1.

1 Abstract Group: Let the set of elements G ∗ 1 -1 i -i

= {gi , i ∈ N} . Then {G, ∗} is a group if the 1 1 -1 i -i
following properties are satisfied: -1 -1 1 -i i
1) Closure property: ∀ gs , gl ∈ G -i -i i 1 -1
gs ∗ gl = gm ∈ G , where ∗ is an operation on G I i -i -1 1

2) Associative property: ∀ gs , gl , gm ∈ G Ex.3: G = ({ E, A , B , C}; ∗ : matrix

1 0
multiplication) , where; E = , A =
(gs ∗ gl) ∗ gm = gs ∗ (gl ∗ gm) 0 1
In 3) Identity element:
−1
0 −1
0
,
If gs ∗ g0 = g0 ∗ gs = gs 1 0 −1 0
B= ,C=
0 −1 0 1
Then g0 is the identity element in G
Note: matrix multiplication
4) Inverse element: ∀ gs ∈ G ∃ gm ∈ G such
−1 0
that: For example: E ∗ A = ∗ =
0 −1
gs ∗ gm = gm ∗ gs = g0 ×− + × × 0 + × −1
=
Then gm is the inverse element of gs.
×− + × × + ×−
−1 0
=A
Note: 1) The inverse of gs will be denoted by gs-1 0 −1
2) We will use the group notation {G, ∗} or ∗ E A B C
just G. E E A B C
A A E C B
3) Order of the group is the number of its B B C E A
elements or -In the case of continuous – the
C C B A E
number of its independent parameters. For
example: Ex.4: G = ({ P0(123) = (123), P1(123) = (132) ,
P2(123) = (321) , P3(123) = (213) , P4(123) =
The group of order one contains one element,
(312) , P5(123) = (231); ∗ : successive
the identity element e: ee = e
By The group of order two contains two distinct
application)
Note:1)
elements. One of these must be the identity Y
element e. Call the second a : aa(= a2 ) can’t
be a . Since a2 = a implies a = e, so we have
2 3
a2 = e ; that is , a is its own inverse, a = a-1 .
X
For examples:
Part 1 Ex.1: G = ({ 1, -1}; ∗ : ordinary product) 1
∗ 1 -1 Fig. The symmetry operations on an equilateral triangle
are the rotations by ± 2π/3 about the origin and the rotations
1 1 -1 by π about the three twofold axes. Here the axes or points
-1 -1 1 of the equilateral triangle are denoted by numbers in circles
Ex.2: G = ({ 1, -1 , i , -i}; ∗ : ordinary product)
2) Successive application can be as the 1.2 Abelian Groups: A group G is abelian group 1.4 Isomorphism: Let G = {E, A, B, C, ….} be a
following: if it is commutative i.e gs ∗ gm = gm ∗ gs group of order g and let G’ = {E’, A’ , B’, C’ ,
For example: P0∗P1 = ∗ …} be a group of order g such that:
Note: you can show ex. 1 , 2 are Abelian but ex.
4 , 5 are non abelian 1) G, G’ are one – one i.e E ↔ E’ , A ↔ A’ , B
= = P1 ↔ B’ , C ↔ C’ , D ↔ D’ , ….
1.2 Order of a Group:
- Replace 1 by 1 in the first and 1 by 1 in second The order of a group ≡ the number of elements in 2) The product of any two elements of G
= 1 by 1 the group. corresponding the product of the corresponding
We will be mainly concerned with finite groups. As elements of G’ i.e AB = C in G implies that
- Replace 2 by 2 in the first and 2 by 3 in the
an example, P(3) is of order 6. A’B’ = C’ in G’.
second = 2 by 3
Note: 1) The order of an element ≡ the smallest value
Note:1) All groups having the similar
- Replace 3 by 3 in the first and 3 by 2 in the of n in the relation
Xn = E. multiplication tables have the same structure –
second = 3 by 2
they are said to be isomorphism.
