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PART 1-Basic Electricity and Magnetism
PART 1-Basic Electricity and Magnetism
BASIC ELECTRICITY
I. ELECTRICITY
1. ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Substances
Matter
composed of atoms which are made up of nucleus around which an
infinitesimal charge revolves
Atom
a substance consisting of electrons, protons and neutrons
Element
substances consisting of atoms of only one kind
Compound
Combination of 2 or more different atoms or elements.
Molecule
smallest part of a compound that retains the properties of the compound
Particles of an Atom
Electron
basic quantity for a negative charge
can be valence electron being the electrons of the outermost shell
can be bound electrons being the electrons of the inner bands
can be free or conduction electrons being electrons that are free to move
Proton
basic quantity for positive charge
Neutron
neutral particle in atom
Bohr Model
planetary-like structure of representing an atom
N= 2n2
N = no. of electrons in each orbit
n = Orbital number 1 for K-shell, 2 for L-shell,
3 for M-shell and so on.
2. ELECTRICAL CLASSIFICATIONS of Material
Conductors
materials with less than 4 valence electrons
allows electrical current to flow easily
Example: Cu, Al, Au, Ag…
Insulators
Materials with more than 4 valence electrons
prevents the flow of electrical current
Plastics, glass, ceramics, rubbers etc
Semiconductor
with exactly 4 valence electrons
have electrical characteristics in between conductor and insulator
3. ENERGY BANDS
Energy Gap
energy difference between the valence and conduction band
1.1eV for Si ; 0.67eV for Ge
Valence Band
region of the valence shell and valence electrons
Conduction Band
1. CHARGE (Q or q)
Coulomb’s Law
“The force between charges is proportional to the amount of charges and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between charges”
kQ 1Q 2
F=
r2
Where:
Q1 and Q2 = point charges
k = 8.98 x 109 Nm2/C2 (SI)
r = distance or separation
2. CURRENT (I or i)
3. ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE(emf or e)
force that is used to move the charged particles such as electrons
Electric Potential
the ability of a charged body to do work on charged particles such as
electrons
Voltage (V)
A potential energy difference (or simply, P.D.) that exists across two points
which tend to cause a flow of electrons.
Volt (V) is the unit of potential difference and named after Italian physicist
Alessandro Volta. 1 volt will push 1 ampere of current through 1 ohm
resistance
V=W/Q
i.e., Volt = 1 Joule / Coulomb or
1 Newton – meter / Coulomb
4. RESISTANCE (R or r)
a property of electric circuit, material, and substance that:
1. tends to limit the amount of current that can be produced by the
applied voltage
2. converts electrical energy into heat energy
Ohm(Ω), the basic unit of resistance named after George Simon Ohm
1Ω= 1V/1A
Resistance Law
“The resistance of a conducting material is directly proportional to its length (R
L) and inversely proportional to its cross – sectional area (R I/A).”
L
R=
A
R2 = R1 [1 + 1 (T2 – T1)]
R 1 (| T0 | T2 )
R2=
(| T0 | T1 )
2 = 1 [1 + 1 (T2 – T1)]
Where:
R2 = resistance at temperature T1
R1 = resistance at temperature T2
1 = temperature coefficient of resistance=1/ ( IToI+T1)
To = inferred absolute zero temperature coefficient
= - 234.5C Annealed copper
= - 242C Hard drawn copper
= - 236C Aluminum
Temperature Coefficients
1. Positive Temperature Coefficient
Resistance increases as temperature increases
Pure metals
2. Negative Temperature Coefficient
Resistance decreases as its temperature increases
Semiconductors and Metal oxides
3. Zero Temperature Coefficient
Resistance remains constant even there is change in
temperature.
Alloys
5. CONDUCTANCE (G)
Conductivity () is the reciprocal of resistivity.
Siemen (S), unit of conductance formerly known as mho
Impedance (Z)
Combination of resistance and reactance in AC circuit
Admittance (Y)
Reciprocal of impedance
Reactance (X)
Opposition to current offered by capacitive and inductive elements
Susceptance (B)
Reciprocal of reactance
7. Work, Power and Energy
Work (W)
The accomplishment of motion against the action of a force which tends to
oppose the motion.
Joule, SI unit of work or energy
1 Joule = 1 Newton-meter = 1 Coulomb / Volt
Electronvolt (eV), unit of energy for single electron
1eV=1.6x10-19 J
Power (P)
rate of producing work or consuming energy
P = W / t = VI = I2R = V2 / R
Watts – the S.I. unit of electric power named after James Watt
Horsepower (Hp) – power rating of electric motor
1 Hp = 746 Watts or 0.746 KW
Energy
Ability to do work
For heat energy: 1 Kcal=4180 J , 1BTU=778.16 ft-lb
1. RESISTOR
device having known specific values of resistance in ohms(Ω) that limits the
amount of current flowing through it
can divide the voltage in a circuit
with power rating that show how much power can be safely dissipated
a. Types:
Fixed Resistors:
1. Nichrome Wire
offers few ohms of resistance
resistance wire
2. Carbon Composition
1/8 W to 2W in rating, and its ohmic rating can be determined by its color
code.
