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TOPIC ONE (1)

SOLAR SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION:

The Solar System consists of the sun and those celestial or heavenly bodied or objects
that move around it, and bound to it by gravity. These objects that circle round the sun
are known as planets.

Fig. 1: Solar System

These planets move round the sun in elliptical or egg shaped orbits or form with the
sun at its centre. The planets starts with the nearest to the sun; Mercury, Venus, Earth,
Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto. The planets and the number of years
it takes to complete a cycle (going round the sun) can be seen in the diagram below:

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Fig 2: planets and years to complete a cycle

The four smaller planets or inner planets are called terrestrial planets because they
look like the earth and are primarily composed of rock and metals. The other four
planets are called Gas Giants and are substantially more massive than the terrestrial
planets. The two largest planets are Jupiter and Saturn. These planets are composed
mainly of hydrogen and helium.

The sun is the major component of the solar system; it is a big ball of hot blow gas
which emits its own light and heat. That is, the sun is the only luminous object in the
solar system. Most of the planets in the solar system possess secondary system on their
own being orbited by planetary objects known as natural satellite or moon.

Note that:

i. The Earth planet revolves around the sun in its own orbit;

ii. The nearer a planet it to the sun, the faster its speed of revolution;

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iii. All the planets revolve in one direction; and

iv. The orbit of the planets all lie in the same plane except Pluto.

Kepler’s Laws;

Kepler’s laws of planetary motion describe the orbit of object about sun. The laws are
stated as fellows:

Law 1.

The planets each travels along an eclipse with the sun at one focus.

Law2.

The line joining the sun and the planets sweeps out equal areas in equal time.

Laws 3.

The square of the period of revolution of the planets are proportional to the cubes of
their mean distance from the sun. That is T2 r3

Satellites

A satellite is any object that moves round the earth or any body in space. It can also be
described as bodies which move in orbit around the moon or planets. There are
basically two types of satellites, and they are;

1. Natural satellites

2. Artificial or manmade satellites

A natural satellites or moon is a celestial body that orbits a planet. An example of

natural satellites is the moon shining in the night over the earth. The earth’s moon is
the largest natural satellites in the solar system.

Artificial satellites are manmade or human built objects or orbiting the earth and other
planets in the solar system. Such satellites are used to study the earth and other planets
and also help in communication. Artificial satellites are mainly used by astronomers to
observe the distance universe.
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CONCLUSION:

Satellites are launched into space with the aids of rockets parking orbits. Parking orbit
is the orbit at which the period of a satellites in its orbit is exactly equal to the period
of the earth as it rotates about the axis. It can also be defined as the orbit in which a
satellites position is seen to stay over a particular place on the earth as the earth
rotates.

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 TOPIC TWO (2)
ADAPTATION OF ORGANISMS TO THEIR HABITAT

Class: JSS2 A

Subject: Basic Science

Sub Topic: Characteristics of Aquatic Organisms to their Habitat

Instructional Materials: Basic Science and Technology for Junior Secondary Schools
Book 2, Board, Marker, Banner with diagrams

Behavioural Objectives: After studying this topic, students should be able to list the
distinguishing characteristics of organisms found in the
different habitats (land, air and water).

Entry Objectives: Students have learned about definition of habitat, types of

habitats and some organisms found in the habitats.

LESSON CONTENT:

A living thing can survive in a particular habitat if its body is suited or adapted to the
environment or conditions of that habitat. Plants and animals develop special
characteristic or features features in their body in order to survive in their habitat (or
surroundings).The presence of specific feature which enable a plant or an animal to
live in a particular habitat is called adaptation.

The body structure of a fish helps it to survive inside water. The fish is adapted to live
life in water because of its following special features:

1) The head, trunk and tail of a fish merge to form a streamlined shape. The
streamlined body shape helps the fish to move through the water easily (because such
a shape offers least resistance to motion).

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2) The fish has special organs called “gills” which-help it to absorb oxygen-dissolved
in water for breathing. A fish can live in water only because it is adapted to breathe in
water. A fish cannot live on dry land because it is body shape not adapted to breathe
on land.

3) The fish has slippery scales over its body which protects the body from water and
also helpsin easy movement through water.