∗ P0 P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 We illustrate the order of an element using P(3)
where: 2) Any group of order 2 must be isomorphic to
P0 P0 P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
(E, A). Examples are (E, mx) , (E, u) , (1 , )-1) ,
P1 P1 P0 P4 P5 P2 P3 • P0 is of order 1,
etc.
P2 P2 P5 P0 P4 P3 P1 • P1, P2, P3 are of order 2,
P3 P3 P4 P5 P0 P1 P2 1.5 Homomorphism: Let G = {E, A, B, C, ….}
P4 P4 P3 P1 P2 P5 P0 • P4, P5 are of order 3. be a group of order g and let G’ = {E1, E2 , E3 , …
P5 P5 P2 P3 P1 P0 P4 1.3 Subgroups: A subgroup ≡ a collection of , En , A1 , A2, A3 , … , An , …} be a group of
elements within a group that by themselves form a order ng such that:
Ex.5: G = ({E, A , B , C , D , F}; ∗ : matrix group.
1 0 0 1) G, G’ are one – many or many - one i.e E ↔
multiplication) ; where E = 0 1 0 ,A= Let {G, ∗ } be a group and Gs be a subset of G {Ei} A ↔ {Ai} , … .
0 0 1 which is closed under the same operation ∗ , then 2) The product of any two elements of G
0 1 0 0 0 1 {Gs , ∗ } is called a subgroup of {G, ∗ }. corresponding the product of the corresponding
1 0 0 , B = 0 1 0 , C =
Note: 1) The identity element of a group is a elements of G’ i.e AB = C in G and Ai Bj = Ck in
0 0 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 1 trivial subgroup. G’ where 1 ≤ i , j ≤ n and 1 ≤ k ≤ n
0 0 1 ,D= 1 0 0 , 2) The whole group is subgroup of itself E ↔ (Ei) = (E1 , E2 , …, En)
0 1 0 0 1 0
For examples: 1) In ex. 1: {1} is a trivial A ↔ (Ai) = (A1 , A2 , …, An)
0 1 0
F= 0 0 1 subgroup but {-1} is not a subgroup Example: Ex1. is a homomorphic of Ex4.
1 0 0 2) In ex. 2 {1 , -1} is a subgroup but {i , -i} is non 1 ↔ (P0 , P4 , P5)
∗ E A B C D F subgroup.
E E A B C D F 3) Ex.4: -1 ↔ (P1 , P2 , P3)
A A E D F B C P0 (P0,P1) (P0,P4,P5) 1.6 Cosets: Let G be a group of order g and let H
B B F E D C A (P0,P2)
be a subgroup of G of order h (h < g):
C C D F E A B
(P0,P3) If X ∈ G but X is not a member of H and H ∩
D D C A B F E XH = i.e H and XH have no common elements
F F B C A E D (disjoint). Then the set XH is called the left coset
of H in G with respect to X. Similarly, we can gs ∗ gl = gl ∗ gm For example (P0,P4,P5) forms a self-conjugate
define the right coset of H in G with respect to X subgroup of P(3), but (P0 , P1) does not. The
Then gs and gm are called conjugate elements subgroups of an Abelian group are self-conjugate
as the set of elements:
in G. The above relation is known as similarity subgroups. We will denote self-conjugate subgroups
HX = {EX , H2X, H3X , …, HhX} transformation of gs by gl. by N. To form a self-conjugate subgroup,
Note: 1) All the elements of the left coset and the  gs ∗ gl ∗ gl-1 = gl ∗ gm ∗ gl-1 Note: 1) The identity element and the whole
right coset must of course belong to the parent group are trivial invariant subgroups.
group G.  gs = gl ∗ gm ∗ gl-1
2) It is necessary to include entire classes in this
2) The order N of G is an integral multiple of Ns This relation is transitive i.e. if gs is conjugate to subgroup.
i.e N = m Ns , where m is an interger calle the gl and gl is conjugate to gm then gl is conjugate
gm. 2) The maximal subgroup which commutes with
index of Gs in G. all the elements of the group is called the center
3) The cosets are definitely subsets not subgroup Therefore the set Cj which consists of elements of the group and it is invariant and abelian
at all. that are conjugate to each other and for any two subgroup.
elements of different sets constructed but this
Examples of cosets using the group Ex.5 Let Gs = way are not conjugate to each other. 1.9: Simple and semi-simple groups:
E,A be a subgroup. Then the right cosets of Gs are:
The set C = {Cj} is called conjugacy classes of A group with no self-conjugate subgroups ≡ a
(E,A)E → E, A (E,A)C → C, F
the group. simple group.
