2015.139033.experimental Psychology An Introduction - Text PDF

Under (he Editorship
of
GARDNER murphy
EXPERIMENTAL
PSYCHOLOGY:
AN INTRODUCTION
By
LEO POSTMAN
Umversuy o/ Co^fornio
and
JAMES P EGAN
Universttj of haiatja
kalyani publishers
LUDHIANA
Expekimcmtau P&vcHOLOaY An Introduction
Copyright 1949 by Harper & Row
Publishers Incorporated
All rtghii In this book are reserved

No pan of the book may be reproduced in any
manner Hhatsoerer wUhouf written permission
except lit the case of brief quotations embodied
in eriiieoi ariicies and reviews For informaiton
address Harper A flow
PubUthers Incorporated
49 fcaif iSrd Street New York IC NY
Pnee Rs 19 80
Peprinied In India by arranggn ent with Harper & Row

Publishers Incorporated
Ludhiana and Primed by Mohan Makhijanl at ReJeha

Primers Pvj Ud New Delhi 110020
To
Dorothy
anJ
Elizabeth
CONTENTS
1 TlIE SroPEOPECra/MEN-TM. FSTaiOT/XTir

Expenmentil Ps>chology as Melhod^Stimuli and
Re-
sponses as Vambles-Etpenmental Control of
Van
^.âtires—pcscnpti oaandE!rptanat\on--Fom>so(Be1i&vAnr
Studied in Espenmental ps) Oology

2. niE rsYaiownrsjCAE methods f
The Basic Probfems of Psychophysics-The Basic Con

cepts of P3ychoph>'SJCS-^:xperiincntal and Qaskntita
tive Afethods m
Psychophysics-Methods for hfeasur
ing the Absolute Threshold—Methods for Measuring
the Differential Thrcshold-Thc Method of Average
Error—The Judgment of Intervals— Comparison of Ex
penmental Procedures
3 CUTArrEOcs scN s tfiv rrr
The Pressure Sense—The Pam Sense—The Temperature
Senses— Cutaneous Receptors— Expenment I— Expen
Aunmov
The Physical Dimensions of the Auditory Stimulus—
Auditory Discnmination— Attnbutes of Auditory Ex
penence— Physiological Basis of Pitch and Loud
ness—Beats Difference Tones and Afaskmg—Aural
Harmonics—Localization of Sounds—Auditory Fa
tigue— Speech Hearing and CommumcaiiOD'Speciai
Problems of Control in Auditory Experiments— Expen
merrf /i7— Etpnvi.TOsmt JV
SVtiXL AM> TASTE
Smell-Taste-The Common Chemical Sense-Expen
ment V
CONTENTS
105
jG^^VISION '
. f 1 r-x-
of Color— Stun-
The Visual Stimulus—The Dimensions
Mixlure-Afterimagcs-Darl; Adaptation-Light
ulus
Adaptation-Visual Acuity-Spatial and Temporal Sum-
mation-Tho Duplicity Theory-Special Problems ol
Control in Visual Expcriments-Expciimcnt.
VI-Ex-
periment VII
PEnCEFTlON OF COLOR 148

Modes Appearance of Colors-Thc Color of Ob-
of
jects-Color Constanc>'-Color Contrast-Experiment
VllI—Experiment IX
'PERCETnON OF FOn^t 162
Figure and Ground— Perceptual Grouping— Form Con-
stancy— Geometrical lllusions-Experiment X— Experi-
ment XI
enCEmoN OF space 177

Sensory Systems in Space Perception-Basic \îsual
Conditiofis-The Spatial FrameworV—The Perception
ofDistance—The Perception of Size— Experiment XII—
Experiment XUl
PERCUmOX OF MO\*EMENT 208

Physical Mo'enicnt and Perceived Movement—Percep-
a Moving Stimulus—Apparent Mowinent in the
tion of
Absence of Physical Movement— Auditory' and Tactile
Stimuli to Perceived Movement- Autokinelic and In-
duced Movcmeul— Experiment XIV
Experimental axaltsis or juiximent 217
The Tasks of Analysis—Types of Judgment—The Ex-
pression of Judgments-Stimulus Scales and llesponse
Scales— Some General Principles of Judgment— llelia-
bilily and Validity of Judgments-Experiment XV—
Experiment XVI
12. REACnON* TIME AND ASSOCUTIOS 239

llcaction Time; Beaction Time, Judgment Time,
and
Latejicy-StTiid.'ird Apparatus in Bcaction-Thne
Ex-
COSTENTS
L
perij«ents-The Determinants of Reaction

Time-Asso
XVir-Expcnment
XVIlT
measurement of learstnc
275
Definition of Basic Terms—Types of
Learning— Meas
^rement of Learning-Learning Cur>es
^coNomoNTsc 2S7
A Typical Conditioning Etpenment-The Kfain Con
cepts of Conditioning—The Main Parameters of
Conditioning Experiments—Secondary Determinants—
Types of Conditioning Expenmenis— Conditioning an
Instrumental Response-Quantitative Methods in Con
ditioning— Special Problems of Control in Condibonmg
Expenments-Expenroent XIX
/I5 EXTEBIMENTAL STUDY OF MUJlA^LtEAElONC 812

Methods of Practice—The Basic Vanables m Learning
Expenmcnts-Performance as a Function of What Is
I^raed-Performance as a Function of How Leonung
Proceeds— Individual Differences Among Learners—
Special Problems of Control in Learning Experiments—
Experiment XX— Experiment XXI
reiention and forgetunc— 1 352
The Measurement of Retention—The Temporal Course
of Forgetting—The Dcterm naiits of the Rate of For
getting— Retention as a Function of the Conditions of
Learning— Retention as a Function of Interpolated Ac-
tivity Retroacbve Inliibition—Retention as a Func-
tion of the Test SituatioD-Remimscence-Evpenment
XXII— Expenment XXIll
IT.-'-'imTOmov ANm FORcrrriNc-n ijoianxtTfEtauoviis

The Memory Change—The Method of Su^
Process of
cessiveReproduction-Companson of Successne and
Reproduebon-
Single RecaUs-The Method of Serial
Report
The Continuity of Pcrcepboo Memory and
CONTENTS
Memory Changes and Testimony and Rumor-Experi-
ment XXlV
18. thansfer of traininc 418

Types of Transfer—Design of Transfer Experiments—
What Is Transferred in Transfer of Training—The Ex-
perimental Analysis of Transfer— Cross-Education—
Experiment XXV—Experiment XXVI
19. EMOTIONAL BEIlAVIOn 445

The Nature of Emotional States—Differentiation of
Emotional States—Some Measures of Physiological
Change in Emotion— Facial Expression of Emotions—
Experiment XXVII— Experiment XXVTII
20. BEIIA\TOR IN SOCIAL SITUATIONS 463

The Formation of Normsûggestion and Suggestibil-
ity—The Determinants of Suggestibility— Work in a
Group Situation-Experiment XXlX-Experiment XXX
KA&IE INDOC 501
SUBJECT INDEX 507
.
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
I Demonstration of Tlicrmal Adaptation 46
II Mapping Cutaneous Sense Spots 47
HI The Threthold of Hearing 78
IV Masking 80
V. Olfactory and Gustatory Sensitivity 102
VI Stimulus Mixture 139
VII Visual Acuity 141
VIII Color Constancy 159

IX Demonstration of Achromatic and Chromatic
Contrast 160
X Perceptual Grouping 172
XI Form Constancy 174
XII Discrimination of Visual Depth -J — 200
xiri Size Constancy 202
XIV Apparent Movement 214
XV Tlie Anchoring of a Response Scale 231
XVI Judgment TimeasaMeasureofDifficultj ofDecision 234
xvn Simple and Disjunctive Reaction Time 268
XVIII Detection ofGuilt Through Word Association 270
XIX Conditioned Hand Withdrawal 305
XX. Serial Position Effects Under Massed and

Distributed Practice 341
XI
xii LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
Speed of Learning for Different Amounts of Material 346
XXII. Retroactive Inhibition 387

J
XXIII. Retention for Completed and Interrupted Tasks 389
XXIV. Memory Change in Serial Reproduction 414
,^/XXV. Transfer of Training in Maze Learning 437

XX\T. Bilateral Transfer in Mirror Tracing 440
XX\TI. Measurement of Bodily Change in Emotion 456
XXVTII. Judgment of Facial Expression 458
XXIX, The Formation of Norms 492
XXX. Problem Solsnng in a Group Situation 490
PREFACE
THIS text w'w wTitten ior the student who has some
J^rowledge of
general psychology and who now needs
to acquaint himself »ith
cxpenmental methods rnd hboratoiy procedures
Experimental
methods and hboratorv procedures cannot of course be divorced
from ps) chologtcal facts and pnnaples Our goal was therefore
to
giyi. a survey of the rmin empirical findings
and fimcbonal rela
tionships in selected areas of experimental psychology with special
emphasis on the control manipulation and measurement of van
ables
In each of the areas selected for treatment we have presented a
few experimental exercises We are fully aware of the necessity to
organize experimental courses around the facilities available in a
given laboratory We
arc also aivare of the differences in tndition
and interests whicli make for diversity in experimental courses-a
diversity that has proved so fruitful and sUmulabng to research
Probably the bme
has not yet come to standardize our laboratory
courses We offer our exerases therefore not pnmanl) in the spirit
of a laboratory manual although the instructor can use these ex
penments in fiis laboralorv These exercises are intended more as
concrete illustrations which will supplement tlie text their em m
phasis upon specific methods of collecting and interpreting expen
mental data
Although vve book Expcnmental Psjchologij we do not
call this
for a moment we have come anywhere near treating all

think that
the different areas and prollems that experimental psycbologj now
claims The honzons of cxpenmeiital psychology are now so broad
that the best an introductory course may hope to offer is a repre-
sentative sample of methods and results Such a selection of topics
represents one way of introducing the student to this uide field
We have not attempted to document the text ettensivtly wth
references to the original sources We feel that Uie beginner in the
field might be unduly burdened bv the large number of references

xiv
PREFACE
that would be required for adequate documentation.
There are,
moreover, many facts and pnnciples which have been fully estab-
lished and accepted into the body of psychological knowledge and
which need no longer be identified with any single source. We have,
therefore, adopted the practice of most of the elementary textbooks
in psychology and have confined ourselves prinapally tc# selected
references at the end of each chapter.
In writing this text wc have at times leaned heavily upon the more
advanced treatises and handbooks. We shall not try to enumerate
these sources. Our indebtedness to specific men and their works will
be obvious.
We are grateful to the editor of this scries. Professor Gardner
Murphy, for lUs help, and encouragement Wc are indebted to
William F. John who labored patiently over many of the illustra-
tions. Elizabeth Egan kindly helped in the preparation of the manu-
script. Lorraine Lerman helped to read the proof. Our most faithful
and patient helper in the preparation of the manuscript was Dorothy
L. Postman, Without her efforts, it would have been difficult indeed
to complete this book.
Many publishers and authors have kindly consented to the repro-
ducôn of original material We are greatly indebted to them for
their courtesy. Specific acknowledgments appear in the text
I>fay,J949
Lp
Cambridge, Massachusetts
j. p,
EXPERIMENTAL
PSYCHOLOGY:
An Inttoduction
'
2
experimental psychology
eiamples given above, the number of
independent Mrigbk?. In the
Items solv'Srbyriubiec^” the
dependen^variable; the nature ^
its administration may be the inde-
the test and the conditions of
pendent variables. Similarly, we may
choose intensity of illumina-
it freely, and meas-
Uon as OTr independent variable, roanipulaUng
as the dependent variable. In all
ure the pupillary area of the eye
principle or law
such esperiments our ultimate aim is to discover a
variables over aîde
relating the dependent to the independent
range of values.
-^muUând Responses as Variables. The variables of experi-
mental psychology arejUmuli and responses; even ts in the cbviron-
ment and the organism’s responses to them.
~
Any stimulus is a selected aspect of the total environmental situa-
tion, and any response is a selected characteristic of the total com-
plex of behavior occurring at any moment Having selected such
aspects of the environmentand of behavior for study, we are then
faced with the problem that stimuli and responses are not fixed
things or events which can be reproduced identically from one
moment to another. Let us illustrate with the aid of a common ex-
perimental situation.
Suppose we require a subject to learn a series of words. These
words are printed on cards and are repeatedly exposed to the sub-
ject. Upon successive presentations of the same word, the position
of the card with respect to the subject s eyes may vary from trial to
trial. Yet, we do not distin^jsh among the different
presentations
of the same card but simply count the number of times the stimulus
card was presented. Qeatly, then, what is treated as the stimulus
in
this experiment is actually a selected class
of events having certain
properties in common. In this case, the common property is the
ability of the subject to read the word when the card is presented
to him. In short, the concept of the stimulus is a (generic or\e
U-hat «e Live just said with respe'et to the
generic nature of
stimuli applies with equal force to the
concept of response. Tn study-
ing the process oflcaraing telegraphic code,
for example the sub-
jert s response is the tapping out of a
word or phrase. We consider
all responses « equivalent that have a certain
ilFeeti tapping out a
pyen vv-ord. Tliough equivalent in effect, these
responses may and
often do, differ as regards speeiffe
movements. Tte word the’ may
SCOPE OP EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
involve ^ghtly different actions of the
fingers each time it is sent
Thus, when we count the responses, we really count
the occurrence
of a certain type of response Before
we can count responses, how-
ever, we must first decide over what range
the responses may vary
and still be included under a given ê
As long as the letters tapped
out are t h e, we accept them os the response the
Of course, if w e
were interested in the action of particular muscle groups and not
the number of words sent per minute, we would define response
in
a very different way Responses, lihe stimuli, are selected classes of
that hive cerfaio
^
Êxperimental Coluron of Variables
tical properties in common
Suppose we wish to
,
study the relation between a dependent variable,
y, and an inde-
pendent variable, x the number of tnals required to learn a list of
words as determined by the length of the list Clearly, y, the number
oftrials, depends not only on the length of the hst, x, but on a num
^herot qdier factors, z.u tv, such as the di/ficulty of the words the
speed of their presentation to the subject, and the time interval
between successive Irnls What we are mterested m, however, is
theêcific relation between tj and x, the number of trials to leant
anatHrieng'fh”o?lhe list If we let x, u, and ro vary in an uncoa
trolled way, we cannot attnbute changes in y to changes in * We
can tease out the relation between y and x best by holding x, u, and
to at constant values while varying x In our example, we would
prepare lists of different length (variable i) but of equal diQicul^
(variable z), and present these lists at the same rate (vanabJe v),
^ and with a constant tune interval between successive trials (vanable
to) Thus, we \vo uId_detcrmme variations in y as a function of
vanations in x with z, u, and «- held constant
Tlie speafic relation that wc obtain between y and x depends
upon the particular constant vnlucs Uiat we assigned to z, m, and to
We can repeat the e^nment using different values for s, u, and u,
and obtain a hew functional rclntion between y and x The vana-

parficuhr cgxninent
bles 2, u. and to, w hich are constant during a
‘"HuTwHfHnnHFSeTaH^ fforn expenment to experiment, arc called
iMifer may object that wo do rot htoic all of the i

ariables
lU boHing
ought JoDueoce our dcpondeol ranaWe y
a. o.
ivhicli
and to coDStant be sufficient i( the tmlmottn
determinants mop.
4
EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOCy
etc., are allowed to vary
in an uncontrolled manner during the exper-
dânges in room illumination
iment? What if eye movements and
arc important determinants of tj^
are uncontrolled? Perhaps these
We musthope that such uncontrolled factors vary at random,
that they do not exert a si/stemofic effect on the results of the ex-
periment. Variations in eye movements occur during the
learning
of each list. We trust that the magnitude of illumination changes

will not be greater for one length of list than for another. In short,
we assume that the effects of the uncontrolled variables, m, n, and
p, will,on the overage, be the same for all the conditions of the
experiment. Then, the teladon between y and x will not be sys-
tematically affected by m. n, p, etc.
The use of several subjects for each value of the independent
variable, x, serves to minimize the effects of individual differences.
If we used a single subject for each length of list, we would not
know whether to ascribe changes in the dependent variable, tj, to
changes in the independent variable, x, or to individual differences
among the subjects. By using several different subjects under each
condition, wc hope to average out the effects of such individual
differences. Another way to do so is, of course, to have each subject
Ie<im each length of list
Experimental and Control Groups. In studying the relation
between y and x, it is often necessary first to make sure whether or
not y depends upon x at all. If, for example, we are interested in
establishing whether or not vitamin A has an effect on night Nision,
we may conveniently answer this question by using an experimental
group and a control group. The same tests of vision are given to
both groups. We select the groups so that they will be as much
alike as is practically possible, for example, in age,
health, diet,
general visual functions, and night vision in particular. Tlie essen-
tial difference between the two groups is that the
experimental
group receives a certain dose of vitamin A, whereas the
control
group does not. Wc compare the performance of the experimental
group under conditions of night vision with that of the control
group
before, during,and after administration of vitamin A. If the experi-
mental group shows significantly superior performance over
the
control group, we asenbe this difference to the effects of
vitamin A.
We had to use a control group because wc did not know what
SCOPE OF EXPERIMENTAL PSIOHOLOCY
changes m night
vision might occur indepcndtntly of
vitamin A, sa)
as the result of practice, increased
motivation as tlie expcninent
progresses, etc The control group provides us ^\^lh an empirical
base line against which we can evaluate the
effects of the critical
variable If the effectiveness of the variable is established,
wt may
wish to quantify the relation between the amount of
x (dose of \ata
nun A) and the changes in (variations in night vision)
y
Statistic<al Significance of Experimental Results Even in a
well designed experiment the uncontrolled factors wall
not be com-
pletely averaged out Such uncontrolled factors may be responsible
for observed cb uiges in the dependent variable The experimenter
y
must decide whether the changes he has observed in \j are due to
his independent variable, x, or to uncontrolled variables rn, n p,
etc It IS at this point that statistical techniques play an miportant
role By such techniques we may estimate how probable it is that
the observed changes in tj are due merel) to the random action of
uncontrolled variables If that probability is ver) low, sv), one in a
liuudrcd wc conclude that it is the independent variable x, which
is responsible for the change m y We never prove with complete
certainty that one variable influences another Wc can be only
more or less certain that the relation between y and x is not due to
chance This degree of certainty is sometimes so high that we speah
of positive proof
Pescrintion and Explanaiion, Experimental imjuiiy neces
sanly begins with a description of the phenomena under mvestiga
tion In our duly lives we conlinuallj describe our own actions and
those of others, and we have developed a rich variety of terms for
doing so In our urge to understand ourselves and others vve often
between description and explanation We explain
fail to distinguish
away many phenomena of perception by describing the attributes

physical objects with
of our experiences and then endowing the
these attributes A sheet of white paper in
shadow looks white,
“this paper is white and coal
and coal in sunlight looks bbek because
experiences does not
is Clear\y, sneb a descsvptvow of our
blad-"
A, n/chologuls we need to make the distinction beh, een descrip-

Eiplanabon comes with to
tion and explanation w.U. utmost care dependent
relationships between
estabhshment of lawful functional
g
experimental psychologt
example, the descripUon of paper
and independent variables. In our
as white and coal as black
would be the dependent vanable deter-
and properties of the
mined by a host o£ sUmulus conditions
of Behavior Studied in Experi mental Psychology.

The forms of behavior thSan be observed arc infinitely
varied.
From this variety we must select some forms rather than others for
experimental Investigation. There are no cut*and*dried rules for

such selection. Some psychologists study the specific movements of
organisms, and others put emphasis on acts and their outcomes,
while again others concentrate upon the interaction of individuals
with their social environment. The study of all these forms of
behavior has a legitimate place in experimental psychology.
We may illustrate what is meant by different forms of behavior
with the aid of the following examples. Let us begin with a rela*
lively simple and circumscribed response. When a puff of air is
directed at the cornea of the eye, Ae human subject responds by
blinking. This response is highly reliable since It will occur almost
invariably a very short time ailer the puff strikes the eye. This
response is common to virtually all people and is part of the innate
equipment of the organism. The dependent variables which we may
investigate in connection with this response are the time interval
between the air puff and the blink, the form of the response, and its
amplitude. We can readily quantify these variables.
In studying the cyeblink, we may be interested in the particular
form of the movement In many experimental situations, however,
we are not especially concerned with the spedfic nature of move-
ments. Rather we want to know whether or not a response occurs
imder given conditions, and how often it occurs over a certain
period of time. Thus, referring to our example of learning code, we
usually count the number of words that an operator can send'
per
minute. The dependent variable in this type of investigation is
a
simple counting variable; number of words. We
do not usually
record the particular movements which the operator uses, but
study
only the effects of these movements. We
do not mean to imply that
spedfic movements are unimportant Clearly, a pressure on
the
telegraph key that is too weak or too violent detracts
from the
cffidency of the operator. However, as long as the operator
improves
SCOPE OF experimental PSYCHOLOGY
wth practice, we may not be concerned with the exact
way in which
be depresses the key
Some problems m
which experimental p^chologists are inter-
ested are broader than particular
movements or their effects The
social values held by an individual
may enter as a vanable It is well
known, for example, that the effectiveness of
propaganda and sug-
gestion may vary with their source In
experimental investigations
of these phenomena, we can systematically vary the
sources of propa-
ganda and suggestion and measure the resultmg changes m ac-
ceptance and behef We may find that it is the “preshge" of the
propagandist which is an important determmer of the success of
propaganda The prestige which one individual holds for another
does not necessarily depend upon a particular kind of act or a
specific set of movements A variety of acts and a variety of move-
ments may create equal degrees of prestige It is prestige, inde-
pendent of the particular acts and movements from which it
originated, which is often the relevant vanable /or the erîenmeotal
social psychologist
Experience and fiehaWor. Among the data of experimental
psychology are not only movoments and acts but also statements
that subjects make in reference to their experience Are we justified
in using such “subjective” data? If the conditions under which the
subject reports on his expenence are clearly and rigorously defined,
such statements are legitimafe data for psychology
Much experimentation in the sensory processes and perception
must rely on the subject's reports obtained under fully specified
physical conditions We stimulate a subject's eye with a particular
wave length of hght, and he pronounces the word “red We change
the wave length to a new value, and the subject now says green
We repeal such trials over and over with different wave lengths
and the subject uses the words that designate colors with great
consistency Furthermore, most subjects agree with
each olber in
their use of color names in response to different

wave lengths Ilie
uniformity of the statements whrch the subfects
male when Ih^
has led p$>cho!ogi^
eves are stimulated by various wave lengths
a sinu^
to infer that there the dlmensim of expene^ hue In
is
as dênsions
vv’av. brilliance and saturahon have been established
uiauv
of visual eapenence In afl souse modalibes. expenenoe has
g
modes of variation, and these dimensions are known from the con-
the verbal reports given in response to stimulation.
For
sistcncy of
are useful only if the
the psychologist, statements about exiienence
conditions under which these sUtemenU ate made can be
accu-
rately described.
The study of experience includes more than the investigation of
sensory attributes. Sensory experience is organized: we see things
rather than their attributes, books and tables ratlier than redness
and squareness. To find the principles of perceptual organization is
one of the major endeasors of present-day experimental psychology,
which cannot be easily carried out without benefit of the subject's
reports on his uorld. .
Of course, verbal report provides us with information other than

the attributes or organization of experience. The responses made in
a free-associalion experiment or a subjects reports in problem-
solving situations are examples of other t)'pes of verbal behavior.
No matter what form of behavior we investigate, our main prob-
lem is to define the Independent and dependent variables, to investi-
gate the functional relations between them, and wherever possible
to express our results in quantitative terms.
Geseiul RerEnENCES
Andrews, T- G. (ed.), hleiUods o) pvjMosy, New York: John "Wiley
and Sons, 1948, Chap. 1.
Cohen. M. R., and Nagd. E.. An tVrodtjrtion to logic and
scienUfic
method, New York: Ilarccurt, Brace and Co.. 1934, part
IL
Fisher, It. A., The dengn of experiments, Edinburgh: Oliver and Bovd
ina? ’ ’
Murphy, C.. Murphy, L.

and Nevreomb, T. M., Eiperimantu! social
B.,
psychology. New York: 6 Brolhers, 1937, Chap. 1.
Harper
Peters, C. C., and Van Voorhx?, W. H., StaiMcal
procedures and their
mathematical ba^cs. Netv York: McGraw-Hfll Book Co..
1940, Chap. 16.
Pr^t, C. C.. The logic of modern psychology. New York:
The MacmiHan
SVinncr, B. F.. The g™«ric
mtirre oF Uie coneepts of stimulus
und re-
sponse. }. Ccn. Tnjchol., 1935, 12.40-6o.
Slm era, S. S , Psycirology arid the sdciicc of sacnce,
Psychol. BoB * 1939
'
36.221-263.
>»»
^ «t«
THE PSYCHOPHYSICAL METHODS
ONE of the oldest problems m psjchology is the relation behveen

variations in physical stimulation and reported exiienence Histori-
cally, this field of investigation has often
been tied to such philo
sophical issues as the mmd body problem and the nature and
meaning of "subjective expenence “ Toda) psychologists are con-
tent to lease the solution of philosophical problems to the philos-
opher, but there still remains a large area of research of great
theoretical as well as pncticnl miporttnce What are the lawful

relationships between the measurable characteristics of the stunulus,
on the one hind, and the rrportab’e itlnbute* of sensory experience,
on the otlierP It is to this question tint the division of expenmcntal
psycholog\ known as pstjehophystes addresses itself jfsychophvsics
•s indeed the branch of experimental psyebology^he theo-
earliest
retical value of ps) chophvsics lies m the ftet that it provides one
important expcnmentil appro icli to the studv of the sensory proc-
esses and of ludgmen^ As for its pnctical value the knowledge
gained by the milhods of psvchophysics Ins received mcrcasinglv
wide application in such fields as personnel selection and equipment
design
In subsequent chapters we shill present the methods and results
of psychophysics as they apply to the xpecnl senses— vision hciring
the chemical smses and the cutimoiis smses In the sections that
follow wt slnll be concermd with llie proctxhires ind quantilitive
methods of psychophvsics in so fir as they are general methods
applicable to a vanetv of specific problems
Tiir B \sic PnonLEMs of Psvnronnsics

the rlnracUristics of the stimu-
In studying the rrhtion between
certain specific experimental
lus and the attributes of expenence,
miestions are isked
JQ
experimental' PSYCHOLOGY
is the minimum of stimulation
Detection of minimal s»muh‘. What
stimulus? Wliat Vind of stimulus is
required for the detection of a
order that a subject may reliably
needed? How intense must it be In
distinguish between its presence and nbsci\ce? Obviously, the mini-
mum amount of stimulation required will varj- with tlie conditions
of testing. To be barely delectable, a tone has to be less intense in
a sound-treated room than In a noisy one, and, similarly, a weaVer
light is needed in a dark room than in a well-lit one. But for each
condition of testing and for each subject, such a minimum value of
a given stimulus can be estimated.
Detection of minimal stimulus difjcrenccs. Wliat is the minimal
difference, qualitati\e or quantitative, needed between two stimuli
so that they can be reliably recogn!2cd as different by a subject?
For example, how different do two light stimuli have to be in wave
length for a detectable difference in hue? How great a difference in
intensity of light is required for a discrimination of brilliance?
Again, the minimum value of the difference will vary from one test-
ing situation to another and from one subjetrl to anolher.
Judgment of relations among stimuli. The experimental problems
of psychophysics are not limit(^ to the study of stimuli and stimulus
differences that are barely detectable. The judgment of stimuli well
above the minimum needed for discrimination defines anolher im-
portant area of investigation. Under what conditions, for example,
are two stimuli judged to be equal or as standing in a certain rela-
tion to one another? What is the extent of error when subjects
attempt to equate two stimuli with respect to quality or quantity?
How reliably can subjects respond to a stimulus as being half as
intense or twice as intense as another stimulus? These are just a few
illustrations of the problems which arise in connection
with judg-
ment of relations among stimuli.
The Basic Concepts of Psychophysics

Sensitivity. The organismis efjuippcd with a number
of recep-
tor organs specialized to
respond to particular energ)- changes in the
environment. Tlie receptors of the eye are responsive to
light within
a certain range of wave lengths, the receptors of the ear to
sound
waves within a certain range of frequencies, and so on. The
action
of these receptor organs constitutes an important link in
the chain
the psychophysical methods
11
of responses which occurs bchvecn Ihc application of the
stimulus
and the subjects response. The capacity of the
receptor organs and
other reaction systems in the organism
to respond selectively and
differentially to physical stimulation we designate as sensitivity.
The laws governing sensib'vity are inferred, with the aid of psydio-
physical procedures, from the variations in response
resulting from
variations in stimulabon. Our erpenmental measurements
allow us
to d/fbngu/fi two types of sensitivity; ahsoluie and
dtffcTcnUal.
Absolute sensitivity defines the limits of the organism's capacity
to respond to sb’mulation It is inversely related to the minimum
stimulus which can be detected reliably by a subject Differential
sensHwift/ defines the organism's capadty to respond to differences,
both qualitative and quantitative, between stimuli 2t is inversely
related to the minimum difference between stimuli needed for
lehable diseriminab'on.
Thresholds. Some sHmuii are so weak that they always fad to
evoke an effective response in the organism; others are so intense
that they never fail to produce a reaction. The line separabng these
two kinds of stimuh-lhose never yielding responses and those
always yielding responses— can never be sharply drawn; rather, the
transibon from one to the other is gradual and continuous.
Suppose we wish to measure a subject’s absolute sensitivity to

sound. We begin with a veiy weak sound which the subject fails to
hear on repeated trials. We then increase the intensity of the sound.
At this second level of stimulation the subject may sometimes hear
the sound and somelinies fail to hear Jt \V'he/) we increase the
intensity even further, the subject may hear the sound more fre-
quently than ‘before but sbll miss it part of the time. Finally, wc
may increase the intensity of stunufabon to a level at which the
then,
subject never fails to report the presence of the sound. Clearly,
there is no one stimulus value which represents the
minimum neces-
it is generally
sary for a response. For purposes of measurement,
the'ohso/irfe threshold that stimulus value
agreed to consider as
on half the test
which yiefds a response 50 percent of the time, r e,
essential to understand that the
absolute threshold is not
tnals. It is
scale bat raU,« is inherent y s^ble
a fixed point on the sUmuIn,
representing the absolute IhrcshoH
must
in time: A single wlae
necessarily be a statistical concept.
13
hisjudgments may not be the same every time the
stimulus is pre-
sented.Such variability is especially cliaracteristic of
iudgments
which are rather difficult for Ae subject; for example,
when he is
tested with stimuli close to his absolute or
diSerenUal threshold.
.There are several probable sources of tlu's variability.
Tlie subjects
sensitinty may vary from moment to moment, and at any
instant
the condition of the organism mav be more or less
fa\’orabIe to the
performance of a fine discrimination^ There may, moreover, be
shght unavoidable changes in the physical characteristics of the
stimulus, for no matter how carefully controlled the instrumentation,
a certain margin of fluctuation cannot be eliminatcd.jTn addition,
sudi factors as interest and attitude, difficult as it is to measure
them, may exercise an important influence on the subj'ect’s per-
formance at any moment in tinie. As a result of these and similar
factors, we usually obtain, upon frequent presentations of a given
stimulus, a distribution of judgments showing a certain amount of
scatter around a most frequent or typi«l judgment. The degree to
which judgments differ from trial to trial provides an index of the
amount of variable error. The use of tlie term error should not be
taken to imply that one judgment is right, and the others wrongs
Ejjor here simply refers to the extent of fluctuation in judgment
[\Vhen two physically equal stimuli, A and B, are presented to
a subject, he does not alwaj’S perceive them as equal (equally
large or intense). He may report a difference even though the
physical characteristics of the stimuli are the Scame. If such judg-
ments are merely a manifestation of variable error, A should some-
times be overestimated and sometimes underestimated. Frequently,
however, we find a .vjstematir tendenaj on the part of the subject
toward overestimation or underestimation. Such a s^temafic tend-
ency is knowm as constant err^
time error. If
One frequently encountered constant error is die
succession, we find,
two identical stimuli, A and B, are presented in
for different lime intervals bchveen A and B.
systematic tendencies
to under^timale or overestimate the

second stimulus. B. In the case
loudness, for example, if hvo equally intense tones
of judements of
intenal of H second, the second
are separated from each other by an
loud than the fint. If the two
tone will usually be judged as less
Werval, say. 0 seconds, the
(ones are separiled by a loager lime
14 EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
This
second tone will usually be judged as louder than the first
tendency to underestimate or overestimate tlie second of two
suc-
error
cessive stimuli constitutes the time error. The degree of time
can be plotted as a function of length of time interval between the
two tones. The time error has been found to occur with a variety
of other stimulus materials, such as judgments of weights and of
extgnt.
/Another example of constant error is the space error. Judgments
be influenced systematically by the spatial position of the
stimuli, whether they are, for instance, on the right or left of the
subjec^
Ag^, we must be careful not to be misled by the word error in
the term constant error. Such systematic tendencies as we have
described should not be dismiss^ merely as inaccuracies of judg-
ment which need to be somehow eliminated or corrected. On the
contrary, they are of interest to the psychophysidst because they
represent a reliable correlation between certain conditions of stimu-
lation and judgment
Experimental ant> Quantitative Methods

IN Psychophysics
It would be impossible to give here an exhaustive surv^ of
psychophysical methods. There are as many psychophysical meth-
ods as there are experimental and quanbtative procedures for the
establishment of lawful relationships between the physical char-
acteristics of the stimulus and the attributes of experience. Never-
theless, there are certain models of experimental procedure and
quantification which have had wide application throughout the his-
tory of psychophysics to a wide vanety of problems and stimulus
materials. Frequently thesemodels have been designated as the
psychophysical methods. In studying these models, we must guard
against the misleading impression that there are a few rigidly
specified methods for the conduct of psychophysical experiments.
The methods to be discussed are models in the full sense of the
word, illustrating the type of experimental and statistical methods
which have been successfully applied to psychophysical problems.
Whether or not one works in the framework of the traditional
ii psychophysica] models, each specific experiment
must be designed
p ID terms of the questions which will be
asked of the data
j
Methods for Measuring the Absolute Threshold
* We shall first discuss expenmenlai models for the measurement of
the absolute threshold It will be remembered
(
that the absolute
threshold is defined as that stimulus value which is detected by a
subject on 50 percent of the tnals
The Method of Mmimal Changes

Amethod well adapted for the detemunahon of the absolute
threshold is the method of minimal changes (known also as the
method of limits) As the name implies, this method utilizes a senes
of sUmuh, successively difienng bv small amounts, in order to make
an estimate of the absolute threshold
Basic Procedure. The basic procedure consists of the presenta-
tion of a senes of stimuli, each diffenng from the preceding one by
a small amount, until a cntical chaoge m the subjects judgments
occurs In the determination of the absolute threshold, it ts custom-
aiy to employ two kinds of senes (1) an ascending senes, which m
we start with a stimulus well below the threshold, increasing its
magnitude on successive trials until the subject detects the presence
of the stimulus and (2) a descending senes, in wluch we start wth
a stimulus well above the threshold, decreasing its magnitude on
successive tnals until the subject fails to detect the presence of the
stimulus
For an illustration of this, let us return to the problem of measur
mg a subject's absolute sensitivity to sound For the nscendmg senes,
we begin with a tone so weak that the subject would fad to report
its presence on virtually all the tnals On each successive trial we
increase die intensity by a small physical amount until the sub-
ject finally reports the presence of the
sound For tlie descending
senes, we begin with a tone so loud that the subject reports its
presence whenever the tone is sounded On each
successive tnal
we decrease the intensity by a given physical amount

until the
longer hear a sound

subject reports that he can no , ^ .
several series, brrtfa

For the determination of a reliable threshold,
order to present the
ascending and descending, should be used In
jg
particular serial order, ascend-
subject from getting accustomed to a
alternated or presented in a
ing and descending series should be
the
prearranged sequence. It is also advisable to vary the length of
Sometimes we start with a stimulus value well below
or
series.
increments
above tbe threshold so that a large number of successive
or decrements is needed to reach the threshold;
sometimes we start
much closer to the threshold so that the critical change in judgment
occurs after only a few trials. Again, different lengths of series should
be alternated according to some predetermined pattern.
Computation of Threshold Value. Each of the scries, whether
ascending or descending, long or short, yields a threshold value. For
Ascending Scries Descending Series

Stimulus Stimulus
Value in Value In
Physical Tude- Physical Judg-
Units ment Units ment
10 Absent 25 Present
, 20
Change in judgment
IS Present Present
18 Present
17
16 ““"S® judgment
Absent
an ascending series, the threshold is given by the mid-point between

the last judgment of stimulus absent and the first judgment of
present. For a descending series, the threshold is given by the mid-
point between the last judgment of present and the first judgment of
absent. Our records for on ascending and descending series might
look somewhat as shown in the above table.
For the ascending series, tlic absolute threshold is estimated at
15.5
our best estimate of the value at which 50 percent of
judgments of
absent and 50 percent of judgments of present
would be obtained
Similarly, for the descending series, our best
estimate of the absoi
lute threshold would be IttS. If we had
used ten ascending and
ten
descending series, we would, in the same
manner, obtain twenty
THE PSYCHOi-HlSICAL METHODS
17
estimate of the absolute threshold Some
of these estimates svould
probably be identical, but jn general we
murt expect a certain
amount of vanabihly Our best smgle estimate
of the absolute
th^hold IS the average of all the threshold values obtained
the m
individual senes. In order to compare the results
obtained with
ascending and descending senes, we compute separate
aierages for
these two tjpes of procedure If there is a significant
diiference
between the averages obtained for ascending and descending senes
we conclude that there is a systematic difference between the sub*
ject s responses in (he two situations Similarly, we can compare the
results obtained with long and short senes, or the judgments dunng
the first half and the second half of the expenment, to gauge the
effects of practice and fatigue In short, the absolute threshold is a
statistical axerage, a dependent ramble which can be measured as
a function of \ c.r|)enmental conditions
The Method of Constant Stimuli
Basic Procedure The method denves

its name from the fact
that anumber of fixed (constant) stimuli is presented to the subject

a Jirge number of times, usually wi random onler Eadi time a
stimulus IS presented the subject imXes a judgment Thus, for each
of the stimuli, the percentage of different hinds of judgments may

be computed, and an estimate of (he threshold is made on tiie basis
of the distributions for all the sbmuh
Suppose we wish to determine the absolute sensilixily to pres-
sure, 1 e , the mmimum
weight that has to be applied to the sensi
live receptors of the shm in order to obtain a report of pressure By
means of a delicate instrument (see Chapter 3), paduated pressures
can be applied to the shin To measure the absolute threshold we
select, after preUmioaty exploration, a senes of stimulus values
which is lihcly to gne us a distnbution of judgments ranging from
of
approximately 5 percent to approximately 95 percent reports
absolute seiwi-
presence of pressure Jf we were detennming the
the subjects finger, such a senes might include
Uwty on the tip of
millimeter of shm
pressures of 1, 2, 3. 4. and 5 grams per sipiare
shin a hrge number o
Eacli of these pressures is applied to the
are presented m a random order
times, say, 100 The different stmrnb
so that the subject cannot build up
m
expectahon of any particular
Jg
presented, the subject makes a
sequence Each time a stimulus is
experienced pressure
judgment of present or absent with respect to
of present judg-
Thus, we obtain for each stimulus a percentage
course,
ments and a percentage of absent judgments, the two, of
always adding up to 100 percent A possible distnbution may
be
somewhat as shown in the figures on this page
Remembering our definition of absolute threshold as that stimu-
lus valuewhich yields 50 percent of judgments of present, we con-
clude that the threshold should be estimated as lying between 3
grams (which yields less than SO percent of present judgments)
Stimulus
(m grams per sq mm ) % Present % Absent
1 5 95
2 22 78
3 48 52
4 76 24
5 95 5
and 4 grams (which yields more than 50 percent) If we are willing

to assume that the increase m judgments of present between 3 and
4 grama foUows a bncar course, we should estimate the absolute
threshold at 3 07 grams per square millimeter, i e 2/28 of the dis-
,
tance between 3 and 4 grams This method of estimating the thresh

old from the distribution of judgments is that of hnetzr interpola^
iion and consists essentially m finding the median
(50 percent point)
of the distnbution of present judgments, that stimulus value at
which judgments of present and absent are equally likely ^
Tliore are mathcmaUcally more accurate methods for estimating the abso-
lute threshold from tlie judgment distribution One widely used
method, for
eiimê, proceeds on the assumption that the distribution of Judgments may
be
u«t desenbed by a cumutaUve Tkormat probability curve and weights
the
percentages accordingly The theory underlying this particular
treatment is that
at any momrat £n time the subjects abih^ to detect the
stimulus depends on
a large number of more or less independent facton some of
which are favorable
and some unfavorable to the disenndnation These favorable
and unfavomhle
[actors combine with each other in accordance
with the laws of nrobabilitv Tn
ptunire ot a very wc* lUmulin many ot the favorable
liave to occur togetlicr to make a correct lartm SL.W
Judgment possible Thu
very rarely-hence the nnall pcrceutage of
«ak suoilus With a sumsg'S™,J„„,y
dSlmte ta fte
, £e
N
THE PSlCHOPHySICAl, METHODS
jg
Whether the aropk assumption of hneanly
is made or another
mcUiod of quantiOcation is used the absobte
threshold is ahravs
an cshmite of the value which gives an equal
proportion
i r of lude
* j t,
mci\'tsoipTescntQTabseni
WEirroDs Fon MnAsuiuNC the Differential TnnESHOLD

Wenow turn to expenmental models /or the measurement of the
differenhal threshold-tlie determination of that
stimulus difference
which IS detected bv a subject on ^ percent of the presentations
The Method of Minimal Changes
Basic Procedure This method which we described in some
detail in connection with the detennioation of the absolute thresh
old may be used for measuring the djfferenba! threshold as well
We first decide on a standard stimulus say a tone or light of fixed
intensity The standard and the comparison stimulus may be pre*
sented fn succession (e g in the case of a pair cf tones) or sunul
laneously (eg in brightness discrimination where nvo fields may
be exposed side by side)
The magnitude of the comparison stimulus is changed by a
small amount from trial to tnal Again ascending and descending
senes are used For an ascending scries we set the companson

stimulus at a value considerably smaller than the standard and then
keep increasing it b) small regular steps until the subjects judg
ment of the comparison stimulus changes from smaller to equal
and finally to larger than the standard For a descending scries we
set the companson stimulus at a value considerably larger than the
standard and keep decreasing it b> regular steps until the subjects
judgments change from larger to equal and finally to smaller As
before the ascending and descending senes and series of different
lengths an, alternated m
an orderly fashion
physical
Suppose our standard e g a sound has a value of 20
for a correct jodginent Uis is a very

frMuenl state of
need to be present
disesmmalions In the presence ot
affairs-hence the higl percentage of correct
*
f3?e^^t«ncnt of this argumeot and for fi Ôed
of thresholj ^
qiiiUtaliTe methods used In the wthnabra iWJe
New York McGraw HiU.
S> J P Guilford PstjchomstHc methods
Chap 0
units and we
vary the comparison stimulus in steps of two units
at a time. Typical records obtained \vith an ascending and a descend-
ing series may look somewhat as shown in the table on this page.
Since the judgments are continued beyond the report of equality,
we can obtain from each series two threshold values: (1) the uppa
threshold {La)? i.e., that stimulus which is just noticeably larger
than the standard; and (2) the lower threshold (Li), ie., that
Ascending Series jjescending benes

Value of Value of
Com- Com-
parison parison
Stimulus Shmulus
inFlt)si- Judg- inPhj-si- Judg-
cal Units ment calUnits ment
8 Smaller 32 Larger
10 Smaller 30 Larger
16 Sn.all=r _
Change in judgment
^ ZIZ
18 Equal ^2 Larger
,20 Equal 20 Larger
22 larger
-
/M.
Change
. »
.
in judgment
jg
— Change in judgment
16 Equal
"l4 in judgment
Smaller
nid fl Jc i
senes, the upper thresh-
“1t,ment
J of larger),
20 (last judgment of cqLl) anf^
i.c., it
is estimated to be 21. In
he ow„ threshold lies the same series
betsveen 16 (last judgment
of W/er) "S
18 (Ers judgment of equal),
and is estimated to be 17 Sillsrl
the fc, inf „,res.

detected on SO percent
of the trials. Three esrimat'etofthe^*”
’ L ..ad. i„ “fean.
...u.
THE PSVCHOPHrSICAL METHODS
21
<*> "fP" i'ScrcnUd threshold

(DE,)-the between the upper threshold and the stand-
difference
ard, or L„ —
S, (2) Uje lower differential
threshold (DL, )-the dif-
ference between the standard and the
lower threshold or S-Z,,
andfinallj (3) the mean t/irw/ioW which represents the
average of the upper and lower differential thresholds,
DL,)/2 This last value is. of course, tlie best possible
i e (DL, , +
general esti-
mate that can be made of the subjects differential threshold
Finally, we can now estimate the point of subjective equality
(PSE) as lying midway between the upper threshold and the lower
L, 4- L,
threshold PSE - Halfway between the just noticeably
^
smaller stimulus and the just noticeably larger stunulus lies the
value most hhely to jicid a judgment of equal
The Method of Constant Stimulus Differences
Basic Procedure. An alternative procedure for the determina

lion of the differential threshold is provided by the method of
constant stimulus differences This procedure is especially well
suited for experiments in which (1) it is not convenient to vary the
companson stimulus continuously m
small steps, and (2) it is desir-
able to base the threshold value on a large number of observations
As the name implies, this method is closely related to the method
of constant stimuli which we have already studied In the method
of constant stimulus differences, however, the subject judges pairs
of stimuli rather than one stimulus at a time Each stimulus pair
consists of the standard stimulus and one comparison stunulus The
standard stimulus r of course, the same on all trials A number of
different comparison stimuli are used On each trial, the standard is
paired with one of tlie comparison stimuli Each time a pair is pre-
or
sented. the subject judges the comparison stimulus as larger
smaller than the standard (Sometimes equal judgments are
per-
standard the
mitted ) Each comparison stimulus is paired with the
same number of times (e g, 100 tunes each) The sequence of
pairs
is thoroughly scrambled
Mpforation
The comparison stimuli are chosen after preliminary
so as to yield a distribution of
judgments ranging from approxi-
percent smaller Stimulus chf-
mattlv 95 percent larger to about 95
22
experimental PSyCHOLOGT
{eiences v/hich are so large
as to be always recognized ar^f IHtle
diiFerential sensitivity. The final

use in determining the subject’s
is airanged in even, symmetrical
steps
scries of comparison sUmuU
comparison stimulus equal to
around the value of the standard. A
weighHifting experiment with a
the standard is included. In a
weights might
standard of 200 grams, a typical series of comparison
be 188, 192, 196, 200, 204, 208, 212 grams.
Oneach trial, standard and comparison stimuli are presented
(simultaneously or in succession), and the subject judges the com-
parison stimulus relative to the standard. In some experiments, the
subject is allowed to use one of three categories of judgment:
larger, smaller, and equal. Frequently, however, the subject is re-
stricted to the use of only two categories and is instructed to guess
larger or smaller, even though he may believe standard and com-
panson stimuli to be equal. There are several advantages in the
use of only two categories*. (1) It has been established experi-
mentally that when a subject is forced to guess, he will be more
often right titan ^vrong in his guesses; (2) the meaning of the
category equal is vague and apt to vary considerably from subject to
subject; (3) frequency of equal judgments may indicate not so
much lack of discrimination as the subject s caution and bis adoption
of very exacting criteria of larger and smaller. Thus, the exclusion
of the equal category forces the subject to attune himself as well as
he can to small stimulus differences and to exploit, as it were, his
capacity for discrimination as much as he can. For these reasons, it
is probably well to use the two-categoiy method for the
determina-
tion of the differential threshold and, in general, in all situations in
which the emphasis is on the subject's sensitivity. However, there
are situations to which the threc-calcgory method is well suited.
By means of this method we can investigate the subject’s
judgment
behavior, especially his understanding
and use of the equal category.
Computation of the Differential Threshold, For each
of the
corwfanf comparison stimuli, we Ubulate the percentage of judg-
ments falling into the three (or
two) categories of judgment
whiSi
the subjects had been allowed to use. The specific technique
for the
compulation of the differential threshold varies,
of course,* with the
numberof judgmentcategorfes.
23
By way of lUustration of the three category procedure,
suppose
we are measunng a subject s differential sensitivity to m eight
The
standard stimulusis a weight of 200 grams and the
comparison
Jimuh are spaced in 4 gram steps around the
standard A tjpical
distnbution of judgments hrger, smaller, and, equal may look
somewhat as showm m the table below
A
graphic presentation of these results may be found in Fig 1
The three curves depicting the relative frequency of judgments of
forger, equal, and STuallcr for different magnitudes of the compan-
son stimulus are known as psyc/iomc/nc functions
Comparison Stimulus * Judged * Judged ^Judged

in Grams Larger Equal Smaller
188 S 5 90
192 10 20 70
196 22 35 43
200 38 40 22
204 64 26 10
208 84 10 6
212 02 5 3
Fromthe frequency distnbuboos of judgments, we can estimate

the upper threshold, the lower threshold, and the differential thresh-
old The upper threshold is that value which on $0 percent of the
tnals yields a judgment of larger In^ccbon of the table and Fig 1
shows this value to he behveen 200 and 204 grams, more exactly
at 2018 grams* Similarly, we estimate the lower direshold-the

^m]ue yielding SO percent of judgments of j7no/fer~al 495 grams
Hence, the upper differential threshold ts estimated as 201 8
— 200
= 18, and the lower differentiai (hresboid as 200 — 193
=• 5, and
the mean differenUal thieshold as 34 On the average, a difference

(larger or
of 34 grams is required for a judgment of difference
smaller). These results also tell us that m
this experiment (as in
as it ucre
many others) the subject’s differential sensitivity is,
for a
asymmetrical 'Ihe average increment required
requir^ for a judgment
laracT is less than the asunige decrement
subjective cqualif) «
of smaller. Finally, the point of
which a equally hiel; to
inghilly defined os that stimulus value
• By linear Inteipolatftjn between 200

and
2^
and ^mller. The hvo psychomelrie fun^
Hive iudameots of forger
grams, winch is our estimate of the point of
lions cross at 198.5
categories-forger and
Iwsubjlct uses only tsvo judgment
is necessarily different. In this
smaller-the treatment of the results
functions cross at the SO-percent point
case the two psyômelric
see p. 5S). For the tsvo-category
procedure.
(for’ an example,
Fic. 1. A Typical Set of Psycliomelric Functions Obtained with Three

Categories of Judgment.
therefore,we redefine the differential threshold as that stimulus

differencewhich yields jvidginents of diQercnl {larger or swaf/cr)
75 percent of the time. Tlje point of subjective e([uality is again
defined as that point at whidi the psychometric functions cross,
which in this case is the value yielding 50 percent larger jiidgments
and 50 percent stnaller judgments.
The steepness of the two ps)’chomctric functions (llieir rate of
cliangc) depends ou tlie subject’s sensitivity. U
the subject is very
sensitive to each change in the stimulus, the funclion.s will ri.se (or
fall) rapidly; i.e., each change in the comparison stimulus will
result in a considerable cliange in the relalnc fiecpienc)' of
the two
judgmejvts. Conversely, if the subject's sensitivitv
is poor, any one
chiingi- in the conip.irisun stiiiiuIiK will
not alter the' dWrihution
25
radically, and the p^chometnc functions me and fall
We must emphasize again, as we did in connection wth
the
method of constant stimuli for the determination
of the absolute
threshold, that the numerical treatment
of the data presented here
IS only one of several possible
procedures and indeed one of the
least precise ones It is often desirable
to fit ideal curves, such as the
cumulative normal curve, to the data before computing the
threshold
values The procedure used here does, however,
illustrate the basic
aims and assumptions of the method
The Method of Average Error

In the determination of absolute and dififerenbal thresholds by
the methods already discussed control over changes m the stimulus
was entirely in the hands of the expcnmenler There are certain
problems however which may best be attached by permitting the
subject to control (he v-anafions in the stimulus In such cases, the
method of average error is used
SdaJC Procedure Tlie most outstanding cbaractcnsUc of tins
method u the active role which the subject pla)s in the procedure
Presented with n fixed standard and a v*anablc comparison stunulus
the subject has the task of adjusting the variable stimulus until it
appears equal to the standard Thus there raaj be a line of fixed
length and one of odiustable length whicli the subject manipulates
until he is satisfied that the two lines arc equal The subject mi)
adjust a shade of gray until it appears to matdi a standard sample
or change the intensity of a tone until it sounds as loud as a standard
These are a few examples of a large vaijelj of expenmenfal
just
situations in which the method of average error lias been cmplovcd
Each adjustment which the subject makes represents a measure-
ment of tlie point of subjectiv e equalit) IS a standard line is 200 mw
long and a subiect adjusts the variable companson line once at 19S
at 202, eadi of these odjuslments provides
us with an
and once
estimate of tfic FS£ refiablc estimate of the FSE mast he brsetS
A
the estimate of tlie PSb
on a number of such measurements, f
thesabject Frts
should be the averogcofminyadjustmenlsmacleb)
average adjustment mav
quently, tlimigh by no meins alwap, the
to the standard. Some of the individual adjustment*
be almost equal
20
greater than the standard. Some may be
smaller,
may be
deviations may cancel each other
and these positive and negative
out; hence, the name of the
method—ncerege error.
error, several impor-
In collecting data by the method of average
tant precautions must be observed.
1. The direction of adjustment should be
varied. On some trials the
variable stimulus should be set at a value considerably larger

than
the standard, on other trials it should be made considerably
smaller. In this fashion, the subject has to be^n his adjustment
toward equality on successive trials from both above and below
the standard. The subject typically overshoots his mark and may
be allowed to attain equality by successive approximations.
2. Account should be taken of “constant errors.” The spatial ar-
rangement of the standard and the stimulus and the temporal
sequence of the stimuli (for example, the fact that the comparison
stimulus may follow the standard in lime) may give rise to sys-
tematic judgment tendencies such as the space error and the time
error.In arriving at an estimate of the point of subjective equality,
such tendencies must be taken into consideration.
3. Care must be exercised to prevent the subject from using— con-
sciously or unconsciously— extraneous cues. For example, if the
initial value of the variable comparison stimulus were always the
same, the subject might learn a specific movement by which to

adjust it to the point of equality. He might Icam to turn an in-
tensity controlImob through a certain an^c. Changing the initial
value of the variable from trial to trial will prevent such habits
from being formed. Each adjustment must reflect an explicit
judgment of equality.
The average of a large number of adjustments represents a good
estimate oi idie point ol subjecAive equality. A
signihcant diSerence
between the value of the fixed standard and the average adjustment
(PSE) indicates the presence of a systematic “error” If the average
adjustment is significantly larger than the standard,
the subjert
overestimates the latter. Conversely, If the average
adjustment Is
significantly smaller than the standard, the latter
is underestimated.
Significance of such differences must, of course,
be determined by
sUlMcal Malysls. As In other expcrimenls,
a dlfierence between
standard and PSE Is significant if It could
be expected only very
THE PSyCHOPHYSICAL METHODS
27
•“ -0
The subjects mean adjustment cannot be fully mtetpreted with
Out conênng the scatter of values around
tant to know
the mean k impor H
not only what the average adjustment
to equahtTu
but also how variable the adjustments are from tnal to
tnal sLe
Tnal No Ascending Descending
i 48 51
2 50 47
3 49 50
4 47 48
S 53 49
6 47 52
7 45 46
S 51 48
9 47 52
10 49 47
Mean Mean
Asc 48 6 Deic 49 0
Total Mean 48 8
Standard Deviation 21
index of the vanability of the adjustmcoU provides a measure of
the /irecwion of the subject s judgments If his etjuahty judgments
are precise they will not \’aiy much from tnal to tnal The greater
the vanability of the adjustments the less is the precision of the
subject 5 judgments
Method of Computation The accompanying table summar
izes the results ofon expenment using the method of awrage error
The standard stimulus was a tone of fixed intensity (50 physical
units) The subject had the task of adjusting the intensity of a
^•anable tone until it appeared equal m
loudness to the standard
On half the tnals the comparison tone xvas set at an intensity con
siderably above that of the standard and the subject
had to make
half of the IriA.
u dorvnward adjustment to equah^ On the other
comjianson stimulus
the subject liad to adjust the mtensily of the
28
EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
upward to cquaUty. The mean
adjostaen^ 48.8 which is our esti
the point of subjective equality.
The diHerrace of 1.2 umb
mate o£
not statisUcally significant. A
behveen the PSE and the standard is
would be frequently expected as a result of

difference of this sire
measurement. We
random fluctuations due to uncontrolled errors of
cannot conclude that the subject is displaying a
systemaUo tendracy
totvard overestimation or underestimation of the
comparison stimu-
lus. Comparison of the mean
upward adjustment and mean down-
ward adjustment (48 0 and 49.0, respectively) also fails to reveal a
standard deviation of the distri-
significant difference. Finally, the
bution of judgments, 2.1, provides ns with an index of the precision
of the subject’s judgments.
The JuDG^Ê^^^ of Intervai-s

So far, we have beenconcerned with situations in which the sub-
ject’s task has been to judge presence or absence, sameness or differ^
ence. We have not asked him to judge the magnitude of the stimuli
themselves. Even when the subject adjusts the loudness of a tone
so as to match that of a standard, his judgment is focused on the
point at which he cannot heat a difference. Yet, a subject finds it
possible to judge the maîtude of a stimulus, or the extent of a
stimulus difference. He can tell us fairly well when a tone is half
as loud or tsvice as loud as another. As another example, it is fairly
easy to adjust a shade of gray until it appears to lie midway be-
tween a lighter and a darker gray. Several methods have been
specifically designed for the purpose of quantifying these judgments
of magnitudes and intervals.
The Method of FractiOMtion

In method, the subject has the task of varying the value of
this
one stimulus (the variable stimulus) until it appears to have half
the value of another sbmulus (the fixed standard). For example,
the subject may be provided with a tone of fixed intensity
and then
be asked to adjust the intensity of the variable until
wa as Ihc slandaid.* The iclahon behveen standardsounds half it
as
and varia-
ble can, of course, be reversed, and the subject be required
to
vJw'
W OH. for an spplcaUon of this erthod ft, coostrocUon of soosory
TJJE PSYCHOPJjySJCAL METHODS 29
adjust variable until
appears to have hvice the value of the
it
st^dard. Freguent expejimental tests have
established subjects’
ability to make such judgments of
relation with sabsfactoiy con-
sistency. This procedure may be varied
by using a series of fixed
t^mparison stimuli which the subject judges as to whether
or not
they are twice (one-half) the value of the sUmulus.
Thus, both the
method of average error and the method of constant stimulus dif-
• ferences can be adapted to problems of fractionation
The Method of Bisection

This procedure is closely related to the method of fractiomtion
The subject’s task is to adjust a variable stimulus until it appc.irs
to fall midway between two fixed stimulus values. Thus, giien
stimuli Si and tones of fixed intensity, the subject has to
Ss, say,
adjust a variable stimulus, Sj, say a tone of vanable intensity, unhl
itappears to him that the distance between Si and Ss equals the
distance between Sa and Sj. From a large series of such adjustments,
an estimate of the subjective mid-point of the interval Si to Ss can
be made.
The Method of Equal-Appearing IntenaU

If required to grade a series of stimuli so that they
a subject is
appear equally distant from eadi other, we speak of the method of

equal-appearing intervals The method has probably found its best
known application in the construction of the Thurstone attitude
The judge is presented with a large number of statements
scale.
coaceming an institution, nab'onal group, or other issue, and sorts
them into a senes of categones which he judges to be equally
spaced in favorableness. On Uie basis of such judgments, scale values
may be computed for each of tbe statements.
We mention the methods of fractionabon, bisection, and equal-
appearing intervals only bnefiy since they are used less frequently
other methods we have discussed and haie
found their
than the
main application in advanced psychophysical research. They serve
well to however, the complexity of relational judgni^fs

illustrate,
relcabibly. Tiie
which tlie human subject can make with good
confined to the measure-
analysis of sensory discriminaUon is not
ment of thresholds.
so
Ck)MPABisoN OF Experimental PROCEmnÊS

methods-the method
often hear about the psychophysical
We
of minimal changes, the method
of constant stimuli tand con-
stant stimulus differences), and the method of average error. We

gen-
have emphasized that these methods should be regarded as
eralized models rather than as cut-and-dried procedures
which must
be slavishly foUow-ed by the experimenter. They do, however.
emb(^y the most common experimental approaches to the measure-
ment of discrimination-absolute and differentiah Let us now briefly
examine their main similarities and differences.
Subject’s Task. In a psyrhophysical experiment, the subject
may dther be presented with stimuli and be confined to making a
judgment or he may actively manipulate a stimulus until he has
readied the criterion prescribed by the experimenter. In the method
of minimal changes and the constant methods, the subjects role is
usually passive but be actively manipulates a stimulus in the method
of average error. Active manipulation of the materials may help to
maintain the subject's interest and motivation. On the other hand,
it may complicate the evaluation of the data, for the subject’s skill
in handling the apparatus, e.g., the steadiness of his hand in making
an adjustment to equality, may
introduce an uncertain amount of
variability into the results. In some experiments, on the other hand,
we may be specifically intciested in such motor errors and desire to
measure them.
Fixed vs. Variable SUmulL
In the constant methods, the
stimuli are fixed and their values cannot be changed during an
experimental series. In the method of average error, the comparison
stimulus is continuously variable at the subject’s discretion. The
method of minimal ch^ges occupies a position intermediate be-
tween tiaese poles. The stimulus is varied by fixed amounts but the
extent of variationmay vary from series to series. Continuous varia-
tion lends greater flexibifity to the experimental procedure.
On the
other hand, fixed stimuli make for greater reliability,
for a lareer
number of observations is obtained for any one stimulus ^
value
Number of Observations for Determination of Critical
a threshold .-alue; tn method of average

the e^, each adjuXtS?
.
THE PSyCHOPHYSlCAL AJETHODS 31

yields a point of subjective equality.
Good estimates of thresholds
ana PSE’s are made by averaging a number of such
observab'ons.
In the constant methods, on the other hand, any one
judgment of
different does not yield a measure of the magnitude of the thresh-
old. Only one threshold value and one PSE are obtained, but these
are based on a very large number of judgments and are inferred from
the total distribution of judgments.
R.andomness of Stimulus Sequence. In the constant methods,
stimuli follow each other in a random order which the subject is
unable to predict In the method of minimal changes, by its very
nature, stimuli follow each other in a systematicaily increasing or
decreasing series. Even though the experimenter is careful to use
ascending and descending series, the subject inevitably builds up
expectations about the nature of the series and is in a state of
expectancy for a change in judgment (from absent to present, from
larger to equal, from mailer to equal, etc.). In his state of reainess,
the subject may easily “jump the gun,” report a change earh'er
than he would have in the absence of such expectation. Even with
the most cooperative subjects, such errors can hardly be avoided.
As far as freedom from the factor of suggestion is concerned, the
constant methods are clearly superior.
Among the various psychophysical models, the experimenter roust
take his choice according to the emphases demanded by his par-
ticular problem. Above all, he must feel free to combine, adjust,
and modify these procedures so os to get the best possible answer
to the questions which he wishes to ask of his experimental results.
General Refere-s’ces
experiments,
Boring, E. G., The control of attitude in psychophysical
Psychol Rev., 1920, 27:440-452.
measurement,
Brown, W., and Thomson, G. H., The essentials of meniai
Cambridge: University Press, 1921.
judgment, Amer-
George, S. S., Attitude in relation to the psycbophyncal
J Psychol. 1917. 28:1-57. ^
,
Book Co
Guilford, J. P., Psychometric methods. New
\ork: ^^cGraw-^lIl
Psychol Bull, J935,

Ps>chophysical measurement methods,
52.140-171.
, ,
ohannsen, D. E., The pnnciples of psyîophyslcs, with laboratory exer-
(Mes, Saratoga Springs, New York: the author, 1941.
Kellogg,W. N., An experimental comparuon of psychophysical methods,
Archio. Psychol 1929, No. 100.
Thurstone, L. L., Psychophysical methods. In Methods of psychology,
T. GAndrews (ed.), New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1948,
Thurstone, L. L , and Chavc, E. J., The measurement of attitude: a
psychophysical method and some eipenmcnfs with a scale for measur-
ing Attitude toward the church, Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1929
Tilchener, E. B., Experimentdl psychology, New York: The Macmillan
Co., 1905, Vol n, Parts I and 11.
Urban, F. M , The appbeation of statistical methods to problems of psy-
chophysics. Exper. Stud, in Psychol and Pedag University of Penn-
No. 3.
sylvania, 1908,
Woodworth, R. S., Experimental Psychology, New York: Henry Holt and
Co , 1938, Chaps 17 and 18.
CUTANEOUS SENSITIVIIY
IN This chapter we begin tfie study of the psychophysics of sen-

sory relations. Wehave defined psychophysics as the investigation
of lawful relationships between the measurable characteristics
of
the stimulus, on the one hand, and response characteristics, on the
other. The general field of psjôphysics naturally divides itself
into areas according to the separate sense modalities—vision, hear-
and the cutaneous senses. Although the concept of
ing, smell, taste,
a sense modality may be intuitively obvious, it merits a brief formal
consideration,
The Concept of a Sense Modality. The concept of a sense
modality begins with the fact that the organism is equipped with
specialized receptor systems. These receptor ^sterns are differen-
tially sensitive to various forms of energy changes in the environ-
ment of the organism. Thus, the eye is espedally sensitive to radiant
energy, and the ear is maximally sensitive to sound waves. It must
not be thought that these sensory systems axe insensiUve to other
forms of energy change. The receptors in the eye may be activated
by pressure, and the auditory apparatus by electrical stunulatioo.
TTie sensory systems, however, are specialized in that they are con-
structed to provide information about the environment through
their response to a particular form of energy. This specialization is,
moreover, continued anatomically by the spatial arrangement of
the central representation of these receptor systems Thus, the optic
nerve fibers have their central representation in a common region
senses
of the brain called the visual cortex. Similarly, the cutaneous
have a delimited area of central representation.
The concept of a sense modah^ involves more than this. We
experi-
must consider, for a moment, the charactensbes of sensory
separate groups
ence. Varied as these characteristics are, they form
3^
EXPEHIMENTAL PSYCnOLOGY
of continue. All the hues
end brightnesses of vision form one group.
sounds all form a diftcrcnt group.
Noises, musical tones, and spcedi
V/ithin each of these groups there
arc continuous transitions; from
group to group, however, then, arc

marled discontinuities. It is in
modalities arc marled
terms of such disconUnuilics tliat the sense
off from each other. It is the study
of die characteristics of experi-
ence. above all, whiah enables us to distinguish

among the various
sTdn senses.
The Cutaneous Senses. Although llic skin Is richly supplied
vrith nerve endings and receptor cells, there is no spcdal grouping
of them into a single sense organ as we find with the cj'c and the
ear. The skin senses do not constitute sensory systems which can
be independently defined both in terms of specific physical stimuli
to which they respond and in terms of distinct anatomical and func-
tional systems. Bather, the skin senses must be defined and dis-
tinguished from each other in terms of varieties or dimenrions of
response to stimulation of the skin. Once the types or dimensions
of response have been defined, a search for neurological correlates
end specific receptors can be carried on.
On the basis of response analysis, four skin senses have been dis-
tinguished: the pressure sense, the pain sense, the warmth sense,
and the cold sense. Note again that the breakdown is not initially
based on the anatomically separate sensory systems but on cate-
gories of response. The search for specialized types of receptors is
still in progress.
Punctate Distribution of Sensitivity. Let us stimulate the skin
with a small camd’s hair, a sharp needle, and the end of
a rod
whose temperature we control. As we successively apply
these
stimuli to different parts of the skin,we do not find uniform sensi-
tivity to them. Rather, some areas or spots are sensiUve
to slight
contact but not to changes in temperature.
Again, other areas or
spots are sensitive to temperature changes
but not to pressure Even
areas or spots sensiUve to temperature
^ aiid "cold spots."

tron of slin sensihvity.
We speak,
break down into “warm
therefore, of punctate
Pundate sensilicity impUes not only
different thresholds in different areas
distribu-
marlediv
but also the existence of
dfa
hnct spots sensiUve to different lands of
stimuli
We speak of mopping the skin when we determine
the distribu-
CUTANEOUS SENSITIVITY 35
Son of punctate sensitivity to
a given land of shmulus Usually a
gnd of indelible stamped oa the sfan of the subject to help
inJv is
locate the sensibve spots These gnds
provide fairly good means of
localiziog the sbmulus when we by
to map the same skm areas
repeatedly in order to determine the stabih^ of the
sensibve spots
Such a gnd does not provide us, however, with perfectly
stable
coordinates for the mapping of the skin, since the skin
fs phafale
and the location of the gnd may shift Other problems of mappmg
will be treated in connecbon with the individual cutaneous
senses
The Pressure Sense

Punctate Distribution la mapping the spots sensibve to pres
sure, we usually employ as a sbmulus contact of a camels or horse's
hair with the skin Apphcabon of the end of a hair exerts a force
on the skin and deforms it Deformation of the skm (which may
also be brought about by puUmg rather than depressing the skm)
is the effccbve sbmulus for pressure The force applied may be
vaned by using hairs of different stiffness and/or length. These

hairs may be c^brated by detenninuig the weight in one pan of a
balance which the hair will just lift when it is applied to the other
pan By measuring the diameter of the hair, the stimulus may then
be expressed as grams per millimeter or grams per square milhmeter
There are two quesbons which we attempt to answer in mapping
the pressure spots first, for a sbmulus of given size and stiffness,
how many spots can be found m a given region of the skm? Sec-
ond what IS the absolute threshold for a given region? This latter
measurement is made by employmg a graduated senes of hairs
The number of pressure spots in any pven region will depend on
the specific force apphed
Using a sbmulus of constant force, pressure spot distnbubons,
noted t^t
such as those shown in Fig 2, are obtained It will be
pressure spots are found predommanUy, but not
exclusively, the m
hairy regions of the body
Different parts of the body vary both m
the number of spots per
Bêrtips
unit area and m absolute threshold For example, the
are highly sensibve to pressure, with over 100 spots
and the bps êa
however, such as tie
per square cenirmeter In some areas, ot
qiots. In general, the niraiber
of the eye, there are no pressure
toward the extremities ot the body. Moie-
OTots IS ereatesl
the
sSvRv tends to increase svilh the density of
Tver Ibsdute
the
spots There are, then,
some regions, esiieeially toward
spots
great density of pressure
hes,whieb are characterized by both
and low absolute thresholds
A,B = Apparently hairless

pressure spots
Fic 2 A Mip ot Pressure Spots
on the Middle Foieann Note the
close but not perfect concspondence
between pressure spots and the pres-
ence of hairs {Reproduced by permis-
sion from Foundotions of Psychology
by Bonng Langfcld and Weld, p
362 published by John Wiley & Sons,
Inc 1948 After Strughold 1925 )
The value of the absolute threshold may be lower than 1 gram

per square millimeter (lip of finger) and as large or larger than
100 grams per square roilhmeter on the sole of the foot The thresh
old for pressure depends, of course, upon the rale of application
of the force If the force is rapidly applied, the threshold value is
small, if it Is slowly applied it is larger One further fact concern
}
CUTANEOUS SENSITIVITY
fag pressure sensitivily
may he nolcd If the area of centaet
mfli
stimulus) Tlius. after

obtaining the absolute threshold
intb
Fic 3 A Dure Showuig the

Course of Adaptation to Pressure For
a full explanation of the experimental
procedure used to obtain this curve,
see teiit (Front R S Wooduorth,
Experimental psychologff 19^8 p
^6S by permfejon of ileaiy Hok and
Company, Inc After Von Fre> and
Coldmann, 1915
a given hair, if we now use a hair wth double the diameter, we need
fo double the force in order to ehat a response
Adaptation The phenomcnOT of sensor) adaptation refers to
the fact that tvith the stead)* application of a stimulus there is a
gradual decline in the sensoiy êct Sense organs ure most sensi
tn e to rapid changes in the environinent in some modalities, a
steady stimulus after a while fails to evole its initial response There
IS some evidence that for cotineous pressure, the sensory effect
3g
cbincides with the during which the skin is being deformed.
Umc
rest, the
When the stimulus has deformed the skin and come to
experience of pressure tends to disappear.
quan-
Thedecline in the sensory effect is difficult to measure
In one experiment, the decline in the sensory effect
was
titatively.
in
measured by an indirect procedure, using momentary pressures
sensory
one area of the skin for comparison with the declining
effect of a continuing stimulus in another area. Thus, by adjusting
a
momentary pressure in intensity to the pressure aroused by the
steadily continuing stimulus, it was possible to determine the course
of the decline in the sensory effect of the latter. Fig. 3 shows that
considerable adaptation has occurred in a vcv/ few seconds.
This experiment illustrates an important type of procedure used
in the study of sensory phenomena. We determine the effect of one
stimulus in terms of the effects of another and different stimulus by
requiring the subject to match these stimuli ^vilh respect to some
single aspect In this manner, standards of kno%vn value can be used
In the study of sensory effects. The visibility curves and the equal-
loudness contoun illustrate, in other sense modalities, the same type
of procedure (for discussion of these, see pp. 64 and H5).
Tiie Pain Sense

Punctate Distribution. The free nerve endings in the sUn may
be injured in a variety of waysj they may be pierced by a needle
or some other sharp instrument; they may be burned by the
appli-
caUon of excessive heat; or they may be harmed by
chemical
agents. Such injury of the free nerve endings arouses
the experience
of pain. Pain, then, may be due to mechanical,
thermal, and chemi-
cal action on the skin. In addition, as in the
case of the other senses
'
electric shock may be a very effective stimulus
to pain
ft/n pressure or temperature
Alii'”
A1 TlT'
houghd&rent parts of the body vary considerably
spots.
in densire of
pam ôts there are very few sidn areas entirely
devoid of them In
the vramty of those nerves and blood
surface of the skrn parn spots are
vessels wLh are do e to the
particularly numerous ms is of
^Sno"in'^risâ"e;rd»^ ‘'72-
sure spots. One nodble insUoee is the center ofTrrlea wS
CUTANEOUS SEfiSlTIVITy 39
gives rise only topam but not to pressure, wannth, or cold Tlie in
dependence of pam and pressure spots can obvidusly be verified
only by the use of weal, small
(microscopic or needle-point) stimuli
which may produce either pam or pressure, depending
on the loca-
tion If the stimulus is intense or large
in area, the pliability of the
skin will insure that both pain and pressure
spots are stimulated
Just as the distribution of pam spots vanes from region to region
so do the absolute thresholds for pain With a mechanical stimulus
the threshold for pain m the center of the cornea may be as low as
0 2 gram per square millimeter On the other hand on the tip of the
finger a force as large as 300 grams per square millimeter is re
quired to ehcit pain Note that the magnitude of the thresholds for
pam and pressure do not vary together in a given region of the body
For example, the tip of the finger, relabvely insensitive to pain is
highly sensitive to pressure Again, as in the case 0/ pressure, great
density of pain spots is accompanied by low absolute thresholds
Adaptation Common experience suggests that pam does not
show the phenomenon of sensory adaptation Nevertheless, if the
stimulus, ^terapphcabon to the skin is carefully kept unchanged,
there may result a pam expenence which gradually declmes in bme
Under many conditions the stimulus is not kept unchanged Injurj
may reoccur when the skin moves and, thus with this new stimulus
the pain swll reoccur Failure to keep the stimulus unchanged may
account for the lack of pain adaptaboa in daily expenence
As compared with adaptaboa to pressure, adaptaboa to pam is
slow Even under controlled conditions it ma^ take from about 30
seconds to about 10 mmutes for complete adaptaboa These times
vary with the nature of the stimulus applied and the parbcular spot
sbmulated
The Tempehatuhe Senses

sensible
The regions sensitive to cold do not coincide with those
to deal separately with a
to wannth It would be possible, therefore,
cold sense and a wannth sense In
view of many funcbonal smulan
cold and warm receptor are m
bes, however, and because both
the two types of sensiUv
volved m certain complex sensory effects,
treated together
ity to temperature will be r ^
of r-arfable tem
/Phy^jological Zero U we apply a staiules
40 EXPCKIMCNTAL PSYCHOLOGY
peraturc to a specific region of the sUn, we discover a particular
wliich the
temperature value or range of temperature values at
indifference
stimulus fails to produce a sensorj' effect. Tins point of
is defined by Uie temperature of ll»e
sLin at the point of stimulation.
In other words, if a thermal stimulus is or only %cr>’ httle

equal to,
difierent from, the temperature of the shin, there Is no experience

as
of wannth or cold. This point or region of indifference Is hnov^m
the physiological sero. In order to be effective, a thermal stimulus
must represent a change from phipiohgical zero. As for tlic specific
physical value of physiological zero, li vanes for difierent parts of
the body and is, of course, a function of the temperature in the en-
vironment Under conditions of normal room temperature, physio-
logical zero, for exposed parts of the shin, is in (he vicinity of CS® C.
Effective stimuli lower than physiological zero give rise to experi-
ences of cold, those higher than physiological zero to experiences of
warmth.
The effectiveness of a thermal stimulus depends, howcv cr, not only
on Its difference from physiological zero, but also on some of its
other physical characteristics, such as its specific heat and its effi-
ciency as a thermal conductor. Let us taVe two ohêcts of equal

temperature, both somewhat below physiological zero: a piece of
metal which is a good conductor and a piece of cotton vshich is a
poor conductor. Both wifi at first feel cool, because they are below
physiological zero. The metal, however, will feel cooler than the
cotton. Metal conducts heat away from the slan more rapidly than
does cotton.
It is not necessary to go much above or below
physiological zero
to arouse experiences of warniUi or cold. If the
physiological zero
of the sWn is ocar normel, eg. 32" C., an increase
or decrease of
about 0 05» C. wil result in an experience of warmth
or cold re-
spectively. Thus, there is a ncnlra! zone of
0.10° C around the
physiological zero. Physiological zero, then,
is not a point on the
scale of temperature but a small region ^
Adaptation and Shifts in Phjsiological

Zero. Whether or not
a stimulus of fixed intensity arouses warmth
or cold depends on the
® zero.\owever,
S'fLlflue^r
not a fixed value for any given region
of the skin; it
is
down as a result of the eontinnPd

may go up or
appfieahon of a St JulS. sU
CUTANEOUS SENSiTIVITi 41
continued npplication of a stimulus
leads as ive remember to the
phenomenon of senso/y adiptatxon In the case
of contmued thermal
shmuIaUon t^ô distinct adaptation effects
can be establisl ed first
of all the experience of xMrmth or
cold declines to a weak level
Thus if the hand (the physiological zero
of 32° which is C ) is
Jêrsed into a bath of about 20° C tlic experienced
coldness of
the water continuaUy declines though it mav
not completely dis
appear In addition the [lositioii of the neutral zone along
the physi
cal temperature scale has shifted ndiaiUy If iffer adapting the
hand to 20° C we
apply various thermal stimuli to it we not only
find that temperatures below 20° C feel cold but also that tern
peratures between 20° and 32“ C which felt cold before adapti
fion now feel warm A shift mthe physiological zeito involves I oth
warmth and cold The neutral zone does not expand so as to cover
the range from 20° to 32“ C Tlie neutral zone does however en
large to about a degree when adaptation is to extreme temperatures
Although adaptation to thermal stimuli is marked it is not always
complete Complete adaptation does occur with puncliform slimu
lation It also occurs with areal stimulation eg immersion of a
finger into water when the adapting temperature does not deviate
too much from physiological zero If areal stimuli with extreme
adapting temperatures are employed adaptation is only partial If
the finger is immersed into waiter of 10“ C the experience of cold
continues for a long time If the teinperalure of the water is above
40“ C the experience of warmth or heat may continue mdefir itelv
Compute adaptation occur for lemperatures below about
fails to
15“ and above about 40“ with areal itimulation by water Not
C
only tlie extent of adaptaUoii but also the time to attain a sUady
level of adaptation varies with the Icmperaltire of the
ad-pting
snmiilus In genera! the more extreme the adapting tLmpmlurt

the more time is required for a<hptatioij
\\ hen extreme ttmpcraturts are used new qual ties of exptraiia
are aroused At one end of the scale
extreme cold shades into pam
to heat and finally, a burning,
at the other end warmth changes
nainlu! expenente iS Pauifut coU is rtported at limit
heat It about -13" C biimlii|, heal al »l>out 47° C

\s in Uii case of pressure and pam
ue
Punctate Djslribution
avann and cold spots oier the sur
can dctennino the location of the
of a given tempera-
face of the body. The end of a blunt metal rod
of course, ex-
ture may be conveniently used for stimulation. It is,
tremely important that for a given determination the temperature
of the rod be constant. This may be achieved by immersing
most of
the rod in a batli of constant temperature. In mapping the warm
spots, a stimulus device which is electrically heated is convenient.
Again, as in the case of pressure and pain, the density of cold
and warm spots differs for various parts of the body. The range of
the number of cold and warm spots per square centimeter is much
less than that for pressure or pain. The absolute number of tempera-
ture spots found depends, of course, on the temperature of the
stimulus with which the skin is explored. If the thermal stimulus is
made intense enough, there is hardly any area of the external skin
which will not produce expcnences of warmth or cold. This may,
however, be due to the fact that a very intense stimulus spreads over
a wide area of the skin.
Since the skin conducts heal, and the stimulus, therefore, cannot
bo confined to an exactly circumscribed region of the skin, it may
be that thermal sensitivity depends upon the concentration of re-
ceptors in a given area. If the concentration is great, cvciy applica-
tion of a thermal stimulus will reach a sensitive receptor. If there
is a low concentration of receptors, a given stimulus has a smaller
chance of activating a receptor. Because of the changing concentra-

tion of thermal receptors, there arise “hills and valleys,” areas of
greater and less sensitivity.
The number of cold and warm spots smaller per unit area than
is
is the case for the other two senses. There arc areas of
tlic body that
are insensitive to cold or warmth. Stimulation
of the center of the
cornea of the eye produces only experiences
of pain. The outer
margin of the cornea, however, is sensitive
to both painful and cold
stimuli, but not to warm ones. Certain
areas of the throat are also
insensitive to temperature change.
As wo have mentioned before, the absolute
threshold to cold or
warmth is small, about 003» C. change
in temperature when the
physiologiea zero is near normal.
Under adaptation. howev“
ftreshold value may be increased to as much
degree. It is interesting to note that
or mJreXan half a
the thresholds for c^ld Id
CUTANEOUS SENSiriVITV 43
u innSi are approxitnalely equal on most regions of tlie ertemal
Skin
So far our discussion has implied that slimuh abo\e the physio-
logical zero give nse to warmth and sUmuU below the physiological
zero gj\c rise to cold This is generally (rue of course
but there are
interesting exceptions Let us suppose tliat we have
already located
1 cold spot If we appl) a stimulus above the physiological zero to
that spot the subject miy report an experience of cold Since tlie
relation between the temperature of the stimulus and the report
typically given is reversed we call this phenomenon paradoxical
cold A high ttmperature {about 45* C ) has to
stimulus of fairly
be applied to a cold spot m
order to evoke paradoxical cold The
phenomenon of paradoxical tiarmth resulting from the ap-
parallel
pbeahon of a low temperature stimulus to a W'arm spot is much
more difficult to denionsfrate
Paradoxical cold cannot be aroused by an areal ( non punctiform)
stimulus because the warmtli receptors would also be stimulated lo
that case An area! stimulus of about 45^ C
must stimulate both
warmth and cold receptors Since hevt js experienced at that lem
perature the hypothesis has been proposed that heat results from
simultaneous stimulation of these two types of receptors This hypoth
esis has been venfied bv the /ollomng experunent We choose a
warm spot and apply to it a stimulus of about 38* C which under
ordinary circumstances arouses an cxpenencc of mild warmth Close
to this warm spot we select a oold spot and use a stimulus of about
20* C which by itself is ordinarily experienced ns cold \Vhen the
two spots are stimulated together the subject will frequently report
an experience of heat This experiment is called the stjntfieilc heat
experiment since heat is produced by two stimuli neither of which
IS not
temperature spots
\Vhatever the quality of experience aroused
are somewhat unstoble. Suppose we
select a circumsOTbed area of
Uie skin with a gnd of mdehble mk

upon it and then wrefuUy
teêratures A
the co^d and watm spots M two
day later vve
map
of the same temperatures We
remap the same area .v,tb
find Ural whrle aome of the
warra and cold apoU hare âppMrrf
rnvanant. rvhde agam some fomerly
many snots have remained
Although Uie distribution of
insCMltive areas are new responsive
the receptors punctate (the receptor cells anti free ncr\'e end-
is
ings arc discrete), nevertheless we obtain instability in mapping

because the skin itself conducts heat over areas which do and
areas which do not contain sensitive cells. Tlic extent to which the
effect of a given stimulus will spread is variable, and it may reach
different numbers of receptors from one application to another.
Fic. Maps of Cold and Warm Snots. Tlie same arpi n,, »i.
arm was plotted four times in the cou«c of one
week Note th Mf,”'’?'''
tnbutions of spots el.anged somewlmt
from one manrnrm ,n in b
also show considerable consistency.
(From K ^t Ddle^t* u
peralnre spots and end organs. aIJ. '"”
mission of the lournal and the author.) ' ’ ty per-
Moreover, slight changes in the temperature
of the
" .1 - n ,
shifts the physiologrcal zero are
ill
likely to lead
mapped to n
distribution of sensory
spots Even H,o .
mentation eannot avoid the
^ changes from
-r™'
today. day
As Fig. 4 shmvs, the
changes in tlie disfr,l .
not haphazard. Tlicre ‘tin spots are
shifted.
are many stable
Such changes are '
f
precfselv sshnt^'’
of the previous
disL,io„ m Mew
CUTAÊOUS SENSITIVITY 45
Cutaneous Receptors
The distinchon 'imong four skin senses has naturally led to a
searclj for specialized receptorsOne procedure has been to correlate
the distributions of sensory spots with the distributions of receptor
type cells and neural elements in the skin A second and more
direct procedure consists of the histological examination of a skin
area that has been carefiill) mapped for sensory spots The histol
ogist has describedand cl ssified many elements which are potential
cutaneous receptors but the correlation between these histological
elements and observed sensory elTects is equivocal
In the early work evidence seemed to point toward speaalized
receptors for the four senses As experimental work accumulated
however it was found that in general there was no one to one
correspondence between the four types of cutaneous experience on
the one hand and four types of receptors on the other For example
the margin of the cornea is sensitive onlv to painful and cold stimuli
Botli free nerve endingsand Krauses end bulbs I ave been found in
that area There the correlation appears to be between pain and
free nerve endings and between cold and Krauses end bulbs WTien
this hypothesis was tested m other areas of the skin histological
examination of cold sensitive spots failed to si ow the
presence of
han
these end bulbs m some cold sensitive areas On the other
endings seems csla
the correlation between pain and free nerve
elements
hshed for the fret nerve endmgs are Uie only rewptor
of pain spots n
frequent enough to account for the great density
supported this conclusion
addition direct histological tests 1 ave
Onij one other correlation seems certain and that is
of pressure in
Inir folhcles or bulbs and the espenence
regions of the bod. The frequently
meutionri
Meissners coipuscles and pressure m
the hair css
.r
an,
doubtful There has been
1 ttle if
body IS on thi other hand
agreement on the end organ for warmth the

The equivocal eaadence concemmg
and
mcreashig number of end bulbs E',"
presence o re
identified and the ubiquitous whicli are
to behove tot ,s
led some inaestigators ;™"„ene
sensi ty
always functional in cutaneous
endings appear to be structurally alibe, they may form different
functional systems.
more fmitful line of investigation has been the correla*
Recently, a
tion between cutaneous experiences and various types of nerve
fibers. Physiologists have classified the nerve
fibers of a cutaneous
nerve into three types {A, B, and C) in terms of certain functional

and anatomical characteristics. From experimental and pathological
evidence, and from electrical records of nerve action, a certain
degree of correspondence between fiber types and types of cutaneous
experiences has become evident. Whatever the specific receptors
which respond differentially to various types of stimuli, this differ-
entiation is maintained by the fibers of the cutaneous nerves.
Experiment 1
Demos'Sttiatiok of Tiiermai. Adaptation
Purpose. The purpose of this classical experiment (which was first
performed more than a hundred years ago) is to demonstrate the shift

in the physiological zero as a result of continuous exposure to a thermal
stimulus.
Materials. Three beakers or bowls, water, ice, heater (or a source of
warm water), and a thermo m eter arc required.
Procedure. IVe first wish to show that the physiological zero of one
sldn surface shifts due to exposure to warm water, while the physiologi-
cal zero of another surface shifts in the opposite direction due to ex-
posure to cold water.
The temperature of the water in one bowl (B) is adjusted until it feels
neutral when the subject immerses his fingers in it. This will probably
occur at about 30® C. The temperature of the water in one of the other
bowls (A) lowered to 20® C. Add ice if necessary. The
is
temperature
of the third bowl (C) is raised to 40® C.
Tbe subject immOTcs the fingers of bis left hand in bowl
A and the
fingers of bis right hand in W1
C. He keeps them in the hotels for 2
r"
laneousl^n ilTn
;bowlB. n
•
Bowlfn*™'’
B cont^ the water
simul-
which previously had felt
neutranhe subject now reports how the water
^
feels to each hand
As a further demonstration of the fact that iIyp t
'
. ^
taneonsly shdtedfor both thermal
the
used. Only two bowls are r^ri^l Procedure may be
,
bis thermal esperieoee. He Uten immerses the

fiogifof at’eTal^tS
CUTANEOUS SENSITIVITY
'‘“Ps there for 2 mmaes At (ho
end of this period he ogam tests the water in the first bowl (25"
a)
E^£Rr\fENT II
Mapping Cotaneoos Sense Spots
Purpwe To map Uie four types of sensory spots (pressure pain
cold and warm spots) in a circumscribed area of the sVin
Pressure Spots
Materials An estf esiometer I e a bor es or camels hau attached

to a handle is used for the application of the pressure sbmulus
An area
of the sljn is delineated for plotting by means of a gnd stamp A safety
razor is used for shaving off hair prewous to mapping the pressure spots
and a very hght grade of sandpaper for rubbing off fbe outer la>er of
skin The map of pressure spots is recorded on graph paper
Procedure Two skin areas are selected one from the bad: of tlie
hand and the other from the dorsal part of the upper arm For each of
the two areas the following procedure is used The area is first freed of
hair svashed with warm water and lightly rubbed with the sandpaper in
order to remove the outer dead layer ol skin The grid is carefully
stamped on the skin with an attempt to make the Imes as clear and sharp
as possible A piece of graph paper is marked off with a grid correspond
mg to that stamped on the skin Before beginning the actual mapping
of the area, the experimenter should practice using the eslhes ometer so
thathe is able to bend the hair to the same degree on each trial In this
manner the intensity of the stimulus wiU be kept conrtant Only under
this condition can the maps be meaningfully interpreted During Ous
practice period the subject should attempt to establish a consistent

Criterion for reporting the presence of pressure
The area is icn mapped by applying the esthesiometer to eacli square
of the gnd After each appl cation of the esthesiometer Uie subject re-
ports whether or not he felt the pressure tUenever pressure is reported
the experimenter marks on the graph paper the square corresponding
to
the one from which the subfects response

was obtained This Is enn
stimulated.
tinued until afl the squares of the grid have been
Pflfn Spots
Materials. same areas of the skm are to
Smee the
The stroute
^ mapped, few
materl* are required /Iff
“'’aq, jleede,
.Iseuwfer whieh » erniply a
needle mounted in . handle serves as welL A wet
A steel phonograph
43 EXrCniMKNTAL PSYCIJOLOCY
to keep the sUn moist during tlic
needed experiment.
cloVli or sponge (s
shonid
Procedure. Before mapping the pain spots, tlic experimenter
will discovered tli.it vcr>' lllljc
practice the use of the algomcfer. It Ik?
pressure is needed to elicit pain. Tlie txperimLnlcr

must be nhlc to apply
the needle ulth the same Intensity on all Irl'ils
After the mapping has
of the
begun, special care must Ik: taken not to jjicreasc the Intensity
stimulus if a few successive Inals fail to produce a rcsjxju'c.
Again, each
square of the grid Is tested, and a record made on the map Tlic skin
should bo kept moist ihrouglioul t)ie mapping.
Worm Spots
Materials. The warm stimuli are applied by means of tcmiH-Tatirrc
cylinders or brass rods. A beaker with water and a heater arc required to
keep the stimulaters at a constant Icmpcfaluic. A ccnligradu tlitnnomctcr
IS used to measure the limpcr.ilure.
Procedure. We map the same areas again. Each area Is washed and
dried, and a few mlnutc-s later the mapping is begun. Tlie stimuLitcrs
should be heated to 40’ C. and wiped dry licforc application. Care must
be taken to apply the stimulaters with a constant force each time. .\Iorc-
over, the duration of the stimulus should be very short and constant from
trial to Inal. Tlie fod< should lie frequently changed in order to Insure
constant temperature of the stimulus. Again, a complete map Is made.
Cold Spots
Materials. The cold stimuli are also applied
by means of temperature
cylinders which arc cooled to the desired tcmpcTalurc in a beaker of cold
water O^d).
Procedure. The Icmpctaturc cylinders arc cooled to a temperature of
15® C. The same procedure Is followed as in the mapping
of the warm
spots.
Treatment of Ttesults
For each jense and for each area, a count of the

number of spots is
made. Two sets of cornpansons arc made:
(1) for each sense the two
areas are ceropaied with respect to density oi
spots; (2) for a given area
the densuics oi the four types of spots are
noted
We also^sider the location and groop.og
of the spots. Do the
prmsore spots and pa „ spot, emoeide?
Are cold and wani spots found
the four types of spots compare

with each other?
row Sity™?
ym’’
“sX' oi spots. If
™
time permits, or as an altemaUve
CUTANEOUS SENSITIVITY 49
procedure to mapping all four senses the areas may be remapped for
any one sense The reliability or stability of spots is then tested by (1)
comparing the total number of spots obtained m the two mappings
(2) noting how many of the individual spots are found on both occa
sions (3) counting how many spots found in the first mapp ng disappear
in the second and (4) ascertaining how many new spots appear in the
second mapping
Change mIntensity of Stimulus The number of spots found m
any one experiment depends on the intensity of the stimulus used An
alternative procedure then >voa]d be to remap the two areas for pressure
spots with a stimulus of different intensity To obta n an increase m m
tensity we may use an esthcsiometer with a stiffer hair which will exert
a greater force per unit diameter In applying the more intense stimulus
the record of the mapping should he kept out of the s ght
first
The
subject so that he should notbe influenced by his previous reports
general effect
following quesbons should be considered (1) What is the
two areas show
of mcreasing the intensity of stimulation? (2) Dj the
increase in e
comparable changes in the density of pressure spots with
level of stimulabon?
may be remapped in t sunuar
,
The other types of sensiHve spots

fashion wth stimuli of greater intensity
General Keferences
»/»«»»'
Bo™g E G Langfeld H S Weld H F
BorgTG''^"Sd'fs'''Swe1d3;FF..^^^
of nerve fibers of slowest

conduction velocity
114 69 76 in fiber types Proc Ass

typ
relation to fa
Gasser H S Conduction in nerves in

Res New Ment Vis 1934 15 In T C Andre vs (ed )
Jenbns W
L Studying the “[“J* sons 1948
Afethods of psycioh&ij /search m cutaneous sensibvity
Jenkms WL
andSloneLJ j^njes Pfyehoi Buff
^ skin sens
of, the
U Touch and the neural basis
Bool
38 69-91 ,
psychclog>f N«v York McGraw Hill
Morgan C T Physiological
Co 1943 Chap 12 temperature senses In
C Murchison
.
pain and lempv
Nafe r P Th® pressure
surrounding air particles. The air particles move back and forth in
the same pattern as the vibrating object. As the air particles collide
with each other, the movement spreads away from the vibrating
object until the energy imparted to the particles from the object is
dissipated. The stimulus for hearing is this kind of vibratory motion.
'Ihejimpl est kind of vibratory motion is simple harmonic motion.
niQyginenV^f_^peQduIum^s a common example"^
simple harmonic moti on. A moving object executes simple harmonic
Fic. 5. A Sine Curve, an Example of Simple

Harmonie Motion.
motion the degree of its displacement
if
is
applied to it When the amount
of disoIae£n
object is plotted as a function ® vibrating
of uL
Fig. 5 is obtained. The
sound^maLZ’ f ^
described by such a sine
curve and is Icn
the abscissa of Fig. S,
Umc is nlotted.'? ““ 'one- Aloog
of displacement.
a|placement
L. the
a^gZotS
incnês in
is aero. As
Ume proZZ
magnitude and readief^Z
,b f
<^“P'oeement rapidly
1’= “"’P''»«Ie
placement of the body decr^^rV®.”'*^" maximum
then follow
s the same Z*
course, with sign
audition
53
™
dÎaccmenllnsrclumodlozo™
“T/rfc thus refers to the portion
^ cydr l„s bee. compkted Uo
of the cone from O to P The
""’Pi'"®" “f ®"= ‘T'rfe >s called the period
of theXrU"’'
ne \\n\e Ttic mimber of cycles per second conshtutes the /re
qiicncr/ of the waxc Thus i sinewave is complete!) determined by
Its trequenev and its mitimum amplitude of displacement
moment by moment addition of s ne curve A to sine curve B (After E G

Boring (ed } FsjeJ ohgy for tie awed servees 1945 p 98 bypermis
Sion of Infantry Journal Inc )
In Fig 5 the curve leaves the time axis at the origin Suppose
that a wave identical in frequency and intensity is slightly displaced
so that It leaves the time axis a short tune after the first wave The
two waves xvould then be out of plvtse with each other The posi
tioa on the time axis of one wave with respect to anothei is thus
called phase
Let us return to the vibrations of a tuning fork The resultmg
movement of the air particles creates successive regions of con-
the
densation and rarefaction in the medium. These changes in
density of the air give rise to changes in the pressure exerted on
any
object placed in the vibrating medium. Thus, when the diaphragm
of a microphone placed near a vibrating object (source of sound),
is
the pressure exerted on the diaphragm can be readily measured. It

is for this reason that sound-presstire letjel is
widely used to measure
the intensity of sound.
Only a few of the sounds which we encounter are produced by
tuning forks or their electronic equivalents, and, therefore, only few
auditory stimuli are simple sine waves. Even a carefully plucked
violin string produces a complex sound wave. And yet the vibrations
of a violin string are extremely simple as compared with the sound
waves which we appreciate as speech or the music of a symphony
orchestral With such sounds as speech and music, the complexity
of the pattern changes continuously in time. It is to this problem of
complexity that we shall now turn.
Consider Fig. 6. There are two sine curves, A and B, which differ
in frequency. The third curve, C, represents the moment-by-moment
addition of curv'e A C is not a sine
to curve B. Obviously, curve
cur\'c, but a complex one. In a similar manner, one could add
together any number of sine curves and obtain highly complex
carves. In fact, it has been proved that one can take any complex
curve and anal)'ze it into a series of sine curves having appropriate
amplitude and phase relations. This mathematical law is known as
Fourier’s theorem and is a basic principle of acoustics.
It applies
only to wave forms which periodically repeat themselves.
The Physical Dimensions of the Auditory Stimulus

There are Hvo basic dimensions along which a pure
tone can vary-
frequency and intensity. These variaUons may occur
independently
of each other. When pure tones are combined,
another type of
yanation oc^rs; tl.cre is a change in the complexity
of the stimulus.
Ph)s,cal Un.ts. It is important to describe
the physical stimu-
lus m
precise quantit.atiye terms. The
frequency of a sound wane is
d«ignatedrnlermso c!,clcspcrxccond(c.p.s
l.Thismeasure refers,
of course, to the number of cycles of a
periodic xvave that occurs in
1 second. As we hare md.catcd, the
Inicnrity of the auditorylû-
AUDITION
55
lus ..most convemently expressod m
tenns of sound pressure Now
pressure IS defined ns force per
umt area The most common un.t
of pressure .n acoust.es « one
dpne/em' (One dvne .s the force
which svill mcrease the seloct) of a mass
of one gram one cent,
meter per second etery second At those
) frequences to which the
car IS most sensitive the most intense pressure
that the ear can
tolerate w more than a mflhon times as large
as the weakest pres
sure tint the ear can detect Tins tremendous range
of sound pres
Sures makes the use of a logarithmic scale especially
convenient It
IS in the nature of a logarithmic scale to
compress the upper end
of a scale relab\c to the lower end Such a compression of the scale
Is convenient since a change of say one d)"ne/cm’ in the upper
region of intensity does not usually produce nearly as large a sensory
effect as it does m the lower region The loganthmic scale m terms
of which sound pressures are expressed is tlie decibel (db) scale
The number of decibels hdefined by iho foUowng equation
ff„ = 201og,»£.
Pi
where N is the number of decibels pi is a reference pressure and

pa is the pressure to which the number of decibels refers Clearly
then a decibel is a measure of rchlivc magnitude The frachon
pi/pi tells us how many times greater jh « than pi Then in order
to compress the scale the Jogarrtlim of this fraction is taken The

multiplication by 20 is a matter of convenbon
Tile decibel is a measure of relative pressure It has meaning
therefore only if the reference pressure is known To say that a
sound sbmulus has a pressure of 20 decibels and to let it go at that

is thit is ten times greiter
is meaningless AH that has been sa d
specified does
than some (unknown) pressure p, Not until pi is
such a statement acquire significance Two
reference pressures hav'e
been widely used in acoustical research * / «

0002 dyne/cm
Sound Pressure Level pi here is taken to equal 0
\\1ien the term sound pressure level
{SPh) is employed it is under
reference level has been used
stood that this
convenient to take as the reference
Sensation Level It is often
magnitude but raUier the sound pres
level not an arbitrair physical
absolute threshold AVhen this reference
sure ol the stimulus at the
pressure is employed, the intensity of the stirpulus is expressed
in
terms of sensation Iccel Tims, to say that the intensity of a sound is

50 db sensation level means that the sound pressure is 50 db above
the absolute threshold of the subject for that particular sound.
AuDiTonY Disciumination
Let us now show how auditory experience depends on the physical
dimensioiis of the stimulus.
Determination of Auditory Area

Wemay best begin \vith an experimental demonstration. As a
source of sound, wc shall use an audio-oscillator which generates
pure tones (sine waves) whose intensity and frequency we can con-
trol. We
put our subject in a very quiet room. Tlie osdllator drives
an earphone which is fitted snugly over the listener’s ear. setWe
the frequency control dial of the osdllator to 500 c.p.s. Wc
turn the
intensity control to a low setting. The subject, who has been in«
structed to signal when he hears a lone, fails to react. We
again
present the tone with the intensity slightly increased. On the third
such presentation of the tone, the subject signals.
We now begin a new series of presentations. The tone is first
presented at an intensity well above the values used in the
first
series. The subject immediately responds. On successive
presenta-
tions of the tone, we decrease the intensity until
the subject no
longer responds. We repeat these two types of series
several times
and then average those intensiUes at which the
subject’s reaction
changes (f^ no response to response and from response
to no
response) This average defines the absolute
threshold oi the sub-
IhTKhoia IS &e môd of nunimal changes (or

method of Umits).
Thfa pi^dure IS repeated at selected
frequencies which ranee
from the lowest frequency to which the ,
"S®
20 cp.,) to the higlertTnbou,
Ihur obtained are plotted ar a function
of freq;^
m Fig. 7 resnlta. This curve is Oie
sensitivity SSrtt'r"
At each of the frequendes which
we
r increase the intensity of the
tone until thp^T-^'^
he experiences
sxperiences ticHe Bum ^vhen
tickle or puin. 'ports that
the averages of
STn'SLS
AITDJTJON
57
-- ... .u., loooea as a tunction
“ of frequency,
Fig
5 7 .LTllf Thfc”
I results
resulls nine of the thnshnM
the curve
the
“
vpe' - «
“
(hres7iDMo//cc/]ii;:
le sensiluit) curve of Uie car and the
curve of the threshold of
Fic 7 The Sensitivity Curve of the Human Ear The lower curve
represents the sound pressures needed at the different frequencies to
produce a just audible sound The upper curve represents the sound
pressures which result in a feeling of pressure or pain The area delimited
by these two curves is the auditory area (From E G Boring fed),
Pstjchologtj for the armed serevees, 19J5, p 102, by permission of
Infantry Journal, Inc )
feeling form the boundaries of an area within which /all all the
stimuli to normai hearing This area js the auditory area
Differential Sensitivity to Frequency and Intensity

Differential Sensitivity to Frequency Suppose we present our
listener with a 500 cycle tone well above his
absolute threshold
Half a second later, we present him vnth a 502 cyde tone

at the
gg
been instructed to indicate whether
same intensify. The subject has
or lower in pitch t^n the first. After
pre-
the second tone is hiêr
senting this pair of tones,
we wait 4 seconds and then again turn
this time with a 496-cyele tone.
on the SOOîycle tone, following it
We continue this procedure, pairing the SOO-cycle tone (the stand-
ard sUmulus) with d^^nt tones (comparison stimuli) cover-

mg a range from 496 to 504 c.p.s Thus, the subject
Standard sUmulus with each of the followirnr
compLs the
^ >*• i-
496, 497, 498, 499, 500, 501, 502, 503,
of constant stimulus differences is used
In ZTih"e method
'
The result
Fig. 8 as psyriiometric funcUons. Along die aLSl we^We Î^md
audition
ciegones of judgment nro

anpêd .t « cnslomery to „je 75
Fic 9 Vanations of A/// with Frequency Sensabon I^vel as a

Parameter TTi/s family of curves shows how the differential sensitivity to
frequency varies with the frequency of the standard lone at various sen
sation levels The numbers on the curves refer to sensation levels (From
E C Shower and Jl ff/ddu!ph Differentiai pitch senstlivlty o[ the ear
/ Acous Soc Amer 1931 3 275 by pentiBsion of the journal and
authors
percent correct judgments as a basis for determining the differential

tlireshold In Fig 8 the honzontal dotted line represents this 75
percent level the vertical dotted fines have then been drawn to
find the comparison stimuli corresponding to this percentage
We have now measured the differential threshold for frequencj
with a standard of 500 cps This value applies only to this fre
quency at the intensity which vve have used We are interested in
gjj
between the value of the differential toesh-
the funcHonal relation
relation
of the standard sUmulus. Since the
old and the frequency
and frequency also depends on
behveen the differential threshold
the determinations are made, we need a
the. intensity at which
to represent the relaUons involved. Fig. 9
shows
family of curves
such a famffy of curves.
On the abscissa is plotted frequency in
C.P.S. The ordinate
represents values of A///, i.e., relative differential
thresholds. Each of the curves
was obtained at a different intensity
plot represents Af/f as a function
of the sUmuli. Therefore, the
as the parameter. A parameter is, of
of frequency with intensity
cours^ a variable which is held constant for a given series of deter-
minations but varied from scries to series The plot
illustrates the
differential threshold on frequency and

joint dependence of the
intensity.
Differential Sensitivity to Intensity. We
may use the same
experimental procedure that wc described for the measurement
of Af// for the determination of AI/I. This time, of course, the
method of constant stimulus differences is applied to intensity
changes, and frequency is the parameter. This set of relationships
represented in Fig. 10.
Attoibutes op Auditory Experience

As we have seen, listeners are able to make consistent and reliable
responses when instructed to judge tones as higher or lower and as
louder or softer. The listener s ability to make consistent and reliable
judgments with respect to these categories cstabh'shes the concepts
of pitch and loudness. Just as frequency and intensity are dimen-
sions of the physical stimulus, so pitch and loudness are dimen-
sions of auditory experience. It is of utmost importance
to keep in
mind that pitch is not the same as frequency, and loudness not the
same as intensity. Pitch ana loudness are aspects of auditory experi-
ence which arc inferred from the suhjeefs responses
to tonal stimu-
Ution. Wu ilnll uow describe the prindpal funcUonal relationships
Ixhvcen the phjmcal dimensions of the sUmulos
and the attnbutes
of auditory experience.
Pitch ns n runctlon of Frequency.
Changes in pitch are
largely,though not eaelusUcly, a function
of frequency. In geneml,
ns the frequency of n tone is inaensed.
the pitch nYes. -nl reu'
40 99 «0 70 BO 90 (00 ilO
SCNSATIOM LCVCL IN OB
Tic 10 Î/I as a Tunclion ol Sensation Level with Fre<tiiency as a
rarameler TIiu family of curves sliovvs how diEerenbal sensibvity to
intensity depends on sensation level at different frequencies The size of
the diilercntiil threshold (A/) is plotted on the left and the size of tlie
relative differentia! threshold (A///) is plotted on the right The num
bers on the curves refer to frequency (Reproduced bv permission from
Hearhig Us pstjchJogy and physiology by S S Stevens and H Davis,
p 138, published by John Wiley & Sons. Inc, 1938 )
Siblc to determjne the frequency steps required to obtain equal

Increments m pitch Tlie umf of pitch was obtained by arbitrarily
calling the pitch of a 1000 cps tone, 1000 mels The pitch of a tone
sounding just half as high nouM then be 500 mels As the function
InFig 11 shows, the frequency of a tone of 500 mels is not 500 cps,
but IS 400 o p s Clearly, the reJationsbip is by no means
bnear, for
g2
equal increments in frequency,
one does not obtain equal increments
a striking phenomenon which points up

the fact that
'"SlCTB is
shoivs how pitch, measured

m subjertive units
•
(mcls), grows with increases

m
frequency. Note that
the relation between frequency and percened mff'ti te 1
^ /r-
S S. Stevens and J. V?lkma?n Thr^hon nf
^ t,
revised scale, Amer frequen^. a
J. Parjchol ' 1940 ’ 53 sir k*
ioumalandtheaulhon.) Pennission of the
pilch is not the same as

frequency If » smbu,,* •
the pttch of a tone heard ^ . ^
‘o
a moment later in the other ear ^ heard
the pitch
nif/%b ?
match may be achieved
AUDITION
63
even though there IS a fairly large
difference in frequency between
tne stimuli Tins phenomenon is i^novvn
as dtplacusts
Pitch as a Function of Intensity
Although the pitch of pure
tones is a major function of frequency
investigators have found
that It also vanes to some extent with
intensity Tlie pitch of low
tones IS especially affected b> mfcnsity
Tones of low frequency (Jess
than about 500 c s sound lower
p ) m
pitch as they become louder
There has also been some indication that tones of high frequency
(more than about 3000 c s ) sound higher in pitch as they become
p
louder Tile evidence for complex tones (musical tones) is that
they remain constant in pitch as intensity changes
Loudness as a Function of Intensit) Loudness is a major
function of intensity As the intensity of a tone is increased from its
threshold value the loudness at first increases only a little As the
intensity is increased further the loudness increases more and more
Fig 12 shows loudness m
subjective units (sones) plotted as a func
tion of intensityThe loudness function was obtained by the same
experimental procedure as the pilch function shown in Fig 11
Ixiudness as a Function of Frequency Loudness also vanes
to 0 considerable extent ivith frequencj The sensitiviy curve of
the ear shows that for minimal audibility different intensibes are
required at different frequencies In order to maintarn a somewhat
greater than minimal (threshold) loudness different intensities are
also required at different frequencies In order to maintain a very
Jiigh degree of loudness however the intensity may be held virtu
of equal
ally constant as frequency voines Fig 13 shows a set
loudness contours obtain an equjd loudness contour when the
We
constant
intensity adjusted at each frequency so as to maintain a
is
level of loudnessThus when a 1000 cycle tone has a sensation level

of 40 db a 100 cycle tone must be only 25
db above threshold to
sound equally loud II may be noted hoTOer
that the pliysical
be greater than that of a
jntensit) of the 100 cycle tone roust
other than p.teh

Tuicr Attributes Pure tuues have attnbules
of voUme
and louduess For erarople the attnbute loud tones
of tones Loiv tones and
aspect of largeness or smallness
small Of mune
S Targe
musicaf
Se
tones and
high tones and soft tones are
other coropler tones have many other psye o-
logical dimensions
Although pitch is best dehned by using pure tones as stimuli,
sounds of considerable complexity still have a definite,
characteristic
pitch. The pitch of a violin note may be readily identified

even
though there are many overtones in this stimulus. On the other
SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL IN DECIBELS

Fio. 12. The Loudness Function. The curve shows how
loudness
measured in subjecUve units (soncs) grows with increases
in sound
pressure.
hand there are complex sUmuli whose pitch

is evasive. We may
say that a thumping noise sounds lower in
pilch than a sharp click
but we have drllicu^ m plamng it with
much success on th^ pit*
scale. Noises have been called atonal ^
as dixUnff..{cTv« it • i
tones which have tonality, i.e, thslfact

noises not surprising if we recall that a not
is
uHc^ T
tttonahty of
‘ t,"
“ "'“"y
frequencies wWch do 00^^ a
P''" ““"cdral relation to
each other.
AUDITION 65
The Dependence of Attributes on Both Frequency and In

tensity. The funcbonal relationships between ea^ attnbule and
the physical dimensions of the stimulus make it clear that no single
attnbule is uniquely determined by a single physical dimension
FBEOWEUCY
Fio 13 Equal Loudnas

iltamed when U)e colour marked 0 nnis
die sensi
am a constant level of refers to the
threshold of feeling
ivity curve of the ear
The dott^ levj. (Reproduced by
different loudness
^ »
n,., nirvfis renresent
puousiieu
a H Davis, p 124 ,
,
of frequenr, and
are join, funedons
,U. Inudnesa and pdeh
tensit)
Prra. avp
RrvsioLOCicAi. Basis of
The grea. sens.««V S“roIogS'baris of
tensity at once ^
raises uie ]
thisremarkable discriminatory power. How do small changes in the
auditory stimulus lead to differentia! response? \Vliat are the dimen-
sions or modes of variation in the auditory nerve which provide the
basis for correct discrimination?
First let us consider differential response to changes in frequency.
It was once believed that the frequency of nerve impulses dupli-
cated the frequency of the stimulating sound wave. Such an explana-
tion became untenable when it was discovered that a nerve fiber
cannot respond with anything near the highest audible frequencies.
The refractory periods, botli absolute and relative, prevent the fiber
from responding more than a few hundred times per second.
The alternative view, long held by many investigators, maintains
that stimuli of different frequencies activate different regions of tlic
basilar membrane in the Inner car, and thereby stimulate different
nerve fibers. This place theory of pitch perception is supported by
a considerable array of evidence from anatomical structure, patho-
logical conditions, and electrical responses of the auditory system.
One particularly conclusive experiment utilized the technique of
isolating the response to tonal stimulation of a single nerve element.
After placing microclcctrodcs upon a single clement, the investiga-
tors determined the absolute threshold of that element to auditory
stimuli. They found that a given element had its minimum
threshold
for a particular frequency and that on both sides of this
frequency,
the thresholds rapidly increased. Furthermore, different
elements
have their minimal thresholds at different frequencies.
The range
over which a given element can respond is surprisingly
restricted
The auditory areas of selected single nerve elements
are shown in
Fig. 14.
We do net as yet hnmv how the ear as a meehanical
device can
analjê the sound wave so tte different
regions of the basilar
m^brane are art.ya ed by d-fferent frequencies.
It is quite prob-
able however that frequency diseriminaUon
is mediated by fto
stimulation of different nerve fibers.
mich fiber responds, then, seems
to be the cnTicI • . 1,
perception of pitch. But how are discriminnH^ c •
ated? Research in neurophysiology
has pointed"to''t
which probably supplement caA niechan.sms
In the first place, as the intensity
“Oy or
of tnc
the stimulus
stim I
™
oUict in determ'™
.'"S '““dness.
is increased, the
AUDITION 67
thresholds ofmore and more single fibers are reached An intense

stimulus throws more fibers into action than a weak one This par
ticular explanation of loudness has been termed the inuUij^fibeT_
hiip^ esis There is also another in which the nene responds
way
to anlncrease in the intensity of the stimulus mz by an increase in
'
wv •— FAeQUENCY
FiG 14 The SensitnityofSmgle Auditoo-
Sound The
ferent Frequencies of shown Each clement
tion of the single element at The
ranee of frequencies
responds only over a Iimit^ they are most
respon
-lements are identified by the
fre^tn^ to which
h
^ ^ Morpn
sive (By permission from Inc After R Galambos
® m acoustic
p 235 cop>-nghted 1943 jjtory nerse fibers
and H Dims The respond Oiadcs C -niomas
43
pul l«hcr
the frequency of impulses

known
f^rc™
sensory intensity is »'“> >"
mechnnisms-an increase m^
o
, „ork together Each
of oiinitar
in the frequency riocreise the total
“ sarriMe
process b> Itself orboft fS'*' . 77,7 ,, is this single
unit upon "hicli loudness
of impulses per
per urn bmei
total number of impulses
depends
Beats, DirrnnENCc Tones, and Masking

In this section, we shall concern ourselves with the auditory phe-
nomena resulting from the stimulation of the car by two puic tones.
Beats. Let us taVc pure tones of equal intensity somewhat above
the absolute threshold, one at 1200 c.p,s., the other at 1700 c.p.s.
The subject reports that he hears two tones distinctly differing in
pitch. Let us keep the lower tone fixed at 1200 c.p.s. but gradually
decrease the frequency of the higher one. \Vhen the two tones are
about 150 c.p.s. apart, the subject still reports hearing two pitches
but now describes them as ‘'rough." When we further decrease the
frequency difference between the two tones to about 50 c.p.s,, an
intermittent series of pulses is heard, and when the tones are about
10 c.p.s. apart, a tone of a single pitch is licard which waxes and

wanes in loudness. It is this waxing and waning of loudness that is
called beats.
The rise and fall due to the continually changing
in loudness is
phase relation between the two stimuli. The hvo stimuli arc acting
upon a common region of the basilar membrane in the inner ear
which contains the receptor cells for hearing. At one moment of
time the two stimuli reinforce each other and thus make a
more
intense stimulus than either alone. At this time the loudness is
maximal. As the phase-difference between the sUmuli
shifts they
come to cancel each other in their effect on the basilar
membrane
As a result, the perceived loudness falls.
There are two physical stimuli present, yet the
subject hears only
is"ltaUet'
Difference Tones. Let us return to our orie,„.i
i- ..
^re tones of equal intensity, one at 1200
c.p.s., one at 17M c^s”
These tones are presented at an intensity
first ’
fust ahrl
lute threshold. The subject again
reports two Hitf
now increase the 'intensity of both tones to an p pitches.
^ We
so db sensation level. The subject
now reportrtLtT"h
only the two original tones but also
a third to^ne wl!” ^ ^
that of a SOthcycle tone. This
third toneîs iL
pitch corresponds to that of ‘‘^Berence lone.
Its
a tone whn. r
the difference between the
two ntimarv
shmuli. Difference
tones
AUDITION
may be ascribed in part to the fact that as the stimuli are trans-
mitted through the bony chain of the middle ear to the receptors
in the inner ear, distortion of the stimulus pattern occurs. The ear
1200 CYCLES
tones.)
faithfully to
(^nvey the vibrations
a mechanical devi^
s>-s-
, Sough such a distortingmne,
le receptors.
When Itvo
this additional
It is
additional tone « S which is heard M
m, an
resent in the inner
10 diSerence tone.
“c “
°
^
“
^ ,
.
, ,.ii,n,Uon,
mechanism svhich
(„„„ that responsible
gives me
.
to
the noises encountered in the presence of high-powered machinery,
as In airplanes, or in the notoriously loud boiler factories. When
these noises are brought into the laboratory so Uiat we can control
the time of exposure and their intensity, dramatic decreases in sensi-
tivity can be induced. Exposure in the laboratory has the advantage
FRtOUtWCY JN CPS
Fk. le. Changes in Auditory ScnsiUvily as a Result
of Exposure to
Intense Noue. Each of the curves represents an
audiogram taken at a
given time mterval after exposure. (From
J. P. Egan, unpublished data.)
of iriaUng possible determinations of

auditory sensitivity before as
well as after exposure. ^
There is an alrriost unlimited variety of

noises that can be pro-
duced by empbîzmg the intensities of
than others, but one particular noise
certain frequencies mLr
™ m
is esneciallv t .n
Investigalion of auditoiy fatigue.
All audiUo trj
ent in this noise, and all of thffreZn
noise has been called thermd
from the thermal agitation of
Jbe because
^1000,^^0
^
AUDITION 73
been called tvhtte noise by analog) to white sunlight, which contains

all visible wave lengths in about the same amount Let us turn to
some CYpenments on auditory fatigue in which the ear was etposed

to this particular noise
To measure the effect of exposure to intense stimuh we first
determine m the quiet the sensitivity curve of the ear The ear is
then exposed to a loud stimulus say a white noise whose overall
intensity is greater than 100 db Immediately following the exposure
the sensitivity of the ear is redetermined The shifts in the absolute
thresholds expressed in decibels are taken as measures of auditoiy
fabgue The temporal course of recovery from fatigue can be traced
by repeated determinations of the absolute threshold at vanous
time intervals after exposure
exposure to a
Fig 16 shows the amount of fatigue induced by
hne represents
white noise (115 db overall) The horizontal zero
The other curves define t e emp^
the normal sensitivity of the ear
heanng losses m decibels for vanous rest penods after
shows the “'^5 ™
raty
The curve, lahen 0 5 minutes after exposure
exposure
pairment m sensitivity immediately
foHoivuig
penods
,
The curves taken after longer rest

ioise
there “
gf
the normal scns.Uv.ty curve, and
that the ^ “""g
'^Ss "
,"
about four days Noteworthy is the fact
Just -hy
most pronounced at high frequencies
frequencies is not Inmvn
vulnerable in the region of high
CoiuMUNicA-nov
Speech, Heaiung, and
The experimental plre tmes tha\ we are
study of pure tones It is through of auditory
experience
basic dime
best able to investigate the ^5 individuals
But the sounds which are ],ke pure tones speech
beings are speech
an
and social ear But unlike
and music are sound 'vav«
wbob ™p.nge
^
™ ^
pure tones speech and peaces It is not sur
a
infinite vanety of meanings exnencnces are highly
complex
stimuli welhall be con
pnsmg, then that the
and continuously changing ‘
ed of importance
^ . a
yg prov
cemed xvith some oi poroephonot p
in communication
and the
AUDITION 75
selected speech units, and listeneis record what they hear. Such a
procedure is called an ariiculathn test Let us now illustrate some
of the results which this procedure has provided
Qul«f 1 fiOibtSMtt
/
ly (SseetrumI)
/
i / OA Word HOIevlAtloAlA / J
ondHiOv'X
1
/
7 -w
so foo
SENSATION Ufcvti. V.
Spe«h M
— ^ The tune*
Fic 18 IntclUgibiUty of ^ a funM
show the percentage of was ob»ined in the
,, function
intensity of received speech The
le distant
masking noise The
quiet, the right hand funcljon 1- m {„ ti,e intensity
of speech
between the two cuiês indicates (NDRC Research on
. „o,se
of November
required to o>er«)me the effects I
Laboratory.
Sound Control Report. Articulation ot rsy ^
1944, OSRD Report No 3802. courtesy
Harvard University ) w _ »«c»c it has
Frequency Distortion
By “'^^„îrc^n'°b6 fillci«i oot
Tbe
been shown that many mth its intelligibility for
ones
of speech tvithoul seriously „„st important
midL range of speech missing without
n.gn> may be
and the hgln
and the lows
mtelbgibiltty.
rendering the words unintelligible. It is true that we occasionally
cannot tell whether our telephone receiver has said

or V
because there is no transduction of the high frequency components
by this instrument. In these cases, however, context may supply
the
meaning, and make up for what is lost by frequency distortion.

Masking of Speech. The articulation test has also seized as
a useful procedure in the evaluation of the effectiveness of different
noises in masking speech. We
almost invariably listen to speech in
the presence of noise. Most of the time these noises do not disturb
us, and we usually have the time to repeat ourselves if we arc not
understood. Sometimes the noise is so intense that words are
drowned out, and the perception of speech is impossible. In noisy
vehicles, such as subways, airplanes, and tanks, communication is
difficult indeed. If we are to learn how

overcome the intense
to
masking noises, we must investigate tlie ways in which noise masks
speech. Let us briefly illustrate. Tlie weaker the intensity of a speech
sound, the less likely it is to be understood correctly. Consider tlic
left-hand curve of Fig. 18. This function shows that speech heard
in the quiet and near the absolute threshold is quite unintelligible,
but that as the intensity of the received speech is increased, more
and more of the words are understood. Moreover, this curv’e shows
that after a certain medium been reached, maximal
intensity has
intelligibility is obtained. At high
Intensities, there is a slight decline
in the number words understood.
of
The nghl-hand curve in Fig. 18 shows a similar funcUon obtained
with the talker and the listeners in an intense ambient
noise The
intensity of received speech at which words begin
to be intelligible
must new be greater by 60 db than it was in the quiet
The threshold
for heanng was greatly increased by the noise.
Slatting from the
new base line, a function similar to that
in the quiet is obtained.
By malong the speech sounds loud enough, the
effects of the mask-
mg noise can be largely overcome
Special Pboblems of Control

IN Auditory Experiments
worn and especially whên the test

u
AUDITION 77
lute threshold, n cerLnm amount of room noise can be tolerated On

the other hand, if the stimuli are weak or at the absolute threshold,
a soundproofed room provides the ideal conditions The question
tliatmust always be asked is How much masking by extraneous
stimuh can be tolerated without affecting the experimental results?
Interruption of Test Tone WTien the intensity of a tone is
decreased m order to determine the absolute threshold it is im
tone sounds
portanl that the tone be frequently interrupted If the
difficult for e
continuously as the intensity decreases, it becomes
present and ab-
subject to maintain a sharp distinction between
limited to meas
sence of tone The need to interrupt the tone is not
urements of the absolute threshold In fact, m
most au itory
the su jec o re
ments, periodic mtcrruptioiis of the tone help
"rnr."Td.lin% .one oaooo. be

wUiout producing on audible clicl.
and
J “
1000 epo When .he swi.ch is Uiroi™
f-'
applied to dio oiTihoae, die
ner and dius produces a complex sound ”f„i,ch the hears w
foUow the
,
as a click Tlicreafter. the vibraboos P„7fJed a off.

Similarly, w
frequency of the oscillator ^ subject’s
click ,s produced These cheks
may interfere
clicks y
judgment The harmful effect of .
y tjian
dewco which hims die tones

ahnipdy If it takes about
on
J ^mJeh lU maxi
mum intensity, little or no chek wi , gênments m which

Age ofSubjects In many .vide Imuts.
their im
adults are used as subjects, » ho.vever, it is
of crucial significance In
audi oty As we
selectmg subjects
loss in
portant to pay careful
to wra
ûnds decreases This Jugh
sensihvily „f
grow older, our
of age threshold of a
sensitivity as a function
at „<„,j,y„rÎd It
frequency For example, ^
m lis fifties is about
25 db higher for the
diat the ee« of a tone u

U^ty
IS for this reason
age becomes
an
cahhrabon of '^levSê
level, u. subjeefs
of sensation
, 1^,
expressed lo terms ^
important parameter
Experiment III
The Threshold of IIf^lvc
The sensitivity of the car varies with the frequency of the stimulus
tone as well as with the individual. Normal hearing consists of the ability
to perceive a given tone at the sound-pressure level required by the
so-called average sublect. A loss in sensitivity usually means, therefore,
that the subject requires a more Intense stimulus than the average sub-
Fic. 19. An Audiometer in Use.
^ .! he e, to heer a g.ve„ tone. Losses fa sensiUvily

tantetl number of frequencies rather than
often favolve only a
the entire audible ranee
Purpose. To measure a subjects
sensitivity to pure tones as com-
S'ul^ nns espenment has êat practical

ûlts. TOs‘^"°"“th'‘‘’’’“'’"’
^
"’“^'“mta.ts on normal, young
importance, since it U one of
the standard procedures in the diagnosis of
hearing defects
Apparatus. An audiometer is desirable fnr . a-
omeJei An aud,-
is a device for generating
J
fatensllies. The sensitivity of
a single earphone cijinected to the
rad.'S- is mess,'
audiometer •n,isT‘’r°'°''’
T™ =‘"^,
‘"’‘^7”="' “n"
pure tone, whose fr’eqneneies cover
the imi^^m
ing. The intensity sealeTs so
cahbmted fliariflrfSqlTa sonS
AUDITION 79
of zero corresponds to the absolute direshold of the normal ear The

positive numbers above zero indicate hearing loss in decibels, i e , how
many decibels above the average threshold a tone must be in order that
the subject may hear it The negative numbers similarly indicate better
than average sensitivity Fig 19 shows a picture of an audiometer in use
Procedure It is essential that this expenment be performed in a
quiet room The subject is seated in such a position that he cannot see
BBn BIH1ISBhHang; hI
IIB
a
B1SiBi s
*!Bbb 5
BBS—bI —
PRCOt^NCY
, ^ ^ T«5 A
Fig 20 Audiograms
Hearmg loss for low frequences
“omd hwrmg^
^
2000 cycles Note dip at very The dotted cê
lor gn
frequencies and increasing loss Bonng (ed ), Psychology
represents total loss of be^6 t _
permission of Infantry Jouroil,
108, by pe
.
for the armed services. 1945. p
to koH tie reeeiver

^
, ,, he o uBttuclrf
the operabon of the audiometer button swatch to
signal
snugly to his ear He is J^vitch operates

a signal lamp
whenever he hears a tone The frequency dial
on the face of the audiometer.
to a given frequency.
Tbe
^ *e
intermediate fre-
tone is adjusted
to a value
aecreased until he
fads
quency, say, 1000 c p s Jhe JV
easily with a
wliich the subject can
respond. TTie process is
^
repeated mrougi
a smaller range-starling
go EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
and then decreasing It again until the subject no longer
smaller intensity
Interrupted by means
can hear the tone. Occasionally, the tone should he
of a s^vilch provided for that purpose.
In this way we maVc sure that the
subject signals only when he hears the tone.
After sc%'cral trials, the
experimenter estimates as closely as possible the Intensity abo\'c which

the subject consistently responds and below which he fails to respond.
The procedure is repeated for each of the frequencies desired. Usually
about nine frequencies ranging from 100 to 8000 c.p.s. are adequate for
the purposes of the experiment.
After the measurement of each threshold, the experimenter may enter
the amount of hearing loss in dedbcls on an audiometric chart. The curve
connecting the points on the cliart is called an audiogram. An audiogram
is reproduced in Fig. 20.
Frequently a subject may have normal hearing over most of tlie aud-
ible range but have a sharp dtp over a restricted part of the audiogram as
is shown In the figure. Such a restricted hearing loss usually occurs in
the reôn of high frequencies.
ExpnuifEKT IV
Mascnc
^Vheêas Experiment III is concerned with a subject’s sensitivity in the
quiet, this experiment shmvs the efiect of a noise on the subject’s abso-
lute threshold. The results of sudi experiments have practical significance
smee, in many situations, communication talces place in noisy surround-
ings. For example, the navigator in dh airplane must receive
messages from
the airport with the roar of the propeller in his ears.
It is not that he is
distracted by this noise, for he could ov-ercome
distraction by concen-
trated effort. The sounds that are masked by the
propeller do not
func-
tion as stimuli. As in the case of the navigator, most of the masking and
masked stimuli in practical situations are highly
complex.-For purposes of
expêntal and)^. however, it is most useful to
employ pure tones
as the test
pme ês
stimuli,
W
ûh. The general quantitath-e reUtionships established with
been successful y applied to situations
such as spee<di, are masked.
in which complex
^
audioK^caklor is desiraHe. Also

intensity of the output of the
l T”’ T
for controlhng the
osciBalor An aft
attenuator calibrated to read
in decibels is most convemenL
convenient. E«iW earphones
?
Either
or a loudspeaker may be
AUDITION
not
used lo present the test tone If an audio-osallalor is
produced in
audiometer may be subsUluled Tlie masJong noise may be
Intensity is
various \s'a>-s An clcclncal source of noise « best since its
buzzer or a
any
readily controlled Houever. other deuce, such as a loud
motor wth gear attachments, wjH do
qmet room
Procedure. Tlie experunent is begun in a
absolute threshold
men Uie noise sUmulus
Is determined at a gnen
is turned on. and the subj^ts
threshoH fVu for L
pure tone agam determined (masked tliresho
is )
rnressed in
h,ccn th= .hroAoM .nd the ab»Iute
decibel, U the amount o( madJng Hu. bjle
may be ..tended In tun uu,-. If the
c e
mX
masking noise then he can
tensity of the j^sgtion level of the
psranim
ing ns a function of the sound of die test tone
ch^g „ 5„5y
noise Morcoxcr, it is possible to , with a constant
sviin
fimelion ol fregueney
and to determine masking a. a
les cl of the masking noise eaiphones, a special
Ifthemaskingnouelsnotdehve,^to.^|^>bjJ^ ,
To
problem of interpretation arises
insulate the sublect's ear from
a P,
, ^ room
fell
Under
directly
(Ujur d the noise
maskmg s^l a tad
these condiuons, less „ p^daced by
on the unprotected ear Of test tone by
presentation of the
speaker, this consideration do« P . . the room haw
disadvwtage If th
loudspeaker, houever, has a movements slight
not been sound treated, even
the obtained threshold values
Borrng. E G, Senmtton^jSti^y
psychology. New kork PP ^ Co
^,A Co,
and 11 D Van Nostrand
, hem
,
S.
Neiv York
Flatoher, H ,
Speech and
c T Ffiastologtafps^*”^-®'-'''"'^" ,
a™ 943, Chap 11 Haanngt

l«psyn''‘’taa'’''''P'‘*'*'°°®'
«*d. 0,
^Ta^Vy hudre.™ fed),
Wever, E G , -ad Som. >S1S
psychologtj. New York J
Lies In Murchison (cd ), A handbool. of general experimenial psy
C
chology, Worcester Clark University Press, 1934
Rawdon Smith, A F , Auditory fatigue, Brit J Psychol, 1934, 23 77 85
Rawdon Smith, A F , Experimental deafness Further data upon the
phenomenon of so-called auditory fatigue, Brit / Psychol 1930,
20 233 244
SPEECif, HeAWNC, A?m CoVtAlirVICATlON

Egan, ] P , Articulation tcsbng methods. The Loryngoseope, 1948, 58
955 991
Fletcher, H .Speech end Hearing, New York D
Van Nostrand Co , 1929
NDRC Research on Sound Control report, Arliculathn testing methods
17, 1 November 1944, OSRD, Report No 3802.
»»> <««
5
SMELL AND TASTE
TWO of our senses may well be treated together smell and taste
both respond to chemical <dianges and the specialized receptors of

these two sensory systems arc sometimes described as chemorecep*
tors The common action of smell and taste is clearly brought
out
when we analyze the \va)s in which we pereene the flavor of food

the flavor
Although wc sptak of last) or tasteless dishes most of
im
comes from olfactory stimulation and not from the relative y
pov ensiled sense of taste , .
pnncipal psycno-
,
In tins chapter we shall bnefly summanre the

shou ®
physical facts pertaining to these two senses It
sm® ®
the outset that the expenmental psydiology of
major
far behind the exploration of the other ,-n,es
other maj
advances made m
the psycliophysics of
from our ability to specify and control in the

elated
lus with which the attributes of experience ^ stimu
case of smell and taste the physical what the
^
lation have not been isolated It usually state
objects are that are tasted and sjstematically
whit particular chanctenstics of tlic s
eaperience For this
in olfactory
an OT
dclemime s amtions Mte ^ the other
reason there >s less to say about smell and
generalizatio
senses and stable quantitative
wOlfaclorl/StlmuIm Manseeswhenllghtwa.es
Stunulu
Nature of the Olfactory
ike lus retina He
lerear As .ve have
hears
pointed ort atio
^ transmitted to the
cannot specif) a
par
82 expehimental psychology
AuDrrony Stixiulus
Miller, D. C., The science of musical sounds. New York: The Macmillan
Co., 1922.
Stevens, S. S., and Gerbrands, H., A twin-oscillator for auditory rescarcl),
Amer. J. Psychol, 1937, 49:113-115.
Wood, A. B., Acoustics, London: DUddo and Son, 1940.
Aunrrony DiscniiiLVATiov
Knudsra, V. O.. The semibilily of Uie car
to .mall differences in Intenslly
and frequency, Phys. Reo., 1D23. 2J:84-102.
RiH^ n. n., Dfenlial intensity sensitivity of the car
for pure tones,
Phys.Beo., 1928, 31:807-875.
Shower, E. G., and ffiddulph, R.,
Differential pitch sens.tivity of the ear.
Acous. Soc. Amer., 1931, 3:275-287, ’
J.
"'"hnum audible sound fields,

J. Acous. Soc. Amer., 1933, 4:288-321.
AiTtuBuiEs OF Aourrony
EiPEniE.vcE
t'd measurement,
Froc. Nat. Acad. Sal.. 1934,

‘7o:737%9.''
®‘S7is.’^' 1- F.vcl. 01 .. lOM,

'
/• Acous. Soc. Amcc.,
loudness, magnitude:
^ •‘O'io. 4^:405-410
rtmer., *
c, jyjo fi-i.-io
Stevens, S. S.. and VnU.™,— V ^
revised
scalULT°?!1^cw!;mo,'M^^^ ‘
PinrsiotocrcAi. Basts
of Prrcii asd
‘^rrai av.„ t
Culler E A Tn c. Loudvess
^ling from prolong^ guinea-pi£

278.
stahSi*;
"O". /• Gen. Psychol, f
1933, 12:251-
6
AUDITION 83
Calambos, R and Div is,

, II , The response of sfngle auditory nerve fiben
to acoustic stimulation, / europhysiol 1943, 6 39-57
Stevens, S Sand Davis, H ^jcdiophysiological acoustics pitch and
, ,
loudness, / Acous Soc Amer , 1936 S 1 13

Stevens S S, Davis 11 and Lune If, The localization of pitch M
perception on the basilar membrane, / Gen Psychol 1935 13 297 ,
315
Wever, E C , The physiology of heinng the nature of the response in
the cochlea, Physiol Rro 1933 13 400-425 ,
Woolsey, C N , and ^VaIzl, E M , Topical projection of nerve fibers from

local regions of the cochlea to the cerebral cortex of the cat, Johns
Hopkins Ilosp Bull, 1042 7J 315-344
Beats, Diffehence Toves Maskisc, am> Autial Harsiontcs

and tlieir
Fletcher, II Loudness pitch and the timbre of musical tones
,
overtone structure
relation to the Intensity, the frequency and the
/ Acous Soc Amer , 1934 , 59-69
aural harmonics
Stevens. S S, and Ncvvman. E B. On the nature of
Froc Net Acad Set, 1938 22 668 672 ,
WcgeI,B L.andUno.C E The auditory masking of

me put, ton, by
dynamics o
another and Us probable rebtion to the
Phys Rcc, 1924, 23 260-285 , .y
Wever, E G. Beals and related phenomena

Rco 1 -
taneous sounding of two tones, Psychol ,
tones Psychol Rev. 18^1

Wever, E G The designation of combination
,
48 93 104
AunrroBY I/jcawzatiov
auditory perspec-
.
Steinberg, J C
and Snow, B, ,
j *. w
W R rtivsical factors In
„eo
live, Bell Sydem Tech !, 1931 " „£ actuol sources
of
Stevens, S S . and Nesvmiin, E

B , TO, '
d
sound. Amor 1 Fsychcl , 1936, »d^v^
v„t,bulat and visual cues
ruovomonrs
WiUlaoh H
,
The rote of head
s^
in sound locahzation, /
Exper . jocalization of pure
j
Wrghuuau, E R,
tones, J Acous Soc Amer , 1930
AorrroBY Fatigue
and their sbmulus corre-
Auditory phenomena
Banister, H ,
Audition I
ticular class of stimulus events which arc a necessary condition for
smelling. We do know, however, that only contact \vith gaseous
particles provides theadequate stimulation for the specialized smell
receptors.These smell receptors arc located in the olfactory mem-
brane in the upper cavity of the nose. When we inhale, most of the
air does not reach the olfactory membrane, and it is principally by
eddy currents that the gaseous particles necessary for stimulation
are carried to the receptors. Sniffing aids in this process. The fact
that it is gaseous particles and not solutions which are the adequate
stimuli for smell was first indicated in a classical
experiment per-
formed a long time ago. The fnvesUgator filled his nasal
cavity vnth
to Olfacties. The odorous sub-

slana ^
fte tanir X nn
‘I
tube. The farther out
^ "'“to oUactory stimulus. (From
w. j. Crozier, Chemorcception. In C Muie}nv>n (t>A\ a l
general experimenld ptychologp,
l
handbook ^
University Press After
1934 p 999 ^ ^
°ark
Z^rdSnakm7i 895 .)
"’"to condtUons he could
To?
w\LnXTodo 3 "'s.!bs77^t„'’4
'"’ to^’todVto'arety a
’'"’’'5'""
tf
inner surface of
the larucr h.tw.
of‘to
~tc
'"to the nostril. On the
for example, odorous substance,
India rubber
bar. Bv By ahding out the
smaller tube, the
SMELL AND TASTL 87
stream of pass oxer a portion of the odorous sub

air is nllowct! to
stance The farther out the smaller tube is pulled the hrgtr the
portion of substance exposed lo the current of air and hence the
number of particles xxlilch prcsnmabt) reacli the sense organ
When
the outer tube coxers the Inner tube there is presumably no stunu
lation Tlic distance b\ xxhich the inner tube must be
wthdrawai
before the presence of an odor is detected is defined as an olfaciic

This distance defining an olfactic is then taken as the umt or
\VJien e
measurement of the intensity of the odorous stimulus
xve say a
inner tube is Iwict the threshold distance
wthdrawn
stimulation alloxxs a
XX e haxc txxo olfactics Tims Uiis method of
metio
scmi*quanlitaHvc specification of the stimulus Hic
possible lo control
a>vantej
quantitative because it is not
amount of air passing over the odorous „ „ce,
olfactometer las
subject takes a sniff Ncxcrthelcss tlie ,
ful instrument It has been possible to

adapt it to
substances by muting tlic liquid xxith melted .

j
forming a rod from the mixture In a vanetj

one
lions a double olfactometer is employed , ^^g]]
d,(rcrcu. amounts of the

sumo
this
mtrodoced opMloI/ nto »
ns chfForent snbsinncos enn bo
A mothod «luch nllons T„ Lroos
stimulus the Wart Injectfon test
is «
^.geted into the
nasal
pressure
gas under a given constant jJ
^hile the
m.c The
„ ompb^tho
Lvsty at n un.form smallest
injection is made Wlien this me defines the abso

amount needed for tlie det concentration of
of air “
j die
lute threshold Of con.se the ... P^^«
odorous substance deterromations
tlie tv making
soorces of
The stimulus can bo room to many
Alabto can era
man odorless environment ,l,e
re
odor which are difficult to of an enc os
nierely consists
This d 'Vith an
adjust
inodorata was invented l,„Hom
with Elass sides and
aluminum 1^ The a r m tins
rjemng through which ‘h' Cry v»F“ '““P

Z rs deodorized with the
tions in flie
-CuTn
camera laodomm
made in the air
than those
Several other techniques of stimulation have been employed, such
as sniffing from an open bottle, leading a tube from a stoppered
bottle directly to the nose, etc. It is certainly true that control of
stimulus intensity is neither standardized nor technically perfected.
Another problem of stimulus control should be mentioned here.

The threshold values may be influenced by the temperature of the
substance used in stimulation. Since the threshold may vary ap-
preciably with the temperature, this factor should always be specified
and tahen into account in comparing experimental findings.
Fsychophysics of Olfaction
Absolute Thresholds. Using one of the techniques of stimula-
tion described above, the absolute thresholds for
a large variety of
odorous substances have been determined. It turns
out that the
olfactopr system is an eatremely sensiUve
one and will detect
astonishingly small concentraUons of odorous
substances For ex-
ample, the odor of vamilin, the fragrant
consUtuent of vanilla, can
be detected when its concentrarion is only 0.0000002 mflh'grams per
cubic meter of air. Such a speciBcaUon
of the threshold
^ht of the odorous substance per volume of
iS terms of
Another way to air.
is
w "™ter of moIecul« of
ethyl alcohol 3 x 10“

benzene 4 X 10“
CTesol 5 X 10“
iodoform 4 x 10^
sily of
odor can^'Sl'<^êd°by1^S'rf
methods. The subject is
required to direw'
* psychophysical
is the mere inteie.
differenUal sensitivity
SuSt'
is quite poor as
oU.erscnso.ysystenu^clas^.^Tra;?^^^^^^^^
SMELL AND TASTE
m concentntion of about SO percent maj be required before the
subject can tell a difference The differential sensilmty vanes wth
the intensity level at which the determinations are made As m other
gg
Several other techniques of stimulation have been
employed, such
leading a tube from a stoppered
as sniffing from an open bottle,
certainly true that control of
bottle directly to the nose. etc. It is
perfected.
stimulus intensity is neither standardized nor technically
Another problem of stimulus control should be mentioned here.
The threshold values may be influenced by the temperature of the
substance used in stimulation. Since the threshold may vary ap-
preciably with the temperature, this factor should always be specified
and taken into account in comparing experimental findings.
Psychophysics of Olfaction
Absolute Thresholds. Using one of the techniques of stimula-
tion described above, the absolute thresholds for a large variety of
odorous substances have been determined. It turns out that the
olfactory system is an extremely sensitive one and will detect
astonishingly small concentrations of odorous substances. For ex-
ample, the odor of vanillin, the fragrant constituent of vanilla, can
be detected when its concentration is only 0.0000002 milb’grams per
cubic meter of air. Such a specification of the threshold is in terms of
weight of the odorous substance per volume of air. Another way to
Is in terms of number of molecules of
specify the absolute threshold
the odorous substance per cubic centimeter at threshold. Here are
a f<nv representative values:
ethyl alcohol 3 X 10’*

benzene 4 X 10“
cresol 5 X 10’°
iodoform 4 X 10*
Tnese numbers, although large, still are exceedingly small in the
frame of reference of molecular numbers. It must, moreover, be
remembered that many of the molecules presented never reach
the receptors.
Differential Thresholds. DdfcrenUal sensitivity to
the inten-
sity of odor can be determined by one of the
usual psychophysical
methods. The subject is required to discriminate which of
two odors
is Ae more intense. Subjects can make
such discnminations, but
difcential sensitivity is quite poor as compared
with some of the
other sensory systems, such as proprioception
and vision. An increase
SMELL AND TASTE
m concentntion of about 30 percent maj be required before the
subject can tell a difference The differential sensibMty \anes with
the intensity level at which the dctermimtions are made As in other
F.= 22 The Temporal

Determuied by tho tbeshoH afte
of the absolute
IS
Each pomt represents
rarvinj lengths of
detemun
to
ejposure ^^
tK (From
Jomfhw* o/
W J
.
menlol pspchologp P ’"V- ^

Press After
Zwanrdemuker IBSa ;
go EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
sense modalities, relative sensitivity to change increases as intensity
is increased.
Adaptation. Sensitivity to odors also changes as a function or
modalities,
the length of exposure to a stimulus. As in other sense
continued stimulation leads to a decrease in sensitivity, i.e., there is
adaptation. Olfactory adaptation may be complete in a matter of
minutes. For example, after 3 minutes of exposure to oil of lemon,
the perception of the odor may have completely disappeared. If we
are interested in tracing the course of adaptation in quantitative
terms, we may do so by measuring the absolute threshold after
varying lengths of exposure to the stimulus. Fig. 22 shows the
results of such an investigation. These data indicate that the rate
of adaptation is jointly determined by the specific nature of the
odorous substance and its intensity.
Adaptation not restricted to the specific odor of the adapting
is
stimulus, but may increase the threshold for a number of other

odorous stimuli. For example, adaptation to ammonium sulphide
raises the threshold for that substance and for hydrogen sulphide,
but not for ethereal oils. It was hoped that such selectitUy of adap*
tation might provide an avenue to the classification of odorous
substances. Unfortunately, this hope has not been realized*
In the course of adaptation, there may be not only a decrease in
sensitivity but also a qualitative change in the experience. This
modulation of odor is usually illustrated by pointing out that cheap
perfumes smell agreeable at first, but gradually grow more and more
disagreeable as stimulation continues.
Qualities of Odor. It is easier to measure changes in sensi-
tivity toodor tlmn to arrive at a classification of odor qualities. The
variety of odors to which man is sensitive is immense. There
are so
many blends and nuances that it almost seems as though there are
as many specific odors as Uicrc arc substances
that smell. Some of
these odors resemble each other more than they
do others. It is
natural, then, that there has been a concerted
effort to classify odors
and reduce the manifold of cxpcnence of odor
to a few primary
categories from which the blends and
nuances could be com-
pounded -Hie psycholog)' of odor has aimed at
the same goal that
the psycho ogy of «lor has so
succcssfully/achieved. For there is a
rich diversity of color experiences,
prohablv no less variegated than
-
SMELL AND TASTE 91
the multiplicity of odors, and yet it is possible to specify a given

color in terms of a few primary points of reference. The mam
Utempls to find similar points of reference for odors have not been
too successful. The one scheme usually cited as the most acceptable
is the smell prism, shown m Fig. 23. This system of classification
assumes that there are six primary odors, and that any odor may
be classified as belonging to one of these six categories or as inter-
mediate between them Careful examinaUon of Fig. 23 shows that
the primaries are located at the comers of the prism;
fragrant
SPICY ^
lor the Ctoiieeuon of
Flc 23. A Scheme
i
Odors* Henning's Smell
Prism.
rr,"=?r.i, .. —
many frofts, such as oranges and
irrS'Uto odor of
3.
4. rSus. a
of organic matter,
eg,
ofro. and decay
I
All odors whfch

do not ^^“sSIewSrbehveen th£.
an outside surfaces of
the
;o be specifle shadmgs
94 experimental psychology
lowing instance shows. the notoriously repulsive odor of
To mask
castor oil, it necessary to add as many as four other sub-
may be
stances; saccharine, vanillin, oil of lemon, and oil of
peppermint.
With enough masking stimuli, even castor oil may become palatable.
These phenomena are parallel to auditory masking. In auditory, as
well as olfactory masking, one stimulus may prevent completely
the perception of another (pp, 69-70).
OUaciory Localization. When only one of the nostrils is stimu-
latedby an olfactory substance, the blindfolded subject cannot tell
which one of his nostrils has been stimulated unless he is aided by
other sensory information. Thus, the subject may localize the
olfactory stimulus on the basis of a combination of smell with taste,
warmth or cold, or pain. These results underline the close collabora-
tion of smell with other sensory systems whose specialized receptors
are located in the nose, throat, and mouth,
Tacte
The Gustatory Stimulus
Nature of the Gustatory Stimulus. Taste is another chemical
sense. The adequate stimulus to taste consists of certain substances
m solution placed on the tongue. The tongue is equipped with taste
cells grouped into taste buds, and these are the receptors that receive
the gustatory stimulus. Typically, the effective sUmuli for taste are
substances soluble in water (or saliva), whereas m
olfacUon the
substances are usually lipoid soluble. As in the case of smell, the
precise chemical nature of the intcracUon between the sapid sub-
stance and the taste cells is not fully understood.
Techniques of Stimulation. Although more accessible than the
olfactory cells, the gustatory receptors are embedded
in the tongue,
and a precise quantitative control of the gusUtoiy stimulus sUll
presents considerable difficulty. The specific technique of stimula-
tion used varies with the size of the area that we desire
to sUmulate.
For some purposes it is sufficient
to ask the subject to sip
a smali
amount of the EoluUon, letting the liquid flow where
it may on the
tongue. If a series of such judgments is required, it
is important to
rinse the mouth carefully after each stimulaUon
because "taste
lingers” and adaptation may be rapid.
^
For man} other purposes necessary to confine the stimulus to

it is
a narro\\ly circumscribed area of the tongue A small brush or piece

of cloth soahed m
the stimulus substance is then employed Re
cently,a mechanical device has been used which forces the liquid
substance through small tubes onto the surface of the tongue and
then quickly removes them The same device may be used for
rinsing the stimulated area
receptors
Finally, important evidence about the nature of taste
to the tongue
has been obtained by applying a weal electric current
Whatever techmque is used, the factor of temperature must be
in great meas-
controlled The sensitivity of the taste receptors vanes
solution Sweetened tea
ure with the temperature of the stimulus
temperatures for greatest sensitivity
tastes sweeter as it cools The
vary between 20* and 40* C
Psychophysics of Taste
Threshold Concentration
(percent)
Substance
Quilty
sugar
table salt
hydrodilonc acid
.Te,
quinine
Ureee vn.u« nre Itsted

not take this order as -nius, if sacchanne is m
been, upset ky ° of sensiUvity
would be changed
TJ„rfer
rs detected as
percent saechanne
m’sotouou oTonlj; 00001
for “e^;
partreular value
stance vanes with
the four main types
, sensihnty to the
areas of the tongue
v«y " to b.tter u
found a he
*“^X.ty
raeCr
comer to comer
an orderly series. Examples of graded scries of
in
odors localized along the edges of one of the surfaces of the prism
are shown in Fig. 24. It has not always been possible to obtain
Siri«bcriy Oil
Pitieappi* Oil
Canitfa Bilun
Spruet
Uisbe
,
Fftniunetns*
V 5 i ? f S?
? ^ « 3 f 5
K S. Woodwâ.,
permission of Henry Holt
and Company. In
W
^
Odor in the same place, Nevertheles-t

tV
has rts uses in bringing
ot odor eicperienrxs, even
;cnnt^S
though it is not a
for an accurate inventory of
odors.
^ rehable instrument
A gTcnl deal of researcli has been devoted to the chemical prop
crties of olfactory stimuli as a potential avenue to a lawful classi
ficition of odors as well as to an understanding of the mode of
action of the stimulus This work Im been largely concerned with
organic compounds which constitute the majonl) of odorous sub-
stances Now and again promising relationships have emerged such
as the fact that members of i homologous series eg the senes of
alcohols tend to have similar qualities of odor In general, however
there hav c been too many exceptions to permit generalizations about
the correlation between the chemical properties of the stimulus and
tlic qualities of odor
Simtiliancous Stimulation by \arious Odors When the sense
sub
organ simultaneously stimulated by a number of odorouj
is
all tliere are the
stances several effects ma) take place First of
referred When two mbstanws
fusions to which we have already
arc sniffed together on olfactory blend ma)
be perceived B> careful
the presence o the hve
attention it ma) be possible to iileotif)
components Tlie mere similar in odor the two somp™'" '
e quality
more difflciilt it is to male this anal)sts TI
of the substances shows more
may chanEo asith adaptation If one more slowly
the idenliCeelion of the
raprf adaptation than the other
adapting stimulus is made easier
eadb
SSgiiSiS
satlon and may he
weal Some. mcstigatcmhaaedaim^fa^^
^ ^ w„h carefully selected
stimuli presented at other

hvo odors eaneeling each
bave_faW
oT”r^7l"rOte?^nmen,em
from ec.or m«mre
lr:trdrrem this simaUon is
of many medianes Sometimes

gg EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
tip. The lowest absolute
thresholds to sour are obtained on the
sides of the tongue, whereas the lowest thresholds
for saline arc
distributed over the tip and sides. Some groups of cells (papillae)
have been isolated which give rise to only one taste quality. In other
cases, two or more of the primary taste qualities may
result from
stimulation by the appropriate substances.

The specific values of the absolute threshold also depend upon
the duration of stimulus application. It is known that it takes a
considerable amount of time for the stimulus to penetrate to the
sensitive receptor cells. Even a supraliminal stimulus may take as
long as 10 seconds to become fully effective.
The physiological state of the organism may become an important
factor in the absolute sensitivity to sapid substances. It is well estab-
whose adrenal glands are diseased or removed
lished that organisms
This increase in need for salt is
suffer a serious salt deficiency.
acx»mpanied by a marked inenrease in the absolute sensitivity to
salty stimuli. This increased sensitivity undoubtedly helps the ani-
mal to select food substances necessary for Its survival.
Differential Tliresholds. There arc several reasons why dif-
ferendal sensitivity to the intensity of gustatory stimuli hard to is
measure. If the experimenter wishes to present successively two
stimuli for comparison, it is necessary to rinse tlie tongue, or the
part stimulated, carefully between the application of the first and

se<»nd stimulus. This necessary procedure makes it difficult to con-
trol the time interval between the two stimuli, and also makes the
subject’s task more difficult The experimenter has to contend widj
the adaptation to the stimuli whldi may ensue while the determina-
tion is being made. It is not surprising, then, that the literature
on
this problem is not extensive. Tbe work with saline solutions Indi-
cates,however, that the differential threshold wth this stimulus is
of the order of 25 percent for the solub'on yielding maximum sensi-
tivity. Furthermore, the threshold values decrease as the concentra-
becomes greater.
tion of salt
Adaptation. Continued application of a gustatory stimulus
decreases the sensitivity to that stimulus, i.e., adaptation takes place.
The temporal course of adaptation may be traced by stimulating
the tongue for various periods of time with the
adapting stimulus
and determining the absolute threshold after each peri(5. Fig.
25
SMELL AND TASTE 97
shows the threshold nses rapidly at first and then gradually

tliat
Also note that the greater the concentration of the adapting stimu
lus the greater the nsc m the threshold This set of data also shmvs
that after the remo>al of the adapting stimulus sensilnaty at first
increases rapidly and then more slowly
Adaplal on to
rio 25 The Tcmponl Course o(
Varying Ii tensities ot a Gustatory
Sensitivity Follomng
and the Course ot neemoty of
llemoval of the Stunohis IJch
'““j
absolute tliresholds determined
nt f"l'
(fteprûtrf ‘"""f
byj»r
indieated on the obseusn
rnusion fmm Foirir/et/on.
Lnngfeld and Weld p W Pf
Hal.. 1931)
MdeyiSons Inc 1918 After
An Interesting question may

ary stimuli If we adapt to one
ty^
stimulus say a salty
to ano
:oes the absolute sensitivity question has been
ne undergo any change’
One
jtsolute sensitivity
,lje
hat adiptation to a sweet „ salq stimulus is
m
a n salty one This ^>’"0" ” ( the adapting
that lor êt lest stimulus
ûst any
he opposite tlirecUon to
timnlis) Unfortunately
the e^^ to date
cros
;enenlizations about such
gg
contrast in taste.
Closely related are the phenomena of successive
Successive
An orange tastes sour after sugar, but sweet after lemon.
contrast is an adaptation phenomenon measured well
above the
absolute threshold.
Qualities of Taste. In contrast to odors, taste qualities are
rather readily described in terms of four primaries; sweet, salty,
sour, and bitter. The reader may object that the multiplicity of
tastes does not augur well for such a reduction. But much of the
richness of tastescomes not from gustation but from olfaction. If the
nostrils are stopped up, or when the sense of smell is dulled by a
cold, our world of tastes shrinks appreciably. Under such conditions,
for example, we experience difficulty in distinguishing among the
various kinds of meat, and beverages lose much of tlieir zest and
flavor. In addition to smell, stimulation of the various cutaneous
receptors located in the mouth also contribute to our appredation
of food. For these reasons it is necessary to control or take account
of nongustatory stimulation in seardiing for the basic taste qualities.
Although the mode of action of the stimuli is largely unkno\vn,
wc do know, certainly better than in the case of smell, what types
of stimuli give rise to these four primary quahUcs. The quality of
sour is aroused by substances which contain acid ions. Thus, acetic
acid makes vinegar sour, and citric acid is responsible for the sour-
ness of lemons. The
greater the concentration of acid ions, the more
intense the sour taste tends to be.
The adequate stimulus for the pure quality of salt is sodium
chloride (table salt). Other salts, such as the chlorides of ammonium,
potassium, and caldum also taste salty, but there is an admixture of
other taste qualities The nitrates and sulfates also are salty, and it
is probably true that the salty taste is aroused by free anions.
The specific chemistry of sweet and bitter sbmuli is less well
known. A large number of organiccompounds, many of which are
not ionized in solution, elicitsweet tastes. Many carbohydrates, espe-
cially sugar, taste sweet. Other compounds, such as saccharine,
’
also do.
The bitter as well as the sweet taste
aroused by a variety of
is
organic compounds The alkaloids are espedally
bitter. Alkaloids
are not the only sUmuli for bitter, as is shown by
the bitterness of
magnesium sulfate (Epsom salts).
These four primary qualities are found in all kinds of blends and
SMELL AND TASTE 99
fusions in gustilory expencnce As with smell the fusions are more

or less easil) analyzed into component qualities depending upon
the latter s degree of similarity Further parallels to smell are com
pensations and contrast among taste qualities
Physiological Basis of Taste Qualities For each of the sense
modahties investigators have long sought to discover specialized r^
nerv es responsible for tlie primary
quah
ceplors and their associated
successful m
ties of experience The search has been moderately
t e
most of the sensory systems As far as gustation is concerned
separate receptors
evidence is increasingly clear for the existence of
and nerve fibers for the taste qualities
of this general prob
An invaluable technique in the investigation
and the reco mg o
lem IS the isolation of single nerve fibers
impulses that pass along them To isolate a smg e
,moulses
indeed
a strand of neL is a delicate operation,
be
must be highly amplified before they may to our
«>"tnbut^ „gat\v
r
mquo 5 . rather recinUy perfected have
understanding of the wr^placcd on single
In one outstanding ^ ,'„gue was
then
nerve of n <at Th
fibers of the gustatory pnmary
bythe four stimuli
stimulated The nerve impubes
qualities m man sugar quimne s
j.„o,Ktiated speciahzation
recorded from single fibers
condu êr
among the recepton Sahae sM ^p„tes

tain of the nerve fibers Stimu ^ 1 addition
m other fibers Aad also

as weU Hardly any
this stimulus activated
the " ^^plied to the tongue Al
they
impulses were detected ^ simple as we might hope
^hth'-rve-Ser
=rJ:;:?»Set'Sr2ponsefr^^
provides tl
the ways m
„ be cited to dlustrate
psy
The following
of q^b^ mny be inferred from
svhichthephysm eP O c».p
1 pfaffman C .o«,er,rv reBex
Tlwevst.Kayse®”')'
1? 243-258
385^0.
p;iJril25“5
chophysical data. The experiment utilized the fact that a rapid suc-
cession of discrete stimuli may be perceived as continuous. Below
a certain frequency the stimuli are perceived as discrete. Above
this
frequency the stimuli arc fused. The frequency at which fusion

(c.f.f.). To achieve
first occurs is called the critical fusion frequency
Fic. 26. Curves of Critical Fusion Frequency for

the Four Basic Taste Qualities. (From R. W.
Mon-
cneff. The chemical senses, 1948, p. 117 by per-
mission of Leonard Hill, Ltd. After
F. AUen and
M. Wein^g The gustatory sensory reflex. Quart
I.
Exper. Physiol 1925, J5.390, by permission
of the
journal.)
SMELL AND TASTE 101
rapid enough rates for fusion in the gustatory system, electrical

stimulation had to be employed This procedure was (amed out at
a number of different voltage levels \^êncff v as plotted against
voltage level it appeared not only fliat the fusion frequency de-
seu wiui
creased with voltage levei
level but
out aiso
also uiai points clearly fell along
the puiui*
diat uie o —
CPnnrfSfA functions
fniir separate
rour fttnpfinrte The problem of thCSe func-
/if identification of these funC-
tions remamed Since electrical stimulation gives rise to a sour taste,

rep-
the funcbon with the largest number of points was believed to
resent the fusion frequencies for the sour receptors The
investi-
gators then applied a drug to the tongue which is known ®
taste for bitter

^
\ên e
nate the taste for sweet and weaken
this con bon o
fusion frequencies were agam determined under
o tame
partial taste anesthesia, only three funcbons were
The curve for sweet rnus
which showed only few points
bitter In is
absent, and the short curve represented
four curves were identified Fig 26 shows the .
j, pf
for four
interpreted as presumptive evidence
» ploH^ «“ier
rather
,
of c.ff
sensory systems (note Siat the reaprocal
than c.f,f
) a because we feel
*“
We have reported this ““i. achiered by analytic
that It IS an excellent example of what comhmed sesenil
sensory research In essence, these , general,
the-
data in amsw„ 6
diHerent techniques and types of
oretical conclusion
The cemort in the per.

how tas e whose
We have already seen sensoo ^-stem
cephon of food There is, m ad 1^“ , smell ^Vhen
often closely ^ feeling
function IS
a pnckly
drink carbonated '«*'J:;;;=4êharp or
seme
mouth Onion and pepper common cliemlat
experiences are due in
large m rliniat, on the tongue
an
™lb a
Over the surface of the fte body
covertd
the nasal cavity, and

m ”*",^„„nber of free
neWmk of fr«
mucous membrane, them h is this
makes up the
which are sensitive “> I .mlants which
vc
nerve endings respons
common chemical sense sense
common chemical
^ ,o , vanct)
„lmull.
of stlmu
The
Among the more usual ones are the sptccs, ammonia, chlorine, and
other halogens. The severe discomfort that may attend exposure to
certain war due to the action of this sense.
gases is
We should examine some of lire criteria which establish the com-

mon chemical sense as distinct from the olfactory and gustatory
senses. There arc, first of all, striking anatomical differences among
the receptors of these three senses. Second, the distribution of these
different types of cells over the body is quite different. It is charac-
teristic of the receptors of the common chemical sense that they
occur with considerable frequency in many different locations of the
body. As mentioned previously, the receptors for smell and taste
are each grouped in a rather restricted region of the body. Func-
tional differences bear out the anatomical distinctions. The thresh-
olds of the chemical sense tend to be much higher than taste
thresholds, which, in turn, are higher than those for smell. Ethyl
alcohol, for example, is an effective stimulus for all three senses.
Compare the absolute thresholds:
0.44 percent per unit weight of air for smell.

14 00 percent per unit weight of water for taste.
2S 00 percent per unit weight of water for the common chemical
sense.
The respective qualities for this stimulus in each sense are: ethereal,
sweet, and stinging. Finally, one or another of these three senses
may be rendered nonfunctional, for example, by disease or anes-
thesia, without affecting the two remaining senses.
Expeiument V
Olfactory and Gustatory SENsrnvrrY
General Purpose. To demonstrate by a series of observations some
of the functional properties of smell and taste.
Demonstration 1
Purpose. In this fust demomtraUon we wiH observe tlie
cooperation
and taste in the perception of Savors.
of smell
MatcrlaU. Pieces of potato, onion, carrot, cheese, and
other food
items arc used. A blindfold serves to exclude visual
cues. Dental cottou
Is required to stop up the nose in one part
of the experiment
Procedure. The subject is blindfolded, and
his nose is carefully
^
SMELL AND TASTE 103
stopped up with dental cotton. Thiis, both visual and olfactory cues are
excluded. A given substance is placed on the subject’s tongue, and he is
asked to report on its taste and, if possible, to identify it. Following this
first chews the food and again gives a report. The
report, the subject
cotton is, then, removed, and the subject gives a fresh report on the taste
and identity of the food. This procedure may be repeated for the various
food substances.
Demonsfraiion '2
Purpose. To show adaptation to an olfactory stimulus even though

not perceived because it is being masked by another
stimulus.
it is ^
stimuli.
' Materials. Peruvian balsam and eau de Cologne are the
Two small receptacles ore used to present the stimuli. ^
’
blindfolded and first asked to sniff Pera-

Procedure. The subject is
odor. He ên snifi*
vian balsam in order to acquaint him xvith its
and eau <3® Co^g^-
about 2 minutes a mixture of Peruvian balsam
mixture hex been prepared re tbal the eau de &
masb he bab™.
After the 2 minute, are up. the subject
the intensity of the odor of Feravian f
again. What has happened to
balsam?
Demonstration 3 , . t_ »
Purpose. TO »ôwhe. ^hihty^

relau g»
mixture may depend upon the
am the sUmuli.
M3%.is time eau de Cologne
and eampher
A blindfold is required. the components of a

mixture
Procedure.
of eau de Cologne and
The
f fh" bSTprepared so that
âjfcs the camphor.
After sniS-
or
the eau de Cologne aemly âu de Cologne, and he
ing the mixture, the subject
adapts to this stimulus for
p
is
^
e^pno
,^5 jje ggain sniffs
the orgiaal
to identify the
and
mixture of eau de Cologne
s-iccessful
tins tu°ef
components. Is he mom
CENraAr-RarEasKCEs
a factual
a. A Wtld H. P-. Pst/citology:
Boring. E.G.,Langteld,S,H.^'^^^’^_j(l35 Chap. 6.
of ptychot
textbook. New yorfc: WeW. H. P-, Foun*ltow
Boring. E.
ogy.
G.
New York:
W' John Wiiey
Sons. 1W8. “aP-
Crozicr, J.,
Cliemorcccplion. In C. Murchison (cd.), A handbook of
W.
general experimental psychology, Worcester: Clark University Press,
1934.
Moncrieff, R. W., The chemical senses, Nesv York; John WHcy and Sons,
1946.
Parker, G. H., Smell, taste, and allied senses in vertebrates, Pliiladelphia;
J.B. Lippincott Co., 1922.
Woodworth, R. S., Experimental psychology. New York: Henry Holt and
Co., 1938, Chap. 20.
Smeix
Dimmick, F. L., The investigation of the olfactory qualities, Psychol. Rco.,
1927, 34:321-335.
Elsberg, C. A., The sense of smell: VIH. Olfactory fatigue, Bull. Neurol.
Itisl. N. y,, 1935, 4*479-495.
Elsberg, C. A., Olfactory tests. In O. Glasser (cd.). Medical physics,
Chicago. Year Book Publications, 1944
Jerome, E. A., Olfactory thresholds measured in terms of stimulus pres-
sure and volume, Arch. P.tycho/., J942, No. 274,
Zwaordemaker, H., Vodorat, Paris: Doin, 1925,
Taste
Allen, F,,and Weinberg, M., The gustatory sensory reflex, Quart. J.
Exper. Physiol, 1923, 15:385-420.
Holway, A. H., and Hurvich, L., Differential gustatory sensitivity to salt
Amer. /. Psychol, 1937, 49:37-48.
Pfaffman, C., Gustatory afferent Impulses, J. Cell. Comp, ix Physiol
’’
1941, 17':243-258.
Richter, C. P., Total self-regulatory functions in animals
and human
beings, Uartey Lect 1943, 38:63-103.
Richter, C. P.. and MacLcan. A., Salt taste thresholds of humans Amer
J. Physiol, 1939, 126:1-6.
CoMMOH CirevriCAi. Sense

Crêr, W. J., Regarding the existence of the "common
chemical sense”
in vertebrates, /. Comp. Neurol, 1916, 26:1-8.
»»> <««
^
VISION
Man’s acquaintance with the world in which he lives depends to a

considerable extent on his sense of sight Orientation
mspace, dls-
CTJmmatiQn and manipulation of colors, forms, and objecfs—all these
and many other are cnticaJly dependent on the proper
activities
functioning of the visual ^tem Besponses to visual stunuli are
closely integrated and coordinated with other response mechanisms
such as the auditory, static, and motor systems of the organism In
this chapter we shall examine the basic visual functions, the proper
ties of visual stimuli and their measurement the charactensties of
Visual expenence and discnmmafion A thorough analysis of these

basic functions is indispensable for an understanding of mans nch
and vaned visual expenence and of the role it plays m behavior
Tiie Visual Stimulus

Radiant Energy. Visual expenence depends upon the stimula-
tion of the sensitive receptors of the eyeby radiant energy Although
the physicist’s conception of the nature of radiant energy has under-
gone many changes in recent years, we may still think for our pur
poses of radiant energy as ^vave motion wiA hvo basic dimensions
wave length and intensity
^Vave Length The wave lengths of electromagnetic motion ex-
tend over an enormous range Some of them are exceedingly
short
special unit of mcasur^
and to speak conveniently about them a
ment-ibemiUmJcroa employed A micron is one millionth
ts a thousandth of a micron Wa\e

of a meter and a miHimicrcn
as short as 1/1000 of a millimicron and as
leneths of radionl energy
millimicrons are hioira (o exist Along this con
Iona as 400 bUUon
radiation or light, forms an extremely nar-
tmuum of svaves. fanWe
lOS EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
reds, the yelicnvs, the greens, and blues, and the whole manifold of
colors which shade into each other, from the reddest red to the
bluest blue This mode of vanation of colors defines the dimension
of hue
Fic 27 The Ps>‘chologic3il Color

Solid The vertical axis represents the
dimension of brilliance, the Qrcum
ference represents hue, and the lateral
distance from the vertical axis, satura
Uon. (From L. T Troland, Principles
of psychophysiology. Vol 1 1930, p
231, by permission of DVan Nos-
trand Company, Inc )
Tlie achromatic colon comprise the senes

from the blachest
blach through the grays to the whitest white This
senes from black
to white parallels the dimension of visual expcnence
called bnOiancc
These two dimensions hue and bnlliance. are not
sufficient for a
complete descnptmn of the properties of color Let
us look at a red
surface It may be full and nch m
redness or it may be only slightly
VISION 109
tinted with red yet m both eases we describe it as red Any hue can
thus vai) in sotaretionf Saturation of a chromabc color refers to the
difference between it and an achromatic color of the same brilliance^
It IS necessary then to specify three dimensions of vanation—
hue bnlliance and saturation— for the lull description of the proper
ties of a color It is helpful in tlie description of color to think of
these three dimensions as arranged in the form of a solid 6gure
Such a color solid is shown in Fig 27 The vertical axis represents
the dimension of brilliance The circumference of the solid repre
sentshue and the lateral distance from the vertical axis indicates
degree of saturation As the dotted hnes in Fig 27 indicate dark
and bnlhant colors ha\e a smaller range of saturation than those
intermediate in brilliance It is possible to asenbe a location m this
solid to any given color , i . i

the visual stimulus
Having deBned the physical characlenstics of
esam.ne the fumy
and the altllbutes of colors our next task is to
bohveen them Vanabons in any one
lioual relationships
attributes of color are a /unit fmctim of both the nave length and
the uii^nsity of the stimulus
Hue and Wave Length

We remember that the visible spectrum
to about 760 milbmiorons With
intensity held
f
over the
^“^“^“inves
level varialicns in wave length Sn
inhue covering the whole noh manifold of
tmuous variation in ^vave lengUis
g pnsm breaks
is
spectral colors This spectrum ^Tus wave
down heterogeneous light into ‘
J hues As the
lengths The long pass through oranges
to
wave lengths become hs become even shorter the
yellow (575 mp) As the '™' , ^ ^lear green
appears at
yellows become more greenish ,„gtos
about 505 mp As we approac > prominent and ns «e
the reddish aspect of
/ues j
PP„PP„bIe Since
asp considered a
pass yellow the greenish creens it is
the re the jvaê
yellow sharply divides further shorten
wa) disappears and the
primary color In a similar .j
green Oie
length beyond a clear
106 EXPERIMENTAL PSyCHOLOGY
row band. This visible spectrum citcnds from about 400 to about 760
millimicrons.*
Inlcnsiiy. The intensity of an electromagnetic wave can» ot
course, be measured in strictly physical terms. The intensity of light
was, however, originally measured in terms of its effect on the human

ej’c and only later did physicists specify the intensity
of li^t in
strictly physical terms, such as ergs or watts. As a result, t%vo
^sterns
of measuring the intensity of liglit have come into practice, and
these must he carefully distinguished: the physical or radiometric
and the psychophysical or photometric units. Physical rneasurement
is made by light-sensitive instruments, independently of the response
and results in such units as ergs or watts. Photo-
of the eye to light,
metric measures, on the other hand, arc based on the judgments of
human observers under standardized conditions. The photometric
measures are known as units of brightness.
The photometric units of brightness arc defined in reference to
the following idealized standard conditions. A source of light, known
as the standard candle, is placed at the center of a sphere, the radius
of which is 1 meter. It is assumed that this sphere Effuses all of the
light which it receives from the candle at the center. The sphere is
illuminated from the inside and the mcfer-candU is the unit of
illumination under these conditions. The total amount of light fall-
ing on 1 square meter of the total surface of the sphere is called a
lumen. Now let us consider the light diffused into die space bej'ond
the sphere by 1 square meter. Since the sphere transmits all the light
It receives, the bnghlness of the sphere as viewed from the outside
is 1 lumen per square meter. It would have been possible to use
lumen per square meter as a unit of brightness. However, it would

be too small for convenience, and a unit ten limes as large is typically
used. This more comcnient unit of brightness is called die miHihim-
bert A milhlambert, then, is the brightness of a perfectly diffusing
sphere, with 1 meter radius and 10 standard candles at its
center
Other sources of light of unknown intensity can be calibrated
hy
matching them in brightness to the standard sphere The device
usually employed for this purpose is called the photometer.
W
lAs OTdini^y \iwed, the spectrum extends to abemt
lermiiuljons
seen if the energy is made great enoo^
760 mo. Recent de-
shown that wase lengths as long as about
1000 mucan be
VISION 107
A convenient instrument for making a photomelnc match is the

