CHAPTER 1
investigation satisfy the conservation of energy.
 The passive sign convention The passive sign convention
states that if the voltage and current associated with an element
are as shown in Fig. 1.11, the product of υ and i, with their
attendant signs, determines the magnitude and sign of the
power. If the sign is positive, power is being absorbed by the
element, and if the sign is negative, the element is supplying
power.
 Independent and dependent sources An ideal independent
voltage (current) source is a two-terminal element that
maintains a specified voltage (current) between its terminals,
regardless of the current (voltage) through (across) the
element. Dependent or controlled sources generate a voltage or
current that is determined by a voltage or current at a specified
location in the circuit.
 Conservation of energy The electric circuits under
 Tellegen's theorem The sum of the powers absorbed by all
elements in an electrical network is zero.
CHAPTER 2
SUMMARY
 Ohm's law V=IR
 The passive sign convention with Ohm's law The current
enters the resistor terminal with the positive voltage reference.
 Kirchhoff's current law (KCL) The algebraic sum of the
currents leaving (entering) a node is zero.
 Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL) The algebraic sum of the
voltages around any closed path is zero.
 Solving a single-loop circuit Determine the loop current by
applying KVL and Ohm's law.
 Solving a single-node-pair circuit Determine the voltage
between the pair of nodes by applying KCL and Ohm's law.
 The voltage-division rule The voltage is divided between two
series resistors in direct proportion to their resistance.
 The current-division rule The current is divided between two
parallel resistors in reverse proportion to their resistance.
 The equivalent resistance of a network of resistors Combine
resistors in series by adding their resistances. Combine resistors
in parallel by adding their conductances. The wye-to-delta and
delta-to-wye transformations are also an aid in reducing the
complexity of a network.
 Short circuit Zero resistance, zero voltage; the current in the
short is determined by the rest of the circuit.
 Open circuit Zero conductance, zero current; the voltage across
the open terminals is determined by the rest of the circuit.
CHAPTER 3 using this modified circuit to select them. In the second case, a current
is assigned to each mesh in the circuit.
SUMMARY  •Write a constraint equation for each current source—independent
or dependent—in the circuit in terms of the assigned loop currents
Nodal Analysis for an N-node Circuit using KCL. Each constraint equation represents one of the necessary
 Determine the number of nodes in the circuit. Select one node as the linearly independent equations, and NI current sources
reference node. Assign a node voltage between each nonreference yield NI linearly independent equations. For each dependent current
node and the reference node. All node voltages are assumed positive source, express the controlling variable for that source in terms of the
with respect to the reference node. For an N-node circuit, there loop currents.
are N−1 node voltages. As a result, N−1 linearly independent  •Use KVL to formulate the remaining N−NI linearly independent
equations must be written to solve for the node voltages. equations. Treat dependent voltage sources like independent voltage
 Write a constraint equation for each voltage source— sources when formulating the KVL equations. For each dependent
independent or dependent—in the circuit in terms of the voltage source, express the controlling variable in terms of the loop
assigned node voltages using KVL. Each constraint equation currents.
represents one of the necessary linearly independent equations,
and Nv voltage sources yield Nv linearly independent CHAPTER 4
equations. For each dependent voltage source, express the
controlling variable for that source in terms of the node
voltages.
SUMMARY
 Op-amps are characterized by:
A voltage source—independent or dependent—may be o High-input resistance
connected between a nonreference node and the reference node o Low-output resistance
or between two nonreference nodes. A supernode is formed by o Very high gain
a voltage source and its two connecting nonreference nodes.  The ideal op-amp is modeled using
 Use KCL to formulate the remaining N−1−Nv linearly independent i+ = i−=0
equations. First, apply KCL at each nonreference node not connected
to a voltage source. Second, apply KCL at each supernode. Treat
υ+ = υ−
dependent current sources like independent current sources when  Op-amp problems are typically analyzed by writing node equations at
formulating the KCL equations. For each dependent current source, the op-amp input terminals.
express the controlling variable in terms of the node voltages.
Loop Analysis for an N-loop Circuit CHAPTER 5
 •Determine the number of independent loops in the circuit. Assign a
loop current to each independent loop. For an N-loop circuit, there
are N-loop currents. As a result, N linearly independent equations
SUMMARY
must be written to solve for the loop currents.  Linearity: This property requires both additivity and homogeneity.
