energies

Article
The Energy Footprint of China’s Textile Industry:
Perspectives from Decoupling and
Decomposition Analysis
Laili Wang 1,2, *, Yi Li 2 and Wanwen He 1
1 Fashion Institute, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou 310018, China; wanglaili@sina.com
2 Ecological Civilization Research Center of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University,
Hangzhou 310018, China; liyi2009@zstu.edu.cn
* Correspondence: wangll@zstu.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-571-8684-3580

Received: 22 August 2017; Accepted: 18 September 2017; Published: 22 September 2017

Abstract: Energy is the essential input for operations along the industrial manufacturing chain of
textiles. China’s textile industry is facing great pressure on energy consumption reduction. This paper
presents an analysis of the energy footprint (EFP) of China’s textile industry from 1991 to 2015.
The relationship between EFP and economic growth in the textile industry was investigated with
a decoupling index approach. The logarithmic mean Divisia index approach was applied for
decomposition analysis on how changes in key factors influenced the EFP of China’s textile industry.
Results showed that the EFP of China’s textile industry increased from 41.1 Mt in 1991 to 99.6 Mt
in 2015. EFP increased fastest in the period of 1996–2007, with an average annual increasing rate
of 7.7 percent, especially from 2001 to 2007 (8.5 percent). Manufacture of textile sector consumed
most (from 58 percent to 76 percent) of the energy among the three sub-sectors, as it has lots of
energy-intensive procedures. EFP and economic growth were in a relative decoupling state for
most years of the researched period. Their relationship showed a clear tendency toward decoupling.
Industrial scale was the most important factor that led to the increase of EFP, while decreasing energy
intensity contributed significantly to reducing the EFP. The promoting effect of the factors was larger
than the inhibiting effect on EFP in most years from 1991 to 2015.

Keywords: energy footprint; textile industry; decoupling; decomposition analysis

1. Introduction
Energy-related greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions have raised a great deal of concern in recent
decades, as GHGs have an adverse environmental impact [1]. The world’s consumption of energy
increased from 4661 Mt in 1973 to 9425 Mt in 2014 according to statistics of the International Energy
Agency [2]. The statistics also showed that the industry sector occupied approximately 30.5% of the
world’s total energy (i.e., coal, oil, natural gas, electricity) consumption in 2014. The concentration of
energy saving technologies and energy efficiency assessment methods in industry sectors has increased
significantly in order to reduce GHGs emissions.
The textile industry is a significant contributor to many national economies, encompassing both
small and large-scale operations worldwide [3]. The global fiber production has increased rapidly
with the growing consumption of textiles and clothing. It is reported that global fiber production was
approximately 97.8 million tons in 2016 [4]. Energy is the essential input for every operation along
the industrial manufacturing chain of textiles. In general, the textile industry is not considered an
energy-intensive industry compared with the metal smelting industry or the raw chemical materials
and chemical products manufacturing industry. However, the textile industry comprises a large
number of plants, which together consume a significant amount of energy.

Energies 2017, 10, 1461; doi:10.3390/en10101461 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2017, 10, 1461 2 of 11

China has been the world’s largest producer and exporter of textiles and clothing since 1994
according to WTO trade statistics [5]. The fiber production of China’s textile industry occupies more
than 50 percent of the global fiber production [6]. The textile industry is a recognized traditional pillar
industry in China. Specifically, China’s textile industry contributes to increasing employment and
income, promoting urbanization and social development. However, it also consumed large quantities
of energy in the past thirty years of rapid development. China’s textile industry is facing great pressure
to reduce industrial energy consumption. During the 13th Five-Year-Plan period (i.e., from 2016
to 2020), the energy consumption per unit industrial value-added of China’s textile industry must
decrease by more than 18 percent [6].
Globally, the textile industry has become one of the industries concerned with sustainable
initiatives. Several studies have paid attention to energy consumption in the textile industry.
Rasul [7] and Kruska et al. [8] elucidated the rational use of energy in textile industry. In addition,
Rasul presented in detail a number of feasible options for energy conservation measures in the
textile industry. Kruska et al. introduced innovative technologies of energy use in textile industry.
Abdel-Dayem et al. [9] and Muneer et al. [10] investigated the potential of solar energy utilization in
the textile industry. Palanichamy et al. [11] shared the experiences of economic and efficient measures
of energy conservation in the textile industry situated in Tamilnadu State, India. They also studied
energy use in the Indian textile industry and presented the energy-efficiency potential availability,
as well as suggesting some energy policies suitable for the Indian context to achieve the estimated
energy-savings potential [12]. Tang et al. [13] established models for the ratio of energy consumption
to yarn production over a full yarn package based on an analysis of power distribution during yarn
winding in ring spinning. Ozturk [14] estimated the energy consumption and energy cost for the
Turkish textile sector with a survey and analyzed the relationship between the energy usage and textile
production. Kocabas et al. [15] analyzed energy consumption within the context of the European
Union’s Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) Directive on a large-scale textile mill in
Turkey. Zabaniotou et al. [16] described the development of alternative energy in the textile industry
by energy recovery from cotton ginning waste. Palamutcu [17] calculated the actual and estimated
energy consumption using production ratios of electric energy in the various stages of the cotton
textile process in Turkey. Hong et al. [18] examined the energy conservation situation in the Taiwanese
textile industry and identified the areas for making energy savings to provide an energy efficiency
baseline. Martínez [19] used energy intensity, specific energy consumption, and carbon emission
intensity and measured energy efficiency performance in the German and Colombian textile industries.
Hasanbeigi et al. [20] compared energy intensity for five major sub-sectors of the textile industry
in Iran. Peng et al. [21] analyzed the overall textile industry energy efficiency gap between China
and the US and measured the longitudinal changes in the energy efficiency of China’s overall textile
industry and subsectors. Lin et al. [22] measured the rebound effect in China’s textile industry and
revealed that energy efficiency improvement is conducive for energy savings to a certain degree,
but is not the only way for China’s textile industry to realize energy savings and emission reduction.
Huang et al. [23] analyzed the energy-related GHGs emissions in China’s textile industry and analyzed
the emission characteristics.
Industrial energy consumption information is one of the key references for the establishment of
national energy policies in order to achieve energy reduction targets. This paper aims to contribute
to the understanding of energy consumption in China’s textile industry, the main factors that affect
the energy utilization, and the degrees of influence of these factors. This paper also focuses on the
relationship between energy consumption and industry development. It will fill the gaps in this
research area and provide a scientific reference for policy interventions on energy management for the
sustainable energy consumption of China’s textile industry.
Energies 2017, 10, 1461 3 of 11