Macbeth iUiiminomeler In this lUuminometer the surface whose
brightness is to be measured appears as a circle surrounded by an
illumimted surface which forms a nng around this circle The
brightness of this annular nng can be adjusted until the boundary
between the circle and the nng can no longer be discnminated
Since the brightness of the annular nng is known the value of the
used for the
test surface can then be speafied The annular nng
determine
bnghtness matches is white Sometimes it is necessary to
the bnghtness of a colored surface It ts not then possible to mê
disappear completely For

the boundary between circle and nng
photometry
diis kind of matcli called hetetochromaUc
disregard ng the difference
sary that the observer make hiS judgment
in hue as well as he can . . , „ “
In the stud> of vm.al processes »e
svoold .deall)
the tehna « Pj'

the mtcosity of the l.gl.t as .t stokes
eye noser toned .0 s.zo the
^
of
surhee would be the pop .1
^hoa The s«e of
-
^JS
sue of the puptl .oto aceount
0
surface
used Wlicn the bnghtness of a 1.
Ihmeter the value
one square or
and the effecltve pSp.HaO’ -ttea «
of tlie stimulus is one photon j s„a,ul,
Homogeneous nod ,rtero
many different wave
consist of
gencous with resped to wave
^ .Kissim; a
p„Hble to break
beam
it
of lieteroge
up into its
neons light tlirougli a P"*® ^ve lengths These homogene

components le misture
„„te the laws of stimulus
ous wave lengths are used
to m g
Colob
Tun Dimensions or
Color
qqie Attrihiiles of
and
enee One of the most beWeen cJromfc
lrScS:r&ir».orsarethera.ah.
110 nXPCniMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
seen at
greens become more and more bluish Clear blue is, then,
primary colors A
about 480 m|i Libe yellow, green and blue are
color but it does not appear as sucli in
clear red is also n primary
the spectrum To obtain such a
pnmary red, we must mix long and
short waic lengths Pnmary red is
thus produced only by licterogc-
neous light
Fic 28 The Color Circle The spectral colors

arc represented by the solid part of the arcumfer*
ence, the dotted part stands for colors which can be
obtained by mixing spectral lights
The very short wave lengths (beyond 480 mp) are seen as violet
The violets take on a slight reddish aspect Thus, the spectrum
nearly completes a circle from an orange-like red around to a slightly
reddish blue The circle, however, is not complete It is represented
by the solid part of the arcumference m Fig 28 The circle may be
completed by proper mixtures of long and short wave lengths yield-
ing the purples and a pnmary red (dotted part of Fig 28) It is
this aide which also appears as the circumference of the color
sohd m Fig 27
VISION 111
Hue and Intensity

Hue is also a funcUon of the intensity of the stimulus. As intensity
is decreased, the spectrum becomes less and less saturated, i e the ,
hues become less and less pronounced. At low intensities the spec-
trum becomes achromatic, and there is no differentiation of wave
lengths with respect to hue. Such weak lights are visible even
though hue is absent. For a given homogeneous wave length, this
interval between the absolute threshold of visibility and the first
appearance of hue is the photochromattc interval. The photo-
cliromatic interval is very small or zero for the veiy long wave
lengths (above about 665 mp). The photochromatic interval can
best be demonstrated by stimulating tbe peripheral part of the
retina. The rods, which predominate over the cones in the periphery,
have a much lower threshold than the cones and do not function in
chromatic vision.
Even when the intensity is high enough to produce a spectrum
of hues, hue shll varies with intensity. This change may be investi-
gated by requiring a subject to matdi, with respect to hue, two
lights
lights which differ in intensit)'. Tbe wave length of one
of
other.
iskept constant, and the subject varies the wave length of the
29. For any
The results of such an experiment appear in Fig.
length and a fax^
match, the standard stimulus had a fixed wave
intensity. The comparison or vanable stimulus
had another
that
and the subject adjusted wave length until its hue matched
its
of the standard. The differences in wave

in ig.
and variable required for a hue match are plotted
•
was reqwre
figure shows, no adjustment of wave len^
and yellmv Hue « mvanant ™th m
three primaries, blue, green
tensityat these pomta. For other rrave
shifts svith an tacrease in
lengths,
intensity. M the f “
bine and yelW as
the
shifts are in the direction of
appears more bine m te mt
creases. A violet at, say. 450 mtn
bine
^
is increased. SimUarly. a greenish
o n
with increased intensity. At the others p^
greenish
becomes more yellow os does a y phenom-
as a function of intensity
enon. Although the phenomenon
Is known
rs
as the
erponmentally estab ^
JJ2
EXPEBI.MENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
almost within the range of the
changes are not very great and often
differential threshold for hue.
Brilliance and Iniensily

required
At a given wav e length a minimum intensity or energy is
intensity is the absolute thresh-

for visual response. This minimum
intensity beyond the absolute
old at that wave length. Inaeases in
~1
/ L_ L_ L
1i 1 BBiBBBB1
ri
1 B BBBBBB BB 1
\
1
iMO <180 S20 S60 600 640 680

WAVELENSTH mil
Fic. 29.The Bezold-Brucke Phenomenon. Changes m Hue as a Func-
tion of Intensity.The graph shows by how many millimicrons a stunulus
of given wave length had to be altered in order to match a standard of
the same wave length but of smaller intensity. Note the three invariant
points— B, G, and y. (From L. T. Troland, FrincipJes of psychophysiology,
Vol II, 1930, p. 170, by permission of D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc.)
threshold result in increases in brilHaoce. The relationship between

intensity and brilliance is not, however, a simple one. The relation-
ship obtained depends on the state of adaptation of the retina, on
the area of the retina stimulated, the wave length of light, etc. The
general nature of the relationship for a controlled set of conditions
appears in Fig. SO, where bnlhance (number of just noticeable dif-
ferences above threshold) is plotted against the logarithm of the
intensity.* At the low end of the scale a given cdiange
in the loga-
* The bganllon rf tntnisity Is used pnnanally
to condense citreroelv
the
wide range of IntemiUes used.
VISION 113
nthm of intensity results in n smaller number of just nobceable

differences of brilliance than in the middle or upper part of the
scale
of the totensi^
Fic SO Bnlliance as a FuncUoa
«;nmulus This curve
shows how brillianw
f
^ stimulus intensity The
the locantbm of
bnllianw sclle
noticeable ^
^^btamed by summaUon of just
^
^ ^
briUiance above the abso-
Troland Pnnctples of
b,pe™^0»
Vd" P
7
Company Inc )
o^D Van Nostrand
1. tn Fif» 31 was obtained by determining the
0.,esboM . <.e.e™,pe<. .e
tive visibility. express the results of the two procedures along a
To
common scale, values of visibility are expressed relative to the most
visible stimulus. The visibility value of the most visible stimulus,
then, is 1.0, and the other stimuli are designated by fractions less
than 1.0.
The visibility values obtained by these procedures are shown in
Fig. 32. Two one of them obtained from

distinct curves result:
matches with a bright li^t (bright-light vision), and the other
from the relative values of absolute sensitivity (dim-light vision).
The visibility curve for bright-light vision is called the photopic
curve; that for dim-light vision is called the scotoph curve.
The relation of visibility to wave length is affected importantly by
the level of illumination. In bright-light vision, maximum visibility
occurs at about 553 mji. At very weak levels of stimulation, the
point of maximum sensitivity shifts toward the short end of the
spectrum and occurs at about 511 mji. Under dim-light conditions,
the whole visibility curve is displaced toward the short end: relative
sensitivity to short wave lengths increases while relative sensitivity
to the long wave lengths decreases.*
The between the two curves is due to the fact that it is
difference
the cones which principally funcb'on in bright-light vision, and the
rods in dim-light vision. These two types of receptors differ in their
relative sensitivity to stimuli of different wave lengths. The relative
sensitivity of the cones is responsible for the photopic curve; the
relative sensitivity of the rods determines the scotopic curve. One bit
of evidence for the latter statement is that with different intensities
of light, the shift in sensitivity does not occur when the stimulus
is
restricted to the fovea (or rod-free area). Furthermore,
in the case
of certain animals, which possess predominantly rods and
few cones,
the shift does not occur.
Impressive support for this explanaUon of the differences
between
photopic and scotopic curves comes from the photochemistry
of the
retina. A chemical substance called rhodopsin can be
extracted from
the rods but not from the cones. The substance absorbs
light and is
thereby broken down. The rate of absorption depends
onê wave
length of the radiation. It has been found that the
absorption curve
s TTiIj jhifl in relative b often called the Purlda/e
effect. after the
p^pjIologBt wfao £rtt discmered it
VISION
and the absnnjbon curve

of
aabon of
SaSmatIm end Wane Length
and M H Firemie, Energy, quanta, and vuioa, / Gen Physiol, 1942,

25 831, by permission of the ynimal and authors )
urated Tummg back to the cofor solid in Fig 27, we remember that
saturation Is degree of diFereoce of a chromatic from an achromatic
color Spectral yellow is less different from white than is red or blue
In one ecgienment this distance wras measured in terms of the
number of just noticeable differences in saturabon between the

spectral color and white Changes in saturation were obtained by
addmg trying antotiats of white bgbt to the homogeneous spectral
scale of sahirahon was constructed by detenmnmg
the
color A
of the ««
When AI/I is P'°tted ns a funôn
as AI/I- found for AI/I
Fig. 31 is obtained. As was
iLnsitv the function in rap^
intensity the cuwe drops
ta the dhcrimination of auditory
range of intensity. In the midd
and then levels off over a wide
intensity AI/I drops to
a minimum.
range of
LOG INTENSITY (Photons)

Fic. 31. as a Function of Intensity. This
curve shows hcnv relative dilfcrential sensitivity to
the intensity of the visual stimulus varies with the
logarithm of the intensity of the stimulus. At any
given level, the dtSerential threshold is expressed
relative to the intensify at which the determination
is made, i.c., in terms of Al/f- (From L. T. Troland,
Principles of psychophysiohey, Vol II, 1930, p. 78,

by permission of D. Van Nostiand Company, Inc.)
Brilliance and Wave Length; Visibility Curves

Brilliance varies as a function of wave length. When the amount
of radiant energy is held constant, different
wave lengths do not
produce the same amount of brilliance. The dependence
of brilliance
on wave length is usually shown by determining the amounts
relative
VISION ns
of energy required for different wave lengths iff light to evole con
stant bnlliance
A white light of fixed intensi^ (and brilliance) is used as a
standard The subject adjusts the intensity of a number of stimuli of
different wave lengths until each matches the standard m bnlhance
(hclerochromabc photometry) The wave lengths of the homogene-
ous stimuli are selected so as to cover the range of the visible spec-
trum Different energy values are required for the vanous wave
1.0
Q8
a
n a ma
•=Q6
15
Ha aa
'w 0.4
S
m ana a
Q2
SaaBa9.
400 4oU SUV
Wavelength
Fig 32 VisibJily
'tv '"cX
iS. McG»>v M CO
of
match the brJIiaa*
jciprocals of the energy procedure calls for
the
stimuli
isibibty of the different energy required
etenn7naboncf theabsolutet^^^t-^^^^^^
of
ir detection) with stimuli ^ a measure of
rela
required for detec
^ ^
jciprocal of the energy
U8 EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
amounts white light which had to be added to obtain successive
of
just noticeable differences in saturation. This procedure was
fol-
lowed for each of several spectral colors. The number of steps re-
quired completely to desaturate each of these various spectral colors

is shown in Fig. 34. There we can see that yellow (575 mp)
re-
quires the smallest number of steps, whereas blue and red require
Fig 34 The Saturaticm of Spectral Colors. The scale of saturation

was constructed by delermming the amounts of white light which
had to
be added to the spectral color in order to obtam successive ;ust
notice-
able differences in saturation. The poinU plotted as
a funebon of wave
length repr«ent the number of steps required for complete
desaturation
(From E. G. B^g. The ps>chophysics of color tolerance.
Psychol, 1950, 52 393, by permission of the journal
Amer J.
and author.)
the largest number. The spectrum, then , is maximally saturated at
its extremes and minimally at yellow.
Soturation and Intensity

A «br of ve.y
W.U bo romentbered that
W intensUy usually has no
all but the
saturation at aU It
long wave kDg*rwiU
enguis wiu
c\oke a \'isual response before thev
pbolochromatic interval, such wave
lengths b
^,
As the threshold of hue is pTserriu^M™ satoation.

passco, saturation •
increases as a function
VISION 119
of iotensity, reaches a maxtmtHn in the middle range of intensities,

and then declines as the intensities become very high. For each wave
length there is a different intensi^' yielding maximum saturation.
A highly saturated color reaches maximum saturation at a lower m-
tensi^ than a less saturated color.
SroruLus Mktuhb
Tsvo^lomponent Mixture. The hues of the spectrum may be
obtained by nassing a beam of white light through a pnsm and
breaking it up (by refraction) into its component wave lengths.
spectrum
This is not the only way, however, in which the hues of the
may be obtained. They may also be produced by mixing homogen^
red light mixed with
ous rays of light. For example, a homogeneous
orange whi^
a homogeneous yellow hgbl is seen as
example iat the hue of the
spectra! orange. We may from
note this
those of Ihe hve
fixture Hex on the color ctde behveen
moreover, be less saturated than
ous components. The mixture will,
the more saturated of the
components.
, c j a «»n/
Let U5 keep the wave length of
to red
thatof the yellow „mpcn^ntto^g--A^
the mixture moves from
orange tovvara ye
vanahle
less saturated If « U
component a little toward , green are
(gray). The homogeneous "cTcompIementarT^^ could
said to be yellow
demonstrated bv choosing as our components
also have been y ^
any two components
and blue. ^
y-=l>“-g'«rntrcn to Jor
rw "tol— to fonnwmg laws have
rte7tort;orho*ofto^^-
gray.
ratio appears
proper intensity
120 EXPERIxMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
Many of the pairs of stimuli which are complementary are homo-
geneous lights, e.g., spectral yellow and spectral blue. Since the
circle of homogeneous spectral colors is not closed, some homoge-
neous spectral lights do not have complementaries which are also
homogeneous lights. For example, a green homogeneous light has
no homogeneous complementary but must be mixed with a mixture
of red and blue lights to produce a gray.
WAVELENGTH mp
Fro. 35. Three-Component Mixture: The Pro-
portions of the Three Prunary Components (K, C, B)
Required to Match the Spectral Colors For a full
explanation of the method of determining
the
coefficients, see text. <From L T. Troland,
Prm-
dpics of pttjchophyslalogy, Vol JZ, 1030,
p. 160
by permission of D. Van Nostrand Company,
Inc )
Three^mponent Mature. Let us return to the law of inter-
mediates. In out previous example we
vaned the hue of the mixture
by varying fte wave lengths oi the components. It is also possible
te vary the hue ef the muture. bolding the wave
^nenu coiutant and va^mg their rclaUve
lengths of tL com-
^ f” ^mple If the
inlensiaes. Take yellow
yelW light is intense and the green
vSelv ^ “ P«^'»"»anlly yellow. Om-
predominantly green. By proper variation of the relative intensi-
STUDY OF HUMAN LEARNING 313
series has little more meaning than each component part. In both
cases, however, learning depends on tlie formation of associations
among the members of the scries.’ Much of the study of verbal
learning, therefore, is concerned with the conditions leading to as-
sociations among tlic members of a series.
The members of a series are associated with each other .as a
result of practice. Se^’cral methods of stimulus presentation and
practice have been developed in etperiments on serial learning.
The Method of Complete Presentation. The total series is

presented to the subject, and he is allowed to read it and explore it
at his own speed. A time limit is usually set, but within the allotted
time the learner’s behavior is not controlled and he is free to linger
over some parts, ship lightly over others. Nor can the experimenter
be sure at what point the subject begins to rehearse the material and
subject s
to recite to himself, ^Vlien the experimenter finally tests the
retention, he may find it difficult to interpret the result for
he has no
ms tas
infonnalion about the ways in which the subject attacked
The main advan age
or about the temporal cmirse of his learning.
similarity to prac ca
of the method of complete presentation is its
or prepare for an ex-
learning situations. When we study a lesson
often closely lesenbles the
aniinaUon, the procedure which we use
method of complete presentation.
TI,e Anticipation Method. The
members of
usually ug
.
“ v
sented one by one, at a regular rate, ajereafter
presented
a memory dmm. The full series is
caidpctc each ^
the subject is instructed to °
bieL has at
svhether or not the suêcl
hH^
tne comet
The itcn, u
correct item is presented
p anticipaUon, the ap-
tempted to antrcipate it. If he
« P an
di« .Kempt
response,
pearance of the correct
If he fails to anticpate.
he rs ^ J K,e presentationleanriag
of the
series is both a
correct item. Thus
eadrpresemanou^^^
retentio
trial and a test of
py ,pe esperimenler.
.
until the subject series of

oJis for one en-oriess
More often *an successive
^reria. such as three
anticipations, but more
*• m 1 st?7is6 in which
t rifii‘r-
the term
the reader of cormee-
- We mnind formation of neural
aasodation is hypotheses.
tlons or simibr
explanatory
errorless series of anticipations, are sometimes used. The greatest
the ex-
advantage of the method of anlidpation is that it allows
learn-
perimenter to obtain a full picture of the temporal course of
ing, both for the series as a whole and for each
individual item. We
for
can see at what point any given item is correctly anticipated
the Erst time and how stable the retention for the item is, i.e., how
often it is learned, forgotten, and relearned. We can gauge the
amount of improvement which results from a test trial at various
stages of learning. The method is ideally suited for the study of

serial learning, for it is in terms of their serial position that the sub-
jectmust connect the items with each other.
The Method of Paired Associates. Anyone who has tried to
memorize a list of foreign words and their English equivalents is
familiar with this method On the first trial, paired items (e.g., two
nonsense syllables, a syllable and a number, two meaningful words,
or a meaningful word and a number) are presented to the subject.
On all subsequent trials, the first member of the pair is presented to
the subject, and he attempts to recall the second. The subject is

given a limited amount of time in which to supply the missing mem-
ber of the pair, after which the correct item is presented to him.
The method thus is a special case of the method of anticipation, and
again each trial is both a learning trial and a test of retention. Again,
the temporal course of learning can be followed in detail. The em-
phasis here is on connection between the members of a pair (each of
which may be considered a series of two items) rather than on the
connection of a long series of individual items. It is customary, there-
fore, to present the pairs in a different random order on each trial
in order to prevent the subject from learning the second
members
of the pairs as a series of responses independent of the festTOewfeere.
The three methods discussed here represent the basic procedures
used in the pracUce of verbal materials. They
are used for serial
learning as well as for learning that is not primarily
serial in nature.
In experimental practice, departures from these
standard models
are frequenUy introduced, and features
of several methods may be
wmbmed in order to find the answer to a particular problem. As in
the case of psychophysical methods
(see pp. 14-15), these pro-
cedures must not be considered
as cut and dried, inflexible pre-
senphons but rather as models which
the experimenter is free to
var) and adapt according to his needs Two aspects of the procedure
which are often \aned are the order of presentabon of the stimulus
items and tlie cnienon to winch learning is earned
Uniform vs Random Order of Presentation Onthepracbee
trials, the items of the senes may be presented either in uniform or
m random order If the order is unifoim the sequence of items re
mams unchanged from tnal to tnal If the order is random an en
tirelj different sequence IS used on e\er) trial The subjects task and
the learning process are radicall) affected by the order of presenla

tion If the order is uniform the subjects effort is directed tov\ard
learmng the items in their proper serial order and the sbength of
the vanous items wll depend largely on
then-
association among
distance from each other m the senes If the order is
random t e
learner must put his mam emphasis on the items themselves o ten
disregarding serial position in an) parbcular tnal As
we have seen
uniform or er o
the method of anlicipabon necessarily implies a
favors a ran
presentabon the method of paired assoaates
Pf® method of
of pairs Either order may be used wiUi lie
must ahvays as
entation In designing an experiment we
wo are interested m
studying the elfeets of
sens
P“J*™
™
learning of the mdiwdual items or whether
we wis i ,
j jj„
order to study another
effects of positron in
ofsneheilects For example
tion of whether 'emotional' "
-f
Ls mS
ftTLms in random order
than “neutrar ones we would prese
«,n^xe the eliec^ o -a „os. non for both types
end in this -7
the other hand
of Items On
learning items located at the
begin ^ end of a
g instant from tnal to trial
1st
we would keep the order of The penod of prac-

Critenon to Which There is
extended indefinitely
tice in a learning expenment m y 5 ,j,e ,vith any assiir
no one pomt at which it wm P^l^^ ^ learner has mastered

a
ance that learning has
ceM without error-he
an recite it
e when he
rs
hst of Items-, ,„ênee may become
further the less
may benefit from pThe practices the hst
t
m a„d m
smoother more automatic
quickly xviH he
forget
deade for a given expeii
it is
necessaqi
provement is indefinite
performance to wliich learning is to be
ment, on a criterion of
carried. One frequently used criterion, which we have already men-
tioned, is complete mastery, i.e., one errorless recall of the material.
If practice is continued beyond that point to, say, three or five

errorless repetitions, overlearning tabes place. It would be diiTicult
to state a general rule concerning the best criterion in an experiment
on verbal learning. The optimal criterion will vary from experiment
to experiment. In many experiments, the criterion of complete mas-
tery has been less exacting criteria, such as cor-
found useful, but
rect repetitions of75 percent of the items, have also been used suc-
cessfully. If degree of learning is one of the independent variables,
several criteria may be used within one experimental design.
Instead of carrying learning to a criterion, it is possible to prac-
tice the material for a fixed number of trials and then test for
retention. Such a procedure may often save time, especially in the
performance of group experiments. It has, however, one serious
disadvantage. At the end of a fixed number of trials, there will be
considerable variability in the degree of mastery achieved by indi-
vidual learners. Diffei cnees in learning ability are appreciable, e\’cn
among subjects with fairly homogeneous educational and social
backgrounds. Thus, w’th a constant amount of practice, the amount
of learning is far from constant from subject to subject. Generaliza-
tion about the effects of experimental variables becomes difficult
when individual differences in strength of learning are uncontrolled.
If all subjects are carried to the same criterion, their results become
more comparable.
Mastery, as revealed by the abib’ty to reproduce the material, pro-
vides, of course, only one of several possible criteria of learning, al-
though it isthe one most frequently used. Other criteria
may be set,
e.g., the ability to recognize a certain percentage
of items correctly,
or a minimum speed of performance. The choice of
criterion de-
pends on the particular method used to
measure the strength of
leammg. ®
The Basic Vabiables in Leabninc Expebiments

In any eêrimeotal situation, the
leamer-s performance (however
measured) is a omt funcUon of many
conditions. As we have em-
phasized, one of the most strildng
facts revealed by investigaUons
STUDY OF HUMAN LEAHNING 317
in tins field the multipliaty and complexity of the vanables which

is
significantly influence learning To evaluate tlie effects of these van

ablcs it IS desirable to vary one or a few at a tune holding all other
relevant factors as constant as possible Three important sets of
variables have been investigated under conditions of controlled ex
activities learned
perimenlalion (
I ) the nature of the matenals or
(2) the conditions of pricticc under which learning takes place and
age
(3) the personal characlensbcs of the subjects such as their
sex and intelligence Measurable performance depends on what is
learned how it is learned and ttho learns it We shall briefly sum
manze the most important methodological and experunent^ find
mgs under each of these three headings
PERFOnMANCE AS A TUNCTIOV OF WhAT Is LeaRNED

from le^
There are few human activities which do not benefit
‘
mg but the effects are by no means uniform for all
Optima con
ferent actmlics are learned at different rates
practice also var) from activitj to activity
From e
of
of information bearing on tlie problem ®
Mncemme
genera za
what IS learned wc shall select a few
%™r„«on»lAnalp.s
Other m many ways A analysis^ We
must begin
best bo earned out through respect to which
by stating the characteristics
verbal matenals vary from
^ sets of verbal
^miension and be abke
ma
ebaro
tenals may differ in one ^
in another or as frequently « gpet of variation
in each of
other in several (expenmen
. ,j,-j holding constant
the dimensions can llien be s . We shall
^ dimensions
have
tally and/or statistically) . verbal matenal which
consider three dimensions 0 ear,u,gfulness (2) affectivity
(i; &
been isolated expenmentaUy
and (3) amount
McCeocI T/*-
T1 s treatise
^tiuas o ^
determlRanls of human
The Dimension of Meaning. Verbal materials may or may not
nonsense
have standard dictionary meaning. As we have seen, the
syllabic was invented with the express purpose of
eliminating mean-
ing in order to study "pure*’ learning and retention,

unencumbered
by uncontrolled associations introduced by meaning. It is now clear
that meaning is a question of degree. Few nonsense items arc
com-
pletely meaningless, and even if they lack meaning at the beginning
of an experiment, the subject soon succeeds in making them more
or less meaningful by invoking associations and similarities, how-
ever far-fetched and remote. The advantage of nonsense materials
lies primarily in the fact that they allow the use of materials of
fairly uniform difficulty. A list of nonsense syllables can be con-
structed so that members are reasonably equal in difficulty and
its
susceptibility to meaningful associations. Individual subjects, more-

over, may be assumed to have fairly equal degrees of acquaintance
with nonsense material (provided previous service in learning ex-
periments is held constant), whereas experience with meaningful
words varies much more widely from individual to individual.
The difference in degree of meaning between nonsense materials
and standard dictionary words is reflected in the speed with which
words are learned. There is general agreement that meaningful items
are learned signIGcantly faster than nonsense materials. This gen-
eralization holds whether the nonsense materials be syllables, con-
sonants, or groups of digits, and the meaningful materials be discrete
words, prose passages, or stanzas of poetry.
Within the two broad classes of nonsense and meaningful mate-
rials, individual items vary continuously in degree of meaning. Some
nonsense words suggest meanings and associations more readily
than others (cf. p. 279). Other things being equal, the greater the
"assodation value" of a nonsense item, i.e., the more frequently
it
reminds subjects of meaningful words,lhe more quickly it learned.
is
Meaningful materials themselves vary in degree of meaning and
consequently in ease of learning. A series
of discrete words is
learned more slowly (han a connected passage.
A prose passage, in
turn, .s hlccly to be learned less quickly than
a comparable amount
of i«etsy which has the additional advantage
of rhy^c and rhythm.
Meaning facilitates learning because it
makes it easier to connect
individual Items with each other, to bring
to bear on the new learn-
ing task previous learning and previous experience Especially wnth

senal materials rate of learning depends largel) on the ease with
whicli the subject can orgamze and group the items Meaning is an
important aid in achicv mg such organization
The Dimension of Affectivit) Meaning facil lates learning by
allowing the subject to utilize past leammg in the formation of new
associations kinds of past experiences which may function
The m
the acquisition of new materials are of course many and vanM
matenal may for example be
Past experience with the learning
m
affectjvity or emotional tone
Kean
charactenzed by differences
being ass^
ingful words may be pleasant unpleasant or neutral
emotional expenences in the pw
ciated to aarying degrees with
function o e
There have been many studies of rote learning as a
results have not alwajs
affective characteristics of the material The
stimulus
been umvocal but in general pleasant
n^tra ones
quickest learning with unpleasant and °
^
that order A serious mc.hodoIog.ca!
problem «
ea
arnv.ng it .ndependent classifications o
vahd g re,
pleasant unpleasant and neutral
the expLmenters judgment
and may
f‘ISe or no v bdiW
fleet "“ud the
for some of his subjects Frequently ''P”' before or after
subjects themselves to judge the rehable and vahd
learomg As far as the co-elat.on betiveeo
they may legitimately be used .
Jimvever are
emo-
airect.v.ty
“"f ^„se of thf fact that
difficult to validate (cf may be a poor
mvoivea
p ^ bmself
not a
tional responses are matenal Affecbvity is
judge of ihe affeehve o’ iêd

eapernnenmlly
which can be eas unpleas
variable y limited to pleasantness
The dimension of affectivit) ^ vanety of attitudes in
the
learner and such

attini that matena
sWvn for example
mte of lean..ng «
!>“ preferences may be
learned
lea materials to which
he
congruent mth the
more quicUy eriments sex

differences m learning per
inleres
opposed In in attitude or
IS jo differences
been yel have the
foniinee have Finding as diese do not as
Ihematenalleamed
320
EXFEniMENTAL PSVCHOLOGV
generalizations, (or the study of learning
status of well-cstattis'hed
inleiesls is still very much in its begin-
in relation to attitudes and
is, however, of great potential
sig-
nings This area of investigation
nifimnee because it helps to ertend the horizon of learning experi-
ments to problems of social psychology and personab’ty.
FiCr 83. The Effect of Length of List on

DifBctJty of Ijcaming. In this figure, (he amount of
time required to leam a list of nonsense syllabtes
is plotted against the number of syllables in the hst.
Qearly, the longer the list, the longer it talces to
leam it In addition, the relationship is not linear,
Le., the longer the Ust, the mote time is required per.
Item learned. (From J. A. McGeoch, The psychohgi/
of human learning, 1942, p, 178, hy permission of
Longmans, Green & Co , Inc. After D. O. Lyon,
McnnJTy and the learning process, 191T, by per-
mission of Warwick A York, Inc.)
The Dimension of Amount Learned. Whatever the nature of

the individual items in a leaiuing task, the learner must
establish
connections among them, group them, and organize them
so that he
may finally perform the whole task iôr meet some other criterion
set by tlie cjpcrimenler). Amount to be
learned is one of the dimen-
si^ along which verbal matenak vaiy, quite apart from their spe-
mfic natuic_ How is rate of learning affected
by the magnitude of
the subjects total task? As far as sheer
amount of time to reach
criterion is concerned, a long (ask
most necessarily take more time
STUDY or HUMAN LEARNING 821
thin a short one If the items ire presented or read at a constant

speed each presentation of a long list will occupy more tune than
that of a short list We may further ask, however whetlier the
amount of time per item learned remains constant or changes as the
length of a task is v'lried The evjienmental e\idence clearly shows
that the amount of time per item does become greater as the length
of the learning task is increased Fig S3 illustrates this point As the
number of syllables in a list increases the total time needed to leam
them increases disproportionately The curve is not a straight line
longer we
but shows positue acceleration Tlie longer the list the
tenon su
have to spend on each item in order to reach a fixed
depicted m Fig 83
as complete mastery Although the relationship
is clearly not linear the amount of
positive acceleration » ve^y
approxiiwtemtrmght
great Over a wide range the curve closely
per list becomes really
line Thedisproportionate increase in time
list exceeds 200
items
senous only when the
time
Disproportionate increases in learning --hvities
w.lh a
amounts of maleml have boon found
be const g
and materials and the relationship ma)
Uc degree of sô\Ts Sireff«.
learning Situation to another
Sneer ro L”rl ll-nl
„ijBr«fandinff" For
to a gfeater orten. than ‘I- diPi
practiced subjects, a longer task m suggest that
Vaoa *
culty tlian for untrained ones
d
the increase in time per item
is
as the
^.„aTiize his responses
group
itmore and more difficult to j.jq g Jong list the
amount of materia! becomes .l other increasing
the
int ere
individual items are apt to expect this effect
to
number of incorrect ^®*^‘®**°"* the exact sequence

of the
be most serious in rote learning learner wJl be more

individual items is
Overcoming such mterferen^
than an untrained
subj^ ,
grouping the
skillful
aids m oreanmng and
oxg
and
effects m using vanous
matenal
Fa, Moo
The Egeets of Serial
^ ^
epeed
TheSerial I’‘>/-“'’J^"„,.c^lion melhod) the
by the ami
a definite order (eg
which any given rncmbcr of the series is Jeamod varies with its posJ*
lion in the series. In general, the first item in the series is learned
fastest', thereafter, speed of learning decreases as a function of
serial position, reaches a minimum near the middle of (he series,
Fic. S4. A Set ot Serial Position Curves. The

number of correct anticipations per trial is plotted
against the position of the syllable in the list. The
numbers on the curves refer to the criterion met by
the subject on the trial for which the curve
is
plotted. In the early stages of learning there is
a
striking sag toward the center of the list As learning
approaches completion, the curve necessarily levels
out more and more. (From J. A. McGeoch,
The
p^chalagy of human feeming, 1942, p. 98,
by per-
mission of Longmans, Green & Co., Inc.
After L. B.
Ward, Reminiscence and role learning,
Psr/dtoi
Monoer.. 1937 43. No. 220. p,
33. by pLiss/on of
tl^ journal and the Amencan Psychological
Assoda-
and then rise, ngaia. The last fe iaamed consideraWy faster

"
P
Fjg. ""'r
84 shows a set
“ "’ell as the first
^ one
°
of aiiapea,” cptIoI
typical, ‘Ixrw-shaned
In Vi<T RA u r
scrial-position curves.
fine. .Vhen only

a gi\cn tnal, onl> a \cr} small proportion of the correct responses

occurs in the middle part of the list As learning progresses, more
and more of the items m
the middle of the list are learned, and, as
a result, the differences among the scrnl positions dimmish and
the
of full mas-
cur\c IS flattened out If learning is earned to a critenon
a slraightê, since
terv. the cur\e for the final tml is, h> definition,
trial ^^ê me.
alfthe Items are recalled correctly on the critenon
an a e
ho\\c\cr, alwi)s more failures in the middle
positions
ends of the senes before mastery is reached

Intraserial Associations The effects of senal posôn are fre-
associations When a senes
quently ascribed to the action of remote
=P.C-
r,c 85 immedute and Remote
es, nonseiiK represent

itninedute The
j
' A McCeoch
remote associations \ ,042, p 70, by per
pryc/.o/oW 0/
Lonpnens Green &
of
Cr
Co . me
Inc s)
not onlv between ad

of Items IS learned.
among items whicli are more
jacent members of 'he Iis
associations are call^
from bacbvard
thin one step removed m the forward or
effects,
remote Remote ”^la„at, on of renal pontion
direction Before
let us consider
attcrapRng
Â through
associations
G represent items in a
Th= formed hetsveen ad
Consider Fig SS associations
remote assoaations As
arrows the
hst Tlie heavy rcnresent
dotted »rr^^ ^ „nh
jacent Items, the
subicct practices
the 1 ’
.
^ * ^vilh D, E with A, G wth D, and
f„’rn‘'Sctv“--l’S^rrea—
ol me
provided one
KEM may
turning to Fig. 86, the aftereffect or trace of
be still
active when ZIT is presented. Thus, the trace of KEM is associated

with ZIT, and a remote association Is formed. Such speculations
serve to emphasize that immediate and remote associations are’
probably not qualitatively different
Performance as a Function of How

Learning Proceeds
No matter what the material or activity learned, the speed and
efficiency of the subject’s performance are greatly influenced by the
conditions under which he practices, his motivation, and his mode
of attacL In this section we shall consider a selected group of con-
ditions of practice which significantly influence the learner’s per-
formance.
Ind Motivation
In the experimental analysis of verbal learning, no less than in

the analysis of all other behavior, the problem of motivation must
be considered. There is a t%vofold problem here: (1) with what
motivation docs the learner approach bis task; and (2) how do
changes in his motivation, his successes and failures, affect the
progress of his learning? Turning to the first of these problems, we
find that the primary motivation condition is the subject’s intent
to learn.
Intent to Lcam. When a subject comes to the laboratory to
participate in a learning experiment, he comes with the intent
to
learn. The motivation
for this behavior is complex and
its nature
usually has not been invesUgated. Curiosity, interest in
the subject
matter, and the desire to please the experimenter (or
the need to
placate him if he happens to be an instructor) all
play a part It
Is the intent to learn which constitutes the
crucial difference be
tween passive expomre to stimulus objects and
the active effort
of a learner. Without Intent to learn, little learning
inay be eipos^ to stimnU hteially hundreds of
takes nlace We
times and fail to
leam thern or tern them very poorly if we never
had the intention
to remember them.* In most experiments on
verbal leamine it is
» We jKall trtmn to OUs wohleia Uter tmd«- u j ,
hezduiz of ioddenUl
J
STUD^ OF HUMAN LEARNING v‘ 327
sufRcienl lo mslnict the subject m ordtr to create in him adequate

moU\alJon or intention to kam The eipenmenter working with
human learners Is m this regard more fortunate than tl e animal
ps)chologist who has to use hunger thirst and shock to create
thej^ropcr motivation m lus subjects
V^he Role of Set Intent to learn fs often described as a set

to
Icim Though w idel) used experimental psychology the concept

m
sense
of set Ins sometimes lacked clear deBmtion In its broadest
objects in a selective
set denotes a readiness to respond to stimulus
characteristics rather
wx) to respond to some objects and spcafie
toned to crents
tlnn others D) its set the organism is scicctiselj
prose p^sage our se may
m the eiisironmcnt Tims in reading ft
lead us to read tt for understanding lor
more
for the purpose of reproduang it serbaUm Frerjuently heo or
operaUse at the same time
such sets may be „_,,ii„
,uma% i,„ a
ha^ ,
set to learn "“tje
In addition lo Urn gcieral
or
more spectBc set tosvard the material
tices He may bo set to learn a
senes of items
torecog
to learn Ihtm mtliout regard *“ 2'"“ ,
answering
nare them later, or to
of Ih 1 uLuy
questions about the content . e,penmental
set IS established h) example mstmeuons
for
procedure In the method of P”
jo, of ihe items and
,
focus the subfcrfs

“>«-Xnems onTiiemoiy dmm and requu
procedure of the
tlie
u ;f appear strengUiens
Uiem bciore Uiey n
ing the subject to name
set for serial association efficiency if the subject
s set is
Learning proceeds with teJs of svhirh m

asp
sharply focused on that j learning
a sustained
defined and measur^ In serm^^
learning is
set for serial position
is
’;"P°J^ quite apart
(- of the material
for the Sets are
equally sustained set „,ed ,s desirable
from the sequence m also m what

they
establ*-,
seleolivo in what sets are umahy
learned the list, we can reshuffle the items (for example, in the
order A C E G B D F) and have the subject learn the new
He will learn the new or "derived” list faster than the
sequence.
original list. The he learns the derived list faster suggests
fact that
original learning
that remote associations were formed during the
which facilitated mastery of the new task.
Evidence for the formation of remote associations also comes
from an analysis of the errors which the subject makes while prac-
ticing a list of items. Not infrequently we note “anticipatory” errors.
In recalling the items, the subject will sometimes skip one or more
intermediate steps and connect remote items with each other. Thus,
after recalling A, he may reproduce C or D, or even E, F, or G. Such
errors are called anticipatory because the items reproduced, though
correct, are given too early in the sequence. Without postulating
remote associations, such errors would be difficult to explain. While
anticipatory errors may be ascribed to remote associations in the
forward direction, “perseverative” errors may be due to remote asso-
ciations in the backward direction. A perseverative error occurs when
a previous correct response is repeated later on in the scries. For
example, C may be correctly recalled following B, and then bo re-
peated following E. In general, the further two items are separated
from each other, the less likely are they to be connected by an-
ticipatory or perseverative error. Both anticipatory and persevera-
tive errors decrease, of course, as learning progresses toward the
criterion. Progress of learning is thus characterized by the decrease
in inhibition due to remote associations, and the strengthening of
immediate associations.
The effects of serial position can be ascribed to the action of
remote associations. I,et us consider only remote forward associa-
tions which independent evidence shows to be much more
frequent
and much stronger than backward ones. As the series is practiced, a
large number of such remote associations is formed.
As Fig. 86
shows, the number of remote associations spanning
a given item
depends on Us serial position. More remote forward
associations
span items in the middle of the series than
items toward the
ends o( the scries. We have seen that reaching
a criterion
of com-
plete inastery (say. by the method of anUcipation)
depends on
slrcrngthenrog of the immediate assodaUons
relative to the remote
associations, for only on this condition
can the serial order be re-
STUDY OF HUMAN LEARNING
325
produced coOTctly. Since (he items in
the middle of the series are
spanned by (lie laijcst number of remote
associations, such items
mil be subject to (he greatest amount of
inhibition in the course of
Fic, 86. A Schematic Diagram Showing the Im-

mediate and Kemote Associations Which Arc Be-
lieved (0 Span (he Items in a Learning Scries. The
broken airaws represent asxKiations between
adjacent items. The curved arrows represent remote
fonvard ftssoewfions. The numbers under the non-
sense syllsiblcs indicate the number of fDr^vard
remote ossociadons presumably spanning that item.
The items in the middle of the b'st are spanned by
the largest number of associations. (From J. A.
McCeoch, T/ie pstfchohgij of human teaming, 1942,
p. 109, by permission of Longnians, Green 4 Oj.,
Inc. After C. L Hull The eonBicting psycho/ogter
of Jearn/ng~a way out, Psychol. Rev., J935, ^2;502,
by permission of the yoomal and the American Psy-
chological Association.)
practice, and it will take a relatively

loag liaie to overcome such in-
associaUons sufficiently. Thus,
hibllion 'and to strengthen immediate
to the inhibiloty action of
serial-position cBects may be ascribed
associations which must be overcome before complete mas-

remote
tery can be obtained. i- r - ,
have been speaking of remote assoaa-
In our discussion, we
be understood to refer only to position in
Hons Remoteness should
last analysis, remote associations may turn out to
the series In the
than associations between adjacent items in
be no less immediate
neural counterparts the perception ol a syllable
the series IVbatever
persist for a small finite period of time after
has they probably
tbe'svllable has
been presented, and it is this persisHng •ttace
immediately be associated with a remote item. Thus,
svhich may
Z2& EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
habits
result of instructions; they often represent well-established
of perceiving and responding. We
rarely read, for example, with a
completely passive attitude. Whether or not wc have been so in-

structed, we are set to understand and perhaps to reproduce
what
we have read. Instructions do not. then, impose a set on an other-
wise “setless” organism; rather, they control and specify the set.
Incidental Learning. because sets to learn seem
It is precisely
to be ubiquitous, even in absence of specific instructions, that

tlie
“incidental learning" is so difficult to interpret. Learning which oc-

curs without specific instructions to learn has often been designated
as incidental. In a typical experiment on incidental learning, the
subject may be instructed to learn a list of words printed on a sheet
of paper and may then be tested for hismemory of such physical
details as the color of the paper, designs on the margin of the sheet,
etc. Since he was not specifically instructed to learn these physical
whatever memory he shows for them is considered inci-
details,
dental Various other procedures have been used to test incidental
learning, but they all have two conditions in common: (1) tlie
materials must be presented in such a way that the sense organs are
stimulated by the incidental items; and (2) the subject is not in-
structed to kam these items and his attention is directed to other
parts or characteristics of the material
The experimental evidence is clear: incidental learning does take
place although performance is never so good as under instructions
to learn. The occurrence of so-called incidental learning, however,
does not prove that learning can ever take place in the absence of a
set to learn. Subjects may instruct themselves to leam even when
the experimenter fails to do so, and there is good evidence that they,
in fact, do so. A circumscribed set suggested by the
experimenter's
instruction may be generalized to other incidental
items Tiot covered
by the instructions. Especially in an experimental situaUon, in which
a subject is alert and motivated to respond actively
to the task be-
fore him, generalizaUon of a learning
set to extraneous features of
the situation may easily tahe place.
The weight of the evidence
immts to the conclusion that learning is never
truly incidental in
the sense of being undetermined or
haphazard.
Let us now consider moUvational
changes which take place in
VISION 137
The DuTLiorrY Theort

Throughout this chapter ^ve have seen again and again the dif
receptors in
ferences between the responses of the two types of
the retina— the rods and the cones \Vhen we bai« studied
various
adaptation, visual
visual functions, such as visibility, hght and dark
encountered fa^
acuity, flicker, and color vision, we have always
evidence, wming, wr
reflecting their difference in function Other
example, from anatomy, physiology and
paAolo^, fully ^pports
of the up aty
these experimental findings The stat«nent
that there are two functional types of receptors
m e re
an established fact
Visual Experiments
Speoai, Phoblems of Contool dj
the slightest venations venety of factor

„( ,
”00 Sr sonie of the piohlems

of espen
mental control are -rt.*. accuracy with which

the in-
Intensity of the Stimulus ^f/.f^Vcified depends, of
tensity of the
The investigation of the absolute
course,on the particular P” ^
. inlemity, of course,
requires
threshold or of the relabon intensity of the stimulus
explicit and careful sp«“““ , ,1 of compleiuenlaiy
colors
On the other hand, „ neasurements of the illununa

“does not require exact p
tion on the color
disls
^ ^ specifications of intensity
between radio-
are
,ef„Uy distinguish
given, the expenmcnter
Ltnc and photonietu‘= The remarks made
apecirai
Spectral r- measurements —
Co®I”^“J„f exact measuremeuLa m “
importim^
importaixf determining visMity
visibility
abovm about the
above
lengto Is obw
penmenlal speaficalmn of wave
Lves, the of visual patterns '17;”“^
ins In experiments ‘'"'“^êmnpos.t.on of
that white hght n^
by whrtehghh
th^* implied by naming the
freûenUy rs
[lot be specified
particular source of illumination, sucK as the brand
of light bulb.
used.
Where wave length must be controlled, filters are frequently
typical filter consists of two glass plates enclosing a
gelatinous
A
transmitting
substance which absorbs certain wave lengths while
others. Filters vary in degree of selectivity, and for
precise work it
characteristics.
is necessary to have available their transmission
of
Typically, a curve showing degree of transmission as a function
wave length is plotted.
Surround of a Test Patch. There are many experiments in
which the surround of the test stimulus or test patchis important
This is particularly true when the test patch is small. We recall the
special eSects (glare) encountered in the determination of visual
acuity when a brightly illuminated small object appears in a dark
surround. A phenomenon such as glare is, of course, in itself an in-
teresting problem. Even if the effect of the surround is not itself the
focus of investigation, it should be taken carefully into account
Size of Pupillary Area. The size of the pupillary area is im-
portant for two principal reasons. First of all, the size of the pupil
helps to determine the amount of illumination which falls upon the
We recall that it is for this reason that a special unit of illumi-
retina.
nation— the photon—was devised. Furthermore, the size of the pupil
has an effect on the sharpness of the retinal image. Down to a cer-
tain point, as the area of the pupil is decreased, the definition of the
retinal image is sharpened. However, as the pupillary area decreases
and serve to blur the image. For
further, diffraction effects enter
these reasons, in experiments in which the amount of illumination
or the sharpness of the image (visual acuity) is important, pupillary
area must either be specified or controlled by an artificial pupil.
Retinal Area Stimulated. The facts of the duph’dty theory
underscore the importance of controlling and exactly specifying the
retinal area stimulated by the test patch. In
order to stimulate a
particular area of the retina, it is, of course,
necessary to control the
size and distance of the test patch. The
area of the retinal image
corresponding to a given object is inversely
proportional to the
square of the distauce of the object from
the eye. Applying this re-
labonship .t should be remembered
that for foveal stimulation the
stimuli^ should not cover an area
larger than about 2° of visual
angle. If v/e are to be sure that a test object falls on a particular
VISION
part of the retina, we must roiDiini2e the movements
of the eye.
This IS achieved Erst by holding the head m

a chin rest or similar
requinng the subject to maintain steady fixation on
device and then
a point provided for that purpose
experiments visual
State of Adaptation of the Retina. In many
been adapted to fte
funchons are determined after the eye has
experiment on visnal acuity, for
particalar viewing situaUon In an
of the subject has “
example, it is assumed that the retina
measurements
steady level of adaptaUen before the “f’ ^nlmlhag
illumination, we are
adequate^
by spLfying the level of ”
the degrie of adaptation In some
is Itself the feciiof interest
In su^
e a
explicitly measured by determinmg
Exper»ient VI
Stlmulus Mdcture
a'
“aature-the
_ the tiw. pnnapal law*
To v«ifv
JrtrmieIra.::^^Vr^t'::f
Materials. A set of
J^^ôHained
"re coler wheels are
may be cut from a
or
used Color disks can he
set of colored papers For
the
^ j^nment. it is not necos-
Fuithcrmore, it is
«( these stimuh
pl'»>“""'.T^ homogeneous
know the do not reBect
eoloted Ipeis
saiy to pope-
such
important to realme that
Tr^fthee. is a ---
hfadlK-m^'-'f^Liedsa.^
ofi^rl»eTf‘- b™to
Ihe color cnele
beWeen
«us
exponents The hue

Uw sm.es
of
= ê
to mm
hue
^ 1-dv this law, pjôrtion of the yellow color

'“t
To yetily „ih wbt wJI be greater
them on to *et to „dl above
yellow bgh.
Ad^'^, „( „„b„e
the mtur'^Ponl’
‘îa*tt"h.nged’m ta'and
d>e same observaUoas
ag^rebsewe to "‘S^Jrlof .ml
»"
FmaBy, use only a
two color wheels are available, place a red and yellow disk on one
If
of them as before, and a well saturated orange plus a white disk on the
to match
other wheel. Find the proportions of red and yellow required
die hue of the orange disk. Then, try to obtain a saturation match.
To
obtain a saturation match, it will be necessary to vary the proportion of
white added to the orange until a satisfactory match to the saturation of
the red-yellow mUture is obtauied.

