COPPER, SILVER, LEAD, VANADIUM, AND

URANIUM ORES IN SANDSTONE

AND SHALE.

WALDEMAR LIN DGREN'.

General Characteristics.--In widely separatedparts of the

world and generallyfar away from igneousrocksoresof copper,
lead, vanadiumand uranium appearin extensiveseriesof sand-
stone and shale under circumstances which indicate a common
mode of origin. They are usuallyof low tenor and in the
majority
of cases
cannotbeutilized'.
Theprimary
oresare
chalcocite,with small amounts of bornite, chalcopyrite and
pyrite; galena;roscoelite,
a vanadiummica; carnotite,a vana-
dateof uranium. Smallamounts of nickel,cobalt,molybdenum, '
barium,and seleniumare often found. While all thesesome-
timesoccurtogether,they are more commonlysegregated into
separatedepositsin which one metal predominates.Gangue
mineralsare conspicuouslyabsentor confinedto a little calcite,
barite, and gypsum,the latter probablysecondary.Where
exposedto the atmosphere oxidizedmineralsdevelop.
The depositsare rather conspicuously confinedto certain
formationsor memberswithin the Permian, Jurassic,or Trias-
sic,but do notordinarilyfollowa givenhorizonwithoutfrequent
interruptions.Characteristic occurrencesappearin fractured
andbrecciated bedsor whereplant fossilsabound. More rarely
the oresappearin fissures in the sameformationswherethey
wereevidently
depositedbyascendingor descendingatmospheric
waters. Occasionally
the ores have been leachedand carried
downinto the lower strata. They appearto haveno connection
with thermal springs.
Oricjin.mlntheir presentform the oresare assuredlyepi-
genetic,
Buttheevidence equallyclearlypointsto theirhaving
been'concentrated
by atmospheric
watersfrom smallquantities
568
 COPPER-ORES IN SANDSTONE AND SHALE. 569

of metals disseminatedin the rocks. It is believed,though the

evidence of this is less direct, that the metals were carried down
as sedimentsand solutions from older ore depositsin the adja-
cent continental areas. The sedimentsare in many casesof
shallowwater marine origin, but in part certainlyland deposits,
and often indicate arid conditions.
The waters which concentrated the ores are believed to have
beenmainly sodiumchlorideand calcium sulphatesolutionscon-
taining sulphates and perhaps chlorides of copper and lead.
Mineral associationand geologicalfeaturesindicatelow temper-
ature depositionat shallowdepths,probablywell below •ooø C.,
but below the zone'of direct oxidation. Very likely these ores
havebeenformingcontinuously
sincethe establishment
of active
water circulation in the beds; in favorable placesbelow the sur-
face concentrationmay now be in progress.

CO1'1'ER ANr• L•Ar• rmPOSITS • SAN•)STO•.

European Occurrenceg.•--The European occurrencesare con-

fined to the Permian and the Triassic, both largely agesof arid
climate and saline deposits.
The Russian Permian, extending far west from the Urals,
consistsin its lower divisionof sandstones,
marls, in part marine,
and conglomerates. The sandstonesare rich in vegetable
remains. Copperores are found over wide areas,but have not
beenworked extensivelyof late years. They are saidto average
0.9 per cent. copper. The chalcociteores replaceplant remains
andtreetrunks,or appearin the•cement
of the sandstones.The
minerals mentionedare (besidessecondarymalachite and azu-
rite): chalcocite,chalcopyrite,tetrahedrite (?), barite, vanadi-
nite,volborthite(vanadateof copperandcalcium).
Much interesthas lately beentaken in the copperdepositsof
the Khirgiz Steppes2 betweenthe Urals and the Altai in the
x For an excellent review of European localities, as well as complete index
of literature, in part difficultlyaccessible,
see Stelzner-Bergeat:Die Erzlager-
stStten, I9o4, pp. 388-439.
•Addiasseurch,A., "A Journey to Central Asia," Trans. Ir•st. Min. and
Met., •7, •9o7-•9o8, pp. 498-522.
570 kV.'tLDEM.'tR LINDGREN.