2. Methodology and Data Sources

2.1. Energy Footprint

Measurement of energy is the most important issue for industrial products from the viewpoints
of efficiency and cost. The energy footprint (EFP) is one way to measure that energy consumption [24].
There exit various definitions of EFP. The EFP can be measured in local or global hectares, and in units
of energy/functional unit [25,26]. In this paper, we measured EFP in units of energy and followed the
definition of the demand for non-renewable energy resources [25]. The EFP of China’s textiles industry
can be calculated as follows:
EFP = ∑ Ei (1)

where Ei is the consumption amount of energy i (Mt standard coal equivalent (SCE)).
Energy footprint intensity (EFPI) is an indicator that measures changes in energy efficiency. It can
be calculated as follows:
EFP
EFPI = (2)
TIOV
where TIOV is the abbreviation of total industrial output value of China’s textile industry (Billion U.S.
dollars (USD)).

2.2. Decoupling Indicator

A decoupling index is a proper technique to determine the link between environmental pressure
and economic growth. The decoupling index of EFP from economic growth in the textile industry is
defined as exploring the relationship between textiles production-related energy consumption and the
textile industry economy [27]. In this paper, the decoupling indicator can be calculated according to
Equation (3) [28].

t
Dr = (1 + g ) (3)
g
where Dr is the resource (i.e., energy) decoupling indicator, and t is the yearly decrease rate of EFPI.
When EFPI decreases, t is defined as a positive value. When EFPI increases, t is defined as a negative
value. g is the yearly increase rate of TIOV. When TIOV increases, g is defined as a positive value.
When TIOV decreases, g is defined as a negative value.
There are three grades (see Table 1 and Figure 1) of decoupling state according to the values of Dr ,
t, and g. Absolute decoupling means the textile industry economy (i.e., TIOV) growth is achieved with
decreasing EFP. Relative decoupling means that EFP increases with TIOV growth but the increasing
rate of EFP is smaller than that of TIOV. A typical non-decoupling means that TIOV growth is achieved
with increasing EFP and EFP increases faster than TIOV.

Table 1. Decoupling judgments on EFP from economic growth in the textile industry.

Decoupling State Economy Increase Economy Decrease

Absolute decoupling Dr ≥ 1 Dr ≤ 0
Relative decoupling 0 ≤ Dr ≤ 1 0 ≤ Dr ≤ 1
Non-decoupling Dr ≤ 0 Dr ≥ 1
Energies 2017, 10, 1461 4 of 11
Energies 2017, 10, 1461 4 of 11

Figure 1. The framework for decoupling states.

Figure 1. The framework for decoupling states.
2.3. Decomposition Model
2.3. Decomposition Model
Index decomposition analysis is an effective approach to identify key factors (e.g., industry scale,
Index decomposition
energy analysis
efficiency, energy is anetc.)
structure, effective approach
responsible to identify keystresses
for environmental factorschange
(e.g., industry
and the scale,
impact mechanism. The logarithmic mean Divisia index (LMDI) approach is
energy efficiency, energy structure, etc.) responsible for environmental stresses change and thea widely used
impact
decomposition
mechanism. method due mean
The logarithmic to its desirable
Divisia properties
index (LMDI)in theapproach
context of is
decomposition
a widely used analysis, such
decomposition
as theoretical
method due to itsfoundation,
desirable adaptability,
properties in asthe
wellcontext
as ease of
of decomposition
result interpretation [29,30].such
analysis, In this
aspaper,
theoretical
we use LMDI method to provide a clear view on the degree of influence of the driving factors.
foundation, adaptability, as well as ease of result interpretation [29,30]. In this paper, we use LMDI
Equation (1) can be further expressed as follows:
method to provide a clear view on the degree of influence of the driving factors. Equation (1) can be
TIOV j Ej Eij
further expressed as follows:
EFP = ∑TIOV × TIOV × TIOV j
×
Ej
= VT × S j × I j × ESij (4)
TIOVj Ej Eij
where TIOVj is EFP = ∑industrial
the total TIOV ×output value × of sub-sector
× = VT × S j × textile
Ij × ESindustry (Billion (4)
TIOV TIOVj Ej j of China’s ij
USD). Ej is the total consumption of energy in the sub-sector j (Mt SCE). Eij is the amount of energy
whereconsumption
TIOVj is the i intotal
the industrial
sub-sector joutput
(Mt SCE). VT represents
value the jindustry
of sub-sector scale
of China’s factor.
textile Sj represents
industry the USD).
(Billion
industry structure factor. Ij represents the energy efficiency factor. ESij represents the energy structure
Ej is the total consumption of energy in the sub-sector j (Mt SCE). Eij is the amount of energy
factor.
consumption i in the sub-sector j (Mt SCE). VT represents the industry scale factor. Sj represents
The change of EFP during a period t is equivalent to the sum of effects linked to change in each
the industry structure factor. Ij represents the energy efficiency factor. ESij represents the energy
factor. It can be expressed as follows:
structure factor.
The change of EFP duringΔEFP a= period
EFPt - EFP 0 = VT - eff + Sto
t is equivalent the+ sum
j - eff + ES
I j - eff of effects (5)in each
ij - eff linked to change