 •If current sources are present in the circuit, either of two techniques Using this property, we can determine the voltage or current
can be employed. In the first case, one loop current is selected to pass somewhere in a network by assuming a specific value for the variable
through one of the current sources. The remaining loop currents are and then determining what source value is required to produce it. The
determined by open-circuiting the current sources in the circuit and ratio of the specified source value to that computed from the assumed
 value of the variable, together with the assumed value of the variable,
can be used to obtain a solution.
 In a linear network containing multiple independent sources, the
principle of superposition allows us to compute any current or voltage
in the network as the algebraic sum of the individual contributions of
each source acting alone.
 Superposition is a linear property and does not apply to nonlinear
functions such as power.
 Using Thévenin's theorem, we can replace some portion of a network
at a pair of terminals with a voltage source Voc in series with a
resistor RTh. Voc is the open-circuit voltage at the terminals,
and RTh is the Thévenin equivalent resistance obtained by looking
into the terminals with all independent sources made zero.
 Using Norton's theorem, we can replace some portion of a network at
a pair of terminals with a current source Isc in parallel with a
resistor RTh. Isc is the short-circuit current at the terminals,
and RTh is the Thévenin equivalent resistance.
 Source transformation permits us to replace a voltage source V in
series with a resistance R by a current source I=V/R in parallel with
the resistance R. The reverse is also true. This is an interchange
relationship between Thévenin and Norton equivalent circuits.
 Maximum power transfer can be achieved by selecting the load RL to
be equal to RTh found by looking into the network from the load
terminals.
CHAPTER 6
SUMMARY
 The important (dual) relationships for capacitors and inductors are
as follows:
q=Cυit=Cdυtdtυt=1C∫−∞tix dxυt=Lditdtit=1L∫−∞tυx dxpt
=CυtdυtdtwCt=12Cυ2tpt=LitditdtwLt=12Li2t
 The passive sign convention is used with capacitors and inductors.
 In dc steady state, a capacitor looks like an open circuit and an
inductor looks like a short circuit.
 The voltage across a capacitor and the current flowing through an
inductor cannot change instantaneously.
 When inductors are interconnected, their equivalent inductance is
determined as follows: inductors in series combine like resistors in
series, and inductors in parallel combine like resistors in parallel.
 When capacitors are interconnected, their equivalent capacitance is
determined as follows: capacitors in series combine like resistors in
parallel, and capacitors in parallel combine like resistors in series.
CHAPTER 7
SUMMARY
First-Order Circuits
 An RC or RL transient circuit is said to be first order if it contains
only a single capacitor or single inductor. The voltage or current
anywhere in the network can be obtained by solving a first-order
differential equation.
 The form of a first-order differential equation with a constant forcing
function is
 where Aτ is referred to as the steady-state solution and τ is
called the time constant.
 The function e−t/τ decays to a value that is less than 1% of its
initial value after a period of 5τ. Therefore, the time
constant, τ, determines the time required for the circuit to
reach steady state.
 The time constant for an RC circuit is RThC and for
an RL circuit is L/RTh, where RTh is the Thévenin equivalent
resistance looking into the circuit at the terminals of the
storage element (i.e., capacitor or inductor).
 The two approaches proposed for solving first-order transient
circuits are the differential equation approach and the step-by-
 step method. In the former case, the differential equation that
describes the dynamic behavior of the circuit is solved to
determine the desired solution. In the latter case, the initial
conditions and the steady-state value of the voltage across the
capacitor or current in the inductor are used in conjunction
with the circuit's time constant and the known form of the
desired variable to obtain a solution.
 The response of a first-order transient circuit to an input pulse
can be obtained by treating the pulse as a combination of two •Two initial conditions are required to derive the two unknown
step-function inputs. coefficients in the network response equations.
Second-Order Circuits
 •The voltage or current in an RLC transient circuit can be described
by a constant coefficient differential equation of the form

 where f(t) is the network forcing function.

 •The characteristic equation for a second-order circuit

is , where ζ is the damping ratio and ω0 is the

undamped natural frequency.
 •If the two roots of the characteristic equation are
o •real and unequal, then ζ>1 and the network response is
overdamped.
o •real and equal, then ζ=1 and the network response is
critically damped.
o •complex conjugates, then ζ<1 and the network response is
underdamped.
 •The three types of damping together with the corresponding
network response are as follows:
o 1.Overdamped: