheatstone bridge can be claibrated to
give strain.

STRAIN GAUGE MATERIALS:

For fabrication of strain gauge, we requires grid material, supporting or backing

material and bonding material.

Grid Material:

Desirable characteristics of grid material:

1. It should have high specific resistance.

2. It should have high gauge factor
3. It should have high electrical stability
4. It should have low hysteresis
5. It should have good solderability and weldability.

NOTES COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 33

The commonly used materials for grid are:

a) Advance: It is 55% copper, 45% nickel having gauge factor 2. It is most

commonly used as it has reasonable gauge factor. It can be easily worked
and soldered.
b) Isoelastic: It is 36% nickel, 8% copper, 4% Mn, Si and molybdenum and
rest of iron. It has gauge factor 3.5. it has high gauge factor. It is useful in
dynamic measurement.
c) Nichrome: It is nickel, chromium alloy having gauge factor as 1.9
d) Manganin: It has 0.47 gauge factor and low temperature coefficeint.
e) Monel: It has high temperature coefficient and gauge factor as 1.9
f) Nickel: It has negative gauge factor (-12). It exhibits reduced resistance
through length increases and diameter decreases.

Supporting or Backing Material:

Desirable characteristics or support material:

1. Minimum thickness
2. High mechanical strength
3. High dielectrically strength
4. Minimum temperature restriction
5. It should be non-hygroscopic

Generally thin strong paper is used for supporting or backing

Binding Material:

Desirable characteristics of binding material:

1. It should have high strength

2. It should have high creep resistance
3. It should have high dielectric strength
4. It should have temperature restriction
5. It should have good adherence
6. It should have ease in application
7. It should be fast drying,

Usually Duco cement is used as binding material

NOTES COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 34
RESISTANCE STRAIN GAUGES : BONDED AND UNBONDED

Depending upon its construction, strain gauges are broadly classified as:

1. Unbounded strain gauges

2. Bonded strain gauges
a. Wire type bonded strain gauge
b. Foil type bonded strain gauge
c. Semiconductor type strain gauge

1. Unbounded Strain Gauges:

Fig. shows the schematic representation of unbounded strain gauge, which
consists of a fixed frame and movable frame or armature. Movable frame is
connected to shaft which is able to move on either of the direction under the
application of force or strain to be measured. Four strain gauges wires having
uniform cross-sectional area and equal length are connected in such a manner that
one end of each wire is
connected to the fixed frame
and another end is connected
to armature or movable frame.
The resistance of wires RS1,
RS2, RS3 and RS4 are equal in
magnitude.
When unbounded strain gauge is used for measurement of force, stress or
displacement then four strain gauge wires connected form a Wheatstone bridge
circuit and detector ‘D’ is calibrated in terms of the quantity being measured. The
force, which is to measure, is zero then resistance offered by each strain gauge
wire is equal in magnitude and detector shows the null position. When force to be
measured is applied on the shaft of gauge, due to applied force armature is moved.
The movement of armature changes the resistance of strain gauge wire. Change in
resistance of wire is detected by detector, which is directly proportional to quantity
being measured.
Advantages of Unbounded Strain Gauges:
1. It is simple in construction
2. Its cost is low

NOTES COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 35

 3. It is accurate if compared to cost
Disadvantages of Unbounded Strain Gauges:
1. Effect of hysteresis may effect on its performance
2. Change in temperature affects its performance
3. Resistance of contact lead decreases its accuracy
Application:
It is used for measurement of force, strain or displacement.

2. BONDED STRAIN GAUGES:

1. Wire type bonded strain gauges:

Wire type bonded strain gauge consists of thin seat of insulating material such
as paper or Bakelite. A strain gauge wire having uniform cross sectional area and
diameter about 0.025 mm is uniformly cemented on the seat of insulating material.
The spreading of wire permits a uniform distribution of stress. Two terminals taken
out are called as ‘connecting leads or terminal leads’. Another thin seat of
insulating material is placed on the strain wire to prevent it from mechanical
damage. The strain gauge is bonded with an adhesive material to the structure
under study. This prevents a good transfer of strain from structure to strain gauge
wire.
When such type of strain gauge is used to for measurement, it forms one arm of
Wheatstone bridge network. When quantity being measured is zero, the resistance
of other arm is adjusted such that
bridge shows null position. When
strain is applied, the resistance of
strain gauge wire changes causing
unbalance condition in bridge.
The deflection shown by detector
is calibrated in terms of quantity
being measured.