factor. It can
where be expressed
ΔEFP as follows:
is the change of EFP from the base year (i.e., year zero) to year t. EFPt is the energy
footprint of year t. EFP0 is the energy footprint of the base year. VT-eff, Sj-eff, Ij-eff, and ESij-eff represents
∆EFPrespectively.
the effect of each factor, = EFPt − EFP 0 =
They canVTbe f f + S j−e ffrom
−ecalculated f + Ithe f + ESij−expressions:
j−e ffollowing ef f (5)
t 0
where ∆EFP is the change of EFP from the EFP ij - year
base EFPij (i.e., year t
TIOVzero) to year t. EFPt is the energy
VT - eff =
footprint of year t. EFP0 is the energy footprint t ∑
ofij -the
ln EFP base
lnEFP 0 × ln
ij year.
0 (6)
VT-eff , Sj-eff , Ij-eff , and ESij-eff represents
TIOV
the effect of each factor, respectively. They can be calculated
t 0
fromt
the following expressions:
EFPij - EFPij Sj
S j - eff = ∑EFP t −-EFP
ln EFP 0
t
lnEFP 0
S 0j TIOV t
× ln (7)
ij ij ij ij
VT −e f f = ∑ ln EFPijtt − ln 0EFPij0
× ln
TIOV 0
(6)
EFPij - EFPij EFPI tj
I j - eff = ∑ln EFP t
- lnEFP 0
× ln
EFPI 0j
(8)
ij t ij 0
EFP ij − EFPij Stj
S j−e f f = ∑ ln EFPtt − ln 0EFP0 × lnt S0 (7)
EFPijij - EFPij ij ESij j
ESij - eff = ∑EFP t − -EFP
ln EFP t0
lnEFP 0 × ln 0
ESEFPI t
(9)
ij ij ij
ij ij j
Ij−e f f = ∑ ln EFPt − ln EFP0 × ln EFPI 0 (8)
ij ij j

EFPijt − EFPij0 ESijt

ESij−e f f = ∑ ln EFPt − ln EFP0 × ln
ESij0
(9)
ij ij
Energies 2017, 10, 1461 5 of 11

Energies 2017, 10, 1461 5 of 11

2.4. Data Sources

2.4. Data
Energies Sources
2017, 10, 1461 5 of 11
This analysis covers the years 1991–2015. China’s textile industry has three sub-sectors
This analysis covers the years 1991–2015. China’s textile industry has three sub-sectors (see
(see Figure
2.4. Data
Figure 2): Manufacture
Sources
2): Manufacture of Textile
of Textile (MT);(MT); Manufacture
Manufacture of Textile
of Textile WearingWearing
Apparel,Apparel,
Footwear Footwear
and Caps and
Caps(MTAFC);
(MTAFC); and
and
This analysis Manufacture
Manufacture
covers the of Chemical
of years
Chemical Fibers Fibers
1991–2015. (MCF). (MCF).
China’sThe China
textileThe China
Energy
industry Energy
Statistical
has Statistical
three Yearbook Yearbook
(1992–
sub-sectors (see
(1992–2016)
2016) releases
releases sectors’
sectors’ yearlyyearly industrial
industrial energy energy consumption
consumption data data
collected collected
from terminal
Figure 2): Manufacture of Textile (MT); Manufacture of Textile Wearing Apparel, Footwear and Caps from terminal
factories.
factories.
We We
used used
these these
aggregate aggregate
data data
directly for directly
EFP for EFP
calculation. calculation.
The statistical The
data of statistical
TIOV
(MTAFC); and Manufacture of Chemical Fibers (MCF). The China Energy Statistical Yearbook (1992– were data of TIOV
collected
from
were2016) the
collected China
from
releases Statistical
the China
sectors’ Yearbook (1992–2016).
yearlyStatistical
industrial Yearbook (1992–2016).
energy consumption data collected from terminal factories.
We used these aggregate data directly for EFP calculation. The statistical data of TIOV were collected
from the China Statistical Yearbook (1992–2016).

Figure 2. General schematic presentation of textile industrial production and sectors. MT:
Figure 2. General schematic presentation of textile industrial production and sectors. MT: Manufacture
Manufacture of Textile; MTAFC: Manufacture of Textile Wearing Apparel, Footwear and Caps; MFC:
of Textile; MTAFC: Manufacture of Textile Wearing Apparel, Footwear and Caps; MFC: Manufacture of
Manufacture of Chemical
Figure 2. General Fibers.presentation of textile industrial production and sectors. MT:
schematic
Chemical Fibers.
Manufacture of Textile; MTAFC: Manufacture of Textile Wearing Apparel, Footwear and Caps; MFC:
3. Empirical Analysis
Manufacture of Chemical Fibers.
3. Empirical Analysis
Figure 3 displays the EFP of China’s textile industry calculated according to Equation (1) with
3.
theEmpirical
Figure
collected Analysis
3 displays can EFP
data. It the be seenof China’s textile
that the EFP industry
of China’s calculated
textile industry according to Equation
increased dramatically (1) with
from
1980 Figure
to 2015.
the collected 3 The
data. average
It can
displays be annual
theseen
EFP thatincreasing
the EFP
of China’s rate
of
textile is 4.6 percent.
China’s
industry textile There are increased
industry
calculated threetoincreasing
according periods,
dramatically
Equation (1) with from
1980 1980–1995,
the collected
to 2015. 1996–2007,
Thedata. It canand
average be 2008–2015,
seen
annual that theasEFP
increasing shown
of inisFigure
China’s
rate 3. The
4.6textile peak
industry
percent. There values of dramatically
increased
are three theincreasing
three periods
from
periods,
appeared
1980 to in
2015. 1995
The (5107
averageMt SCE),
annual 2007 (8815
increasing Mt SCE),
rate is and
4.6 2013
percent. (10246
There Mt
are
1980–1995, 1996–2007, and 2008–2015, as shown in Figure 3. The peak values of the three periodsSCE).
three The average
increasing annual
periods,
increasing
1980–1995, rates were 6.3 percent,
1996–2007, 7.7 percent, and in 2.2Figure
percent,
3. respectively. The MT sector consumes
appeared in 1995 (5107 Mtand 2008–2015,
SCE), as shown
2007 (8815 Mt SCE), and 2013 The(10246
peak values of the
Mt SCE). Thethree periods
average annual
most of theinenergy
appeared among
1995 (5107 Mt the three
SCE), sub-sectors,
2007 followed
(8815 Mt SCE), andby MCF
2013 sector
(10246 Mtand MTAFC
SCE). sector. annual
The average
increasing rates were 6.3 percent, 7.7 percent, and 2.2 percent, respectively. The MT sector consumes
increasing rates were 6.3 percent, 7.7 percent, and 2.2 percent, respectively. The MT sector consumes
most of the energy among the three sub-sectors, followed by MCF sector and MTAFC sector.
most of the energy among the three sub-sectors, followed by MCF sector and MTAFC sector.

Figure 3. Energy footprints (EFPs) of China’s textile industry and the sub-sectors.

Figure 3. Energy footprints (EFPs) of China’s textile industry and the sub-sectors.
Figure 3. Energy footprints (EFPs) of China’s textile industry and the sub-sectors.
Energies 2017, 10, 1461 6 of 11

Energies 2017, 10, 1461 6 of 11

From Figure 4 we can see that EFPIs of China’s textile industry and the three sub-sectors decreased,
Energies 2017, 10,Figure
1461 6 of 11
especiallyFrom
from 1995 to4 2015.
we can see
The thatofEFPIs
EFPI MTAFCof China’s textilethan
was smaller industry and
that of MTtheand
three
MCF.sub-sectors
EFPI of MCF
decreased, especially from 1995 to 2015. The EFPI of MTAFC was smaller than that of MT and MCF.
was theFrom
largest before
Figure 4 we2004
canand
see there was aofsharp
that EFPIs decrease
China’s from 2002
textile industry to the
and 2004. average EFPI of
Thesub-sectors
three
EFPI of MCF was the largest before 2004 and there was a sharp decrease from 2002 to 2004. The
China’s textile
decreased, industry
especially showed
from 1995 toa 2015.
similar
Thetrend
EFPI to that of MT.
of MTAFC was smaller than that of MT and MCF.
average EFPI of China’s textile industry showed a similar trend to that of MT.
EFPI of MCF was the largest before 2004 and there was a sharp decrease from 2002 to 2004. The
average EFPI of China’s textile industry showed a similar trend to that of MT.

Figure 4. Energy footprint intensities (EFPIs) of China’s textile industry and the sub-sectors.
Figure 4. Energy footprint intensities (EFPIs) of China’s textile industry and the sub-sectors.
Figure
The 4. Energy
economy footprinttextile
of China’s intensities (EFPIs)increased
industry of China’slargely
textile industry
from 1991andtothe sub-sectors.
2015. From Figure 5 we
Thesee
can economy
that mostof China’s
years aretextile industry
in a relative increasedstate.
decoupling largely
Five from 1991
years to 2015.
(2008, 2009, From Figure
2010, 2014, 5 we can
2015)
The economy of China’s textile industry increased largely from 1991 to 2015. From Figure 5 we
see that most years are in a relative decoupling state. Five years (2008, 2009, 2010, 2014, 2015) achieved
achieved absolute decoupling and three years (1994, 1997, 1998) were in the non-decoupling state.
can see that most years are in a relative decoupling state. Five years (2008, 2009, 2010, 2014, 2015)
China’s
absolute textile industry
decoupling has witnessed
and three years (1994, a clear
1997,tendency
1998) weretoward decoupling,
in the moving from
non-decoupling state.non-
China’s
achieved absolute decoupling and three years (1994, 1997, 1998) were in the non-decoupling state.
decoupling
textile industry to absolute
has decoupling.
witnessed a clear tendency toward decoupling, moving from non-decoupling to
China’s textile industry has witnessed a clear tendency toward decoupling, moving from non-
absolute decoupling.
decoupling to absolute decoupling.

Figure 5. Decoupling of EFP from economic growth in China’s textile industry.