(E,A)A → A, E (E,A)D → D, B If the group G doesn’t contain invariant
Note: 1) It is clear that the identity of the group
(E,A)B → B, D (E,A)F → F, C forms a class by itself. subgroups (other than the trivials), then it is
called simple group.
so that there are three distinct right cosets of (E,A), 2) All elements of the same class have the same order.
namely A group is called semi-simple if non of its
Example in P(3), there are three classes: invariant subgroup if it has any are abelian
(E,A) which is a subgroup 1. P0;
(B,D) which is not a subgroup 2. P1, P2, P3; Not: 1) All the subgroups of an abelian group are
3. P4, P5
invariant.
(C, F) which is not a subgroup.
Consistent with this class designation is 1.10: The quotient group , the factor group, or
Similarly there are three left cosets of (E,A) obtained the divisor group:
by X(E,A): P1 P2 P1−1 = P1 P5 = P3
The cosets of the invariant subgroup forms the
(E,A) P4 P2 P4−1 = P4 P1 = P3 .
quotient group G/Gs and its order = the index of
(C,D) Note that each class corresponds to a physically Gs in G i.e N’(G/Gs) = m , where N = m Ns.
(B,F). distinct kind of symmetry operation such as rotation of
The order of the factor group is the index of the
π about equivalent twofold axes, or rotation
To multiply two cosets, we multiply constituent self-conjugate subgroup. In Ex.5 we saw that (E,D,F)
elements of each coset in proper order. Such 1.8 Invariant Subgroups: forms a self-conjugate subgroup, N.
multiplication either yields a coset or joins two cosets. A subgroup Gs is self-conjugate (or invariant, or
The only other coset of this subgroup N is (A,B,C),
For example: normal ) if XGsX−1 is identical with Gs for all
so that the order of this factor group = 2. Let (A,B,C) =
possible choices of X in the group.
(E,A)(B,D) = (EB,ED,AB,AD) = (B, D, D,B) = (B,D) ℵ and (E,D,F) = be the two elements of the factor
Let Gs be a subgroup of G. If for all g ∈ G: group. Then the multiplication table for this factor
1.7 Conjugate and classes: group is :
g Gs = Gs g i.e g Gs g-1 = Gs ℵ
Consider the elements gs , gm , gl ∈ G such that:
then , Gs is called invariant group.
 ℵ ℵ
is the identity element of this factor group. and ℵ
are their own inverses.
Note: 1) The index of a subgroup ≡ total number of
cosets = (order of group)/ (order of subgroup).
1.11: Representation of a group:
Let G = {E, A, B,C, …} be a finite group of
order g with E as the identity element. Let T =
{T(E), T(A), T(B), T(C) , …} be a set of square
matrices , all of the same order, having the
property:
T(A) T(B) = T(AB)
But if AB = C in G  T(A) T(B) = T(C)
Then the set T of matrices is said to be a
representation of group G.
Note: 1) The order of the matrices of the set T is
called dimension of the representation.
2) The dimensionality of a representation is equal to
the dimensionality of each of its matrices, which is in
turn equal to the number of rows or columns of the
matrix.
3) The set T need not all be distinct. If each
distinct matrix of T taken only once, the resulting
set is certainly a group under matrix
multiplication.
1.12 Faithful and Unfaithful representation:
If all the matrices of the set T are distinct , there
is clearly a one-to-one correspondence between
the elements of G and matrices of T. Then the
groups T and G are isomorphic to each other and
T is called faithful representation of G.
But if the matrices of T are not all distinct,
there exists only a homomorphism between T
and G , then T is called unfaithful representation
of G.
Example: Ex.5 is faithful representation of ex.4.