3. Wire - Wound
they are very accurate and its ohmic and wattage (above 2W) is painted on
its covering. Can be made from a nichrome wire wound around a ceramic
core.
Wattage ranges from 5W to 100 W
4. Metal Film
use a thin film of metal or a metal particle mixture to achieve various
resistances.
Variable Resistors
1. Rheostat
two terminal variable resistor
in series with the load to vary current
2. Potentiometer (“pot”)
three terminal variable resistor
Connected in a circuit to vary the voltage.
Taper of a potentiometer refers to the way in which the resistance changes in
relation to the position of its slider
3. Trimmer/ Trimpots
a potentiometer equipped with a plastic thumbwheel, or a slot for a
screwdriver, for occasional adjustment.
Tolerance Multiplier
Black 0 0 100 --
Brown 1 1 101 1%
Red 2 2 102 2%
Orange 3 3 103 3%
Yellow 4 4 104 4%
Green 5 5 105 --
Blue 6 6 106 --
Violet 7 7 107 --
Gray 8 8 108 --
White 9 9 109 --
Gold -- -- 0.1 5%
Silver -- -- 0.01 10%
No Color -- -- 20%
Table 2: Resistor Color Code
2. INDUCTOR
opposes change in current
allows DC but blocks AC
stores energy by concentrating the magnetic field of current
also known as choke
termed as solenoid for coil with more than one turn
a. Inductance (L)
property of a circuit that opposes the change in current expressed in
Henries(H)
for a N-turn coil wound around a certain core, it is defined as the amount of
flux linkage of the coil per unit current through the coil
1H=1Weber/A
AN 2
L= 0 r Where: μr = relative permeability
L
µ0 = material permeability
A = area
N = no. of turns
L = length
f. Inductive Reactance
g. Total Inductance
L series = L1 + L2 +… +Ln
1 1 1 -1
L parallel = ( + + …+ )
L1 L 2 Ln
L opposing = L1 + L2 - 2M
h. Types of inductor:
Air-core Inductor
Used for radio frequency applications
Inductance in μH to mH
Typical coefficient of coupling from 0.05 to 0.3
Iron-Core Conductor
Used for 60-Hz and audio frequency applications
Inductance from 1H to 25H
Typical coefficient of coupling equals 1
3. CAPACITOR
Stores electric energy
Previously called as condenser (deprecated)
Essentially consists of two conducting plates called electrodes separated by
a layer called dielectric.
a. Capacitance(C)
The electrical size of the capacitor
A measure of how much electric energy a capacitor can store expressed in
Farads (F)
Previously called capacity (deprecated) and permittance (obsolete)
Permittivity(ε) is a measure of how well a dielectric will permit the
establishment of flux lines within the dielectric
Q
C= where:
E
C = capacitance in farad, F
Q = charge stored in Coulomb, C
E = voltage across the capacitor in volt, V
o r A
C= where:
d
εo = absolute permittivity
= 8.854 x 10-12 F/m
εr = dielectric constant
A = area of parallel plates, m2
d = plate separation, m
Air or Vacuum 1
Polyvinyl 3.3
Aluminum Oxide 7
Glass 8
Tantalum 25
Paper 2 to 6
Mica 3 to 8
Ceramic 80 to 1200
Table 3: Dielectric constants of material
b. Elastance (S)
The reciprocal of capacitance
Has a unit of daraf
1
S=
C
c. Uses of Capacitor
Blocks DC
Couples AC
Filter
Tuning
Signal Generation
Energy Storage
λ= RC where: C = capacitance
R = resistance
dv
Ic = C ( ) where: Ic = current in a capacitor
dt
dv/dt = rate of change in voltage
h. Capacitive Reactance
1
Xc = where: Xc = inductive reactance
2fC
f = frequency
i. Total Capacitance
1 1 1 -1
C series= ( + + …+ )
C1 C 2 Cn
C parallel = C1 + C2 +… +Cn
j. Types of capacitor:
Fixed Capacitors
a. Mica
Capacitance values range approximately 1pF to 0.1μF
Used over a wide temperature range (-55 to +150°C)
b. Paper
Packaged as a “rolled sandwich”
Variety of values, 500pF to 50µF
Operating ambient temperatures is as high as 125°C
c. Plastic Film
Plastics used include polystyrene, polycarbonate, and polyester (Mylar)
Available in typical ranges 500pF to 10μF
d. Ceramic
Low-k ceramic capacitor is widely used in temperature compensation
network
High-k ceramic capacitor change their value appreciably with temperature, dc
voltage and frequency
e. Electrolytic
Can be aluminum and tantalum and either polarized or non-polarized
Used where large value of capacitance in a small volume is required.
Variable Capacitors
a. Air variable
Capacitance values ranges from a few picofarads up to 500pF
Maximum voltage rating is 9kV
b. Trimmer
Utilized for fine tuning and in hybrid microelectronics circuit
Chip Capacitors
No larger than a match head
Volumetric efficient
k. Capacitor Failures
Catastropic
A short circuit caused by dielectric breakdown or an open circuit caused by
connection failure
Degradation
Results in a gradual decrease in leakage resistance and hence gradual
increase in leakage current
l. Other Parameters
Voltage Rating
Specifies the maximum DC voltage that can be applied without the risk of
damage
Temperature Coefficient
Indicates the amount and direction of a change in capacitance value with
temperature
Leakage Current
The current that result in the total discharge of a capacitor if the capacitor is
disconnected from the charging network
Working Voltage
The voltage that can be applied across a capacitor for long period of time
MAGNETISM
I. MAGNETISM
A natural phenomenon in which some material (ferromagnetic) can be
attached by a magnet but not other material (non-magnetic).
2. MAGNET
A substance that attracts pieces of iron (and its compound), steel, nickel,
cobalt.
Natural magnet exhibits permanent magnetism
Lodestone, a natural magnet
Artificial magnets produce by exposing or subjecting a magnetic material into
a magnetizing force
Alnico, permanent magnet often used in speakers
Hipernik is used in high power transformers
Keeper, placed across poles to maintain strength during storage
Air gap, air space between poles of magnet
Degaussing, another name of demagnetization
Curie temperature, temperature where materials lose magnetism
600° C - ferrite
280° C – broadline
100° C – YIG (Yttrium-Iron-Garnet)
1. FLUX (ø)
Known as the magnetic lines of force
Represent the lines which seem to emanate from north and terminates to
South Pole.
Maxwell (Mx), cgs unit of flux named after Scottish physicist, James Clerk
Maxwell(1831-1879)
Weber (Wb), SI unit of flux and named after German physicist Wilhelm
Weber(1804-1891)
β=ø/A
mmf
H=
length
5. PERMEABILITY
Permeance (P)
Property that concentrates the magnetic flux
A measure of the ability of a magnetic circuit to permit the setting up of flux.
Counterpart of Conductance in an electric circuit.
Reluctance, reciprocal of permeance which is the limiter of the magnetic
circuit to the establishment of a magnetic flux.
Ferromagnetic
With very high relative permeability from 50 to 5000
Strongly magnetized in the same direction as magnetizing force
Examples: alnico, cobalt, iron, nickel, steel, ferrites
Paramagnetic
With relative permeability slightly greater than 1
Weakly magnetized in the same direction as the magnetizing force
Examples: aluminum, chromium, manganese, platinum
Non- Magnetic
With permeability equals to space or vacuum permeability which is equals to
4π x 10-7 H/m
With relative permeability equals to 1
do allow magnetism to pass through them, but they never become
magnetized to any noticeable degree
Diamagnetic
with relative permeability slightly less than 1
weakly magnetized in opposite direction as magnetizing force
examples: antimony, bismuth, copper, gold, mercury, silver, zinc
1. HYSTERESIS
the delayed reaction of the magnetization of a ferromagnetic material with the
change of the magnetizing force
2. MAGNETIC Analysis
a. Faraday’s Law
“The amount of induced voltage is directly dependent on the number of
turns of a coil and on the rate a flux cuts the conductor”
d
V induced = N( ) where: N = number of turns
dt
dø/dt = rate of change in flux
b. Lenz’ Law
“States that the direction of the induced current produces magnetic field
that opposes the action that produced the induced current”
d. Hall Effect
the concept whereby a small voltage is generated whenever a conductor with
current in an external magnetic field is known
e. Wiegand Effect
the effect that describes the ability of a mechanically stressed ferromagnetic
wire to recognized rapid switching of magnetization when subjected to a DC
magnetic field
TEST YOURSELF 1
Review Questions
Answer a. Atoms
3. In the periodic table, all elements are arranged in the order according to their (April, 2004)
a. Atomic number
b. Valence
c. Nucleus
d. Characteristics
4. What do you call the subatomic particle that has a mass approximately equal to that of the
proton, but it has no electrical charge? (April, 2004)
a. Atom
b. Proton
c. Electron
d. Neutron
Answer d. Neutron
8. The definite discrete amount of energy required to move an electron from lower shell to another
shell (November, 1999)
a. Negative energy
b. Positive energy
c. Quantum
d. Quanta
Answer c. Quantum
9. The force between two magnetic poles in relation to their pole strength is________ (November,