FigureFigure6Figure
shows 5. Decoupling
5. Decoupling ofofEFP
the decomposition EFP from economic
from economic
results growth
of contributionin China’s
growth in textile
China’s
values industry.
fortextile
the industry.
change of the EFP of
China’s textile industry. As can be seen from Figure 6, Ij and Sj are inhibiting factors in the growth of
Figure 6 shows the decomposition results of contribution values for the change of the EFP of
EFP while VT and ES theij are the promotingresults factors. ofIj contributed significantly to reducing the EFP. The
Figure
China’s 6 shows
textile industry. decomposition
As can be seen from Figure 6,contribution values for
Ij and Sj are inhibiting theinchange
factors the growth of EFP of
of the
smaller
China’s textileit is, the more
industry. effectively it inhibits. The inhibiting effect
6, Ij and on EFP increasing
Sj are inhibiting from S j is not very
EFP while VT and ESij areAs thecan be seenfactors.
promoting from Figure
Ij contributed significantly to reducing factors
the EFP.in the
The growth
significant compared with Ij. VT is the most important factor that led to the increase of EFP. ESij had
EFP while
of smaller it is, V
the moreES
T and ij are theitpromoting
effectively inhibits. Thefactors.
inhibiting Ij contributed significantly
effect on EFP increasing is not verythe EFP.
fromtoSjreducing
the least effect among the four effect factors. The promoting effect was larger than the inhibiting effect
The smaller compared
significant it is, the more with Ieffectively
j. VT is the mostit inhibits.
important The inhibiting
factor effect
that led to on EFPofincreasing
the increase EFP. ESij hadfrom S is
on EFP in most years during the study period. Therefore, the changes of EFP were positive in value j
the least
not very effect
significant among the four effect factors. The promoting effect was larger than
compared with Ij . VT is the most important factor that led to the increase of the inhibiting effect
and EFP increased.
on ES
EFP. EFPij
in
had mostthe years
least during the study
effect among period.
the Therefore,
four effect the changes
factors. of EFP were
The promoting positive
effect was in valuethan the
larger
and EFP effect
inhibiting increased. on EFP in most years during the study period. Therefore, the changes of EFP were
positive in value and EFP increased.
Energies 2017, 10, 1461 7 of 11

Energies 2017, 10, 1461 7 of 11

Figure 6. Contribution values of effect factors for the change of EFP.

Figure 6. Contribution values of effect factors for the change of EFP.
4. Discussion
4. Discussion
After nearly forty years of rapid development in industry scale and technologies since China’s
reformnearly
After and open,fortythe textile
years industry
of rapid has been equipped
development in industry withscale
completed industrial production
and technologies since China’s
reformchains. As onethe
and open, of the mostindustry
textile complicated hasmanufacturing
been equipped industries, the textileindustrial
with completed industry isproduction
characterized chains.
by specialized production and is comprised of fragmented and
As one of the most complicated manufacturing industries, the textile industry is characterized by heterogeneous sectors that are
dominated by small- and medium-sized enterprises. Spinning, weaving, dyeing, and finishing are
specialized production and is comprised of fragmented and heterogeneous sectors that are dominated
typical operations that are intensive in terms of energy consumption. These procedures belong to the
by small- and medium-sized enterprises. Spinning, weaving, dyeing, and finishing are typical
MT sector, as shown in Figure 2. Therefore, the EFP of MT was much larger than that of the other two
operations that are intensive in terms of energy consumption. These procedures belong to the MT sector,
sub-sectors.
as shown Spinning.
in Figure 2. TheTherefore, the EFPcan
term “spinning” of MTreferwas
to themuch larger than
operations (e.g., that of the other
melt-spinning, two sub-sectors.
dry-spinning,
and wet-spinning) of making synthetic fibers or the whole process (including opening,dry-spinning,
Spinning. The term “spinning” can refer to the operations (e.g., melt-spinning, carding,
and wet-spinning)
combing/drawing, of roving,
makingspinning,
synthetic andfibers or the
winding) whole yarn
of making processfrom(including
different types opening, carding,
of natural
fibers. Generally,roving,
combing/drawing, spinning is named
spinning, as winding)
and the activityofofmaking
yarn manufacturing,
yarn from different and is classified as
types of natural
conventional (e.g., ring spinning) and unconventional (e.g., rotor,
fibers. Generally, spinning is named as the activity of yarn manufacturing, and is classified as wrap, air-jet, and self-twist
spinning).(e.g.,
conventional In spinning,
ring spinning)the electricity is consumed(e.g.,
and unconventional in melting polymers,
rotor, wrap, driving
air-jet, machines,
and self-twist air
spinning).
conditioning, and lighting, but the highest electricity consumption occurs in driving machines [31].
In spinning, the electricity is consumed in melting polymers, driving machines, air conditioning, and
Weaving. At this stage, many kinds of yarns are used to produce woven fabrics by processes
lighting, but the highest electricity consumption occurs in driving machines [31].
such as winding, warping, sizing, drawing in (weaving preparation), and weaving. In order to
increase theAtwoven
Weaving. this stage,
fabricmany kinds of
production, yarns are used shuttleless
high-productivity to producelooms woven suchfabrics by processes
as water jet looms such
as winding, warping, sizing, drawing in (weaving preparation), and
and air jet looms have successfully been put into practice. Energy consumed in weaving mainly weaving. In order to increase
the woven
includes fabric
two production,
types of energy: high-productivity
electrical and heat. shuttleless
Machines, looms such as water
air conditioning, jet looms
lamps used forand air
jet looms have successfully
illumination, been put consume
fans, and compressors into practice.
electricalEnergy
energy, consumed
while heat in weaving mainly
is consumed by processesincludes
such as
two types ofsizing
energy: andelectrical
sometimes andby heat.
air conditioning
Machines, [32]. Generally, heatlamps
air conditioning, energyused is obtained from
for illumination,
burning fossil fuels such as coal, diesel oil, fuel oil, and natural gas.
fans, and compressors consume electrical energy, while heat is consumed by processes such as sizing
Dyeingby
and sometimes and airFinishing.
conditioning Fibers, yarns,
[32]. and fabrics
Generally, heatcan be dyed
energy with a wide
is obtained from range of machines
burning fossil fuels
and technologies. Dyeing and finishing processes consist of many interwoven unit operations, and
such as coal, diesel oil, fuel oil, and natural gas.
the processes generally go through repeated wet and dry operations. High temperature is always an
Dyeing and Finishing. Fibers, yarns, and fabrics can be dyed with a wide range of machines and
essential condition in dyeing and finishing. Heat is the largely consumed energy in dyeing and
technologies. Dyeing
finishing, and and finishing
it is applied via steam processes consist of oil
or heat conduction manycoil interwoven
in heating dye unit operations,
liquor, and the
heat setting,
processes
drying,generally
etc. Coal go andthrough
natural gasrepeated
are twowet and dry fuels
conventional operations.
used to heatHigh temperature
water and conduction is always
oil, an
essential condition in dyeing and finishing. Heat is the
and electrical energy is used in powering the dyeing and finishing machinery. largely consumed energy in dyeing and
finishing,Theandenergy
it is applied
efficiencyviaofsteam
China’s ortextile
heat conduction
industry during oil coil in heating
the earlier dye liquor,
developing periodheat setting,
(1980–
1995)
drying, etc.was
Coallow.and Thenatural
industry gasscale
areincreased rapidly, and
two conventional large
fuels quantities
used to heatofwater
textileand
products were oil,
conduction
manufactured
and electrical energy for isexports
used in with energy-intensive
powering the dyeing machines. Thus, both
and finishing the TIOV of China’s textile
machinery.
industry and energy consumption increased rapidly. EFP
The energy efficiency of China’s textile industry during the earlier developing and China’s textile industryperiod
economy did
(1980–1995)
was low. The industry scale increased rapidly, and large quantities of textile products were
manufactured for exports with energy-intensive machines. Thus, both the TIOV of China’s textile
industry and energy consumption increased rapidly. EFP and China’s textile industry economy did
Energies 2017, 10, 1461 8 of 11

not reach decoupling (i.e., non-decoupling). Besides, EFPI had a volatile trend, interchanging intervals
of increase and10,
Energies 2017, decrease
1461 along this period. 8 of 11
China’s textile industry experienced a recession from 1996 to 2000, which consequently restrained
not reach
the energy decoupling There
consumption. (i.e., non-decoupling).
was a sharp decrease Besides,for EFPI
EFP in had a volatile
1996. In 2001,trend,
Chinainterchanging
joined the World
intervals of increase and decrease along this period.
Trade Organization and became its 143th member. This highly affected the exports of textiles and
China’s textile industry experienced a recession from 1996 to 2000, which consequently
apparel. The average annual increasing rate of EFP was 8.5 percent from 2001 to 2007—the largest in
restrained the energy consumption. There was a sharp decrease for EFP in 1996. In 2001, China joined
the research period. Global financial crisis occurred in 2008 and led to a slight recession in China’s
the World Trade Organization and became its 143th member. This highly affected the exports of
textile industry
textiles from 2008
and apparel. Theto 2010. annual
average The average annual
increasing rate decreasing
of EFP was 8.5 rate of EFP
percent fromwas 1.2to
2001 percent
2007— from
2007 the
to 2010.
largestWithin thethe recovery
research of global
period. Globaldemand
financial andcrisisthe promotion
occurred in 2008ofand
theleddomestic
to a slightconsumption
recession of
clothing, the industrial
in China’s production
textile industry of textiles
from 2008 to 2010.andTheclothing
average increased and resulted
annual decreasing rate ofinEFP EFP wasincreasing
1.2
frompercent
2011. from 2007 to 2010. With the recovery of global demand and the promotion of the domestic
consumption
Chinese governmentof clothing, hasthemade
industrial
greatproduction
efforts in of textiles and
improving theclothing
energyincreased
efficiency andofresulted
China’sintextile
EFP increasing
industry to reducefrom 2011. consumption. The goals of energy intensity decreases are specified
energy
Chinese government has made great efforts in improving the energy efficiency of China’s textile
in the “Five-Year Plan” of China’s textile industry. For example, 15 percent per GDP decrease
industry to reduce energy consumption. The goals of energy intensity decreases are specified in the
in the 10th Five-Year Plan (2001–2005), 20 percent per GDP decrease in the 12th Five-Year Plan
“Five-Year Plan” of China’s textile industry. For example, 15 percent per GDP decrease in the 10th
(2011–2015),
Five-Yearand Plan18 percent per
(2001–2005), 20 GDP decrease
percent per GDPindecrease
the 13thinFive-Year Plan (2016–2020).
the 12th Five-Year Manyand
Plan (2011–2015), policies
and standards were also issued to restrict energy consumption in the manufacturing
18 percent per GDP decrease in the 13th Five-Year Plan (2016–2020). Many policies and standards of fibers, textiles,
and end-products (e.g., apparel, home textiles). For example, “Entry criteria
were also issued to restrict energy consumption in the manufacturing of fibers, textiles, and end- on printing and dyeing
industry (2010)”,
products (e.g.,“HJ/T
apparel,185-2006 CleanerFor
home textiles). production standard-Textile
example, “Entry industry
criteria on printing and(Dyeing
dyeing and finishing
industry
(2010)”,and
of cotton)” “HJ/T
“HJ/T 185-2006
429-2008 Cleaner production
Cleaner production standard-Textile
standard-Chemical industryfiber
(Dyeing
industryand (Polyester
finishing of fiber)”.
cotton)” and “HJ/T 429-2008 Cleaner production standard-Chemical
Eliminating energy intensity production equipment and popularizing energy saving technologies fiber industry (Polyester fiber)”.
Eliminating
in textile energy such
companies, intensity production
as energy equipment
recovery fromand popularizing
waste hot water energy
andsaving
steam, technologies
rapid enzymatic in
textile companies, such as energy recovery from waste hot water and steam, rapid enzymatic single-
single-bath treatment (REST), and cold pad-batch process are meaningful to reduce the energy intensity.
bath treatment (REST), and cold pad-batch process are meaningful to reduce the energy intensity.
Figure 7 shows the energy structure of China’s textile industry. Coal and coke, electricity, heat, and
Figure 7 shows the energy structure of China’s textile industry. Coal and coke, electricity, heat,
petroleum products products
and petroleum (e.g., kerosene, diesel oil,diesel
(e.g., kerosene, fuel oil)
oil, are
fueltheoil)main contributors
are the to energytoconsumption
main contributors energy
in China’s textile industry. With the popularization of automated
consumption in China’s textile industry. With the popularization of automated machines machines to offer better productivity
to offer
and quality, the consumption
better productivity and quality,of electricity increased
the consumption largely from
of electricity 1991largely
increased to 2015.fromHowever,
1991 to 2015. thermal
power that consumes
However, thermal coalpower and coal
that products
consumes is still
coal and thecoaldominant
products issource of electricity
still the dominant sourceconsumed of in
electricity consumed in China’s industry. For example, thermal power accounted
China’s industry. For example, thermal power accounted for approximately 75 percent of China’s total for approximately
75 percent
electric production of China’s
in 2014 total
[33].electric
Thoughproduction
the directin 2014 [33]. Though
consumption the direct
of coal consumption
and coal productsofdecreased,
coal
and coal products decreased, China’s textile industry still consumed large
China’s textile industry still consumed large quantities of coal and coal products, as the indirect quantities of coal and coal
products, as the indirect consumption increased rapidly. This also caused huge CO2 emissions in
consumption increased rapidly. This also caused huge CO2 emissions in China’s textile industry [34].
China’s textile industry [34].