Karkaralinsk and Akmolinsk districts. Very rich copper ores

have here been found in sandstones said to be Paleozoic, and
they consistof malachite,azurite, bornite; little exact informa-
tion is available. At Nankat, west of Kokand in Turkestan,
new discoverieshave beenmade of metallic copperin sandstones
and gypsiferousmarls of Tertiary age; fossil wood and chalco-
cite are also found. 1
In Bohemia • the lower Permian (Rothliegende.)along the
south slope of the Riesengebirgecontainssimilar ores. The
lower bedscarry chalcocitewith a little silver, also somepyrite
in several horizons of the arcosic rocks, which contain abundant
plant remains.
The Permian of the Palatinatein Germanyyields nodulesof
chalcociteand chalcopyrite.
Most important from an economicstandpointand curiously
connectedwith the mineralizationof the Permian is the "Kuper-
schiefer,"or copper-bearingshaleof Central Germany; this is
describedon a subsequent page (578).
Over a large part of WesternEuropethe Trias is a copper-
bearing formation, and togetherwith the.coppermore or less
lead is found.
In England,at Alderley Edge and Mottram St. Andrews,
g
southof Manchester,copperores have been mined. They occur
in the cement of Triassic sandstones and conglomerates
and consistof copper carbonates,galena, pyromorphite,and
vanadinite;alsosome'barite,manganese and cobalt. The ores
are said to carry at most 1.4 per cent. copper. The mineral
mottramite, a vanadate of copper and lead, was discoveredat
this place.
In Germanythe Trias is dividedin three parts: The lower
variegatedsandstone(" Buntsandstein");
the middleshelllime-
stone (Muschelkalk); and the upper marls and sandstones
(Keuper); of thesethe lower and upperdivisionscontainlead
and copper ores.
• Beck, R., "Lehre yon den Erzlagerst/itten,"I9o9, 2, 172.
a Gfirich, F., Z. f. prakt. Geol., I893, pp. 37o-37I.
* Phillips,and Louis, "Ore Deposits,"I896, pp. 266-269.
 COPPER-ORES IN SANDSTONE AND SHALE. 571

In Bavaria the Keuper containsgalena and chalcopyritein

certain gypsiferousbeds,and this is associatedwith a little zinc-
blende and barite.
In Wiirttemberg galenawith a little oxidized copperore and
barite is generally distributedin the Corbula bed of the lower,
gypsiferous Keuper. In the Palatinate, the littoral character-
istics are plainly indicatedand there is an abundanceof fossil
wood; in two horizons the sandstonescontain galena and cerus-
site and were formerly worked.
In the "Buntsandstein" in Prussia and Lorraine, near Saar-
louis and other places,a horizon known as the Voltzia sandstone,
is particularly rich in lead and copperores, which at times have
been worked. The bed contains abundant plant remains. The
mineralsare cerussite,galena,chalcocite(?) and carbonates.
The best known depositsof the Trias are thoseof Commern
and Mechernich,not far from Aix-la-Chapelle, in Prussia. Lead
ores have been mined here for several hundred years, but it is
reportedthat the mines may soonbe closed. The ores-are of
low gradeand are minedin opencutsby removingabout I3O feet
of overburden. In I9O3 the ores averaged I. 5 per cent. lead
(Stelzner-Bergeat). The ores are galena, cerussite,oxidized
copperores,with a little chalcopyriteand barite,the latter filling
veins and veinlets in the sandstone. A little silver, nickel and
cobaltare present. The thicknessof the ore-bearingsandstone
is about 20 meters. Very remarkableis the generaloccurrence
of the galenain so-called"Knoten" or knottyconcretions
often
enclosingseveralsandg/'ainsand sometimes boundedby the
crystalfacesof thegalena. The epigenetic
character
of theore
is beyond doubt.
American Occurrences2--On the North American continent
aDumble,E. T., First Ann. Rept. Geol.Surv. Texas, I889, p. •86.
Schmitz,E. J., "Copper Ores in the Permian of Texas," Trans. Am. Inst.
Min. Eng., 26, 1896,pp. m5•-m52.'
Emmons,S. F., "Copper in the Red Beds,"in Bull. U.S. Geol. Survey No.
260, 19o5, pp. 221-232.
Emroohs,W. H., "The Cashin Mine," Bull. U.S. Geol. Survey No. 285,
I9O6,'pp. 125-128.
Jennings,E. P., Trans.Am. Inst. Min. Eng.,34,P-839. (Footnotecontinued
on following page.)
572 kV.4LDEM.4R LINDGREN.

copperoresare of widespreadoccurrence in the Red Bedsof the

Southwest. They occur in Texas, Oklahoma,New Mexico,
Arizona, Colorado,Utah and Idaho, always conspicuous by the
colorsof malachiteand azurite, but rarely proving of economic
importance. More success than elsewherehas attendedtheir
exploitation in New Mexico.
The ore occursin arkose sandstone,conglomerate,and clay-
shale usually associatedwith plant remainsand fossil wood.
These strata were accumulatedin shallowseasor as land deposits
by a process
of rapiddegradationof adjacentlandareasof the
RockyMountainregion. They havebeenreferredto the Upper
Carboniferous,
Permian,Trias andJura; in part the identification
of horizons difficult on account of lack of fossils, but it seems
certainthat they are presentboth in the Upper Carboniferous
and the Jurassic.
In Texas they appearover large areasin Permiansandstones
and shalesat several horizons, in strata rich in plant remains;
•ovellite,.chalcocite,
chalcopyrite,
and pyrite are the minerals
mentioned.They are saidto extendfrom 33ø to 34ø in latitude
and from 980 to •ooø in longitude.
In Oklahomaoccurrences are notedby Tarr in red shalesand
sandstonesof probablePermianage; in Stillwaterand Payne
counties. Fossil wood is often converted to chalcocite, some-
times with a shell of chalcopyrite;here unusuallyhigh silver
valuesof 3• ounces
pertonarereportedandtracesof gold.
In Colorado these ores have been observed at several places,
notablyat Red Gluch,FremontCounty,from whereLindgren
describesnodulesof chalcocitewith barite in black carbonaceous
shale;sections
showthatthecopper
sulphide
actuallyreplaces
the
Turner,H. W., Trans..din.Inst. Min. Eng.,33, P. 678.
Lindgren,W., Graton,L. C., and Gordon,C. H., "The Ore Depositsof
New Mexico,"'Prof. Pai;er U.S. Geol. Survey'No. 68.
Gale,H. S., "Geologyof CopperDeposits
nearMontpelier,
Idaho,Bull.U.
S. Geol. Survey No. 430, •9o9, pp. •2-•2•.
Lindgren,W., "Notes on CopperDeposits,"Bull. U.S. Geol.SurveyNo.
340, •9o7, pp. •7o-474.
Tarr, W. A., "Copperin the Red Bedsof Oklahoma,"E½oN.Gva:m.,
5, •9m,
pp. 221-226.
 COPPER-ORES IN SANDSTONE AND SHALE. 573

shale,the lamination of which continuesthrough the ore. Here

also chalcocitereplacesthe coal of vegetable remains. The
horizon is probably the uppermostCarboniferous. In north-
eastern Arizona, according to Gregory,• small quantities of
oxidized copperores are frequently seen in the La Plata sand-
stone. North of the Coloradothey appearin the Carboniferous
of the Kaibab Plateau, probably leached from once covering
Red Beds. South of the Colorado S. F. Emmons has described
a depositof oxidizedores and chalcocitein the Aubrey limestone
near Grandview, which he considershaving been leached from
onceoverlyingRed Bedsand carried down into the limestoneby
descendingwaters.
In southwesternColoradocopperis widely distributedin the
La Plata sandstone(Jurassic) often with vanadiumores. W.H.
Emmons has described the Cashin Mine in this formation near
Placerville. The ores are here argentiferouschalcocite,covel-
lite, andbornite,with somecalcite. No igneousrocksare present
and Emmons believes the ores to be leached from the Red Beds.
There is an active circulation of water in the formation and
springswith salt, sulphates,and hydrogensulphideabound. A
productionof about 300,000 ouncesof silver and 700,000 pounds
of copperis recordedfrom this mine.
The greatestdevelopmentof the copper-bearing sandstones is
in New Mexico; considerable productionfrom picked ore has
beenachievedat the Nacimiento depositsin the northern part of
the Statewherethe Red Beds,considerably disturbed,reston pre-
Cambrian granitic rocks which contain much older copper
deposits. The bedshave beenreferred to the Triassic on the evi-
denceof fossilplants. Accordingto F. C. Schrader(in pp. 68,
U.S. G. S., cited above) most of the copperores occur in the
basal beds and are confinedwithin a thicknessof 25 feet in a
reddishwhite'sandstone'
rich in fossilwood,whichis largely
chalcocitized.
A treetrunk60 f•et longwitha basaldiameter
of 2• feet is mentioned,which is ahnostwholly convertedto
copperglance. Besidesmalachite,azurite, and chrysocolla,there
x Gregory, H. E., oral communication.
574 I/VALDEMAR LINDGREN.

is somebarite, and, at one place, cerussite. The low grade or•s

have not been utilized.
According to the same geologist,in the Zuni Mountains in
northeasternNew Mexico the copper-bearingbeds again lie at
the baseof the Red Beds,restingon pre-Cambriangneisses which
containcopperveins. The sandstones, shales,and marls for 3ø
to 60 feet just abovethe baseof the bedscontainoxidizedores
and galenareplacingwood.
L. C. Graton describes in detail the ores from Tecolote dis-
trict, San Miguel County, which are partly in the Red Bedsof
the Upper Carboniferous(Abo formation), partly in a higher
horizon, perhapsthe Dakota sandstone. The calcareouscement
of the arkoseis replacedby chalcocite,bornire, chalcopyriteand
pyrite, the replacement
extendinginto the feldspargrains.
In the Oscura Range red sandstones,probably also of the
Carboniferous Red Beds, contain chalcocite, bornire and chalco-
pyrite, in part as replacementof fossil wood. Turner mentions
the occurrenceof plant remains from this place, said to have
been identified as the Triassic Podozamites crassifolia, the same
cycadwhichis characteristic
Qf the depogits
at Abiquit•first
studiedby Newberry.
Graton believes,contrary to Turner, that the copperoreshave
been introduced into the strata from a number of dislocations
cutting the sandstone.
Finally, I-I. S. Gale describescopperores from southernIdaho
which occur in the Ankareh Maroon shales and sandstones of
the Trias or Carboniferous (equivalent to the Permo-Carbon-
iferous of the Fortieth Parallel Survey). A thick limestone
(including the Meekoceras beds) underlying these shales is'
believedto be Triassicby somegeologists.
There are then at least two main cupriferoushorizonsin the
Southwest:(x) The Upper CarboniferousRed Beds,equivalent
to the Permo-Carboniferous,
or the Abo formation; (2) the
undoubtedlyJurassic,La Plata sandstone.
The silver depositsin the' supposedlyTriassic sandstonesof
 COPPER-ORESIN SANDSTONE AND SHALE. 575

Silver ReefI in Southern Utah (Harrisburg district), which

created quite a boom about •88o, are now only worked on a
small scale. The ores were silver chloride above the water level
and native silver and argentirein depth; copperwas alsopresent,
and seleniumis reported. Plant remains were abundant. On
the wholea secondaryconcentrationfrom a primary argentifer-
ous chalcociteis the most probableexplanation. It has already
been emphasizedthat the chalcociteuniversally carries silver,
though in the ordinary occurrencesthe tenor is rarely above•o
ounces per ton.
South .4merica.--The well known and long worked copper
deposits of Coro-Coro2 in Bolivia, a series of standstones,
believedto be of Permian age, here containseveralbedsimpreg-
nated with native copperwith somenative silver, domeykiteand
chalcocite,also much gypsum. The copper-bearinghorizons
are muchlighter in colorthan the prevailingdeepred sandstones.
Accordingto Steinmannthe strata are of Cretaceousage and
the copperwas introducedby hot waters derived from an intru-
sion of diorite. Neverthelessthe descriptionssuggeststrongly
that the depositsbelongin a different class.
.4frica.--Sufficient information is not at hand to decide
whether the recentlyopen,
ed Kata.ngaa ores of southeastern
BelgianKongo,nearRhode}ia,belongin thisdivision. Large
massesof high grade oxidized copperoresare containedin sand-
XRoelker, "The Silver Sandstone District of Utah," Trans. Am. Inst. Min.
Eng., 9, I88i, pp. 21-33.
Rothwell, "The Silver Sandstone Formation of Silver Reef," Eng. and
Min..[our., 29, 188o, pp. 25, 48, 79.
Newberry, "Report on the Property of the Stormont Silver Mining
Company," 30, i88o, p. 269; 2•, I88I, pp. 4-5.
Kemp, "Ore Deposits of United States," •9oo, p. 334.
• Older literature: See Stelzner-Bergeat (I.), p. 4•9-
Steinmann, G., RosenbuschFestschrift, I9O6, pp. 335-368.
• Farrell, J. R., "The Copperand Tin Depositsof Katanga,"Eng. and Min.
Iour., 85, April xx, I9O8, p. 564.
Buttgenbach,I-I., "Les gisementsde cuivre de Katanga," A. S. Geol.
de Belge, 3I, I9o4, p. 515.
Ball, S. H., and Shaler,M. K., "Mining Conditionsin the BelgianCongo,"
Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., x9xo.
576 WALDEMAR LINDGREN.

stones,shale, and limestone,probably of Paleozoicage. The

ores are of high grade (8 to I2 per cent.copper) and are stated
to contain a little gold and silver; somemanganese,cobalt, and
nickelare present. Barite and quartz appearas gangueminerals.
A deposit at Ruwe, in the same general region describedby
Ball, contains in a sandstone,a most curious associationof ores
yielding gold, platinum,silver, palladium,vanadium,nickel. lead
and copper,the last two metalsas vanadates. In someways this
depositsuggeststhe type now under description.

GENESIS.

The epigeneticcharacterof the copperdepositsin sandstone

is provenbeyondreasonabledoubt. The replacement of coal,car-
bonaceousshale,and calcareoussandstonecementby chalcocite
is proven. The gangue.minerals
are few andquartzis conspicu-
ouslyabsent. Baritein smallamountsis rathercommon.Irreg-
ularity in disseminationis typical, though the ores often follow
certain horizonsrather persistently. The entire independenceof
the occurrenceof igneous rocks is marked. The difference
between these depositsand the ordinary type of fissurevein is
striking, and they can not have been formed in the samemanner.
It is necessaryto explain why chalcociteis characteristicof the
first and chalcopyriteof the secondtype.
The occurrencesare mainly on the flanks of older continental
areas containing pre-Cambrian copper deposits;the sandstones
were rapidlydeposited as arkosesindicatinga long epochof rock
decay,
theproducts
of whichwererapidlysweptawayduringa
following arid epoch. Consideringthe evidenceas a whole the
sedimentarydepositsmust containfinely divided copperores in
part from solutionsderived from the land area, in part as
cupriferousdetritus. When atmosphericxvaterschargedwith
salt and gypsumsearchedthesebedsthey must have taken this
copper into solution and concentratedit in certain horizons
when reducingsubstances like coalyvegetablematter were avail-
able. In most casesthe solutionprobablycontainedthe copper
as sulphate,thoughwhere much salt was presentit might well
 COPPER-ORES IN SANDSTONE AND SHALE. 577

have been transformed into chloride; or xvhereH2S was avail-

able it might have beencarriedin solutionas sulphide.
It doesnot follow that all depositsof copperoresin sandstone
and shalebelongto this classhere described,for an impregnation
by ascendingthermal solutionsof foreign origin is a possible
contingencyin someinstances.
In the precipitation the most important chemical reactions
were those between the carbonaceousmatter of plant remains
and the calcareous cement or the kaolin in the sandstone on one
hand and the cupriferoussolutionson the other hand.

v^•q^r)•u•4 ORES • S^•½DSTO2qES.

The precedingpagesshowthat the copperdepositsoften carry

some vanadium as vanadinite or volborthite. Lately vanadium
with some uranium has been shown to be common in certain
sedimentaryhorizons in Colorado and Utah. The depositsin
Western Colorado are now worked and experimental plants
for their reductionare being erectedat Newmire, near Placer-
ville.• Some of the sandstonenear Placerville contained3.5ø
per cent. V2Oa and 0.05 per cent.UOa. Shipmentsare said to
havecontainedas muchas • •.5 per cent.UaO8 and 6.4o per cent.
V205, but on the whole the grade is probablylow.
In all these statesthe vanadium ores appear to occur in the
Jurassiclimestoneof the La Plata formation. The best known
localitiesare near Placerville in the La Sal, Paradox, and Sindbad
valleys. The ores follow certainhorizonsor appearin fissures
and brecciatedplaces; they are often associatedwith plant
• Hess, F. L., "Min. Res. U.S.," I9o7, p. 721.
Merrill, G. P., "Non-metallic Minerals," I9o4, PP. 299-320.
Hillebrand, W. F., and Ransome,F. L., "Carnotite, etc., in Western Colo-
rado," Am. ]our. Sci., 4th Ser., xo, x9oo,pp. x•o-I44. In Bull. U.S. Geol.
Survey No. 262, •9o5, pp. 9-•3. State Bureau of Mines, Colorado, Rept.

Boutwell, J. M., in Bull. U.S. Geol. Survey No. 260, I9o5, p. 205.
Gale, it.-S., "Carnotite in Western Colorado,"in Bull. U.S. Geol. Survey
No. 340, I9 O8.
Gale, H. S., "Carnotite in Rio Blanco County, Colorado,"in Bull. U.S.
Geol. Survey No. 3I$, I9O6, pp. IIO-IIT.
578 I;VALDEMAR LINDGREN.

remains. The occurrences are all within the Great Plateau prov-
ince of horizontalor gently inclinedstrata.
The most prominent mineral is the bright yellow powdery
carnotite, to which Fuchs and Cumenge give the formula
2U20•, V205, K•O, 3H•O, but Hillebrand doubtswhether the
formula is as simple as this. Oneof hisanalyses of carnotite
from Roe Cr.eek gave'
UO ................ 54.89 PI;O................ o.x3
V20 ............... •8.49 CuO ................ o.15
CaO ............... 3.34 MoOa .............. o. 18
BaO ............... 90' H•O ................ 4.54
K20 ............... 6.53 CO ................. 0.56
Insolhble........... 7.•o