1999)
a. Not related
b. Inversely proportional
c. Directly proportional
d. Independent
Answer b. By friction
11. Very few metals are now used in their pure state. A mixture of two or more metals or a mixture
of metal and another material is called? (November, 2003)
a. Alloy
b. Colloid
c. Compound
d. Amalgam
Answer a. Alloy
12. Which of the following statement is true for metals? (November, 2003)
a. An increase in the temperature does not affect the resistance
b. An increase in temperature lowers the resistance
c. An increase in temperature increases the resistance
d. An increase in temperature doubles the resistance
Answer a. Conductor
Answer d. Conductor
15. Which of the following is not a good conductor of electricity (April, 2004)
a. Silver
b. Copper
c. Aluminum
d. Mica
Answer d. Mica
17. The total resistance of two similar wire conductors connected in parallel is _____. (November,
1999)
a. Same resistance of 1 wire
b. Double the resistance of 1 wire
c. One half the resistance of 1 wire
d. Resistance of 1 wire multiplied by 4
18. A rheostat is a device that regulates the strength of an electric current by (November, 2003)
a. Increasing the magnetic field in the circuit
b. Varying the voltage in the circuit
c. Varying the resistance in the circuit
d. Varying the current in the circuit
Answer a. Elastance
20. Which of the following describes the action of capacitor (April, 1998)
a. Converts AC to DC
b. Creates a DC resistance
c. Stores electrical energy
d. Opposes change in current flow
21. The following are the factors that affect the inductance of a coil (April, 2004)
1. The number of turns in a coil
2. The diameter of a coil
3. The coil length
4. The number of layers of windings in the coil
5. The type of core material
a. 1,2,3 and 4 only
b. 1,2,3 and 5 only
c. 1,2,3,4 and 5
d. 1,2,4 and 5 only
22. Inserting a soft iron core into a coil has what effect on the inductance of the coil? ( November,
2003)
a. Increase inductance
b. Decrease inductance
c. Does not affect the inductance
d. None of these
Answer a. Weber
26. Materials with permeabilities slightly less than that of free space are referred to as
a. Diamagnetic
b. Ferromagnetic
c. Non-magnetic
d. Paramagnetic
Answer a. Diamagnetic
27. Solve for flux density (in gauss) from a magnetic flux of 5,000 Mx through a perpendicular area
of 2 cm x 5 cm.
a. 5,000 G
b. 500 G
c. 10,000 G
d. 50 G
Answer b. 500 G
Solution
5000Mx Mx
Flux Density (gauss) = 500 500G
2cmx 5cm cm2
Answer d. Lodestone
30. It is the air space between poles of magnet .
a. Air gap
b. Vacuum
c. Free zone
d. Free space
Answer c. Non-magnetic
32. What is the law whereby the attraction or repulsion between two magnetic poles is directly
proportional to their strength? (April, 1998)
a. Coulomb’s law
b. Newton’s law
c. Coulomb’s first law
d. Norton’s law
33. _________ is the property of magnetic materials which retain magnetism after magnetizing
force is withdrawn.
a. Reluctivity
b. Resistivity
c. Retentivity
d. Conductivity
Answer c. Retentivity
Answer b. Volt-Coulomb
Answer b. Volt-ampere
37. The current of electric circuits is analogous to __________ parameter of a magnetic circuit.
a. Flux density
b. Reluctivity
c. Mmf
d. Flux
Answer d. Flux
38. Which of the following refers to the point where the intensity of magnetic lines of force is
maximum?
a. Magnetic pole
b. Weak pole
c. North pole
d. Great circle
Answer c. Carbon
40. What is the term used to express the amount of electrical energy stored in an electrostatic
field?
a. Volts
b. Watts
c. Coulombs
d. Joules
Answer d. Joules
41. When you demagnetize properly by applying an AC field and then gradually reduced it to zero,
it is called______ (November, 1997)
a. Damping
b. Decaying
c. Degaussing
d. Gaussing
Answer c. Degaussing
42. What is the flux density in gauss (G) having a flux of 12,000 Mx through a perpendicular area
of 6 cm squared?
a. 2000 G
b. 72000 G
c. 72 G
d. 200 G
Answer a. 2000 G
Solution
12000Mx
Flux Density = 2000G
6cm2
Answer a. Flux
45. What is the name of the effect of some of the magnetic field leaking off due to less than 100
percent coupling?
a. Eddy currents
b. Electromagnetic effect
c. Leakage reactance
d. Self inductance
46. The difference between the charges in the conductor is equal to the difference in potential. This
voltage caused in the moving magnetic field is called (November, 2003)
a. Electromagnetic force
b. Induced voltage
c. Electromotive force
d. Counter-electromotive force
Answer a. Watt
49. It is composed of a series of energy levels containing the valence electrons. (November, 1999)
a. Conduction band
b. Forbidden band
c. Side band
d. Valence band
Answer b. Energy