Figure 7. Energy structure of China’s textile industry.

Figure 7. Energy structure of China’s textile industry.
Energies 2017, 10, 1461 9 of 11

5. Conclusions
Energy consumption is a key factor that affects the sustainable development of China’s textile
industry. A detailed analysis of energy consumption in China’s textile industry can provide essential
information for the establishment of energy policies. This paper measured the EFP of China’s textile
industry from 1991 to 2015 and investigated the relationship between EFP and economic growth in the
textile industry. Key factors that influence the EFP of China’s textile industry were also quantitatively
analyzed. The results showed that the EFP of China’s textile industry increased more than one time
from 1991 to 2015. The average annual increasing rate in the period of 1996–2007 was the largest.
Industrial scale expansion is the main factor promoting the large increase of energy consumption in
China’s textile industry. The MT sector consumes most of the energy among the three sub-sectors,
as many energy intensive procedures concentrate in this sector.
Decoupling analysis indicated that EFP and economic growth in China’s textile industry were in
a relative decoupling state for most years in the research period. The promoting effect of the factors
was larger than the inhibiting effect on EFP, increasing in most years from 1991 to 2015. Increasing
demands for textiles and clothing promote the industrial production of fibers, yarns, fabrics, and end
products that consume larger quantities of energy. Energy consumption restriction policies and the
popularization of energy saving technologies promote the decoupling of energy consumption from
economic growth, diminishing the gap between promoting factors and inhibiting factors.
With the increasing demand on domestic and foreign markets, China’s textile industry is expected
to continue its rapid growth in the near future. Industrial scale will still promote the increase of EFP.
Energy efficiency improvement is the core to reduce energy consumption. Technology upgrading is a
necessary process to reduce the energy consumption. It will also improve the industrial productivity.
Industrial structure optimization is another important mission for the government to reduce the EFP
of China’s textile industry. At present, the industry structure factor contributed little to the inhibition
of EFP’s increasing trend. Policies and standards should be strengthened to reduce the proportion of
the energy intensive sector and promote high value-added textile products manufacturing with less
energy intensity.

Acknowledgments: The authors are grateful to the Zhejiang Provincial Natural Science Foundation for providing
funding supports to this research through project LY17G030035 and LQ16G030012, to the National Natural Science
Foundation of China for providing funding supports to this research through project 71503233, to Zhejiang
Sci-Tech University for providing funding supports to this research through project ‘Zhejiang Sci-Tech University
Scientific Research Foundation (15072022-Y)’.
Author Contributions: Laili Wang and Yi Li conceived and designed the experiments; Laili Wang and Wanwen He
collected the data; Laili Wang and Yi Li calculated and analyzed the results; and Laili Wang wrote the paper.
All authors assisted with editing and revision of the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Saidur, R.; Rahim, N.A.; Ping, H.W.; Jahirul, M.I.; Mekhilef, S.; Masjuki, H.H. Energy and emission analysis
for industrial motors in Malaysia. Energy Policy 2009, 37, 3650–3658. [CrossRef]
2. International Energy Agency (IEA). Key World Energy Statistics. 2016. Available online: http://www.iea.
org/publications/freepublications/publication/KeyWorld2016.pdf (accessed on 19 August 2017).
3. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). The Textile Industry and the Environment; Technical Report
Series No.16; UNEP/IE: Paris, France, 1993; pp. 1–10.
4. Lenzing Group. Annual Report 2016. Available online: http://www.lenzing.com/fileadmin/template/pdf/
konzern/geschaftsberichte_gb_ugb_jfb/GB_EN/GB_2016_EN.pdf (accessed on 19 August 2017).
5. World Trade Organization (WTO). International Trade Statistics 2011. Available online: http://www.wto.
org/english/res_e/statis_e/its2011_e/its11_toc_e.htm (accessed on 19 August 2017).
Energies 2017, 10, 1461 10 of 11