Copperas greenstainsof malachite,brochantiteand azuriteis

commonlypresent in the depositsand frequently also lead.
Hildebrandalsofoundsomerriolybdenum,
arsenic,
a selenite
of
copper, and some manganese. Roscoelite,a vanadium mica
developsin the calciticor kaoliniccementof someof the sand-
Stonesin southwestern Colorado. This mineral ca/-riesonly
a small amount of oxide of vanadium, but is present in the
richestolive-coloredbedsto the extent of 2o per cent. Lately a
black mineral of doubtful composition,probably a vanadium
oxide,hasbeenfound in this regionand it is indeedpossiblethat
carnotiteis a secondaryproductof an unknownprimary vana-
dium mineral. The roscoelitehas probablynot beenaltered since
its first deposition. In the Utah bedsBoutwellfound vanadates
of coppersuchas volborthiteand calcio-volborthite.
Not similar to thesedeposits,yet perhapsof a similar origin,
are the recently discoveredimportant vanadium depositsat
Minasragra,
v nearQuisque,
Province
of Pasco,
Peru,described
by D. F. Hewett.
The vanadiumsulphide,patronite,occurshere on a large scale
as greenishblack massesassociated
with a hydrocarbonand a
• Hewett, D. F., "Vanadium Depositsof Peru," Trans. •lm. Inst. Min. Eng.,
40, I9O9, pp. 274-299.
Hillebrand,.W.F., "The Vanadium Sulphide Patronite," Your..4m. Chem.
Soc.,29,1907.
Hillebrand, W. F., •lm. ]our. Sci., 4th Ser., 24, 19o7,p. 141.
 COPPER-ORES IN SANDSTONE AND SHALE. 579

peculiarnickel-bearing
pyrite. An analysisof the patronitegave
58.79 per cent.sulphur,I9.53 per cent.vanadium,o.•8 per cent.
molybdenum,•.87 per cent. nickel, and 3.47 per cent. carbon.
The mineral forms a vein with much bitumenand clay in gently
dipping cretaceousstrata. Igneous rocks are presentin abun-
danceand may be responsible for the peculiardevelopmentof a
new type of ore.
Genesis.--Tracesof vanadiumare found, accordingto Hille-
brand,in mostigneousrocks. Smallerquantitiesoccuras oxida-
tion products in many ore deposits,mostly as vanadinite or
descloizite. More abundantlyvanadium occursin sedimentary
rockssuchas claysand shales;it is alsoconcentrated
in coal; the
ashesof many varieties are rich in vanadium.x This peculiar
relationshiphas not been fully explained;at any rate the proc-
essesof weatheringand vegetationappearto be favorableto
the doncentration of vanadium; and, to some extent, uranium
sharesin this behavior. The associationof vanadiumand copper
in the ore-bearingsandstoneshas already been emphasized,as
'wellastheir frequentoccurrence
with coalor vegetableremains.
Viewing the evidence as ,a whole the vanadium deposits
describedaboveare probablyproductsof concentration, by sur-
face waters of small quantitiesof the metal distributedthrough
littoral bedsor land depositsof sandstone
and clays.

T•i• COPI'•I•-B•AI•NG S•AX.•S OF •XNSFV. X.X).

•'

Thecelebrated
cupriferous
shale(Kupferschiefer)
of Mans-
feld in central Germany,though not identicalwith the deposits
describedin this chapter, presentsmost interestinganalogiesto
them.
A flourishingmini.ngindustryis still basedon the "Kupfer
schiefer,"the annualore productionbeingapproximately700,000
metrictonsof ore containingbetween2 and 3 per cent.of copper.
' xSeeClarke,F. W., "The Dataof Geochemistry,"
I9O7,p. 611. A coal
from the copperdepositsin sandstoneof Red Gulch, Colorado,contained,
according to Hillebrand, o.I8.per cent. vanadium.
aBestdescriptionwith literaturein Stelzner-Bergeat:"Die Erzlagerst•/tten,"
I, pp. 391-417.
58o W.4LDEM.4R LINDGREN.