NOTES COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 36

 2. Foil type bonded strain gauge:

The construction of foil type strain gauge is exactly similar to that of wire type
strain gauge but these gauges have more surface area as compared to wire type
strain gauge. This causes increased heat dissipation capacity so that it can be used
at higher temperature areas.
Generally, it is made in grid
pattern. The grid element in
the foil gauge is wider than its
cross-section. The metals and
alloys used for foil and wire
are Nichrome, Constantan (Ni
+ Cu), Isoelastic (Ni + Cr +
Mo), Nickel and Platinum.
Foil type gauges can be fabricated in various sections. There is no stress
concentration at the terminals due to absence of joints.
Advantages of Foil Bonded Strain Gauge:
1. It has better thermal stability
2. No stress concentration at terminals
3. Can be fabricated in any size
3. Semiconductor type strain gauge:
Semiconductor strain gauges uses the piezo-resistive property (i.e. change in
value of resistance due to change in resistivity) of doped silicon and germanium.
The resistance of semiconductor changes with the change in applied strain. A
typical strain gauge consist of a strain material and leads that are placed in
protective box. It is bonded on suitable insulating material such as ‘Teflon’.
Semiconductor type strain gauges have negative temperature coefficient of
resistance due to which per unit
change in length is very large
compared to wire and foil type
gauges. Sensitivity of semiconductor
gauge is very high therefore, such
type of gauges are used where very
high accuracy is desired. It is
generally used as one arm of
Wheatstone bridge.

NOTES COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 37

Advantages of Semiconductor Strain Gauge:
1. It has high gauge factor therefore it allows measurement of very small strain.
2. It has excellent hysteresis characteristics
3. Its fatigue life is more
4. It is very small in length from 0.7 to 7mm
Disadvantages of Semiconductor Strain Gauge:
1. It is very sensitive to change in temperature
2. It is more expensive and difficult to attach to the object under study
3. It has non-linear characteristics.
SELECTION AND INSTALLATION OF STRAIN GAUGES:
The proper functioning of strain gauge depend on quality of bonding, which holds
the gauge to the surface of test specimen. The selection of strain gauge is done by
considering its size and location where the strain gauge is to be mounted. The
strain gauge is bonded with the cement on test specimen. The surface of test
specimen should be smooth enough but not highly polished, as highly polished
surface do not provide good adhesion. All scales, rust, paint, and other surfaces
preparation fine grid abrasive paper or emery cloth should be used for cleaning.
The surface is further cleaned to remove oil and grease contamination and dried
under electric bulb to remove moisture. A fairly generous layer of recommended
cement is spread on prepared clean surface of specimen as specimen as well as on
gauge backing. The gauge is then laid at desire location very carefully, pressed
with thumb to exert pressure. Generally, pressure applied is 35 to 180 kPa and
temperature 60oC to 200oC. A care must be taken to avoid air gap between gauge
and specimen.
LOAD CELL:
The term load cell is used to describe a variety of force transducer which may
utilize the deflection or strain of elastic member, or the increase in pressure of
enclosed fluids. The resulting fluid pressure is transmitted to some form of
pressure sensing device such as manometer or a bourdon tube pressure gauge. The
gauge reading is identified and calibrated in units of force.
Different types of mechanical load cells are:
1. Hydraulic load cell
2. Pneumatic load cell
3. Strain gauge load cell
NOTES COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 38
Strain Gauge Load Cell:
Load cell is application of wire type bounded strain gauge. It works on the
principle of elasticity i.e. when axial force
is applied, its column gets compressed and
when force is released it regain its original
position. Four wire type bonded strain
gauges are cemented on column. Two of
them are in horizontal position and two are
in vertical position as shown in fig. Gauges
along x-x’ are cemented in horizontal
positions where as along y-y’ in vertical
position. The resistance offered by each
gauge is same in magnitude. When it is
used for measurement of axial force or
strain, gauges are connected to form
Wheatstone bridge network.
When axial force is zero then the
resistance of each gauge is equal in magnitude, which keep bridge in balance
condition and deflection shown by detector is zero. When the axial force to be
measured is applied on load cell then its column gets compressed. The
compression of column causes decreases in resistance of strain gauge along y-y’
and remains unaffected along x-x’. This turns the bridge to unbalance condition.
The deflection shown by detector can be directly calibrated to read axial force.
Selection and capacity of load cell depends on:
1. Length and diameter of grid wire
2. Thermal conductivity of grid wire
3. Gauge factor of wire
4. Strain of wire material
5. Physical properties of wire material
Advantages of Strain Gauge Load Cell:
1. Load cell is small and compact in size
2. Accuracy is very good
3. It has good sensitivity and low hysteresis
4. It is less expensive

NOTES COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 39

Disadvantages of Strain Gauge Load Cell:
1. Its performance is affected by non-axial force
2. It requires temperature compensation network
3. Excessive stress or force may damage load cell permanently.
Application of Strain Gauge Load Cell:
The strain gauge load cell is excellent force measuring device, particularly
when force is not steady. It is used in industrial applications such as draw bar and
tool force dynamometer, crane load monitoring, road vehicle weighing devices.

ROSETTES:
For strain measurement in complex parts instead of single element strain gauge,
combination of strain gauges are used, which is known as Rosette. Rosette is
available in many combinations that can be used for strain measurement or as a
transducer. These gauges have three or four separate grids with various angular
orientations and they can be cemented to the part with no particular attention being
paid to the overall gauge orientation. The resultant strain on each of the grid is
recorded and true magnitude and direction of strain is calculated from collected
data. Different types of two and three element rosette are shown below.

NOTES COMPILED BY PROF.AAMIR SIWANI 40