6. Ministry of Industry and Information Technology of the People’s Republic of China (MIIT). Textile Industry
Development Plan (2010–2020). Available online: http://www.miit.gov.cn/n1146290/n4388791/c5267286/
content.html (accessed on 19 August 2017).
7. Rasul, M.G. A Review on Rational Use of Energy and its Conservation Measures in Process Industry: A Case
of Textile Industry. In Proceedings of the International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exhibition,
Perth, Australia, 15–19 May 1994; pp. 109–115.
8. Kruska, M.; Meyer, J.; Elsasser, N.; Trautmann, A.; Weber, P.; Mac, T. Rationale use of energy in textile
industry. In NRW-Initiative on Renewable Energy; Energy Agency: Scotland, UK, 2001.
9. Abdel-Dayem, A.M.; Mohamad, M.A. Potential of solar energy utilization in the textile industry—A case
study. Renew. Energy 2001, 23, 685–694. [CrossRef]
10. Muneer, T.; Maubleu, S.; Asif, M. Prospects of solar water heating for textile industry in Pakistan.
Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2006, 10, 1–23. [CrossRef]
11. Palanichamy, C.; Nadarajan, C.; Naveen, R.; Babu, N.S.; Dhanalakshmi. Budget constrained energy
conservation—An experience with a textile industry. IEEE Trans. Energy Convers. 2001, 16, 340–345.
[CrossRef]
12. Palanichamy, C.; Sundar Babu, N. Second stage energy conservation experience with a textile industry.
Energy Policy 2005, 33, 603–609. [CrossRef]
13. Tang, Z.X.; Wang, X.G.; Fraser, B. Minimizing energy consumption of yarn winding in ring spinning. Text. Res. J.
2004, 74, 1097–1103. [CrossRef]
14. Ozturk, H.K. Energy usage and cost in textile industry: A case study for Turkey. Energy 2005, 30, 2424–2446.
[CrossRef]
15. Kocabas, A.M.; Yukseler, H.; Dilek, F.B.; Yetis, U. Adoption of European Union’s IPPC Directive to a textile
mill: Analysis of water and energy consumption. J. Environ. Manag. 2009, 91, 102–113. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
16. Zabaniotou, A.; Andreou, K. Development of alternative energy sources for GHG emissions reduction in the
textile industry by energy recovery from cotton ginning waste. J. Clean. Prod. 2010, 18, 784–790. [CrossRef]
17. Palamutcu, S. Electric energy consumption in the cotton textile processing stages. Energy 2010, 35, 2945–2952.
[CrossRef]
18. Hong, G.B.; Su, T.L.; Lee, J.D.; Hsu, T.C.; Chen, H.W. Energy conservation potential in Taiwanese textile
industry. Energy Policy 2010, 38, 7048–7053. [CrossRef]
19. Martínez, C.I.P. Energy use and energy efficiency development in the German and Colombian textile
industries. Energy Sustain. Dev. 2010, 14, 94–103. [CrossRef]
20. Hasanbeigi, A.; Hasanabadi, A.; Abdorrazaghi, M. Comparison analysis of energy intensity for five major
sub-sectors of the textile industry in Iran. J. Clean. Prod. 2012, 23, 186–194. [CrossRef]
21. Peng, L.H.; Zhang, Y.T.; Wang, Y.J.; Zeng, X.L.; Peng, N.J.; Yu, A. Energy efficiency and influencing factor
analysis in the overall Chinese textile industry. Energy 2015, 93, 1222–1229. [CrossRef]
22. Lin, B.; Zhao, H.L. Technological progress and energy rebound effect in China’s textile industry: Evidence
and policy implications. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2016, 60, 173–181. [CrossRef]
23. Huang, B.J.; Zhao, J.; Geng, Y.; Tian, Y.H.; Jiang, P. Energy-related GHG emissions of the textile industry in
China. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2017, 119, 69–77. [CrossRef]
24. Palamutcu, S. Energy Footprints in the Textile Industry; Woodhead Publishing: Cambridge, UK, 2015; pp. 31–61.
25. Schindler. Energy and GHG Footprint, A Big Step Forward. 2010. Available online: http://www.schindler.
com/com/internet/en/about-schindler/corporate-citizenship/site-ecology/energy-and-ghg-footprint.html
(accessed on 19 August 2017).
26. Cucek, L.; Klemes, J.J.; Kravanja, Z. A review of footprint analysis tools for monitoring impacts on
sustainability. J. Clean. Prod. 2012, 34, 9–20. [CrossRef]
27. Tapio, P. Towards a theory of decoupling: Degrees of decoupling in the EU and the case of road traffic in
Finland between 1970 and 2001. Transp. Policy 2005, 12, 137–151. [CrossRef]
28. Lu, Z.W.; Wang, H.M.; Yue, Q. Decoupling indicators: Quantitative relationships between resource use,
waste emission and economic growth. Resour. Sci. 2011, 33, 2–9.
29. Ang, B.W. Decomposition analysis for policymaking in energy: Which is the preferred method? Energy Policy
2004, 32, 1131–1139. [CrossRef]
30. Ang, B.W. The LMDI approach to decomposition analysis: A practical guide. Energy Policy 2005, 33, 867–871.
[CrossRef]
Energies 2017, 10, 1461 11 of 11

31. Erdem, K.; Emel, K. An investigation on energy consumption in yarn production with special reference to
ring spinning. Fibres Text. East. Eur. 2007, 15, 18–24.
32. Erdem, K.; Emel, C. Analysis of energy consumption in woven fabric production. Fibres Text. East. Eur.
2010, 18, 14–20.
33. China Electricity Council (CEC). Present Situation and Prospect of Power Industry in China. Available online:
http://www.cec.org.cn/yaowenkuaidi/2015-03-10/134972.html (accessed on 19 August 2017).
34. Wang, L.L.; Du, C.; Wu, X.Y. Analysis of carbon emission of China’s textile and apparel industry. China Text. Lead.
2011, 30, 19–22.

© 2017 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).