Note: 1) The identity representation is clearly an
unfaithful representation.
2) Each group has at least one faithful
representation.
1.13: Some Properties of Group
Representation:
1) If E is the identity element of G , then AE =
EA = A for all elements A  G. Thus:
T(E) T(A) = T(A) T(E) = T(A).
2) If |T(A)| ≠ 0  T(E) = E, the unit matrix.
Thus, in any representation, the identity element
of the group must be represented by the unit
matrix of the appropriate order.
3) T(A) T(A-1) = T(AA-1) = T(E) = E
4) T(A-1) = [T(A)]-1
1.14: Equivalent Groups:
Suppose that we have two representations of
group G given by:
T1 = {T1(E) , T1(A) , T1(B) , …}
T2 = {T2(E) , T2(A) , T2(B) , …}
If there exist a non-singular matrix S such that:
T1(A) = S-1 T2(A) S, T1(B) = S-1 T2(B) S , …
for all elements of G.
Then T1 and T2 are said to be equivalent
representations of G.
1.15 Field:
Let F be a set of elements (a, b ,c , …) and
suppose that two binary operations ( + , ×) are
defined for the elements of F. Then F is a field if:
1) F is abelian group under + , with identity
element 0.
2) The non-zero elements of F also
constitute an abelian group under ×, with
identity elements 1 is called unity.
1.16 Vector space:
A set L of elements (u , v, w, …) is called vector
space over a field F if:
1) L is abelian group under + , with the
identity element 0.
2) Any scalar of the field F and any element
of L can be combined by an operation
called scalar multiplication to give an
element of L such that for every u, v  L
and a, b  F, we have:
a(u+v) = au + av  L
(a+b)u = au + bu  L
A(bu) = (a.b) u,
1.u = u , 0.u = 0.
Note: 1) The elements of L are called vectors
2) the multiplication of two elements of L is not
necessarily defined.
3) we shall not distinguish between the two zeros
0 and 0
4) If a vector space is defined over the field of
real numbers , it is called a real vector space.
1.17: Invariant Space:
If Ln is used to generate the the representation
of group G and such that:  A  G and   Ln
 A  Ln ; then Ln is invariant under the
transformation of G or simply invariant under G.
1.18: Subspace:
The vector space Lm is said to be subspace of
another vector space Ln if every vector of Lm is
also contained in Ln.
Note: 1) Lm is called proper subspace of Ln if the ,where D(1)(A) and D(2)(A) are square of order m Example: ex.4 isomorphic ex.5 and each of them has
vector of Lm doesn’t exhaust the space Ln. and n-m respectively ; X(A) is of order (n-m) × three classes
m and 0 is a null matrix of order (n-m) × m. in P(3), there are three classes:
2) Ln is subspace of itself.
(1)
It is clear that the two matrices D = {D (E) (1) 1. P0;
1.19: Invariant Subspace and Reducible 2. P1, P2, P3;
, D(1)(A) , D(1)(B) , …} and D(2) = {D(2)(E) ,
Representation:
D(2)(A) , D(2)(B) , …} also give us two new 3. P4, P5
The vector space Ln which is invariant under G representations of dimensions m and n-m In M(3), there are three classes:
may possess a proper subspace Lm which also respectively for the group G. In this case T is said 1. E ;
invariant under G. In such a case Lm is said to be to be reducible representation. 2. A, B, C;
invariant subspace of Ln under G, the space Ln
1.22 Irreducibility of Representation: 3. D, F
said to be reducible under G.
1.20 Hilbert space H of states or functions is a Let the  = {(E) , (A) , (B) , ….}. Since the Therefore P(3) in ex.4 has only three irreducible
complete inner product space. matrices of  are unitary, they have the form: representations in Ex.5
( ) Now if n1 , n2 , n3 are the orders of the classes , they
Note: 1) In H the components of a vector for ( ) 0
(A) = ( )
, … etc. should satisfy :
an infinite sequence of complex numbers i.e 0 ( )
n12 + n22 + n32 = 6 the order of the group
=( 1 , 2 , ….) and the series: Where we have the two representations by
and this equation has only one solution
unitary matrices S(1) = {S(1)(E) , S(1)(A) , S(1)(B) ,
∑ | | converges.