Repeat this procedure vrith the following pairs of disks: yellow and
green, green and blue.
Treatment of Results. For every mixture, the proportions of disks
used should be carefully measured and recorded. The proportions can
be readily determined by means of a protractor disk which is calibrated
either in percentages or degrees. The results of each mixture should be
recorded in the form of a simple “color equation,'’ e.g.,
X% Red -f (100 — X)% YeUena = Y% Orange + (100 — Y)! WhHe

We may if the components were homogeneous h'ghts, su^
note that
an equation would fuhy specify the properties of one color in terms of
the wave lengths and Intensities of two others.
Procedure: The Law of Complexnentaries. This law states: If two
hues are diametrically opposite eadi other on the color circle, the mixture
of their stimuli in the proper intensity ratio appears gray.
The law may be verified by means of the following pairs of stimuli:
Yellow and blue

Green-blue and orange
Red and blue-green
The two disks of one of these pairs of stimuli are interleaved on the color
whecL Also interleaved on the same color wheel are a gmatl blade and a
small white disk. The proportions of the two chromatic d isk* are adjusted
until a gray mixture results. The proportions of the blade
and white disks
are then aajusted to obtain a^brilliance match. (Although
it is preferable
to mount the disks in this way, it may be more
convenient to mount the
blade and white disks on a separate wheeL)
We must remember that the color disks do not reflect homogeneous
light. For this reason, it may not be possible
to obtain gray by the mix-
toe of only two “compOTents.” We
may stiB obtain a gray, however, by
adding a third chromatic disk complementary
to the mixture of the first
two. Thm. the mixtoe of red and
hlue-green closest to gray may stiD
appe» tmg^ with blue. By adding a small amount of yellow, which is
complementary to blue, a gray mixture may finally be produced.
L
VISION 141
The student should venfy that he can readJy obtain a gray with three
components if they are not oil three selected from the same half of the
color circle
Treatment of Results. The mlihites should again be speciOed In
terms of “color equations " On one side should appear the proportions
the proportiODS
of chromaUc disks used to obtain gray on the other side
of black and white giving a brilliance match Thus,
— Yt Bbck =
(100 + - Y)i While
X% YeVow (100 + X)J Blue
Experiment VII
VisuAJ. Acuity^
™
Purpose To measure hso types of vrsml
iWe I e the smallest stnê
ob,.ct e a pven
(D aemly
“
bo detect^ (2) minimum eefeeeUe eerily ‘
etm be deteeted
same kmd tbal
between hvo oblects of tbe
Minimum Vitible Acuity , , j f— niVt?

Materrals. AwWteeâr^ •S'usd.f S"Tb“ulf
wttb a single black bne (In^ inW ^ somewbal arbi
1/64 of an mch and Us len^ 1 p,efetable Tbe unpoUanl
trarily ebosen and a
narrower bn yard
measured A
jaactly )
wdtb of the liM of
point IS that the yar, g the flluminabon
dutanees mid. lamp for varying
stick for measuring
the ca«d are required the expenmenter
orAnaiv iUumma o°
Procedure. In a vjm c bUck Ime verbeaL
•
holds the stimulus card

a m f^ênter but be backs away un^
<o
The subleet Is iniUally close then reguesls tbe sub
" He
he can
feet to close
Ln
,ust see the
asks tbe
ho
black li"'
eyes 0
^
Jib P^J^^venieiiee
^ tebnation
nmi
of the
to a new posiUon
,ust visible line
aim dravm on the

new pos Uon a bne is
to the
report For the '‘P'f '^/Ztlon wi in the fmnt The dotan» k
s™e
baS of the c«d to the
tween the stimulus
^t. uU both an opproachmg
and r^d
nicest inch It i»ay

^ ^nÂt least ten such determinations
detenûoos tbe more re-
number of
„g (ascendmg
“tS^r-lTmS'ou.TL ill^. levels of
'
tte whole
prooed-ue shotM
^ '^^
„d.nary roomjâ
tion The first

to
* We arc indebted
lion. A second level may be obtained by casting the light of a desk lamp
on the stimulus card.
Treatment of Results. In order to compute the visual acuity, it is
necessary to express the width of the stimulus line and the mean dis-
tance at which it is just seen in the same units of length. When they
are so expressed, the ratio between the width of the line and the mean
distance equals the tangent of the minimum visible angle subtended by
the object.From a table of trigonometric functions, the angle correspond-
ing to the obtained tangent can be read. The value of this angle should
be expressed in mir\utes, and its reciprocal computed. This reciprocal of
the angle m minutes xi the desired value of visual acuity. The values of
visual acuity thus obtained should be compared for the two levels 'of
illumination.
Minimum Visible Separaiion
Materials. A circular card 4 inches in diameter is used as before,

but this time it is ruled with two parallel black lines so that there is a
white interspace of 1/32 indi between them. The lines themselves
should be 1/32 inch in width and 1 inch long. Yardstick and lamp are
used as befote.
Procedure. The same procedure is used as above, except the subject
must now report when he can just see the two lines as separate. (Note
that the control procedure of rotating the card is not applicable in this
part of the experiment.) Again, several determinations are made at each
of the two levels of illumination.
Treatment of Results. The roinimum separable acuity is computed
in much the same way as the minimum visible acuity. The width of the
interspace between the two black lines is divided by the mean distance
at which the two lines are just seen as separate. The reciprocal of the
visual angle expressed in minutes is again the measure of acuity. The
visual acuity at the two levels of flluminalion should again be compared.
Cenerai. Repekences
Bartley, S. H., Vlrfon; a sludy of iU bans. New York? D. Van Nostrand
Co., 1941.
Bartley, S. H, Studying virion. In T. G. Andrews (ed.). Methods of
Tsychology, New Yorlc* John Wiley and Sons, 1948.
Boring. E. G , Sensation and perception in the history of experimental
VISION 143
psychology. New York D Appleton Century Co , 1942, Chaps 4

and 5
Graham, C H , Vision HI Some neural correlations In C Murchison
(ed ), A handbook of general experimental psychology, Worcester
Clark University Press, 1934
Hechl, S Vision II The nature of the photoreceptor process In
,
C Murchison (ed ), A handbook of general expertmenlal psychology

Worcester Clark University Press, 1934
Morgan, C T , Physiological psychôgy, Nesv York McGnw Hill Book
Co 1943, Chaps 9 and 10
, ,
Troland, L T, Prmctples of pujchophymhgy, Vol II New lorl
D Van Nostrand Co 1930 , ,

their stimulus correla
Troland, Vision I Visual phenomena and
L T ,
general experimental
tions InMurchison (ed). A handbook of
C
psychology, Worcester Clark Umxersity Press
1
ViSOAU STlAtVLOS
New York
and Pemn, F H The principles of
optics,
Hardy. A C .
McGraw HiU Book Co 1932 , , ^

,
nWer*. Lla
HIu
inumlnatlns eygmenog oomendotyroood
minalmg Engineenng Society,
TOl,
New
Nw ^
physichgml Optra
Southall, J P C
lotrodiirt.oo to ,
University Press, 1937
DIMENSION'S Of CoLon
tolerance, Amer J sy
Boring, E G The psychophysics of color
,
1939, 52 384-394
Boring, E G.Langfeld S H •
^ Weld. H .
’
Foimfl<rf.ons o/
jg
psychology.
New York -I d,5cnminahon

of inlensibes IV
Crozier, W J . On
intensity,
the Ia« for
«>e
5 cf, 1940, 28 382-3S9
AI as a funchon of discrimination in the
j (g^sity
Hecht, S Peskm. J C and
.
.
.ntensity for different
human eye II The relaUon 02 7 ig
H, Energy, ..uente,
Her sturs'T,ta"M-
spectrum
and the absorpbon
S 1-34
144 experimental PSYCHOLOGY
constant
Puidy, D. M., The Bczold-Brucke phenomenon and contours for
hue, Amer. /. Psychol., 1937, 49:313-315.
Stimulus Mdctubh
Priest, I. G., Note on the relations between the frequencies of comple-
mentary hues, Opt. Soc. Amer., 1920, 4:402-404.
J.
Sinden, R. H., Studies based on spectral complementaries, J. Opt. Soc.
Amer., 1923, 7:1123-1154.
Atteiumaces
Berry, W., Color sequences in the after-images of white light, Amer.
J. Psychol, 1927, 38:584-596.
Daiik Adattatioh .
Ctoaer, V/. The On the kinetics of

theory of the visual threshold: II.
adaptation, Proe. Nat. Acad. Sci 1940, 26:334-339.
Hecht, S., Haig, C., and Chase, A M., The influence of light adaptation
on subsequent dark adaptation of the eye, /. Gen. Physiol, 1937,
20.831-850.
Mandelbaum, J., and Mintz, E. U., The sensitivities of the color receptors
as measured by dark adaptation, Amer. J. OphtJud, 1941, 24:1241-
1254.
Wald, G., and Clark, A. B., Visual adaptation and chemistry of the rods,
/. Gen. Physiol., 1937, 21:93-105.
Licirr Adaptation
Crozier, W. ^., The theory of the visual threshold: I. Time and Intensity,
Proc. Nai. Acad. Scl., 1939, 26.54-60.
Wnght, W. D., The measurement and analysis of colour adaptation
phenomena, H. Soc. Land. Proc., 1934, IJ5B;49-87.
Visual Acurry
Fry, G. A., and Cobb, P., A new method for determining the blurredness
Ophthdl, Otolaryng., 1935.
of the retinal image, Trons. Aced.
Hecht, S., and Mintz, E. U., The visibfljty of single Imes at various illu-
minations and the retinal basis of visual resolution, /, Gen. Physiol
1939, 22 593-612.
Luckiesh, M., and Moss, F. K., The science of seeing. New York." D. Van
Nostrand Co , 1938.
Wilcox, W. W., The basis of the dependence of visual acuity on illoral-
nation, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 1932, 18.47-50.
VISION
145
Spatial l^fponAL SuMifATinv

aist>
Adnan E D . and Matthews R , Hie action of light on
the era 11 The
processes involved in retinal excitation
Ilf The mteracbon of reliml
nôns / Physxol, 1928 64 279-301 1928 65 273-39S
Bartley S H
Subjective flicker rate with relation to cntical flicker he
quency, J Bxficr Tsydiol J938 22 3884J94
Bartley,S JJ Some factors in brightness dismminatioa, Psuchd Reo
1939 46 337-358
BeiteJ R / Spatial summation of subliminal stimuli m the retina of the
human eye,/ Cen Psychol, mi 10SU-5Z7
Crorter W J and Wolf, E
Theory and measurement of visual mech
anisms IV Critical intensities for visual flicker monocular and binocu
lar,/ Cen Physiol lfl4I 24 505-534
Croaer, W
/ , and Wolf E Theory and measurement of visual mech
amsms V Flash duration and critical intensity for response to flicker
/ Gen Fhrjsfal 1941 24 635-954

Crozler W and Wolf E Theory and measurement of visual roech
J
anisms VI Wave length and flash duration in flicker / Cen Physiol
1941. 25 S9 110
Crozier W
J and Wolf E Theory
and measurement of visual mech
anisms VII The flicker response funchen outside the fovea / Cen
Physiol 1941 25 369-379
Granit R Comparative studies on the peripheral and central retma I
,
On interaction beriveen distant areas in the human eye Amer J

Physiol, 1930 94 41-50
Granit R , and Givis A W Comparative studies on the peripheral and
central retina IV Temporal summation of subhmina] visual st muh
the time course of the
esalalory after-effect Amer J Physiol
and
1931 95 644-653
puptrem' Tiieobt
T C Robinson E E and Gilbert R V
Crafts L W Schneirla
New York McCraw HiU Book Co
Recent experimenis w psychology
1938 Chap 9
»>» '~j <««
PERCEPTION OF COLOR
THE phenomenal world is full of colors. Wc

are surrounded by an
ever changing kaleidoscope of brilliances and hues. However great
the variety of our color experiences, it is small as compared with the
constant changes in the stimulation of our visual receptors. Every
time wc turn our head, approach or recede from an object, the size,
intensity, and pattern of the retinal image change, often radically.
Yet, the perceptual world in which we move and to which we re-
spond has great stability and, in spite of rich variety, much con-
stancy, Out of the rich flux of sensory stimulation, the organism
constructs, as it were, a stable and orderly perceptual environment
In this chapter, wc shall describe some of the properties
of the mani-
fold of perceived colors and some of the determinants of color per-
ception.
Modes of Appearance of Colors

Let us begin with the phenomenology of colors. The ways we see
colors, their modes of appearance, can be ordered into classes upon
which most investigators have agreed.
Film Colors. Look at the sky on a clear day. Or, indoors, roll
up a piece of paper into a tube and through opening of the
tube vie^v a colored object. You will experience an expanse or film
of color, spread o ut in two d imensions only, without depth andla3<-
ing thelîar act^ s tics of an obj eetjt is this type of color which we
usually study In d etermining relations between physical prop-
crties of the stimulus a nd the attnbutes of visual experience, as dis-
cussed in Chapter 6. It is with film colors that the laws of stimulus
mixture are derived. In everyday experience, film colors are rare as
compared with surface colors.
Surface Colors or Object Colors. The book in front of you
148
5
PERCEPTION or COLOR 147
ed, the desk is brown, the penal is yellow These colors are sur*
e colors Tjje> are perceived not as expanses of sheer color, but
co/ors o/ oh/cci^ inherent in their surface, whatever the shape of
Lsurface. Take tKe red book in front of jtiu and put it on a poorly
comer of the desk Yon perceive a r^ book in poor illumina*
1 Now, tike the same red book and put it directl) under the
it shed by tlie desk hmp The perception is of a red book in
gilt jlluminition One oi thejnostjniportanLchiractenstics of
face color is that it may be perceived as distinct from.thejUumi
lOUJfalhngÛjt Our ability to respond differentially to light re
ted from objerts and to Uie illumination falling on these objects
nvaluable in building up a stable and coherent world of coIor
(ulky Color Look at an object through a bowl or bottle of
ored or cloudy liquid Tfie color of the liquid m ^sel will
legr to. cTtcn d in hree dimensions The mode of appearance of

t
color is bulki Jn order to have the experience of bulky color,

! necessary that you see objects in or be) ond the volume of color,
erwise, the voluminousness of the color disappears
In addition to
Transparentt Lustrous, and Luminous Colors
tial have other qualitative differences Some
characteristics, colors
irs allo w you to see through and l^yon d tb
_ie the)__are ^
\sparent Film coloiR and" surTacc colors may be transparent
kv colors alvvavs are With some
ûfacwvvejeenotpnly^ta^
SitaTSETaTires,
itsûrface ra or
and yet not be part of
fortheir bilfer as “ also
and sdken suifacer-iR Inbwn
lallic
upon
aco of mot mg water vt.th l.gl.1 playmg
rt
bulky colors which arc brighter

than their ^
' ” iminahon
^ns provided it i s bnghtertlgnwjliten^
it, fllr . CoLoa OF Os)ECTS_^r_if-—

colors
, 5 .
' r^r^TtST^^Sêntion to surface
:rarSs^Vnia,or.ty^ôh^-
face may be. Ibese surfaces ar^not smootli expanses of color but
rather are endowed wUh^mjcrostructure or grain, l.c., slight irregu-
larities in the surface. Tlie presence of microstructurc is condurive
'
^
to the perception of colors as object or surface colors.
Brightness Differences. The appearance of surf^c colors is
also a function of brightness differences in adjacent areas. This fact

may be demonstrated by the following experimental procedure. A
drcular spot of light is projected on a screen. This spot appears
luminous. If a nng of light of different intensity is projected around

the circle, the two jllumlnatcd areas are perceived as surface colors,
'ê brighter one appears white, the darloicss of the gr^ of,the
other area depends on the ratio of the intensities of the projected
lights- It is noteworlliy that while is not a matter of the intensity of
light alone. IVhitc, 1/kc black and gray, refers to a surface color and
not to a speciGc degree of brightness.
Albedo and Illumination. Whenever a surface color is per-
ceived, there arcjwo levels of light i ntensity present in the situation.
First of all, there is the intensily_of.thcJi^t’Jallmg on. th e obj ect,
i.e., the illumlnallon. This, we also_^Tefer.to,as^ the in ddenLJigbt

Th e ill uminated object* a_ccrîn portion oLthc.inddent
reflects
hghl. The lighMs knenvn as the
ratio of reflected light to incident
albedo of the object The albedo is a pHysii^ propc^ of thc^sur-
face of the object and is independent of the amount of illumination
falling on it ^Vhen light of a certain intensity falls on a white sheet
of paper, a certain percentage of that light is reflected. When the
absolute intensity of illumination is raised, the paper reflects a
greater absolute amount of light but the ratio of reflected to ind-
dent light i e., the albedo, remains constant At a given level of
illumination, the color of an object varies with the albedo of its
surface. Of course, the chromatic aspect of the surface color de-
pends on which wave lengths arc absorbed and wluch are reflected
by the surface of the object
Color Constancy
The Puzzle of Constancy. L.ook at a heap of coal lying in your
yard in the bri^t sunlight It appears black. Then turn your gaze
to a to\vel hanging in a deeply shaded part of the
yard. It appears
white. We would be puzzled, indeed, if coal did not
appear black
PERCEPTION OF COLOR
149
Wever, it is the fact that they do so
circumstances which is puzzling. The coal, though
of lighVffom'thTlmir
TmeTUe^we^sTHIgh alMq.Jbut, hanglnglri the deep sEhaeT
rcHecti ngônly a smallâlûte amount
of light. The intensify
mi^rehiîrriage_cast by.the.heap tjf coal is much
grcater‘'tiran
tliat cast b>^the to wcl^ Jf the object cohr were a simple functfou of
the intcnsily-oTtte relinal image, the towel
should look much
darker than the coal.
Such^ is the puzzle of color constancy. Our judgments
about the
color of an ob ject agree more, closely with a lixedl^^^ fcarpro^rtv
j)f t he object— the albedo— (lian.the. retina! image alone should
allow.
Illumination and Color. Somehow the organism can takelnto
account the amount of incident light in re.spondmg to the amount of
light reflected by the
object. In other words, in udging the color
j
gf an object, p erception
discounts, at least in' part, tbe_factorVf
illuminatjoii.../ ^
a result the judged difference between two colors
,
wrresponds niê ciosely to" die dflTerence beKvecn tiieir albedos

b
Imp the absoKite cijtt erenggjn.a mounts of light reffecteS r^
How can illumination be taken Into account? "Suppose there are
in our visual held two objects under a given level of illumination,
Iia,r. The two objects are wewed against a common homogeneous
background. One of the objects is seen as black, the other as white,
and background as gray. This situation is schematically repre-
tlie
sented in Fig. 42a. The two objects and the background differ from
each other only ivith respect to their albedos. The object seen as
black has tlie lowest albedo, the object seen as white, the highest,
and the gray background, an intermediate one. Since the incident
light is the same for each of the three surfaces, and since their
albedos are different, different amounts of hght are reflected from
them. As represented in Fig. 42, let ii, h, an d it sta ndJat_the.jc-
Let us
spective amounts of light reflected Trom^ffiTthreejurfaccs.
^ress fhe'îr^nhe intCTsityof light reflected from the white
surface to the intensify of light reflected
from the gray surface as
i,/i, =
m. and the corresponding ratio for the black
object, ts/h -
«•
general level of illumination from /;,« to

Now let us increase the
surfaces as white,
the three
- (Fid. 42b). The observer stiU sees
since the albedos have not changed.
i„
gray" and black. However,
PERCEPTION OF COLOR
and fa have increased
proportionately to the increase in the general
level of illumination. Since
the general level of illumination has
been multiplied by a given factor,
the amounts of reflected light
mve each been multiplied by the same factor. What about m and
n?
êy must necessarily remain the same, since all three intensities
have increased proportionately.
As a final change, let us keep the white object and its
immediate
surround at the medium level, Iw,tdi,mf but raise the level of illumina-
tion fallingon the black object and its immediate surround to
(Fig. 42c). Despite this difference in illumination, we stiH
see on
the one side a while object on a gray ground and on the other side,
a black object. Why? Because m
and n have not changedi Of course
m has not changed since f, and fj have not changed Now, on the
right-hand side of Fig. 42c, we denote the reflected light from the
gray surround which is under high dJummation by f/ to distinguish
it from tj on the left which is under medium illumuiation. As com-
pared wth the situation in Fig. 42b, fj and t/ mnstiju te propor-

tionate Jnc^ses in reflected fight, and, Ibere/ore, tfie‘"valffe
is tlie same as in Figs. 42a and 42b. 'Die ratio of b^t
'qfDieir ratio,
reflected fr oman obj ect to the bght reflected from its background
rMnaJns wnsta nt in spite.of changesîn Jllummatida- The s'ltuation
depicted in Fig, 42c is analogous to the coal m the sun and the towel
in the shade, and it is clear that the constancy of these ratios greatly
helps in maintaining the constancy of object colors under different
illumination.
In general, vie\ving conditions are not as simple as those chosen
for our example Nevertheless, it remains true that intensity ratios
of the amounts of light reflected from adjacent surfaces remain
invariant under changed illumination Thus, considerable color con-
stancy obtains even under more complex conditions Actually,
di-
several surfaces
versity of the Visual field, that is, the presence of
is favorable
with distinct object colors and well organized spatially,
to color constancy. A rather homogeneous xisual
field may appear
of illuminatio n As
black, white, or gray depending on tlie degree
introduced intoj^ flel^
surfaces with different albedo values are
*^
dre~^bggrve r s pro vTded-wiUrfcrerCTcejylues^^hicBêstabl^^
colois.
‘definite'relartOlJtinpramlms]^
of light reflected
The dependence of color constancy on the ratios
^52 EXPERIMENTAL. PSYCHOLOGY
experiment
from adjacent stirfaces is pointed up by the foRowng
directed
In an otherwise darkened room, a bri^t beam of lij^t is
illuminates the
at a black disk (low albedo). This beam of light
disk and nothing else. An observer viewing the disk reports it as
white. If the experimenter holds a small strip of white paper (high
albedo) in front of the disk and in the beam of h'ght the observer
sees a highly illuminated black disk and a white piece of paper. As
soon as the strip of paper is removed, the disk again appears as
white.The presence of_the white_strip pf^paper serves tO_cstablish
that_ratio^f light intensities reflected from adjacent surface re-
quired for the perception of the whiâhd the black. Without the
white paper this ratio is established by the illuminated disk and the
dark background of the room.
Procedures for Measuring Color Constancy. The essentials
of a typical color constancy experiment are contained in the example
represented by Fig. 42c. Typically, two surfaces under different il-
luminations are compared and equated wlh rêct to their object

color.To accomplish this, the albedo of one of the surfaces is
varied until the perceived object colors of the two surfaces are the
w
same. For example, a color wheel ith a ray disk (the standard)
g
is^rjjtated underpoorjl l um inafion. Anoêr color wheel, wth black
and white disksJn tCTlca ved on rotat^ in direct,
it, is illumlna -
The proportions of black and whitâre adjusted until the re-
sulting gray is as near as can be to that of the standard. Most ob-
ser\ ers agree that a perfect match cannot be made. The difference
in flluminab'on is, of course, perceived and imparts a qualitative
difference to the tw'o disks.
It is only rarely that the albedos of the rivo matched disks will be
the same. In other words, color constancy is usually not complete.
T^micahy. the d isk Ja-high-illumination is set at a lower albedo
valueJh anJbejiiskti n-low fl!urmjiatign,land th us reflects a smaller
indd<mt light. In spite of its low'eiiaJMojJhe highly
fractio n of the
flIuminatM disk"still “se^ a greater absolute amount of liglS^
the e>e than the disk in shadow. The match neither equates t£e
'albôs nor does it equate the absolute amounts of h’ght reflected.
A inatch based on the absolute amounts of h'ght reflected from the
two disks can, however, be obtained under the following conditions;
A screen with a \iewmg hole is placed bctw'een the observer and
PERCEPTION OF COLOR 253
the disU The screen is so amnged that the observer can see
only
a patch of each of the t\vo disLs This screen is
caUed a reduction
screen because it reduces the yist^geHiy
two* patcfieTMnftTa*
co^bnûrround vizê scr§eo~\VBST the two test objects are
provided with a common surround the eye can be used as
a photo
metnc instrument to match the two light intensities It is often
starting to the observer when Die reduction screen is
removed and
he finds that he has matched as erjuai in bnlljance what now appear
_tobe a near white disk, and a black disk
Let us reconsider the difference, b^ween the two viewing situa
tions—with and ivithout reduction screen— as regards the ratios of
intensities reflected from the disks and their surrounds VVith the re
duction screen an equation of the two light intensities insures that
the ratio of hghl reflected from the disk to the light reflected from
the surround is the same for both tost objects When the reduction
screen is removed we do not alter the intensities of light reflected
from the two disks However the intensities^QfJight reflected Jrom
tbejjsuffounds a re now coiysidera^&iLdifferent Therefore the ratios
~in tj'uestion ha ve changed â nd the disk in hi gh iIlu miTiatiDa n ow
^peatTbl^k A perfect match witlTrespect to object color would
now require that wc increase the Intensity of Lghl from the disk in
high illumination (le, increase its albedo) so that the two ratios
would again be equal Actually, color constancy is not complete and

the colors of tlie two objects will appear the same before the ratios
bave reached equab^ The roaVdv vs a compromise between equal
bght intensities and equal albedos
A Quaniiiative Index of Constancy We can express the de
gree of color constancy by an index which shows where the match
falls on the scale between equal stimulus intensities and equal
albedos A match based on equal slunulus mtensibes would mean
ZEIo.coSSnSrX523l-ba5edj>n osilcHyjqual al^sjroaW
mean complete constancy Actually most obtained niatches_
Wl
*155;i?Scre between these two extremes Let_ê the
aMoritte
represent tE5 albedo oLthe <1“
chsl underjasulhnnuatlffii Let a
uS^Sniuminal.on reqmredTteTS^ ft, (hoot the reduchon
of the d.slc under h,gh dlumma
screeTLet p represent the albedo
screen. Thus ft and p
hem required for a match imfh the reduchon
object under high illummahuu re-
represent flie albedos of the
quired to make the two types of matches. Constancy can then be
expressed by means of the following index:
c = 100 f Z
r~P
If two matches (with and without reduction screen) require the
same albedos for the disk under high illumination, a equals p, and
there is no constancy (c =
OZ). If, without the reduction screen, the
albedo of the disk under high Oluminalion is the same as that of the
disk under low illumination, a equals r, and there Is perfect con-
stancy (c = lOOZ).*
Constancy and Learning. \Vhen the phenomena of color co n-
stancy first came under consideration, an explanafa'on was attempted
by invoking the influence of past experience. Thys, the coal_was
said to appear black and the towel white in spite of changes in
illumination because the individual knew that coal was black and
towels white and had learned to discount changes in illumination.
This explanation breaks denvn when test objects such as disks are
used, for which past experience provides us with no definite ex-
pectation as to object color.
The possibility Tcmains open that osganisms do leam to some
extent to discount illumination changes in making judgments of
object colors. Degree of color constancy been investigated with
subjects of different ages. Under some experimental conditions—
for example, with the arrangement of two color wheels discussed
above— substantial increases in percent constancy as a function of
age have been reported. The principal change in the amount of
color constancy appears to occur about age six. Nevertheless, con-
siderable constancy can be obtained with very young subjects and
even with animab as low in the phylogenetic scale as the fish- That
color constancy can to some extent be learned, may be shown by
specific training procedures. In some experiments on color con-
» The loganthms of the values to the formula

are often used and c is of>-
talnedfrom:
(logg-bgp)
W
itiiniiB, tia fommk
tali U vaiy
(logr-logp)
m pioportmn to lie logantim of iBo phyjical
taj often Soon found comenlent m dotenmnato^ of
color constancy.
PERCEPTION OF COLOR jg-
stancy,bimodal djslrjbutioas of color matches
were mitiany ob-
tained The matches made by some
subjects came clrae to an equal
Jty of albedos Matches
made by other subjects showed Ltile
constancy Use of expliat trammg instructions
made it possible to
change the matching responses of both groups,
m
one case, decreas-
ing, and in the other, increasing
the average percent constancy An
interesting observation relevant here is the Let that
some artists
who try to represent faithfully the stimulus values of
objects were
found to show below average color constancy Although learning
to discount the effect of illumination is thus a demonstrable
de-
terminant of color constancy, it is certainly not the only one, and
probably not the principal one
Color Contrast
The importance among adjacent areas for the per
of the relation
ception of color has become dear in our discussion of color con
stancy Another group of visual phenomena those of color contrast,
are procfuceci 6v cfianses in (he relation of adiacent areas in (he
wsuai held We m av-dafiae-contrast as changes
5n“d/or hue of a test region due to the characteristics of an fncfuctng
fCg^cm ~^Vhen we study the contrast lietween adfacent areas, both
"ihe test region and the induang region are simultaneous!) present
in the visual field In such cases we speak of stmullancous conlrcut
Another type of contrast from the successive stimulation of
results
the same retinal area by different test patches and surrounds The
afterimage isone example of succcssu/c contrast In this section we

shall confine our discussion to stawJtaneous contrast
AchromaUc Contrast
paper
If we cut two small test patches from a sheet oUightgray
back-
a nd put one on a_wh iteJiackground_j n<Ohcj)thec.on-a black
ground, the tw gray
o ^^hes^H no longerjook alike»Jbe one
pia^3^n a white background xviU look darker than its twin on a

black ground The two inducing regions, one white
and one black,
Jhe-cbange
have affected the perceived color of each test patch.
wayfroxnjhe coloôf thejnduemg
in the_color_DfJheiestpatch is
area WhitejlarkensJthe3iray..and Mac^hghtens it
The degree of aclwomatic contrast is aiunction of severa l dete r-
min ants which c^n b<re:iênmcntally varied.
Texture and Contours. Thc-more^ apparent the^^texture or
microstru cture o f the test patch and surround, the lew thc contrast
obtained It is for this reason that contrast is more marked when a
sheeToTthin transparent tissue paper is spread over the induced
and inducing regions. Another way in which_the_Jexture may^be
lessen ed and contrast (Sihanc^ is by use_pf. color_ wheels. If the
”^y test patch a small disk at the center of the color wheel with
is
a large ring of white surrounding it, rotation of the wheel washes

out the texture and increases the contrast effect.
Related to the influence of texture is the in flucnce_of.ihe sharp-
ness of contours. If thejnduced and inducing areas wi^separated
by sharply defincTljoundaries so that two regions have' the
degrepj)Lcon tra5t i s diminished.
’characteristics.of_oêct colors, the
^Brightness Difference Between Inducing and Test Areas. A
large difference in brightness between the indudng and the test
Vreas~fûlts"in CTcater contrast_than i s obtain ed^with a smaller
"
brigh tnSs differe nce. A medium gray is darkened more by a white
than by a light gray. In general, the greater the photometric differ-
ence in brightness between two adjacent areas, the greater the
resulting contrast.
Size of Test Patch and Surround. The g reatest co ntrast effect
is obtaine d if the test a re a is small and t heîndu cing jTrra is large.
Increases in the size of the t^t patch and decreases in the size of
Ae inducing area both serve to rûce'eontrast
Gradient of Contrast. The CTntrast effect is most marked
where the test patch makes conlact~\^th thUmducuTg area. The
contrast diminishes with the distance from the edge of the test patch.
Black. The perception of black is a phenomenon related to
achromatic contrast. Black is a surface color and not the absence
of stimulation. Black surfaces typically have a low albedo value-
The surround of such a surface of low albedo is an important
determinant of the degree of blackness that is seen. In high illumi-
nation, a low albedo surface surrounded by another surface with
low albedo will not appear very black. Under what conditions do
we see a good black? The blackest black can be obtained by em-
ploying both successive and simultaneous contrast To obtain
sue-
PERCEPTION OF COLOR
r* SuitoH^, giaâeD turn ou^ga^jo

illuminaled white jrur-
M
g«ckjurfac€ (same size and shape as the white one]
a velvety
surrounded
by a ^vhlte field^nderjtnvjliuminabon. The
black surface wth a
white surround under low rllumination
creates simultaneous con
trast It IS by utilizing the two types of contrast that the blackest
black IS seen
Chroma//c Contrast
Chromatic colors, as well as adiromabc ones, can give nse to
simultaneous contrast As a first demonstration let us take a gray
test patch and put it on a well saturated blue field The
gray patch
takes o n a distmetly yellowish tmge which is most marled at the
edge of the test patch adjacent to the blue ground The blue field
has induced its complementary, yellow, onto the neuti^ test patch
Although chromatic contrast can best be demonstrated with a
neutral test patch simultaneous contrast effects can also be obtained
If both the induang field and the test field are chromatic For
example, when we have a yellow surrounded by a red.êÎlow

will Jake on a blui sh green (complementary of red) and th^red
l£i ll take on a^ Bluish tinge (awnpleinentajôf yellow)
^romaticjxmtrasl'li'ke'^ScbroinSUc'T^ntrasfr^ a joint funehon

oOeveral detennmants ^
Satu^tion of Test Patch anU burfound Chromatic contrast
ismaximal if the inducing field is ncbly saturated and the test
patch IS poorly saturated A test field of zero saturation, r e , a gray
results in the highest degree of chromatic contrast
Brightness Difference Between Inducing and Test Areas
Chromatic contrast is greatest when the inducing Md amas are
bnghtoass A bUptness diffefence between the fwo areas
"of equal
with the condition of
serveTtoreduce the contrast cs compared
equal brightness
Texture and Contours Chromatic contrast hke achromabc
by areas that have dear surface color or marl^
contrast, is resisted
the_
texture Again îfi.^Qresence-oLwdljnatksd_cgntguTS_aecreases
shows
amount ofcontrast as the followngdemonstrabon
see a field divided in half with one side red and
In Fig 43. sve
the other green A
gray ring lies m
the center of the figure so that
)
158 EXPEnIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

half is on ted and InU Is on green When no
dividing line is present,
i e . when there is a
complete ring, the nng is seen as gray and is
not Unged due to chromatic contrast llTien the dnidm g line
is
drawn, as shosvn in the figure, the semicircular ting on the

green
fieTdTfakesona^ddis^tmgând the other half of the ring which
heToiTtHeTcd field, takes on a bluish green t inge Accotarng*to
phenomehbh, the complete ring is a well-
one explanation of diis
’ /•
^reen
••+++
Fic 43 The Dependence of Chromatic Contrast
on Contour For explanabon stc text (From K.
Koffka, Princfpfes o/ Gestalt pri/c/iology 1933 p
134, by permtssion of Harcourt, Brace and Com
pany, Inc
organized unit which resists change JCbe^diwdi ng line disrupts the

spatia l unity ofJhe ring, and the contrast effect appears
Size of Test Patch and Surround As far as size relations
between the two areas are concerned, chromatic contrast is g rea^t
if the tes t patch isâll and if the inducing field is large
Gradient of ContrasL One final parallel between chromatic

and adiromatic contrast may be pointed out For a giên vie\ving
condition, chromatic contrast is greatest at the margin of the test
area where it makes contact with the inducing field
PERCEPTION OF COLOR
159
ExpcniNfcNT VIII
COLOn CovSTASCY
Purpose To demonstrate and measure color constancy with achio
matic surfaces
MatenaU Tvto color cvheels white and black color disks
a shadow
caster, a reduction screen and a lamp are
the required materials The
shadow caster is merely a rigid flat upnghl surface iihich
is placed so
that It casts a shadow on a color wheel
Procctlure On a table set against a wall hvo color wheels are
mounted side by side One of the wheels is illuminated by the lamp
The
shadow caster is placed bcht-een the nvo wheels so that it casts a shadow
on the second wheel On the wheel m the shadow black and white disks
are interlca\cd 40 percent white and 60 percent black This ratio re-
mains fixed for a g:%cn set of observations Black and white disks are also
rnteileared on tl e illuminated wheel but the proportions on this wheel
arc to be adjusted to obtiin a match
In the first part of the experiment the subject $ task is to match the
bhek white muctures on the two wheels with respect to grayness (object
color) Tiic proportions on the illumin'itcd disk arc changed as indicated
by the subject until a satisfactory match i$ obt-uncd During this match
the subject his full view of the two wheels and the adjacent parts of the
table and wall The amounts of white and black reejuured for the matcli
are recorded Several matches should be obi lined under these conditions
For half of these determm ttions the illuminated disk sliould be initially
much too light and llie proportion of blicfc increised until the subject
is satisfiedwith the match For the other half of the determinations start
\vith the illuminated disk much too dark and incre'^<e the proportion of
wl ite until the match is made
In the second part of tlie experiment a reduction screen is placed in
front of and ncir die subjects e)cs The holes in the screen should be so
placed that only patches of the disks can be seen Again the
proportions
until a match
of black and white on the illuminated disk are adjusted
ance u mide Seven! defermimtions should dso be
with respect to bnll
made of the reduction screen match At the end of this procedure
the
again has an open view of
TedueJjon screen is removed and the suhtect
the tvsTJ color wheels ,
Treatment of Results On the basis of the matches made in the two

parls of the cicperiment the Wo ot constancy is computed
»n> «<{(
8
PERCEPTION OF FORM
THE individual continually adjusts himself to the objects in his

environment. lie responds, often with amaring accuracy and speed,
to the specific things surrounding him. All of us take the presence
of these things and objects for granted. In our everyday life, we
continually react to their properties— their size, their pattern, their
location, and their meaning— and yet we only rarely make explicit
judgments about these properties. As one psychologist has expressed
it, speaking about things seen In the environment, these things
"simply lucre there outside, and ... I had no suspicion whatever

of their being the effects of something else upon ‘mc.'*^
The perception of things and objects poses a complicated prob-
lem for the psychologist. Obviously, the visual perception of an
object IS impossible without an optical image oh the retina. On the
retina, (he object is represented by a continually changing pattern
of discrete stimulations. This pattern may best be thought of as
composed of gradients of stimulation. Ordinarily, every part of the
retina is stimulated to a greater or lesser extent; different objects
in the visual field cause different levels of excitation or gradients.
How is it that these highly complex gradients of stimulation on
the
retina give rise to those processeswhich finally result in the percep-
tion of a relatively stableand richly varied environment of things
and objects? That, in essence, is the problem to which the shidy ol
the perception of form addresses itself.
FlCXn\E AND Ghound

men our environitient produces perfect homogeneous
stimula-
tion of the visual receptor surface, we do not see objects
and things
It is grênU of stimulation on the rclma which produce objeSs
1 W. K6hlcT, Ceatall Ptijchology, New York Livenght, 1929 n 21
PERCEPTION OF FORM
163
slraing out from thKr environment
Our visual field, moreover
is
The Experience of Ftgure and Cround

Tlie fundlmental distinction
between figure and ground is weU
borne out by experience Our visual
field readily divides itself into
FVc 44 JlevefJal of Figure and

Ground The figure may be seen as a
blacl MaUese cross against a \vhIê
baeJeground or as a white propeller
against a blade background (From
Grorgo \V Hartmann Gestalt psrj
p 23 Copyright 1935 The
chologtj
Itonald Press Company )
a broad ly expansiy a-goundjuiJ a sharplydelineate d figure A car

may stand out as an impressive figure against a vague landscape
which constitutes the ground and so may an airplane seen against
the shy Such properties of figures and grounds may best be illus
trafed with the aW of simple figures
Let us look at Tig 44 This figure consists of black and white
surfaces Theblack surfaces may be seen as a Maltese cross agpmst
a white background, or the while surfaces may
form a white pro-
pelleragainst a black background For most observers bothpercep-
IQO EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
where r stands for the percentage of white on the disk In low illumina-
tion; a is the percentage of while on the illuminated disk required
for a
match without the reduction screen; and p is the percentage of while on

the illuminated disk required for the reduction screen match.
The reader may note that we have substituted percentage of while
for albedo (see discussion of this index on p, 153). We are making the
assumption that the black reflects no light. This assumption is not cor-
rect, since even a good black reflects some light. One degree of white re-
flects approximately as much light as 60 degrees of black. To simplify
the computation of the conslaacy index wc will disregard this fact.
Expeiument IX
Demonsttu^tion of AamoMATic and CimoMATic Contrast
Purpose. To observe some phenomena of contrast.
Materials. A series of squares of gray paper graded in size from J»
inch square to 2 inches square are prepared. In addition, there are series
of black, while, red, yellow, green, and blue squares. Each series of these
latter squares should range in size from 3 inches square to 6 inches
square. A sheet of white transparent tissue paper is also needed.
Procedure. For the demonstration of achromatic contrast, we place
a white square and black square of the same size side by side. In the
center of each of these inducing flelds, we place a gray square, which is
of the same size in both fields. Then wc cover the whole area with the
tissue paper. A comparison Is then made of the color of the two test
patches. This procedure is followed for the various combinations of si res
of test patch and Inducing field. The degree of contrast observed using
diflerent size relations is noted.
For chromatic coijjâst, the gray test patches are placed upon chro-
rnatic inducing fields and covered with tissue paper. Various combina-
tions of sizes of test patch and surround are again viewed. For each
chromatic field and for each size combination, the observations
are re-
corded. Compare the effect obtained ^th and without the use of tissue
paper.
General References
Boiing. E. G.. S. H., and Weld, H. P.. Poumictlom of Psy.
cAotogi/, New York: John Wiley and Sons. 1948 CJiap
12
and Co., 193o.