4) The fish has strong tail for swimming.

5) The fish has flat fins to change direction and keep its body balance in water

7) The aquatic plants have very short and small roots whose main function is to hold
the plant in place. All the parts of an aquatic plant are surrounded by water, so an
aquatic plant can absorb water and dissolved minerals directly from the surface of
their stems, branches and leaves. Since the aquatic plants do not have to depend on
their roots to obtain water and dissolved minerals, their roots are very short and small.

8) The stems of aquatic plants are soft, hollow and light, having large spaces filled
with air. The aquatic plants do not need strong stems because the surrounding water of
a pond, lakes,river keeps them up.e.g Water lily

The submerged aquatic plants have narrow and thin ribbon-like leaves which bend in
the flowing water of rivers and streams and hence do not obstruct the flow of water of
rivers and streams and hence do not obstruct the flow of water. In some plants, the
leaves are highly divided so that water can easily flow through them without damaging
them. The thin leaves of submerged plants also allow the minerals to pass into them
easily. e.g Spirogyra.

Frogs are adapted to live life in water as well as on land in the following ways:

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1)Frogs have webbed back feet which help them to swim in water (webbed feet are
formed from thin skin between toes and work like paddles for swimming). This
adaptation helps the frogs to live life in water.

2) Frogs have nostrils for breathing while on land and strong back legs for hopping
(jumping) and catching their prey. This adaptation helps the frogs to live life on land.

Evaluation Questions;

What is meant by adaptation?

How is frog adapted to live in water and on land?

Name three adaptive features in fish?

Conclusion:
Adaptation could be behavioural (communication, swarming), physiological(ability to
make venom), structural (way body of organisms are structured e.g streamlined shape
of the fish).

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 DEFINITION OF GRAPHIC PRODUCTION SKILL

Graphic Production Skill can be defined as a communicative device which

focuses on the use of symbols, tracks, trademarks, international road symbols,
maps, posters, bill-boards and handbills in the teaching learning process.It can
also be referred to as graphic design or graphic communication skill in the teaching
learning process. It involves working with and creating pictures and content in the
production of instructional materials. Graphic production or communication skill serve
as pitch and marrow of any meaningful learning because where there is effective
communication, there will be effective learning. Graphic production skill in the
teaching learning process serves as a tool to support contemporary subjects. This
implies that with the present level and advancement of technology, it is expected that
learning environment (classrooms) should have technological innovations through the
use of graphic media in impacting knowledge.

The term Graphic is from a Greek word “Graphos” meaning to write graphically and
to draw out of art forms either for illustration messages or communication. It can also
be defined as fine and applied art including visual arts that involves the application of
lines and strokes to two dimensional surface. It is imperative to note that one cannot
talk about the graphic production skill without first talking about Educational
Technology, the basis for graphic production or communication skill in the teaching
learning process. Education according to Fafunewa (1979) is the aggregate of all the
learning process by which a child develops the abilities, attitudes and other forms of
behaviours which are of positive values to the society I which he lives. Technology
on the other hand is basically the scientific application to the industrial world.
Educational Technology therefore, according to Morrish (1975) is a fashionable
synonym for Graphic Audio-Visual Aids. Reeves (1998) and Okwoli (2013), defines
educational technology as a system of approach to instruction, incorporating specific
measurable instructional objectives, diagnostic testing criteria for students’

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performance and repeated redesign of the curriculum materials until the criteria is
achieved. This definition simply means that educational technology is the production
of teaching and learning materials through Graphic production or Communication
Skill either for storage and retrieval and dissemination of information.

According to Oladumiye (2005), graphic production skill is not limited to the

classroom alone, it is used as symbols for pedestrians. It is an art or design and science
in which ideas are expressed and communicated to viewers and learners through the
use of diagrams, pictures, graphs, collages, posters etc.

Graphic production skillis the process of visual communication and problem-solving

through the use of typography, photography, and illustration. The field is considered a
subset of visual communication and communication design, but sometimes the term
"graphic design" is used synonymously. Graphic designers create and combine
symbols, images and text to form visual representations of ideas and messages. They
use typography, visual arts, and page layout techniques to create visual compositions.
Common uses of graphic design include corporate design (logos and branding),
editorial design (magazines, newspapers and books), way finding or environmental
design, advertising, web design, communication design, product packaging,
and signage.

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Graphic instructional materials are useful as motivational visual aids in education and
they are also the type of materials that teachers and students can easily create. The
pictographic imaged, words and pictures, ideas and knowledge, are basic tools for
learning. In order to interest students and other individuals, posters drawn, painted and
photographed should be enacted. The role of graphic production in the teaching
learning process cannot be overemphasized. In the teaching learning process, the
emphasis is on the medium best suitable for students to learn. Teachers need to
integrate graphic instructional materials (visual) with appropriate teaching method
which is aimed at promoting challenging experiences in learners, colours that are both
associated with the topic and pleasing to look should be selected. Teachers have a
duty to produce meaningful graphic visual message which are of good quality and
composition so that they can attract and hold attention to communicated. Pictures help
to recall experience, aid detailed study, correct misconceptions build new experi isual
communication.and give meaning to word symbols which may be used to determine a
process, and may help to form value judgment. A teacher who utilizes graphic
production skill can be a great asset to students and his teaching and instruction would
be affective.

It is an acceptable fact that instructional methods through graphic production skill are
integral process which involves people, procedures, ideas, devices and organization.
Educational researchers over the years have stated that graphic production skill is an
integral part of teaching and learning process. They opine that75% of what we learn is
through sight, 13% through hearing, 6% through tough, 3%through taste and 3%
through smell. The above statement explains the role of graphic production skill as a
vehicle that brings the teacher, the learner and the audience together to develop,
design, utilize and evaluate instructional programmes.

Visual communication as the name suggests is communication through visual aid. It is the
conveyance of ideas and information in forms that can be read or looked upon. Primarily associated
with two dimensional images, it includes: signs, typography, drawing, graphic design, illustration,
colour and electronic resources. It solely relies on vision. It is a form of communication with visual
effect. It explores the idea that a visual message with text has a greater power to inform, educate or
persuade a person. It is communication by presenting information through Visual form. The
evaluation of a good visual design is based on measuring comprehension by the audience, not on
aesthetic or artistic preference. There are no universally agreed-upon principles of beauty and
ugliness. There exists a variety of ways to present information visually, like gestures, body
languages, video and TV. Here, focus is on the presentation of text, pictures, diagrams, photos, et
cetera, integrated on a computer display.

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Roles of graphic design

1) Design speaks better than words

2) It is deeply connected with the history and philosophy of what it depicts
3) People love graphics because it captivate interest

Uses of graphic design

Narratives-Scenarios-Stories

When you’re using a storyline to relate a scenario, use still photos to add emotional depth and to
ensure the audience gets the message. Surprisingly, a voice over can work well with still photos if
you don’t have the budget for video. Ideally, you can pan the photo (move horizontally across it) or
zoom in or out of the photo to add a sense of action.

Abstract Concepts

Diagrams and graphs can help learners comprehend abstract concepts using visual language to depict
meaning. For example, in diagrams the connecting lines between elements help learners understand
relationships. Bar graphs make it easy to compare data; line graphs help learners understand trends.
So, concretize abstract information with a corresponding visual when possible.

Parts and Components

Use labeled illustrations when learners need to understand specific parts of something. This is
particularly useful when there are many components or when the parts are microscopic, hidden or
invisible.

Motion and Paths

Visuals are a potent way to show the movement of one or more entities. You can depict motion along
a line, as in this graphic that shows the path of Hurricane Katrina. You can also depict motion with
arrows, such as showing the moving parts of a machine.

Geography and Statistical Data

Maps are ideal for helping learners understand location and geography, but they can be used for
more than these purposes. Statistical maps represent variations in quantity of a particular factor, such
as population, crime rates, cell phone use or political affiliations. Learners quickly perceive and
understand map information because it is a commonly used visual format.

Concrete Ideas

Perhaps the most obvious use of visuals is to show a concrete and familiar object. When learners are
familiar with the items in a photograph or illustration, it may not facilitate learning, but pictures

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provide an aesthetic appeal that can serve to motivate them. Be cognizant of the fact that if “eye
candy” is extravagant, it could detract from the learning event.

Metaphors

Instructional designers like to use metaphors to explain something unfamiliar by comparing it with a
familiar object or idea. Metaphors offer an excellent opportunity for using visuals, because they work
well as mnemonic devices—helping learners to remember new information.

Principles Of Graphic Design

There are three responses to a piece of design — yes, no, and WOW! Wow is the one to aim for.”
(Milton Glaser, 1929)

Understanding the the major basic design principles will help you create stunning graphics. The
following are some of the major principles of graphic and communication designs

01. Balance

Balance lends stability and structure to an overall design. To understand it better, think that there’s
weight behind each of your design elements. Shapes, text boxes and images are the elements that
form your design, so it’s important to be familiar with the visual weight each of those elements
possesses. Now, this doesn’t mean that the elements always need to be distributed evenly or that they
must be of an equal size — balance is either symmetrical or asymmetrical. Symmetrical balance is
when the weight of elements is evenly divided on either side of the design, whereas asymmetrical
balance uses scale, contrast, and colour to achieve the flow in design.

02. Proximity

Proximity helps in creating a relationship between similar or related elements. These elements need
not be grouped, instead, they should be visually connected by way of font, colour, size, etc.

03. Alignment

Alignment plays a pivotal role in creating a seamless visual connection with the design elements. It
gives an ordered appearance to images, shapes, and blocks of texts by eliminating elements placed in
a dishevelled manner.

04. Visual Hierarchy

In simple words, a hierarchy is formed when extra visual weight is given to the most important
element or message in your design. It can be achieved in various ways — using larger or bolder fonts
to highlight the title; placing the key message higher than the other design elements; or adding focus
to larger, more detailed and more colourful visuals than those less relevant or smaller images.

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05. Repetition

Repetition is a fundamental design element, especially when it comes to branding. It creates a

rhythm and strengthens the overall design by tying together consistent elements such as logo and
colour palette, making the brand or design instantly recognisable to viewers.

06. Contrast

Contrast happens when there is a difference between the two opposing design elements. The most
common types of contrast are dark vs. light, contemporary vs. old-fashioned, large vs. small, etc.
Contrast guides a viewer’s attention to the key elements, ensuring each side is legible.

07. Colour

Colour is an important design basic and it dictates the overall mood of a design. The colours you
pick represent your brand and its tonality, so be careful with the palette you choose. As a graphic
designer, it’s always helpful to have a basic knowledge of colour theory, for example, gold & neutral
shades evoke an overall feel of sophistication, bright colours signal happiness, and blue creates a
feeling of calmness. Colour palettes can be used as a contrast or even to complement the elements.

08. Negative Space

We’ve discussed the importance of colours, images, and shapes, but what about the space that is left
blank? It is called the ‘negative space’, which in simple words means the area between or around the
elements. If used creatively, negative space can help create a shape and highlight the important
components of your design.

09. Typography

“Words have meaning, type has spirit,” ( Paula Scher, 1991).Typography is one of the key pillars of
design, and it speaks volumes about a brand or an artwork when executed stylistically or even
customised. Sometimes, ‘type’ is all you need to showcase your design concept.

10. Rules

Once you’re an adept graphic designer who understands the foundations of design, then it’s time to
break some of those rules. And, by that, I don’t mean, use pixelated images or an illegible font type.
Remember, whatever it is that you’re choosing to communicate, should not be compromised.

Conclusion

Although no one can say that visuals are always superior to words, the principle known as the picture
superiority effect should convince you that using effective visuals will improve learning. The
principle states that people generally have a better memory for pictures than for corresponding
words. As designers, we need to think creatively and critically in order to come up with novel yet effective design
solution that will capture learners’ interest during the improvisation of instructional materials.

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Connie , M.(2011) htt//www.theelearningcoach.com

Emmanuel B. O. (2014), Graphic Communication an Appraisal of an Art of Learning

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Fiell, C. (2008). Contemporary Graphic Design. Taschen Publishers, 2008. ISBN 978-
3-8228-5269-9
Sali Saki
London, United Kingdom
W: http://salisasaki.com

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