…} and S(2) = {S(2)(E) , S(2)(A) , S(2)(B) , …}; n1 = n2 =1 and n3 = 2
2) The fundamental basis vector in H are the unit which are defined in the spaces Lm and Ln and We will now consider three irreducible
orthogonal vectors: 01 = (1, 0, 0, …) , 02 = (0, hence are equivalent to D(1) and D(2) respectively. representations for the permutation group P(3):
1, 0, …) , 0j = (0, 0, , …, 1j , 0, 0, …). This process can be carried on until we can find
no unitary transformation which reduces all the P0 P1 P2
3) The component i of can be expressed as 1 1 1 1
matrices of a representation further. Thus the
the scalar product i = ( . 0i).  1’
final form of the matrices of the representation  1 -1 -1
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
4) Since an infinite Euclidean space has positive may look like.
2 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
definite measure, then it is H.
( ) ( ) 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
Example: If A is an operator that acts on then (A) = , etc
∗ ( )
the elements A form a matrix 0  ( P3 P4 P5
representation of A with matrix elements Aij.
with all the matrices of  having the same 1 1 1 1
1.21 Reducibility of Representation: reduced structure.  1’ -1 1 1
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
Let T = {T(E) , T(A) , T(B) , …} is the Note: 1) If there is no proper subspace which is 2 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
representation of G in Ln. Now if Ln has an invariant , the representation is irreducible. 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
invariant subspace Lm (m < n) under G, then the
2) Irreducible representation cannot be expressed in A reducible representations containing these three
matrices of representation have form:
terms of representations of lower dimensionality. irreducible representations are
( )
( ) 0 3) The number of irreducible representations is equal
T(A) = ( )
, … etc.
( ) ( ) to the number of classes.
 1 0 0 0 0 Here we can take
0 1 0 0 0
(G) ={(E) = 0 0 1 0 0 , (A) = N = {e; (1 2 3); (1 3 2)}; H = {e; (1 2)}:
0 0 0 1 0 H can also be one of the subgroups {e; (1 3)}; {e;
0 0 0 0 1 (2 3)}.
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 −1 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 , (B) = 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 Orthogonal group: Groups preserving bilinear
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 symmetric metrics O(N+ , N- ; r) in RN , O(N+ ,
… etc} N- ; c) in CN , O(N+ , N- ; q) in QN
Where (G) is of the form: Unitary Group: Groups preserving sesquilinear
symmetric metrics U(N+ , N- ; r) in RN , U(N+ , N-
 0 ; c) in CN , U(N+ , N- ; q) in QN

0  Note: The groups O(N+ , N- , r) and U(N+ , N- , r)
are identical since there can be no difference
It is customary to list the irreducible representations between bilinear and sesquilinear metric in a real
contained in a reducible vector space.
representation Γ(G) as
Pauli spin matrices:
Γ(G) = Γ1 + Γ1’ + Γ2 .
0 1 0 − 1 0
1.23 Direct Product : = , = , =
1 0 0 0 −1
Given two groups H ; K, their product G = H × Lie Algebra:
K is the set of ordered pairs H × K = {(h; k) : h 
H; k  K} A B = [A, B] = AB – BA
with multiplication (h1; k1) × (h2; k2) = (h1h2; k1k2), [A, B + C] = [A,B]+ [A, C]
identity eG = (eH; eK) and inverses given by (h; k)-
1
= (h-1; k-1).
1.24 Semi-direct Product:
A group G is the semi-direct product G = N ×
H of the subgroups N;H if N  G, H  G, H  N
= {e} and HN = NH = G. Thus, each element g 
G has a unique expression g = hn where n  N; h
 H. The multiplication is given in terms of such
factorisations by:
(h1n1)(h2n2) = (h1h2)(h2-1 n1h2n2);
where h2-1 n1h2  N by the normality of N.
An example of a semi-direct product is provided
by the symmetric group on 3 letters, S3.