Trench, Tmbner
PEHCnPTION OF COLOR ig,
WîTOrth R S . EipcrimcnInI psyciofoCT, New York Hemy Hoit and
Co , 1838, Chap 24
Modes of Appeahakce of Colors

Katz,D The tiorld of colors, London Kegan, Paul, Trench Trubner
,
and Co , 1935, Part I

Woodn-orth H S Experimenlal psycfiohgy. New \o:k Henry Holt and
,
Co , 1038. Chap 22
Color of Objects and Color Cokstakct

Koffka, K , Principles of Gestalt psychohgi/. New York Harcourt, Brace
and Co , 1935, Chap 6
MacLeod, H B , An experimental Invesbgation of brightness constancy,
Arch Psycho/. 1932, No 135
Sheehan, M A, A study of Individual consistency in phenomenal con
stancy. Arch PstjehoL, 1938, No 222
Thoulcss,R H
, Phenomenal regression to
the real object, Brf( / Psychol,
1931. S2 33£WJ59. 1931, 22 1-30
Wollach, , H
Brightness constancy and the nature of achromatic colors,
/ EspCf Psycho/ , 1948 38 310-324
Color Cokttwst
Boring, E G ,
Sensathn and perception in the history of expertmentd
psTycho/ogy. New York D Appleton Century Co 1942, pp 165 171
,
Koffka, K ,
Principles of Ckstalt psychology. New York Harcourt Brace
and Co . 1935, pp 133 138 „, ,

Woodworth. R S Experimental psychology New York
Henry Holt and
,
Co , 1938 Chap 22
1B4 EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
Hons are possible and alternate in lime. Whichever of these two
figures stands out has certain properties which the reader may
easily verify.
1. The figure stands.out in front, and the ground extends behind it
2. The figure has more form or_structure_thanJhe.ground. The
black Maltese cross, wlTen seen as the figure, is clearly outlined
against a white background.

3. Most observers agree that the figure is more . mpressiveJvely,
and substantial than the ground.
4.
Closed Design Open Design

Fic. 45.
Thus, the figure appears more readily as a th ing or object than_

does ^
ground.
Some Determinants of Figure-Ground Segregation
A full description of the processes which lead to the segregation

of figure from ground is not yet possible. Some determinants, how-
ever, have been experimentally established.
Size.When there are two distinct areas lying one within the
other, he smaller of the two tends to be seen as the figure. The
t
ready reversal of figure and ground characteristic of Fig. 44 is due

in part to the fact that the blach and white surfaces are equal in area.
Completeness of theJEigure. closed design is more readily
seen as a figure than an open onÔnce seen as a figure, the closed
design shows the various properties of a figure to a more stnking
degree. Fig. 43 illustrates this point
Brightnessîfference- Brightness difference between figure
and ground faahtatBThe segregation. We are dealing here with one
of the most important determinants of figure-ground
segregation.
PERCEPTION OF FORM
jjj
It the surfaces ,nFig 44 irere of only slightly different
shades of
gray mstead of being black and white
the figure nould not stand
out as cJeaily from the ground as it
does
Hue Difference Difference m
hue facihtates figure-ground
fomalion Certain hues are more effective than others
in producing
a figure A red field for example will stand out
more clearly from
a gray background than will a blue one
length of Exposure Tune The clearness wth which a figure
IS perceived against a ground deprads m
part on the length of tune
for which an observer may view the stimulus configuration After
tim exposure of a stimulus for 1 0 mil liseconds observer unjally
the" first indica tion of a figur^gro und relataon^^ As the
time of exposure is lengthened other properties emerge Contmu
ous and enclosed contours are recognized the figure begins to pro*
trude and the groand to recede In general the longer the exposure
time, the better the figure ground relationship is articulated
These factors singly or in combination do not fully determine
the segregation of figure from ground It is true that they descnbe
important and reliable conditions for the formation of visual figures
Such factors as attitude previous eitpencnce and practice how
ever, may either weaken or strengthen the operation of the aboi'e
determinants It must be emphasized again that the formation of a
figure is the resultant of a highly complex process which cannot be
exhaustively described by a fe\v general principles
The Functional Properitcs of Figure and Ground

figure and
Visual inspection shows slnling differences behveen
reveal functional
ground but experimental analysis Is required to
apparent by mere inspection
differences that are not immediately
selves by
The differences between figure and ground manifest tlicm
mea«irab!crcff^1s\x)n olbcr psychologiQl^j^^ler" '"~r'
Threshold for die Detection of <ôr
^ThemhmnunurU?n
s5tv reouired for Uie dctection^fji^rJHl£0\Ûha.Wt«^
Suppose a ^tch of rrf
gioatcr in tensy of light Ii

gfiand in n complex configumlim A
red patch wten the dcs.^ fa
TOOircd for tho detection of the
when seen as a ground This finding Im been
than
as a figure it fa
166 expehimental psychology
mean that a figure is more resistant to change in its
interpreted to
perceptual character than a ground.
is
retain their
Color Constancy. As we have seen, objects tend to
illumination changes,
color in spite of changes in illumination. As
the object color of a design
is affected less if this design is seen a
^
^gure.than.ifjt is scen_as a ground. Again, the figure is more
resistant to perceptual change.
Yellowish
Green
is:# •
YcHow
Fic. 46 The Dependence of Apparent Color on
the Spatial Characteristics of the Design. The color
of the center dot depends on whether the yellow
plus sign or the blue-green multiplication sign is
figural. (From W. D. Ellis, A source book of Gestalt
psychology, 1938, p 100, by permission of Routledge
and Kegan Paul, Ltd After Fuchs, 1923.)
Apparent Color. Apparent color may be influenced by the

a design. Fig. 40, for example, consists of
spatial characteristics of
three rows of colored dots. Observers may see a yellow plus sign
against a ground of blue-green dots, or a blue-green multiplication
sign against a yellow ground. The apparent color of the greenish-
yellow dot on the center may depend upon which of the two designs
is Cgural: when the plus sign stands out, the center dot is pre-
dominantly yellow; when the blue-green multiplication sign stands
out, the center dot is predominantly blue-green.
PERCEPTION OF FORM
PÎHaSncejnJiIemory Suppose that alternahve figuie-giound
rejatmns^s are possible as is the case m Fig
44 If one ol these
stemaftres perceived at a given lime, it is Rely to be perceived
is
igain when the stimulus is presented at a later time That which

ias,been seen as figure on the first presentation
will tend to beseen
IS figure again
Such findings make it clear that the concepts of figure and ground
efer not only to reported visual expenence but also to a set of
unctional relationships which need to be demonstrated by expen
nenlal manipulation
Perceptual Grouping
Tbe segregation of Bgure from ground is a pnmary condition of
perceptual m-ganization But our visual field does not usually con
• • • • • •
fl b c d e f
Fic 47 The Pnndple of Prot

unity in Perceptual Grouping
O • 0 * 0.0
O . 0 * 0.0
o • 0 * 0.0
The Prujople of Similar
Fic 48
jty u Perceptual Grouping
homogeneous background Otdi

St of a smgle object against a
many objecKsimultaneqiglyjiesent injhe visual
inly, there are
Such B£r«p|uaL
Id These obicclsTend to be perceived m^ro«ss
inniingjinot haphazard but is
goyc^ at least in pirt by^r
These prtodilJJan again best be lUus
mjiSSSLlmncjplcS.
with ae aid of simple designs
Here are some of these
Sd
S’lmity Objects are often
gi^pÛccordmgj^^
OSfeots elo?..Ti^tMd
nan^PTrates thL from each othm that
several gniupmgs are possible,
be seen as a group \Vhen
igg
one will tend to be favored which will make the average
distance
among the members of the group as small as possible. This prin-

ciple is illustrated in Fig. 47. We
readily group dots a and b, c and
d, e and but only with great difficulty can we achieve the group-
/,
ingsh and c, d and c.

Similarity. Jf a configuration comprjses several distinct kinds
of stimuli, those which are alike will tend to be grouped together

In'Fig. 48, the principle of proximity would predict no grouping
since all the items are equidistant Yet, grouping clearly occurs: the
like dots form one constellation and the like circles another.
pec L
Fic. 49. Common Direction as a

Principle of Perceptual Grouping.
Fig. 50. An Illustration of the

Principle of Closure.
^Jirection. When individual stimulus items

fall along a straight
Ime or along a simple <^^6, ih^ will tend to be grouped together
evS though such grouping may be contrary to the principle of
proximity. The cormnon direction followed by a series of items 'is
The basts of grouping. In Fig. 49. we
readily segregate a straight
line and a semicircle as forming two distinct groupings. Clearly,
however, several dots belonging to the straight line are nearer to
some dots on the semicircle than they are to some of the dots on
j
TEnCEPTION OF rOHM
Ug
the straight line In this case,
then the principle of direction orer
ndcs the principle of prosiinily
Closim In many cases grouping tends
to favor simple closed
designs This principle of
closure is illustrated m
Fig SO Here vve
see two overlapping completed figures
instead of seeing three en
closed areas If the area of overlap
were seen as distinct, then both
the ellipse and the “rectangle** would
be brolen and incomplete
Instead the oterJappmg arta is perccned
as belonging to both
""
simple and winpltt«?d figures"
The principles listed above are by no mems exhaustive Again
such factors as attitude and past ctperfence are often operative
Moreover, as we ha\e seen, these determimnts may operate in
conjunction or in opposition to eacli other Provimitj may at times
oututjgh similarity and direction may override proximity Quanti
fication of these factors lias not as yet been achieved
Fon\f Constancy
We have already seen (in connection with color constancy) how
perceptual expcncnce tends to be more stable than could be pre*
dieted from a simple anahsis of the physical shmulation alone
Changes in illumination do not result in coirespondmg proper
tional changes in perceiv ed color The perception of form exhibits
similar stability .The geometrical form of the retinal image con
stantl) changes as vye m ove aboutAv ith-jespect.to tlie-obtecL. Tlie
unage ro jected on Jhg-jctina.by •»j:ircuhr,plate__ljrnng b^reûs

on th e table js jmjiiallyÎlipbcal Jii_fo£m The exact form of this
Siipse. jnoieoTer,. \ anes with every movement of th e head . YeFth e
plate does not vary in apparent sha pe— it remains ci rcular
“^s
phenomenon illustrates moth er h nd of consta ncy -tohri^dngancy
i
Geometthcal Illusions
object with
Percepbon seems to mirror the properties of the
repre
amazing fidelity To us our perceptual experience appears to
of accuracy For a Jong
sent the external world wth a high degree
retinal image is a faithful
time the simple view prevailed that the
the perception m turn
refleebon of the physical stimulus and that
accurate copy of this retinal image In this way, the aewracy
IS an
explained To those who held this
of percepbon was thought to be
^,0 experimental psychology
view, the optical illusions presented a
problem of special interest
and challenge. For here were eupcrlcnccs which obviously
failed to
represent accurately the physical object and its image on the

retina.
Tlio optical illusions were treated ns puzzling

exceptions to the
general laws of perception, and special principles were sought
to
explain them.
Modem thought about perception necessarily rejects this naive
vic\v of the illusions. One thing stands out clearly from wljat wc
know about perceptual processes: visu al perception is not a copy
of the retinal image. Image is o nly nTifft step jn the
The retinal
perceptual’prbcessesj were, the raw material out of which
it is, as it
ED
visual expenence is shaped. Thinking back to such a phenomenon
^cdlo7 constancy, wc also recall that the perception of an object
depends not only on its retinal image but on the stimulation of
A
B F C
Fic 51. The Sanders Forallelogram— An Illusion of Extent. The two
diagonals are equal in length {From George \V. Hartmann, Gestalt
psychology, 1938, p. 85. Copyright 1935, The Ronald Press Company.)
the toUl visual receptor surface. An illusion, then, presents no

more and no less of a problem than a so-called accurate perception.
In both cases, there is an image on the retina which gives
rise to
a further series of processes resulting in the final reportable percep-
tion. Boring wrote, “In the sense that perception
is normally de-
pendent upon subjective factors as well as upon the sUmulii, all
perception is ‘illusory’ in so far as it does not precisely
mirror the
stimulus. In this broad sense the term tllusion
becomes practically
meaningless.”^
2 E. G Bormg, Se^fjon ond perception In the hUlory

of experimental pw-
chology. New York*D. Applcton-Centuiy, 1942,
pp 238 f
PERCEPTION OF FORM 171
Examples of Illusions
The study of dlusions, however, stiU has a certain value Illusions
serve as rather striking illustrations of the way in which
"subjecbve"
factors, as well as the physical properties of the stimulus,
determine
perceptual experience
Two general kinds o/ illusions have often been distinguished
illusions of exten t and illusions of direc tion
Illusions ol Extent
' An illusion ~oF^xfent anses \\hen_t\\o
jphvsicallv equal stimuli ore

j
udged as di fferent in len gtlT Usually,
such stimuli are parts of a complex design Fig 51 show^ an
example of such an illusion Hard as it is to believe at first glance,
The Wundt Lines-An Illusion of Direction Tlie bio perccp^

phj’sicaJ
Fig 52
hnes ore straight and piraliel (FromE G Boring
Scn-âUonand
2-1- by permission
th)nnihe hhtortj of espcnmcntal psychology,
of Appleton Century Crofts, Iiit )
Talen
the wo diiRonals AF and FD ore equal m ph>sical Icngtii
eoune, appear >ery nearly
out of the parallelognm, they uauiH of
Tnltsions of D.rect.on A g
thu-appateutJirect!£n_pLi_^£!™35i^^
I" F'S
nrperle rl nu the baur o Uli pjaagLdjget'oa
slraishl and parallel
&mple, th^rvo horizontal physical lines are
to each other. Yet both of them appear to diverge toward the sides
of the design. Again, if taken out of this context, tliey would appear
straight and parallel.
ExPEniMENT X
PEnCEPTUAL Gnoupisc
Tbe following experiment is designed to demonstrate the principles of
perceptual grouping discussed above. It will serve not only to illustrate
these principles but will also show how the various determinants
of
grouping can be made to cooperate and conflict with one another.

Purpose. To demonstrate the effects of proximity, similarity, and di-
rection on perceptual grouping, and to measure the stability of the re-
sulting perceptual groups.
Materials. Two kinds of colored thumbtacks, for example, blue and
red ones, several sheets of cross-section paper, a wooden board, and a
metronome arc all the equipment rcqturcd for this experiment.
Procedure. The subject is seated at a table in a wcll'bghted room. A
wooden board is placed vertically on a table at a distance of about 2 feet
from the subject. Care should be taken that movements of the experi-
menter or the subject do not cast shadows on the board.
A sheet of cross-section paper is tacked on the board. A design of
colored thumbtacks is lacked on the cross-section paper. The subject is
instructed to look for a particular figure in the design. He is also in-
structed to hold up his hand (or use some other convenient signal) as
long as he can see that figure. A metronome is set to beat once per second
so that the experimenter may tally the number of beats dunng which the
figure is seen and dunng which it is not seen. The expenmenter will do
well to have prearranged tally sheets on which he can record (1) the
nature of the design, (2) the total duration of exposure of the stimulus,
and (3) the number of beats duruig which the cntical figure was seen.
We shall now suggest some designs to illuslrate the principles of
proximity, similanty, and direction. Other designs should be worked out
by the experimenter and subject in cooperation.
1, Proximity Tacks of one color only should be used. One design con-
sists of three columns of tacks, say, 2 inches apart. The
dots in the
column should be equidistant from each other, say, about K inch. At
tbe top and % inch to the right and to the left of the middle column,
one tack each is placed. The subject is instructed to look for the
figure forming a letter T in the center. This configurabon is exposed
for 1 minute. After that, the design should be progressively compli-
cated by the addition of further dots so that the principle
of proximity
PERCEPTION OF FORM
17!
"”* ’f «>'>
signs should be exposed
for 1 minute
2 Sirnitamj Tacks of two
different colors are now to be used A h
tfcsi^ consists of five rmv,
of fve tacks escl, In tlie frst configurat
T made readily apparent by having the top
IS
row and mid
Wlumn made of one color (e
g red) and the other tacks of the ol
^ Agam the design is exposed for 1 minute
before the task of hold ng the
T is made more and more difficult
replacing more and more of (he red
dots with blue dots
Proximihj t» simlhrlttj In (his design the
pnneiples of sim larlty a
proximity are pitted against each other A bas
c design u sho vn
o >0 o o#o#(
o o
o o
o o
o o
Fig 53 Each of the livo outer columns consists of five blue dots
spaced h uich apart The middle column is made up of five red dots
similarly spaced The columns are 2 inches apart At the top of each
of the outer columns the ann of a T is provided by four sym
metrically distributed dots agam spaced h inch apart The two outer
dots are blue the two inner dots are red The subject is instructed to
look for a red T which he would see m accordance svith the principle
of sunilanty The principle of proximity tvould predict that the sub/ect
would see the two Ts at the sides of (he dcs grt This des gn is exposed
for I minute S}m 2}anty can then be made even less operative by
gradually replacing the outer blue tacks with red ones
4 Direction To demonstrate the effect of direchoa a design ol the
land reproduced mFig 54 or any suitable part thereof can be used
In this way the relative stabihty of different Imes and curves can be
tested by comparing the length of fame for
which they can be seen by
factor of direcfaon can
the subject In the manner indicated above the
be pitt^ against proximity and aumlanty
174 EXPnniMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
proportion of
Treatment of ReJultr Pot cacfi o! the ticrigns, the
figure should be computed This
time during which the suhjecl saw tlic
is done, of course, by dividing
the number of seconds during which the
Thus, an index of siabilmj is
Bguro was seen by the total raposutc time
obtained for each design The stability of any
one design can be com
pared with that of any other The«c Indices of stability would, of
course,
be somewhat dilferent if the experiment were repealed Small differences

may arise as a result of uncontrolled factors Before
among these Indices
• • • •
• • • • •*
Fic 54 A
Design to Test the
EfTecl of Direction on Perceptual
Organization (From H S Wood,
worth, Cxpertmentol ptychohgy,
1938, p 620, by permission of Henry
Holt and Company, Inc )
confidently asserting that one design is more stable than another, i
would be necessary to dctcnnmc how frequently a difference of a give:

size would occur as a result of uncontrolled factors
Experiment XI
Form Constancy
In this experiment, form constancy is demonstrated and measured I
willbe remembered that the image projected on the retina by a circula
disk IS often actually elliptical in form Yet, over a considerable range o
rotation, the turned circle tends to retain its apparent circularity Thi
following expenmenl is concerned with the quantification of this effect
Purpose. To determine the amount by which a circle must be rotatei
before>l appears as an ellipse of a given shape
Materials A circle is mounted on an upright rod so that the disk J

in the vertical plane In addition, several ellipses differing in
width but al
of them the same height as the drcle are also mounted on
vertical rods
These ellipses are mounted so that the long (major) axis is vertical Pro
PERCEPTION OF FORM I 75
Mston is made by means of 0 pointer and protractor to determine the

arrount by «hich the rod and circle haie been rotated Instead of being
CThbraled in degrees the protractor should
give the projection of the
diameter of the cucle on a horizontal bne m
the plane of the elbpse. The
protractor may be calibrated by means of the following formula
P = d cos Q
^\'hero P denotes the projection d b the diameter of the circle and 0
is the angle of rotation
Procedure The and an clbpse are placed perpendicular to the
circle
line of the subject s s ghl at a distance of about 10 feet The espenmenter
then rotates the c rele until the subject reports that it matches the elbpse
in shape At that point he reads off from the protractor the value of the
projection of the diameter of the arcle On one half of the trials the ev
perimenler begins vvilh the cirde perpendiculv to the line of sight on
the other half of the trials the circfe is initially parallel to the Ime of
sightThere should be about ten trials divided equally between the t vo
starhng positions The starting positions should be alternated m random
order A new ellipse may then be substituted and the eobre senes re-
peated
Treatment of Results The larger the angle of rotahon the smaller
the projection of the ditmetcr of the cuele needed to match the cU psc
and hence the greater the amount of constancy The amount of constancy
may be convencntly quanlifed by comparing the projection with the
width (minor axis) of the ellipse For llus purpose the average of the
Width of Elbpse
measurements of projection is computed The nt 0 Projection
provides us with an index of constancy If there were no constmey

equal and the
the widUi of the ell pse and the mean projection would be
the smaner the project on
ratio would be 1 The greater the constancy
and hence the greater the ratio
Genfiiai. Refibevces
in tie I tstory of êrlmenid
Jonng E G Sensirtton and perception
pnjchohftij New York D Appleton C3cntur> Co
Henry Holt and
Voodworth R S ^cperimcntal psycludogfj New York
Co 1938 Chap 25
FicunE AND Cbound
The Ronald Press
Hartmann G W Gestalt psychology New York
J935 Chap 6
Koffka, K., Principles of Cestalt psychology. New York: Harcourt, Brace
and Co., 1935, Clwp. 5.
Rubfn, E., VisucU tcahrgenomnene Flgurcn, Copenhagen: Glydendalske
Boghandel, 1921.
Wcver, E. G , Figure and ground in the visual perception of form, Amer.
J. Psychol, 1927, 38:194-226.
PrncEPTOAL Gnoupisc
Hartmann, G. W., Gestalt psychology. New York: The Ronald Press,
1935, Chap. 6.
Wertheimer, M., Unlersuchungen 2 ur Lchre von der Gestalt, Psychol
PoTsch 1923, 4:301-350. English translation fn W. D. Ellis (cd.),
A source hook of Gestalt psychology, New York: Harcourt, Brace and
Co., 1938.
Form Constancy
Koffka, K., Principles of Gestalt psychology,New York: Harcourt, Brace
and Co 1935, Chap. 6.
,
Sheehan, M. R., A study of individual consistency in phenomenal con-

stancy, Arch. Psychol, 1938, No. 222.
Thoulcsj, R. H., Phenomenal regression to the real oblect, Brit.
J. Psychol
1931, 21:339-359, 1931, 22:1450.
Geomethical Illusions
Boring, E. G., Sensation and perception in the history of experimental
psychology, New York: D. Appleton-Ccnluiy Co , 1942, pp. 238-245.
»»>
9
PERCEPTION OF SPACE
THE objects thatwe see hear touch a nd manipula te arej ocalized

in space they occup) a definite positio n with reference to our
bodied Among tiicse objects are p arts of our outi bodies as weljT as
“things out there ** We take the loralization of objects 7n space for
gnntcd^nnd indeed find it hard to imagine any world but a spatial
world When wc slop to consider bow living organisms manage to
bcluiN e adequately In space to move about m three dimensions and
to localize objects with astonishing preasion we

soon find that the
opera
perception of space is highly complicated and must call into
tion the utmost in constructive and integrative activity on the part
of the percciver
Sensory Systems in Space Pehceptiov

spatial adjustments and
Manrehes heavily upon his eyes in lus
visual
in our thinking we tend to equate
the spatial world with Uie
as the visual system in the «>"Stmction
world Vitally important is
rf our spaJl »irld il no meaos lbs ooly

is by
to to visual ^stem tore arc
fcnoiiledgo about space lu addition
!wo other important sensoiy systems
whch proinde *>=
Villi inlormatmn about the
location of objects and
Jeor themj
Wion >'«"'V"Jm ?s
iVe not only see tongs in definite
e
mming from the right or left from aboie or
our band or arm or
some other part
reer feel them as toueliing
’“\fton we need to localize objects

m
larts of our own bodies we are
tLre
this on '
^ P of ajf is
vhich are peculiarly adapted to , gqo,pped
ten oiu
he kmcstotic system Our muscles
J
of these pans
t^movemenls
vilh receptors which respond
J7g
"proprioceptive impulses” coming from the
muscles are partiOT-
larly important in the

maintenance of posture. In short, the kin-
esthetic system tells us, as it were, about the movements of our
vestibular system. The
bodies in space. Aiding this system is the
recep-
semicircular canals and the vestibule of the inner ear contain
tors highly sensitive to movement and acceleration. To summarize,
then, several major sensory systems participate in the
adjustments
which man makes to the location of objects and himself in space. |
Certainly, in the location of objects in the environment, the visual

system primary, even though it is supplemented continually by
is i
the auditory and the somesthetic systems. The great precision and
success of our spatial orientation are due in no small measure to the
cooperation of these three systems. Aswe move about in our environ-
ment, intersensory cooperation is continually checked against the
results of our movements and our manipulation of the objects. In
this chapter we will limit ourselves to a discussion of the contribu-
tion which the visual system makes to the perception of space.
Basic Visual Conditions

The visual perception of space, as we know it, would be impos-
sible if it were not for certain functional properties of the optical
process. These properties insure the stability of our visual world
and the continuing success and precision of spatial adjustments.
Objects fixed m space usually appear so and remain so, and fhe
spatial relations among objects show a similar stability. L.et us
briefly consider the stabiliang properties of the optical process.
Correspondence Between Retinal Image and Physical Object.
It is probably a truism by now to say that we do not "see” our
formation of the retinal image is only one
retinal images, that the
of the long diain of events necessary for the perception of an
object Nevertheless, if the retina! image did not systematically
represent certain features of the physical object, a stable visual

world \\ ould be impossible. We
are referring here to the eye as an
optical instrument which forms a retinal image preserving the
spatial relations cliaracteristic of the physical object. The outside
edges of the physical object are represented on the outside edges of
the retinal image. The relations among the parts of the object
Tcmaln basically unchanged in their representation on the retina.
PERCEPTION OF SPACE
The fact that the retinal rniage
b imcrted with respect to the
phjsical ob|ect is irrelevant The imcrsion of this Lese avith
respect to the object is a pb)sicat fact that does not present a
special
problem m Ae analysis of percephon We must say again that we
do not “see the reUnal image We learn that the sbmulabon of the
bottoms oi leUnac means “op " Tie relations among parts of
t/ie
the physical object represented tn the Jimge arc still
invariant
I-a>> of the Visual Angle The stability of the visual world is
further aided by another optical property of the eye As
an object
recedes from the eye the size of the retinal image decreases
m
accordance wth
the lato of the visual angle This lasv states that the
linear size of the opticalimage js rnversely proporfaonal to tJie dis
tance of the object Thus if we double the distance of an object
from the e)C we halve tlie height and width of the rebnal image
Tins law does not imply that wc see things m exact accordance
with it A man 20 feet away does not appear half as tall as he does
at 10 feet As we wnll find in our disaission of size constancy there
may be appreciable variation in the distance of an object from the
eye without corresponding changes in perceived size The important
point IS tJiat tliere is a lawful relationship behveen distance and
size of rehnal image Unless this were tlie case any lawful rela
tionship between distance and perceived sire svouJd be impossible
Resolving Power of the VisuxI Sjsiem When the eye focuses
Upon tw o objects in the environment tw o retinal images are formed
and the visual system maintains this resolution to an astonishing
degree We have already discussed the nature and conditions of
visual acwtij m Chapter 6 Unless two objects are seen we could
not perceive any relation between them The visual perception of
spice IS based to a considerable extent upon the spatial relations
among objects Therefore we must first resolve these objects before
their relations can become effective m
perception
optical properties of the eye and the
resolwng power
Thus the
system provide basic conditions for tlie visual percep-
of the visual
tion of space With this baclcground we can
now proceed to an
space perception
examination of the specific delemimants of
Tin: Spatial FflAAiEnvoitK

not only
Objects are localized
Our visual world is tndimeDSioaal
J80 EXPEKIMENTAL PSYCnOLOGY
up and down, and left, but aho near and far. Further-
or to the right
is, then, a
more, solid objects are seen as solid, i.e„ in depth. Tliere
spatial framework which must be described in terms of
three dimen-
sions. important property of this framework is that it is anchored

An
by two main directions: the vertical and the horizontal. These two
directions exhibit a high degree of stability and provide a frame-
work for the localization of objects.
What are tlie conditions for the establishment of this framework?
How stable directions come into being?
do these may first We
note that there is no one-to-one correspondence between the direc-
tion of the lines of the retinal image and the perceived direction
of those lines. A pencil held upright casts a vertical line on the
retina and is seen as upright. If the obscrv’cr now tilts his head, the
retinal image of the pencil will be oblique with respect to its former
position, yet it will still appear as vertical. Moreover, objects cast-
ing retinal lines that have the same direction may not so appear.
Thus, when the head is in a certain position, a ruler on the desk
may cast a vertical retinal line and so may a book standing on the
shelf above the desk. The ruler will appear horizontal and die book,
vertical. Thus; the direction of the retinal line does not in itself
determine the perceived direction.
What is seen as vertical and what is seen as horizontal depends
upon the relations among the parts of the visual field. In a given
visual field, there are usually main lines of organization. The sides
of a table, the windmvs and doors of a room, are examples of
objects providing main lines of organization, i.c., lines that serve
as frames for a diversity of objects. It is these main lines of organi-
zation which tend to take on the horizontal and vertical directions.
The directions of other lines in the visual field depend upon their
relation to the main lines of organization.
The organization of the spatial framework is flexible, as the fol-
lowing demonstration clearly shows. A mirror is tilted in such a
way that lines habitually seen as vertical or horizontal are
seen as
oblique by an observer looking at the mirror through a
tube. The
tube is arranged so that it limits the subject’s
view to the mirror.
the field as seen in the mirror is "out of joint.”
Initially,
Lines that
should look vertical are seen as oblique. As the
observer continues
PEHCEPTION OP SPACE
lol
to view the field in the mirror, the mam
lines of organization
'rieht
®
themsehes and appear- as honzontal or
vertical
WiUiin this spatial framcworl anchored
by the honzontal and
TOrtiial directions we lean, to
more about and to manipulate
Objects in the environment The various sensory systems cooperate
cJosely m
our spatnl adjustments If we snap our
fingers we
them by seeing hearing and feeling them iti the
localize
same
spatnl position Tins mtersensory cooperation is
modifiable withm
limits An enterpnsing p^chologist inverted
his visual field by
weanng a s}'stcm of lenses Objects which we ordmanly locate at
our nghl appeared on the left and objects ordinarily seen above us
appeared below This Inversion of the visual field created serious
intersensory discrepanaes Thus the investigator would see a clock
in one place and hear it ticking in another Similarly he would
below him and the) would appear above his head To
feel his feet
a certain extent it was possible to adjust successfully to this con
fusing situation by ignoring visual cues Much more sinking is the
fact Oiat an intersensory reeducation took place As he continued
to wear the lenses the intersensory discrepancies became less and
less noticeable He saw objects where he heard and where he felt
them However he continued to cal! objects “up” which were
normally “down” and Teft” those which we observers without
inverting lenses call “right In short the “naming" of the direction
did not change but the behavioraf meaning was changed in accord
ance with the requirements of successful locomotion and mampula
tion Indeed upon removal of the lenses a brief period of readjust
ment was necessary
The PEncEPTioN of Distance

The images cast on the retioa are two dimensional and they pre-
serve the correct spatial relations among
parts of the visual field
matters
The identification of 'nght and left- and “up and doll n” are
this correct preservation of
of relative ludement made possible by
and near soM
the spatial relationships But we
see objects as far
nnce ar«es as to how hvo-dimen
as well as fiat The question at
lead to the perception of space in depth It
sional tetmal images
certain clues and mdicahom
seems as if the perceiver uses p^
images to infer or construct a tn
inded by these two-dimensional
jg2
dimensianal space. must emphasize the phrase "as if.” There is
We
logical inference takes
no reason to believe that any process akin to
given.
place. Tridimensionahty is immediately
Monocular Determinants of Perceived Distance

Let us see if one eye can offer any clues to the perception of dis-
tance. By having the observer close one eye, we limit the number
of clues available and separate them from those that
depend upon
the simultaneous functioning of both eyes. Let us list and
briefly
discuss monocular clues to distance. Most of these determinants are

rather obvious and are safely inferred from their effectiveness in
daily experienoj and especially in the visual arts.
Apparent Size of Familiar Objects. Automobiles viewed from
the tower of the Empire State Building look more like oversized
ants than they do like cars. We see them, however, as distant cars
rather than oversized ants at close range. What the observer does
in effect is to utihze the law of the visual angle. As a car recedes
from the eye, the retinal image grows smaller and smaller. Clearly,
this clue can be effective only with familiar objects. The implausible
stranger who had never seen a car could not judge its distance by
its apparent size alone. An especially striking instance of su«i
linear perspective is the familiar convergence of parallel railroad

tracks in the distance. The distance beUveen the tracks is, of course,
constant, but the corresponding retinal image, and hence the ap-
parent separation of the tracks, decreases in size the farther away
the tracks are. The artist can make good use of linear perspective to
create the impression of distance on a two-dimensional canvas.*
Inierposirion of Objeccs. If our view of one object is ob-
structed by the presence of another, we will see tlie obstructed one
as farther away. If a tree covers part of our view of a house, the
tree appears nearer than the house. Conversely, if the house ob-
structs our vie\v of the tree, v/c sec the house nearer than the tree.
Clearness of Detail. TTie perception of details is a matter of
The detail of a bnck wall becomes lost in the distance
visual acuity.
because the visual angle subtended by the individual bricks de-
* Thu and other niustratiom
are not offered as expenmental proof of the
teportan» oi the octcrnureint In qaestion. Obviously, in these illustrations, the
effects of otlier detenmnants are not held
constant as distance varies. The
6*ven as aids Jn understanding the nature of the determinant.
Only under controlled conditions can exclusive prorf be achieved.
.
PnnCEPTION OF SPACE
133
creases wuh distance Thus, when we cannot see the
details of the
xsall, we sec it os far away. When each brick stands out
clearly we
see ft ns nearb)
Cân^s m Color. The color of an object may undergo changes
as the light wa\cs re/lecfcci
the object travel through the hate
of the atmosphere (aerta] j)ers}>cctitr)
Not only docs the color tend
to be more bluish ns distance is
increased, but the apparent bright-
ness of the object diminishes as well Tlie green
leaves of a distant
tree take on a bluish ttnge Tlie bright,
blaeJ: car sinnes Jess as it
speeds away
Lights and Shadow s Jf we know the direction of the ilfumina-
lion, then an object standing tn a shadovy is seen to bear a definite
spatnl relation to the object casting the sliadow The pattern of a
shadow and its location help us to judge vvhellier there is a depres
Sion Or an elevation in the land If we are looking toward Uie sun

and the shadow is on tlic far side (near the sun) of an irregulanty
in theground, then wo sec a depression On the other hand, tf the
shadow is on the near side (near us), then we see an elevation
Movement r.arallax. Perception of relative movement aids m

judpng distance Let us iHustralc tliis determinant by the follow
ing demonstration Close one e}e and hold up two fingers one
behind the other and about 10 inclies apart Fixate the far finger
Now move the head from side to side, and you will see the near
finger moving in tlic direction opposite to the movements of the
head This phenomenon is known os nioocmnit porafiar It is some
times referred to as monocular parallax, because it can be obtained
with the use of only one eê
Let us consider the cxplamtion of the movement of the near
finger while the far finger is fixated As the head is moved from side
to side, the image of the far finger remains stationary on the retina
by virtue of the fixation When the head is moved to the nght, the
retinal image moves to the nght If w e were

of the near finger also
to accomplish this retinal disphccment of the
near finger by moving
it instead of the head, this finger
would hove to move to the left It,
therefore, appears to do so
above eie
Accommoilation. AH of the determinants discussed
characteristics of the visual field
visual in nature, ie, they arc
that propriocephie impulses
There Is the possibility, however,
perceiwng the distance of near object^
furnish aaxilliary clues in
184
experimental PSYCHOLOGY
the accommo-
These impulses come from the muscles that control
It is through this accom-
dation of the lens to varying distances.
modation process that clear vision is achieved at different distances.
Many ingenious experiments have been designed to demonstrate the
effectiveness ofaccommodation as a clue for perceived distance.
Correlations between changes in accommodation and perceised
distance have been reported. These results do not
provide us with
ltn«er pftnpedlv* I
A»He> papfp«<tlv*
Fic. So- Some Monocular Determinants of Perceived Distance. (From
N. L. Munn, PstjehoJogy, 1946, p. 154, by permission of Houghton
Mifflin Company.)
conclusive evidence, however, concerning the effectiveness of non-

visual, proprioceptive clues to distance. For one thing, it is difficult
indeed to hold all factors other than accommodation constant, espe-
cially since accommodation and convergence tend to work together.
Even if accommodation is varied independently of convergence,
changes in accommodation must change the characteristics of the
visual field. Changes in accxmunodation affect the clearness
with
PERCEPTION OF SPACE
_ ^ 2S5
" of n..crosm.ct„,e per
distance
pmvide vima) dues for
stance Even if the nerve impulses arising
from the accommoda
Fic 56 The Field of Binocular Vision The white ezea represents the
field ofoverlap j e , (he part of the field seen by both eyes when fixation
ISat the center of the field The two shaded areas represent the nonover
lapping fields Ihe numbers along the vertical mendian refer to distance
from tlie fo\ea in degrees The numbers around the periphery designate
the angle of elevation (From tntwduciim to physiological optics by
/PC Southall p 209 Copyright 1937 by Oxford University Press, Inc )
tion process do contribute mfoimaboo about distance, they ccr

tainly play a minor role relabve to the Msual determinants
Binocular Determinants of Perceived Distance
Some of the most effecbve determinants of visual space percep-

tion stem from the fact that we have two eyes locat^ about ZS
inches apart. understand the nature of these binocular deter-
To
minants, let us briefly review the main facts of binocular
vision.
Field of Binocular Vision. Each of the two eyes

commands
a visual field of approximately 130 degrees.
The extent of the
monocular field may he determined by closing each eye in turn.
The visual field is then determined by the extent of the environ-
ment that can be seen under steady fixation. The monocular field is
not homogeneous with respect to various visual characteristics.
Most important among these are differences in amount and sharp-
ness of detail. Maximum detail in clearness is achieved when the
L L
Fic. 57. Corresponding and Noncorresponding Retinal Poults. Point

X is the point of fixation and is seen as single. Points N
and F can be seen
as double. The /mages of Point N
arc crossed, whereas the images of
Point F are uncrossed, (Reproduced by permission from Foundations of
Tsydiology by Boring, Langfcld, and Weld, p, 135, published by John
Wiley & Sons, Inc,, 1948.)
retinalimage of an object is cast upon the fovea. The line con-

necting the retinal image on the fovea and the corresponding object
is called the line of regard.
When botli eyes arc open, there results an extensive field which
is common to both eyes. Hus area of overlap is the binocular fold
of vision. Normally, the eyes converge upon a given object, i the e.,
two Imcs of regard cross at the point of fixation. If an object on the
horizon viewed, the lines of regard are parallel, i c., there is no
is
convergence. Whether or not the i-yes are converged, the field

seen
in common is the binocular field A graphic picture of
the monocular
fields of the two eyes and Uie binocular overlap
is shown in Fig. 56.
PERCEPTION OF SPACE
.
187
Noncorresponding Retinal Points
*^"8
l,n„
f"®'® raample, poml X is fte pom! of Exa-
hra eyes lha! ore stimulated by fbe
smgle pomt X, conespondim
Tufmal points In the same figure,
the pomt At on the nearê of X
b
Fjc S8 How the Two Eyes See a Truncated
Cone, ^vjtb Uie Ans of the Cone Ilonzontal and
Pointing at the Observer F and F' represent the
fixation point In (a) (be small end of (be cone is
near the eye, in (b) the large end is near the eê
can be seen as double pomt F, on the for side of A', can

fiiinilarly,
alsobe seen as double When

a single point can be seen as double,
we call the two stimulate by it, one on eacli retina,
retinal points
noncorresponding potnis It should be noted (hat corresponding
points are defined in terms of singleness of vision and not in terms
of anatomical location By mapping tlie locus of single vision
(horopter), it can be shown, however, that corresponding points
are ^metncally located with respect to the foveae Thus, if the
two retinae w’ere superposed, corresponding points would tend to
fall on top of each other
isg
Binocular Parallax. When the eyes view a solid object, rather
obtain somesvhat different
than a Single point, they necessarily
in the two retinal images is
views of that object This disparity
the eyes are about
known as htnocular paraUax. Recall the fact that
25 inches apart. When they fixate a single point on a solid
object,
the horizontal pattern of the retinal images

must be somewhat dif-
ferent Thus, the right eye will see a little
more of the right side
Fic. 59. A Simple Box Stereoscope. (From In-

troduction to phytiologtcal optics by J. P. C. Southall,
p. 238. Copyright 1037 by Oxford University Press,
Inc.)
of the object, and the left eye, a bttlc more of the left side. Suppose,
for example, a truncated cone b vie%ved with the axis of the cone
horizontal and pointing at Ujc observer. If the small end of the cone
is near the eyes and the large end away, the retinal images for the
t\vo cj'Ds will be as shown in Fig. 58a. It should be clear that the left-
hand figure represents the retinal image for the left eye and the
right-hand hgure, the image on the right retina. Fig. 58b shows
what happens to the retinal images when the large end of the cone
Is placed near to tlie eyes. Examination of these retinal patterns
shows tint the large circles fall on corresponding points of the

retinae. Since there Is a disparity in Uic two images, the small circles
do not fall on corresponding points. It is in the nature of binocular
PEnCEPTION OF SPACE
“• "—> p- 189
Fic 60 A Jfirror Stereoscope (From Iniroduc

iion to physhtogical optics by J P C Southall p
240 Copyright 1937 by Oi/ord Umversity Press
Inc }
images produces the depth effect Binocular parallax is indeed, one

of the most important determinants of perceived depth
Stereoscopic Vision One might expect that a depth effect could
be produced by the use of two simple line drawings, such as those
showTi in Fig 58, one presented to each eye All that is necessaiy
IS an instrument to present the drawngs sepntely to the two eyes
Such an optical instrument is fcnown as a stereoscope The basic

principle of the stereoscope is illustrated in Fig 59 This simple box
stereoscope merely insures that the picture for the left eye does
not stimulate the nght eye. nor that tie picture /or die ngbt stimu
lales the left eye This simple box stereoscope has certain d/sadvan
is rather difficult to obtain Nfore
tages Convergence, for example
jgg
have been devised for produe-
elaborate and flexible stereoscopes
ing depth effects

1 The mirror stereoscope
(This stereoscope is also known as the
shows how
Wheatstone stereoscope, after the raventor ) Fig 60
fusion The mirrors
two stereoscopic pictures can be presented for
presented, one to each
provide that the pictures are separately
Fic 61 A Prism Stereoscope (From Introduction to physiological

optics by J P C Southall, p 242 Copynght 1937 by Oxford Umversity
Press Inc )
e)c The angle between the mirrors is adjusted to give the de

sired degree of convergence By altering the distance between
the pictures and the minors, the proper degree of accommoda
tion can be obtained- Note the apparent locabon of the fused
image
2. The prism stereoscope (This stereoscope is also kno%vn as the
Brewster stereoscope, after the Inventor ) It is also possible to
present the pictures separately by the use of pnsms The pnsms
refract the light waves, changing their direction so as to permit
PERCEPTION OF SPACE 191
the eyes to converge Fig 61 shows one such pnsm stereoscope

Li and Lo are the hvo pnsmatie lenses The bases of these pnsms
are placed on the outside so that the light rays coming from Pt
or Pa are refracted thus causing the eyes to con^ erge on the point
P The pictures or stereograms are represented by AiBi and
A B respectively, while AB represents Uie apparent location of
2 2
the fused picture seen in depth
o
exaggerate .elertereoseope The
panty can ’’<>
.Umtrated rn F.g 81 It n ob
this
basic principle of between the hvo viewing
vrour that the mteroarhr dntanec
points-mirrors A and are sent to the ejcs
Ma
A and B
rays reflected
w y m^nTthe distance behveen
mirrors C and D.re^c disparity can be made mu^
A and B, the depth fa
£::JjX“t"r&eLareIaranay .t.^^
sible by the use of this instrament to tell which is the farther.
This principle is employed in many range-finding devices.
4. The pseudoscope. This instrument makes it possible to present
to the left eye the image normally falling on the right eye, and
nice versa. In this manner the retinal disparity of the views is
inverted. It is possible to invert the retinal images either hori-
Mntally, vertically, or both. It is by means of a pseudoscope that
the studies on the effects of retinal inversion cited on p. 181 were
conducted.
Uses of the Stereoscope. Pictures for stereoscopic presentation
may be either drawings or photographs. If the two pictures are
identical, no depth effect is obtained. When the two pictures are
disparate, stereoscopic fusion indepth may occur. The degree of
depth depends upon the amount of ‘disparity. Striking effects may
be obtained with the aid of a camera, taking two pictures with the
camera successively placed at positions separated by the interocular
distance or more. The simplest demonstrations for experimental
purposes are obtained by line drawings such as sho%vn in Fig. 58.
Stereoscopy has been put to a variety of uses.
Demonstration of hinoetdar fusion. Stereoscopes are a favorite
laboratory device for the demonstration of binoâr parallax as a
determinant of perceived depth.
Studying the effect of convergence and accommodation. As we
have seen, both mirrors and prisms may be used to change the de-
gree of convergence of the eyes when vie\ving stereograms. Further-
more, by altering the distance beUveen the stereogram and the
reflecting mirror, thedegree of accommodation is influenced. Spe-
cialtypes of stereoscopes have been devised in an attempt to vary
convergence and accommodation independently. Studies concerned
wth the effects of accommodation and convergence on perceived
distance have frequently employed stereoscopic presentation of
stimulus materials-
In summary, then, the stereoscope derives its importance from
the fact that it serves to control and measure the amount of retinal
disparity which is so dramatically effective in the perception
of
^
depth.
Diplopia. Stereoscopic fusion, important as it is, is not the
only binocular determinant of perceived depth.
Double images
PERCEPTION OF SPACE
jgj
serve as effective binocular dues.
Let ns return to Fie. 57 on p. 186.
>Vnen we eyes are converged on X, points nearer
or farther away
from the eyes than X stimulate noncorresponding points of the
retinae. As a such points as N and F can be seen as double.
result,
Although both and F can be seen as double, there is an important
difference between the near point N and the far
point F. The two
images of iV are crossed, i.e., the left eye sees the image
on the
right white the right eye sees the image on the left. In
the case of
F, however, the images are uncrossed, and each eye sees
the image
On its own side. These facts can be easily ascertained by again hold-
ing up two fingers, one behind the other. Now fixate the far finger.
The near finger >vill be seen as double. That the images are crossed
may be verified by closing first one eye and then the other. Simi-
larly, fixate the near finger and obtain a double image of the far
One. That the images are now uncrossed may be verified in the
same manner as before.
It is clear from the diagrams of Fig. 57 that crossed versus un*
crossed double images should be an important clue to distance.
The point N, which produces crossed images, casts an Image which
on each retina is on the temporal side of the hvea. The point F, on
the other hand, stimulates 2>oinls nasally to the fovea, J» short, If
the double images are crossed, the object is nearer than the point of
fi-xation. Jf the images are untarossed, the object must be farther
aivay than the point of fixation.