The firststratumdeposited
in thesubsiding
basinof the Upper
Permianin centralGermanywasa marineconglomerate of slight
thickness. "Above it extends like a black shroud the thin bed of
cupriferousshale,one of the most remarkableproductsof the
geologicalages. Characterizedby its fauna as a shallow-sea
deposit,full of plant remainscarried in from adjacentcoasts,
the formationbearsthestampof anorganicmuddepositadmixed
with an organicprecipitation.
TM
Above the cupriferousshale,which is lessthan • meter thick,
extends a marine limestone (Zechstein), 8 to •o meters thick,
and abovethat lie thegreatgypsumandsaltmasses of the upper-
most Permian. Folding and faulting have since affectedthe
beds,and the mining now follows the inclinedstrata to a depth
of 500 meters.
The cupriferousbed averages5¸ centimetersin thickness,but
only the lower part of 20-30 centimetersis mined.
The ores are sulphides,in minute distribution through the
shalegiving it a bronzyappearance.Chalcopyritepredominates,
but there is also bornite, pyrite, chalcocite,rarely galena and
tetrahedrite. Small quantitiesof nickel, cobalt, selenium,vana-
dium, and molybdenum have been recognized; there is also
o.oto-o.ot 5 per cent.of silver. Zinc is presentand in the upper
part of the bed, not mined, there is more zinc than copper. An
averageanalysisis as follows:•'
AVERAGE ANALYSIS OF CUPRIFEROUS SHALE.

(Dr. Haase, Analyst.)

SiO, ............. 33.•5 Ag ................ o.oi4
AI•O, ............. •7.3 Ni ................ o.oi8
CaO .............. •o.4 S ................. 2.3•
MgO ............. I .o CO2 .............. 9.24
Fe ............... 2.6 H20 ............... L7
Zn ................ x.276 Bitumen ........... 9.06
Cu ............... 2.75

There is about 3 per cent. K•.O and • per cent. Na•.O; lead
amountsin placeto •.5 ¸ per cent., manganeseto about 0.25 per
cent.

xBeyschlag,F., In "DeutschlandsKalibergbau," •9o7, p. 4.

a Stelzner-Bergeat, I, p. 396.
 COPPER-ORES IN S,4NDSTONE AND SHALE. 58I

There is practicallyno gangue,exceptveinletsof gypsumand

barite. The bed is cut by faults, which in placescontainbarite,
anhydrite, calcite, niccolite, pyrite and chalcopyrite,and near
these (the so-called"Rficken") the metal contentis subjectto
enrichment, impoverishmentor removal upwards in adjacent
beds. Bergeat assertsthat these changestake place on second-
ary fissuresand cracks.
There has beenmuch controversyabout the Mansfeld deposits.
The majority of geologists regardthemas sedimentaryand syn-
genetic: v. Groddeck,Stelzner, Freiesleben,and yon Cotta held
this view, and it is sharedby Bergeat. Posepnyand Beckbelieve
them epigeneticand probablyintroducedinto the shalefrom the
"Riicken."
The "Kupfer schiefer" is certainlynot an ordinary marine
depositprecipitatedfrom the sea water.• It was laid down in a
shallow sea full of decayingvegetableand animal remainsinto
which cupriferouswaters from the surroundinglittoral was dis-
charged,mostlikely sulphatesolutionsderivedfrom the eruptives
of the early Permiah epochs. No one can read the description
of the great uniformity of distributionwithout being impressed
with the very strongargumentsfor a syngeneticorigin.
At the sametime it is properto call attentionto the character-
istic presenceof nickel, cobalt, vanadium and selenium which
recallsthe epigeneticdepositsin sandstoneso abundantaround
the shores of the Permian sea, in Bohemia and Russia, for
instance. The Mansfeld basinwas simplythen the final collect-
ing placeof the solutionsderived from adjacentdesertshores.
aIt is well known that sea water does contain a little copper,as shown
among others by Dieulafait (Am. Chim. phys., 5th Set. I8, t879, p. 359; also
C. R., 90, x573; PP. 96, 70, xox, •297), but it seems utterly insufficient to
account for the Mansfeld deposits.