It may be objected that double images are frequently not
seen
when ^ve would expect them to be, in terms of the geomel^ of the
images
situaUon. Nor is it possible for the obser\er to tell crossed
from uncrossed ones without some explicit trial and check. How,
then, can double images serve os clues to
distance? must We
reiterate that the determinants of a
perceptual judgment need not
be reportable in order to be eflecth-e. Some determinants act if «

drawn, even though the
they were clues from which inferences arc
nature, cannot be wbahzed.
process of inference, whatever its
be asceriamea onJy
Whether or not a determinant is eSecU^v can
in the subjects
on the basts of the differences which it causw
behav-ior. By this criterion,
double images qualify as one of the
determinants of perceived distance. ,1. •
Seeing Behind Small ObjKlx Tliere is annftct nnportani

dctcnninant of distance dependent upon binocular parallax. Fig. 63
shows a schematic diagram which is known as Leonardo’s paradox,
sinc-c it was first pointed out by Leonardo da Vinci. As this diagram
shows, part PG of the background PE is obscured for the left eye by

the object C. Similarly,DE cannot be seen by the right eye. What
one eye cannot see, however, the other can, and the total background
PE can be seen binocularly. This fact troubled da Vinci since he
could not reproduce it on his canvas.
Fie. 63. Leonardo's Paradox. Allhough each eye

can see only part of the background of the object
C,
the total background can be seen binocularly.
(From
E. G. Boring, Sensation and perception In the
his-
tory of experimental psychology,
1942, p. 283, by
permission of Appleton-CenturyCrofts,
Inc.)
Seemg behind small, near objects is a

powerful clue to distance,
ê fêr away an object is, the less it is possible
to see fully
be^nd It, and ‘he more it obscures another
object placed a constant
serves as a reliable determinant. therefore,
^nvergence. As in fte case of monocular vision,

conclude we
^ discussion of binocular
convergence. The
determinants with a nonvisual f.l.
extrinsic muscles of the eye control convergence'.
PERCEPTION OF SPACE 1Q5
may result m propnoceptive
Their action
impulses whidi might
act as dues to the distance of the object
fixated If such clues were
imective they would be limited to a range of
about 60 feet from
the eye, the range over which convergence occurs
Beyond this dis
tance, the hues of regard are wiy nearly
parallel As in the case of
acconunodation the expenmenta! proof of the effectiveness of
these proprioceptive impulses m
the judgment of distance is by no
means complete The results of many ingenious experiments have
remained contradictory Some experimenters who have studied the
effects of convergence in stereoscopic vision have reported that
differences in convergence with other factors held constant sig
nificantly influenced the perception of distance Whether or not
they \vere mdeed successful In e&minating or hofding constant such
visual factors as double images and In some instances retina! dis
parity,is still a moot question Other expenmenteis have been con
vinc^ from their data that propnoceptive impulses from conver*

gence and/or accommodation are meffechve For example when
a bright circular spot the visual angle of wbidi is held constant is
mov^ back and forth in a long dark tunnel or hall, judgments of
distance are either virtually impossible (monocular) or extremely
poor (binocular) In this situation such visual factors as retinal
disparity sre absent or minimized, and propnoceptive impukes aid

the judgment of distance very bttle indeed, as compared with the
normal effectiveness of visual clues In both monocular and bmocv
lar vision the predominance of visual determinants over nonvisual
ones IS well established
The pEBCEPnov of Size
Size Constancy The problems of the perception of distance

are Imked
and of the perception of size are closely related They
together by the law of the visualângle This
law wouId_say_tha^
asj^recedesjwm^the
an obiect must_beMme jmalier and smaller
lye-arid that these decrea^jn_size
must be^projwr^n^tome
distance Smce the object remains constant
m
phyncal size,, ttie
continually deaease wtti distance It is
retinSTirnage of it must
It is equally true that per
'ê that verfdisfSnt objects look small
ceived ste does not obey the
of the «so«! Mgfe Over s xn
hw
decreases much less
stdenible range of distances perceived SKe
rapidly than would be predicted by the law of the visual angle.
failure of perceived size to decrease in proportion to the
dis-
The
tance is known as size constanct/. As in the cases of color and
shape constancy, the term, constancy, is somewhat misleading.
Perceived size neither varies with the visual angle nor docs it remain
invariant with distance.
Evidence for size constancy comes both from daily experience
and from the laboratory. As an individual walks away from us on
the street, he does not shrink in size. The chairs in a room look
about the same size no matter where we are in the room. These
examples could be multiplied, but we must turn to the laboratory for
an analysis of the extent and determinants of size constancy.
Experimental Determination of Size Constancy. Perceived
sizecan be specified and measured only with respect to some stand-
ard of reference. Suppose we present a subject with a circular disk
10 centimeters in diameter, and at a distance of 16 meters from the
eyes. If we simply ask him about the size of the disk, even if he
tells us the size in centimeters, let us say 12, we do not knoW|Wbat
private yardstick he is using in making this judgment. Nor do we
know whether the object looks to him like a 12-ccntimeter îsk
16 meters away, or like a 12-centimeter disk one meter away. In
short, perceived size is always a matter of relative judgment. Our
task in measuring perceived size is to make the relativity explicit,
to make the private yardstick a public one. It is for these reasons
that in experiments on perceived size we require an observer to
make a match or discriminate between a stimulus viewed under
variable conditions and a stimulus viewed under standard condi-
tions. Let us illustrate this procedure by describing a typical experi-
ment on size constancy. We
wish to find out how the perceived
size of a circular disk vanes as a function of its distance from the
observer. This disk is 10 centimeters in diameter, and we first
present it to the observer at a distance of 1 meter The subject is
provided with another disk, the diameter of which he can vary at
will, and the distance of which remains fixed at 1 meter. The subject
adjusts the diameter of the reference disk until it appears equal to
the test disk. The test disk is then moved successively to distances
of 2, 4, 8, and 16 meters, and at each distance the diameter of the
reference disk is adjusted to a match We can then plot the average
distance from the

adjustment of the reference disk against the
observer of tire test disk.
could be conducted in a somer^t
Of course, the experiment
way without altering the basic logic of the
different
procedure, me
constant, and the
diameter of the reference disk could be held
the distances until a
diameter of the test d«k varied at each of
plot against dislanre the
match was obtained. We would then
the reference disk.
diameter of the test disk required to match
Within this experimental framework
we
controUable '’“'’““es “s
ceived sire as a function of such
versus monocular viewing,
the enwronmental P
^
atdtude.
of Illumination, the subjeefs stetThe
perceived swe
m
which ‘’"^Svrf is
relationship
to obtain a funcHonal
'’TeSe^t^ndDista„.^^^ên^^^^^^
against distance, we
a curvt deSned by
is
At
between tivo bmiting loci.
^ represent the
Uie law of the visual the dis Jce. At the
*
data it perceived ijgned by perfect size con-
other extreme is the , distance.* These theo-
.^jih
as in
stancy.ie. perceived size size
^ ^dually, perceived
rebciil lines can be is it inv-ariant
%vith
of e w
^
^ Ip ,, 0^
neither obeys the law jjrg empirical function
distance. Where,
between
Let us reexamine
Fig. M It
several
lies depends upon
environ-
fte amount of
an "P' systematically varied,
depicts the results of
* i,.ect xvas
mental clues available “nSn^^ pL-P”? “
was un-
There were four First of all. there
reduction of the subject could

My u*^
impeded binocular
vision “ As a Srst reduebon
in
the relations
present mb restricted to the
ê
all
of available
ducA by monocuhw
vision
the number
'
g„,ea
Further tunnel. This reduchon to-
of one eye. a^
artifleial pupil
and the view to the
test
with an
of heavy
nel. consisung
over-
. .he obsewer
asoaieuaies consua^
(gg
expebimental psychology
per-
As Fig. 64 shows, the function relating
disk almost entirely.
is systematically displaced as environmental
ceived sire to distance
With unimpeded binocular regard, there is more
context is varied.
subjects ovcrcompcnsate for distance.
than perfect constancy-thc
size constancy, that is,
With monocular vision, there is complete
the more restnctive
perceived size is invariant with distance. Under
B: CONSTANT SIZE-
C. MONOCULAR REGARD
artificial pupil
®^^^2_J:£SIpl!£jiReo tun
so 100 120
DISTANCE IN FEET
Fic 64. The Dependence of Size Constancy on Environmental Con-
text.Curves B and F are theoretical curves representing constant size and
The other curves represent expcnmental measure-
retinal size lespectis ely.
ments under the vanous vicvNing conditions indicated (From E. G, Boring,
The perception of objects, Amer. J. Thtjsics, 1046, 14:104, by permission
of the journal and author.)
conditions, however, perceived size decreases as a function of dis-

tance, and the empirical function approaches the line defined by
the law of the visual angle.
The functions of Fig. 64 clearly demonstrate that it would be
erroneous to speak of a general law of size constam^. Variations in
perceived size as a function of distance depend upon a set of
parameters such as those illustrated in the above experiment There
ate, of course, other parameters which are important.
Several in-
PERCEPTION or SPACE 199
\estigatorshave found that perceived size vanes with the subject's
attitude toward the stimulus objects A naive, uncntical attitude

fav ors constancy Furthermore, the mcanmg and famihanly of the
obje^s play an obvious part m
the percepbon of size Finally, there
has been a persistent search for correlations with such individual
differences as age, sex, intelligence, and occupahon. These studies
have shown considerable individual vanabon m suscepbbility to
size constanc) but have not as )et led to any stable generalizabons
The Size of Afterimages The dependence of perceived size
on distance, size of the retinal image, pnd the context provided by
size of after
the field condibons is well illustrated by the apparent
negative afterimage
images If >ou successive!) project a clear
will notice a
upon homocencous surfaces at various distances, you
the farmer away the
striking change m the size of the afterimage
larger the image will appear In fart, if tte
projection surface, the
Ibe size of
pro ccuon surfaces arc hoiuogcncous
fields,
of the surfaee from the eye

{irrago Is proportional to the drstaircc
rr.:atet^“S
tanco at whreh
is, of course, instant There
a”s rnereased. a S^ger
produce that constant
and larger object would ^ immediately and
retinal patch Of course.
operate, both size of the
automaUcally.but..n crd^^
retina! image and
the dis
siz
account Neither the ,-fonnai,on If the size of
the retinal
alone provides the aftenmage would have to remain
image alone were t e
if distance alone
all proj should
the same size at afterimages, the afterimage
vanabon m
basis for the „ the joint effecbve
about
aad .ha mforraaUoo
smarffte^naUmage
distance that leads “ about distance can be
dia-
or uie
The importance
matically illustrated by "misinforming the pcrceivcr about relative
distances in the field. It easy to prepare a perspective line draw-

is
ing of a corridor. If you project an afterimage upon the opening to

at
the tunnel, the afterimage will look smaller than if projected
the far end of the perspective drawing. The linear perspective used
in such line drawings is, of course, an effective clue to distance.
As
such, it becomes one of the determinants of the apparent size of the
afterimage. It is, therefore, only in terms of the size of the retinal
image and the perceived distance that the apparent size of after-
images can be explained.
Expeiument XII
Discnn-nsATiov or Visual Depth
P urpose. To measure tlic accuracy with which an individual can
judge visual depth.
Materials. A vertical black screen wlUi a horizontal slot about 1
inch wide mounted at the end of a table. The slot serves as an aperHirc
is
throu^ which the subject views the stimulus objects. At a distance of

about 5 feet, a homogeneous white surface U erected. Two vertical rods
are mounted side by side so that the visual field of the subject includes
them. One of these uprights is stationary somewhere midway between
the two screens. The subject can move the other upright back and forth
in the line of regard by means of strings and pulleys. A meter stick is
laid along the track of the adjustable rod and is used to record the sub-
ject'sjudgments. An eyepatch is necessary to secure monocular vision, in
one part of the experiment.
Procedure. The subject is seated some distance away from the
aperture so that be sees a horizontal opening with two vertical rods ap-
pearing in it. The distance between the stationary upright and the e>'es
of the subject should be held constant. The subject adjusts the distance
of the variable upri^t until it seems to be in the same frontal-parallel
plane as the stationary one. After each judgment, the experimenter re-
cords in millimeters the distance bctw’cen the two planes in which the
rods are localized. After a few practice trials, ten adjustments are
made
from a starting position in which the variable rod is set much
farther
than the standard and ten adjustments from a starting position
much
nearer to the subject than the standard. The starting
positions are al-
ternated from trial to trial.
The above procedure is follow'ed for each of the following
conditions;
1 Binocular vision without movement
of the head Under this con-
dition the subject is instructed to hold his head as
still as possible
while making his judgments
2 Monocular efaron without movement
of the head One eye is cov
ered wth the eyepatch and, os before the
subject bolds his head as
stiJ] as possible
3 Monocular otsion with head movement One e>e is still co\ered by a

patch but tins time the subject is permitted to move bis head The
subject should frequently move his head from side to side in mating
the adjustment thus utibzing the information avuilable from monocu-
lar parallax
Treatment of Results The data are arraj’ed a table showing the
m
deviation in millimeters between standard and vunab/e rod# If the
variable is adjusted too far away, a deviation is given a positive sign If
too close, a negative sign In this table the data should be broken down
as IS sbowr here
Monocubr Moaocubr
Binocular WidoutMo'emmt U»ih MoiTmrnt
Approvcliiog Receding Approacling RecrJing Appreaebing Rcc«img
y
The means of each of the cvûmns should be computed and also the
means for each of the three conditions Some measure of variability
the aniwm to the follow
should be calculated These measure# provide
Ing questions , , , t
in the discrimination ot
1 Is binocular vision superior to mimocular
'*'
2*00 tnonorolar pemiiUim of doplV
head mmcffletiu aid in the
tho approarfilng and le-
3 a 5>5 tcmaUo ddloitiire beKieett
Is there
shonid also he Si'Tn » f Mm,™g h^

e poinl.
oldieed
OTmt
elnnlnated nnd «hat clues hate
clues to depth hate been
In the iudênts?
IWiat taeiaWes rhrrM U
fusibe, eunttuHeJ In bn
experbueut’ UTtat other ps>-choph,nlcal procedures could be

prove the
used?
202
Experiment XIII
Size Constancy
Purpose. To determme under several viewing conditions the varia-
tions in perceived size as a function of

distance.
Materials. A set of square pieces of black cardboard whose sides

centimeter. These
vary from 2 centimeters to 10 centimeters in steps of 1
cen-
squares serve as reference stimuli. The sides of the test square are 8
timeters. Each of these squares is mounted on a large white sheet of
card-
board which provides a background for the stimulus A meter stick may
be used to measure the distances of the stimuli from the observer. An
eyepatch be used to cover one eye in order to obtain monocular
is to
viewing- Finally, a tube made of black material is employed as a reduc-
tion timnel.
General Experimental Procedure- The experiment is conducted in
a long room or hallway relatively free of furniture or other objects. The
subject is seated 1 meter away from the point at which the reference
stimuli are presented. The reference squares are presented at the side of
the subject so that he has to turn his head about 45 degrees in order to
Hxate the stimulus. Directly in front of the subject the test square is first
presented at a distance of 1 meter. The experimenter then presents
the series of reference stimuli both m ascending and descending orders.
The subject is instructed to indicate which of the reference squares ap-
pears equal to the test stimulus. Several determinations, say, ten, should
be made at each distance.
The test stimulus is then successively moved to a distance of 2, 4, and
8 meters. At each of these distances, the matches are obtained as before.
In addition to increasing the distance of the test stimulus from the sub-
ject, it IS desirable to decrease it successively, starting with determina
tions at 8 meters and ending with determinations at 1 meter. Thus,

there is a receding and an approaching series.
Viewing Conditions. The procedure just outlined is used under the
following three conditions:
1. Unimpeded binocular vision. The subject is allowed to view the
wthout restrictions.
stimuli
2. Monocular virion. One of the eyes is covered by an opaque patch.
3. Monocular vision u.ith reduction tunnel. One eye is covered as in con-
dition 2, and in addition, the subject is required to view
the stimuli
through a reduction tunnel.
Treatment of Results. The data obtamed are the average sizes of
the reference stimuli judged to be equal to the test stimulus at each of the
distances under the various condihons of observation The data may be

conveniently grouped as shown in the accompanying table
Approaching Senes Receding Senes

Ascending D escending Ascending Descending Av
Distance
1
2
4
8
the lengths of the sides of the

The entnes in the body of this tible ate
squares
reference squares matched to the test
^fn.::"rthe XSCrs"£« 'al the vtst^ng condihons ate
“'rifpossihle to isolate the

presentation by pioinni, y
and descending series of
each of these conditions
Generai. Refebem:xs
3onng E G Sensation aTp 8

N.v Ynth Ungmans
:arfA"^ttn"c,°n,?^ccpctccp,.on
Henty Holt and
‘“cttmcntclps-ycMoSYN-"'-'’^
^ôZ*
Co ,
1938 Cbap 26
Tiffi Spatial F«ame«o«
sbmubtion ujwn
Cl L nf mverted retinal
Honogt 1930 7.77
rsvcho,
^raa"coorfSthZ:t
Ne» Yo« HatconH
soâ K PHncpicstf^ttc^gy
^
, ,
204 EXPEniMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Wooster, Certain factors in the development of a
M new spatial coordi-
,
nation, FsycJwl Jfonogr , 1923, 32,

No 4
Tnr PrncEpnov of Distance
M ont)c«f«r Dcfermtnanls
Bonng, E G Sensation and perception in the history of experimental
,
psychology, New York D Appleton Century Co , 1942,pp 263 271

Boring, E G {ed ),Pstjchologij for the armed services, Washington The
Infantry Journal, 1943, pp 35-39
Binocular Parallax and Stereoscopy
Bonng E G ,
Sensation anti perception in the history of experimental
psychology, York D Appleton Century Co , 1942, pp 282-288
New
Bonng, E G Psychology for the armed services, V/ashinglon The
(cd ),
Infantry Journal 1943 pp 40-40
Carr, H A , An introduction to space perception, Nesv York Longmans,
Green and Co , 1935, Chaps 6 7, and 8
Southall, J P C , Introduction to physiological optics. New York Oxford
University Press, 1937, pp 236 262
Woodworth, , B
ExpcrtmerUal psychology.
S New York Henry Holt and
Co , 1938, pp 634-683
Convergence and Accommodation

Baird, J W , The influence of accommodation and convergence upon the
perception of depth, Amer J Psychol 1003 14 150 200
Bonng, E G , Sensation and perception
in the history of experimental
psychology. New D
Appleton Century Co , 1942, pp 271-282
York
Carr, H A , and Allen, J B , A study of certain relations of accommoda-
tion and con\crgcnce to the judgment of the third dunension, Psychol
Bev , 1908, 23 258 275
Swenson, H A , The relative influence of accommodahon and conver
gence m
the judgment of distance, / Gen Psychol 1932, 7 360-380
The Pehception of Size

S isc Constancy
Bonng E G, The perception of objects, Amer J Vhmics’ 1946
14 99J07.
Bninswil, E , Dista! focussing of pcreeplton
m a repre-
size constancy
sentative sample of situations, Pnjcfioi Jfonogr,lB44 S6 No 234
Hob^y A H and Bonng E C , .Determinants of apparent visual size
with distance variant, Amer J Psychol, 1941, 54 21-37
Koffka, K., Principles of Gestoit psychology, New York: Harcourt, Brace

and Co., 1935, 87-96; 235-240.
Sheehan, M. R., A study of Individual consistency in phenomenal con-
stancy, Arch. Pstjchol., 1938, No. 222-
Thouless, R. H., Phenomenai regression to the real object, Brit. J.
Psychol, 1931. 21:339-359; 1931, 22:1-30.
The Size of Afterimages
Boring, E. G., Size constancy and Emmert’s Law, Amer. /. Psychol, 1940,
53;293-295.
>»» 10 «(«
PERCEPTION OF MOVEMENT
OUR discussion of the perception of space and form has been con-
fined to stationary objects. The space in which wc move contains,
however, at most times a variety of moving objects: people walling
on the streets, cars speeding along the highway, birds flying in the
air, and so on. The perception of movement, then, is part of the
perception of objects in space. Many conditions determining the

perception of stationary objects arc also operative in the perbeption
of movement. In this chapter wc shall examine the types of move-
ment which are perceived and the variables of which they are
functions.
Physical Movement and Pedceived Movement

Wemust carefully distuiguish the definition of physical move-
ment and of movement as a perceptual phenomenon. The location
of a body in physical space is described m terras of its momentary
position, its velocity, and its acceleration. The position of an object
isdetermined, of course, by referring it to some standard geometric
system of reference. The velocity of an object refers to the direction
and rate at which it travels through space. Two physical dimensions
are required to specify velocity: distance and time. Acceleration is
change in velocity. These are physical concepts, and there are meth-
ods for specifying them without direct reference to the perception
of motion. Position, velocity, and acceleration can, then, be the
independent variables in the experimental study of movement per-
ception. The dependent variables are, of course, the subject’s re-
sponses to the changes in these physical factors.
There is by no means a simple one-to-one correspondence be-
tween the occurrence of physical movement and its perception.
Physical movement may occur but remain imperceptible
as in the
208
PERCEPTION OF MOVEMENT 207
case of the hour hand dock Moreover, movement may be

of the
perceived under certam conditions when the physical objects are
stationary Movies it is well known, do not move but are just a
rapid succession of stills which we see as moving
The PERCEpnoN of a Moving Shmulus

Thresholds of Perceived Movement As in the case of other
reached
perceptual phenomena, there is a threshold which must be
physiral
before a moving stimulus is seen as moving First of all the
movement must attain a certam jnumnu m velo city m order to be
which can be speafied

detected There is no one minimum velocity
value will vaiy mill the sire
as the threshold for movement This
of the
of themoving object its visibdity, the mtens.t)
the retma stanlated Fm
and the part and state of adaptation of
from the eje

lus at a constant distance well illuminated
dimulahOT
ditions, le. with loved aioosandths
object placed 2 just
Jêrs per seMnd) leads to
of a foot per second .dea of how slow
detectable movement
Thu ^ minimum
a moving object can
jing the perception of movement
but also a maximum
When the veloc.^
at 2 meters), a blur
TiiP F.fFpct
or «“ther
of Distance
'
X j-ped (e e 44
farther
per second
feet
“
away an ob ect is, the
i
17 we assume
‘T
"But the decrease

m pe:
seems to move
203 EXPERIMENTAL FSyCHOLOGY
portional to the decrease in the arc through which the retinal
image
moves per unit time. Parallel to size constancy, there is a certain
amount of movement constancy.
The Relativity of Perceived Movement. As in the case of
size judgments, itwould he difficult to obtain an unequivocal answer
to the question of how fast an object appears to move. We may get
an estimate in terms of miles per hour, but we would not know the
size of the units of the subjective scale of speed. It is necessary to
resort to comparisons between a reference sb'mulus and a test
stimulus.Such comparisons svill provide us with information about
the parameters on which changes in perceived movement depend.
The following experiment, a classic in this field, provides us with a
paradigm for the investigation of the conditions of the perception
of physical movement.*
Thevelocity of a test stimulus was adjusted by the subject until
it seemed equal to that of the reference stimulus, whose physical
velocity was held constant. More speciBcally, a band of paper witli
figures on it moved past an aperture. In the case of the reference
stimulus, this band moved with constant velocity. In the case of
the test stimulus, the velocity of the band was adjusted by the sub-
ject Both apertures were located at the same distance. Various fea-
tures of the test stimulus were systematically varied, and the result-
ing changes in the velocity matches examined. As an example of
the results obtained, let us describe one of the findings.
To study the effects of relative linear size on perceived velocity,
all of the linear dimensions of the test stimulus
were halved, as
were the size of the moving figures and the distance between Re-
cessive figures. Such changes had a striking effect
upon the per-
ceived velocity. The reference stimulus moved
with a velocity of
10 rentimeters per second. AVhen the test stimulus
moved 5.3
centimeters per second, it seemed to move as
fast as the reference
stimulus. The dimensions of the test stimulus
were halved and its
physical velocity needed to be reduced by a
factor of tsvo in order
to preserve the subjective equably of the hvo
velociUesl It is inter-
esting to note to
when only some of the dimensions of
the test
stimulus were halved, the reduction in
physical velocity was less
P"™**”* '’f Prysfu-i. For,ch, 19.31.

than one half The structure of the visual field in which the move
ment occurs clearly is an important condition of perceived velocity
Features other than size were varied It was found for example that
when the brightness of the test stimulus was increased its physical
velocity had to be increased in order to maintain a constant per
ceived velocity The reader can undoubtedly think of many other
variables whose influence on perceived velocity might be tested
The influence of such variables could easily be investigated by
means of the same experimental procedure
Afterimages of Movement Just as continued exposure ^toâ
stationary object r<»-cul ts_in a yisu ^'alterunage. sp continued per
"cation of a movin g.stimulus produces an afterimage of movement
we gaze at a waterfall for a penotfof bme say a minute or so
and then turn our regard to the bank on the opposite side the side
of the bank will appear to move upward e ui the direction
i
opposite to that of the waterfall This afterimage of movement

may
be termed negative because of this reversal of the direction of
movement If we look out of the window of a movmg tram at the
ties of an adjacent track we see them moving in
the direction oppo
site to the tram ^Vhen the train comes to a

sudden halt we now
of the afterimage is
see the ties moving forward ie the direction
reversed Furthermore, we may feel as if
we ourselves were moving
motion not just due to the
backward This feehng of backward
is
Our static sense a so ex i
negative afterimage of movement

negahvo v.tual
phLomena wh.ch ara pamllel to the be commoo to
reversal seem to
Aftereffects that show a pheaomeoal
several types of sensory action
itie Absence of
Apparent Movement in
Physical Mov’Ement
. 1 translated into stimulabon that gives
How IS physmal
queshon is b, no
nso to F-.vea movement?
means known but h ^
stunulates discret J
ore separated from each
tion of these
Motmuously moiaog stimulabon in the
some mte-
tenn is impoMible There must be
st“
graUng process which mate possible the percepUon of continuous
movement.
The perception of movement on the basis of discrete stimulation
of different parts of the retina is even more pointedly illustrated by
the phenomena of so-called apparent movement Of course, all per-
ceived movement is apparent, but this phrase has been reserved for
those special cases in which the stimulus objects remain stationary
and movement is perceived.
Optimal Movement and Phi. When two discrete stimuli, e.g.,
two bars of light, are presented in rapid succession, one of several
types of apparent movement may be perceived. Which kind of
movement is seen depends upon a variety of factors among which
the following are most important: the distance between the two
and the time interval between the first and
stimuli, their intensity,
second stimulus. In order to illustrate the various types of move-
ment, let us hold constant all factors except the time interval be-
tween the first and second stimulus.
Our subject is seated before a screen in a dark room. In this
screen are two slots, each about an inch wide and 4 inches apart
These slots can be illuminated in rapid succession by means of
separate light sources behind them. We
flash the light first through
the left slot (L) and 15 milliseconds later, we flash the other light
through the right slot (fl). The subject reports that he sees simul-
taneously two bars of light. For time intervals up to about 20 milli-
seconds, the report of simultaneity is given. the .interval .is
fu^cr increasei..the subject_begin^to sec_apparent_movement.
With a time interyd o f about 60 millisecond5^.there is.what is called
ôptimal movcmentJlDe Jeft.bar appears to jump over to the right
one. It is as thoughjthe b ar itself moved. (Naturally, if R is pre-
sented before L, the movement is from R to Z.,) Let us further
increase the time intervalbetween the two flashes. If we make the
Interval as long as200 milliseconds, bars appear in succession and
without movement. There is no direct transition from optimal move-
ment to sucxjcssion. time interval between 60 and 200
millisecon ds, pure^pKi mooênrir often~ seehTThe movement
seems to be divtir^ from any object, and the subject may describe
it as "pure movement* or perhaps as a “gray
flash."
Korie’s Laws of Mo>cmcnl. For purposes of
illustration, we
perception of movement
2j,
behv«„ to bars or to mtenr.fy of .Ilommabon

.^gââdinesa w,tb r»h,oh apparent movement
,s seen The
relationships among to three variables tune, intensity, rad dis
tance, have been worked oot and are knorvn as
horfe's laws AI
ttiough these laws hold only
over a limited range of values, they
stiU serve to specify in
a quantitahve manner the condihons of
apparent movement The intenebtionshfps among
the three vana
Dies may be stated as foUotvs
1 If the mtensity is held constant, the time Interval for optimal
movement vanes directly with the distance behvera the stunuh
2 If the time interval is held constant the
distance for optimal
movement vanes directly with the intensity
S Xf the distance
between the stimuli is held constant, the intensity
for optimal movement vanes ini'ersely with the bme interval
Let us Illustrate statement I Suppose that optimal movement has
been obtained for a giv^n set of values of the three sanahJes If the
tune interval bebêen the flashes is now slightly increased the
movement may be destro)ed It can, however, be brought bach by
increasing the distance of separation between the bars The other
statements may be interpreted in a similar manner
^ Stroboscopic flfovcment The hnds of movement which we
nave just descnbed ~the perception of movemcntjinthout a movin g
stimulus-have_aIso.BeenJerm^ stroboscopic moegmcnt .Onginally,
tEir’trnm^'^s applied to the movOTenFtKarresults..when sli^tly
dilferent^p i^r^^ pres emed in quick successio n The pnnaple
upon which motion picture s depend is the best (Sample of strobo-
scopic movement As we know, the apparent movement is brought
about by the projection at a fauly rapid rate (about 24 frames per
second) of a senes of stiU pictures. Each of these stills presents a
slightly different vêw of the individual or object whicli is then seen
as moving on the screen Animated cartoons utilize the same prin

ciple
Other Kinds of Apparent ^fovement in our previous eft's
we have assumed that the intensities of the hvo stimuli

cussion,
were to same An mlerestmg phcaomenon of roo'ementjere
lops
the first Uader
if the secondJllshisanadeninsiderrtIy;^!^!ian
thSrcondihons. the dlrecUon of t& roosement may be res-eraed
m
212
experimental psychologv
flash on the left is
followed by a bright flash on the right,
If a dim
this reversed
themovement may be from right to lefL Sometimes
back to the
movement is followed immediately by a movement
flash. This.phenomenon_oL re-
posiUon of the second and brighter
is known as defta,
versed movement due to a brightness differen ce
m ovemen t.
'One more type of apparent movement will be mentioned. Only

-
one stimulus object is required for its dcmonstiation. I f the illumina
of^
tion m figure the visual field is^suddenlyjncfrca^d, tlie^figure
maê seen to expand at first and then to rontract to a stable size.
Simiiarlîf tWrbngM illuminationsuddenly decreased, the figure

is
“may be sMn'to contract. This expansion or contraction of an object

'due to changes in jllununAtiQP~,»s designated as qccmcn^
''êvSal other vaneties of apparent movement have been fej^rted
in the psychological literature, but we shall not stop here to enu-
znerato them. Instead, we wish to reiterate that the kind of apparent
movement depends upon the particular conditions of stimulation.
We have already indicated the importance of intensity, time interval,
and distance bchvecn successive stimuli. There are other important
factors. The size of and the length of time during
the discrete stimuli
which each is exposed are examples of additional variables. Equally
important as these stimulus variables is the attitude that the observer
adopts during the experiment. A naive, uncritical attitude favors
the perception of apparent mo\'ement An analytical and critical
approach may well detract from the impressiveness of the phenom-
enon. It is interesting to note the parallel between the effect of
attitude upon the degree of constanty and of apparent movement

A naive, uncnti'cal attitude tends in both instances to enhance the
phenomenon.
Auditory and Tactile Stbix^j to

Perceived Movement
Auditory as well as tactile impressions may contribute to
the per-
ception of movement men
a tone is led separately to each ear but
so that there is a phase difference between the two stimuli,
a phe-
nomenon termed auditory movement occurs. A
phase difference, it
will be recalled, is an important condition for the localuation’of
sounds. The tone is localized in different positions depending upon
FEliCCPTIOH OF MOVEMENT 213
degree of the phase difference The
perceived lone can be made
to move b> varying continuously
the phase difference between the
stimuli Jf the sound is at ffwi locihzoJ
on one side of the head it
appears to move around to the other side
Sometimes the subject
rcjMrts that the sound travels through
his head As the phase
difference between the tones reaches ISO
degrees the sound may
jump bach to tJie side from which it started The
experience comes
as a surprise to the listener and has been desenbed
as the hearing
of a pfiantom sound Auditor) phenomena paralleling
visual phi
have also been reported The quick successive presentation of dis
Crete tones or clicks may result m apparent auditor) movement
When a stimulus is continuously moving along the skin, the sub
ject experiences it as moving Let us recall that the distnbubon of
cutaneous receptors is puncliform and that the occurrence of tactile
movement must result from an infegrobve process Agaw apparent
movement may be obtained without actually moving a stimulus
along the skin but b) stimulating in rapid succession bvo discrete
points The investigators reporting tins phenomenon agree, however,
that tactile phi is less compulsoiy and occurs less frequently than
visual phi
Tlierc is a question as to whether or cot there is pure auditoty
or tactile Visual imagery and interpretation in terms of
movement
visual space undoubtedly pla^ an important part the experiencem
of these phenomena
Autownetic and Induced Movement

The perception of movement is strongly influenced by the spatial
in vv hich the stimulus is seen When a spatial firamew

orfc
framework
If )ou
IS lacking, a stationary point of light may appear to move
completely dark
carefully fixate a pinpoint of light in an otherwise
side
room >ou will after a while see the point of Lght drift to one
There are wide individual
or the other (aufokinclic motement)
movement but the ph^
differences the mditecUon and degree of
In
nomenon of movement occurs for virtually all observers
coordinate system to wbeh the
room there is no stationary visual
of fight may he referred For most subjects the light
sincfe point
occasion it may deviate from
makes rather smaU excursions but on
40 degrees As we shall see in Chapter
a central position as much as
2J4
movement is subject to considerable modificaUon, and
the
20 this
investigation of
phenomenon has been particularly suitable for the
sodal influences on this perceph'on.
of
The influence the spatial framework has on the perception
movement is fiêr illustrated by the phenomena of induced move-
ment. When there are only two light objects in a
homogeneous dark
field, of these is in physical motion, movement will be seen,
and one
but does not necessarily follow that it is the objectively moving
it
object that will be seen to move. \Vhat is seen depends not only
upon the relative displacement of the two objects, but also upon
some of the factors of spatial organization. Suppose one of tiie ob-
jects isthe outline of a geometrical design enclosing another. Even
the larger figure that is objectively moving, the smaller one
if it is
will be seen to move. The larger figure serves as a framework for

the smaller thing that moves. TTie framework, being more stable, is
seen at rest.
Experiment XIV
Apparent Movîent
Purpose. To study the dependence of optimal movement upon in-
tensity and upon the time interval and distance beh^'een two discrete
stimuli.
Materials. There are many ways of arranging apparatus for the
study of apparent movemenL One coavem'ent setup is the foUcwing. Two
small boxes, each with a single slot about one inch %vide and 6 inches long
cut in the front surface, contain the sources of fllumination (light bulbs).
The slots are covered with milk glass. A rheostat is used for altering the
intensity of the lights. The time interval between the onset of the two
lights is automatically controlled by an interval timer. Such a timer can
employ a disk driven at a constant speed vrfth contact switches located
on its circumference. The contact switches should be such that the lights
are on for a very brief intervaL There are also, of course, electronic inter-
val timers. Thedistance is controlled by the position of the light boxes.
Procedure. The experiment should be conducted in a dark or dimly
lighted room- The subject is seated about 6 feet from the two light boxes
which are placed on a table. The distance betiveen the boxes and the
intensity of the lights are set to some arbitrary values
(say, with the slots
6 inches apart and the lights fairly bright). The time interval
between
the two li^ts is, then, systematically varied from
about 20 milliseconds
to aût 200 milliseconds. After each presentation
of the two lights, the
subject reports what he saw. When he sees the one
bar of light moving
over to the other, he sees optimal movement
The time intervals at which
simultaneity, optimal movement, pure phi
and successivity occur, are
noted The intensify of the lights is then reduced
and this procedure re-
peated Finally, the distance between the hvt> boxes is
vaned and the
time interval of optimal movement u again determined
If tune permits
It Isdesirable further to test Korte's laws, stated on
p 211, by holding
the tune interval constant at, say, 60 milliseconds, and simultaneously
varying the distance and intensity to obtam optimal movement
Treatment of Results For each combination of intensity and of
distance between the bars, state the time intervals at which each of the
types of apparent movement is seen Compare the results obtained ivith
the predictions made upon the basis of Xortes laws Note especially
svhether or not pure phi (movement without an object) is more readily
Si*eQ imder one condition than another
CEKCnAL ReFEAENCES
Boring, E G ,
ScMfOiion ond perception in the history/ of espenmentd
psychology, Nevv York D Appleton Century Co , 1942 Chap IS
Bonng, E G
, Langfeld, S , and Weld H H
P , Fsychology a factual
tejtbook, New York John Wiley and Sons, 1935, Chap 11
PERCEPTIOV of a MOVISC STOtULUS

Thresholds and RelatMty of Perceived Movement
Brown, J F, The visual perception of velocity, Psychol Forsch, 1931,
14 199 232
Brown, J F , and Voth A C , The path of seen movement as a function
of the vector field, Amer J Psychol , J937, 49
543-563
DeSiIva, H R An analjris of the visual perception of
movement Brit ]
,
Ps&'c;«jM929, J9 268-305 , , „
, Principles of
Koffka, h. Gestdt psychology. New York Harcourt. Brace
and Co 1935 pp 282-304

,
Afterimages of Movement
G S . Ophcal .Uraons of motion. / P/ijaioI
Don At A, H P , and Hall,
1882, 3 297-307
Appahent Movement
Optimal JfoDCinent and Phi
"
PeSdva. H B AO
tsycnoi i -
apparent visual movement, Amer J .
Dimmick, F. L., An experimental study of visual movement and the phi
phenomenon, Amer. J. Psychol., 1920, 31:317-332.
Higginson, G. D., The visual apprehension of movement under successive
retinal excitations, Amer. /. Psychol 1926, 37 :6-3-115.
Wertheimer, M., Experimentelle Sludicn fiber das Seben von Bewegung,
Z. Psychol, 1912, 61:161-263.
Kortet Laws
Korte, A., Kinematoskopische Untersuchungen, Z. Psychol , 1915, 72:193-
200 .
Other Kinds of Apparent Movement

Boring, E. G., Sensation and perception in the history of experimental
psychology, New York: D. Appleton-Century Co., 1942, pp. 596-597
Auditory and Tactile Stimiili to

Movement
Burtt, H. E-, Auditory illusions of movement—a preliminary study, /• Ex-
per. Psychol
1917, 2.63-75.
Burtt, H- E., Tactual illusions of movement, /. Exper. Psychol 1917,
2.371*385.
Stevens, S. and Davis, H., Hearing: its psychology and physiology.
S.,
New York; John Wtley and Sons, 1938, Chap. 6.

^VhJtc^lurch, A. K-, The illusory perception of movement on the skin,
Amer. J. Psychol 1921, 32:472-489.
>»»
11 ««<
experimental analysis oe judgment
to objects in our envfronmenf often fnvolvw mating

judgments about them Afany situaUons contain elements
of doubt
and uncertainty When ue settle a doubt or resolve an vnceriaio^,
we mate a judgment Sometimes our judgments express the ^pe
of fine discrimination which we study in psychophysical expenmeots
We deade whether or not a weak stimulus is present sudi as a faint
tone or light we
judge two stimuli as same or different More often
tJ«n jjot the /udgments which we must male da not call /or minute
discriminations of this kind nor do we always judge such clearly
defined attributes as loudness or bngbtness On innumerable occa
siods we judge situations as strange or familiar, threatening or re
assunng interesting or dull and ra terms of many other qualities
We must decido whether an action is ethical or unethical useful or
futile Daily we must
/udge people as good or bad able or ineom
petent friend]}' or hostde Such /adgmentr cfwbnoaJJy deterowDe
our course of action and are verified or disproved by the results of
our actions
The Tasks of Analysis

The experimental analysis of judgment faces three major tasks
(I ) an adequate description of the stimuli judged and of the situa
tion M) which the judgment is made (2) an analysis of the charae*
tenstics of judgments such as their variability the speed and con
of
Rdence witli which they ace made and (3) the establishment
lawful relationships behveen the properties of the stimulus
situa
bon and the characteristics of judpnents In searching for such

should not forget that it is a person
relabonships the expenmenter
wth well established habits values and needs who makes the
217
judgments. No account of judgment can ev'er be complete which
fails to take account of such factors "in the person."
Types of Judgment
Virtually anything may be the object of a judgment: a physical
object, an abstract thought or proposiUon, any event, past, present,
or future, actual or hypothetical. A classification of judgments ac-
cording to the object judged would, therefore, be difficult, cumbrous,
and at best, of little practical use. It is more profitable to attempt a
systematic classification according to the type of response which
mediates the judgments.*
Perceptual Judgments. Judgments may reflect the way a sub-
ject perceives an object or some chaiacterisb'c of an object A tone
may be judged loud or soft high-pitched or low-pitched. A design
may be judged symmetrical or osj-mmetrical, large or small. In aV
sudi cases, the subject’s judgment is based on a particular aspect
or dimension of his perceptual experience. A loud tone may be high
or low in pitch.But in judging loudness, we try to disregard pitch;
in judging pitch, to disregard loudness. A
large design may be sjTn-
metrical or asymmetricaL In judging symmetry, we
disregard size;
in judging s^, we
disregard symmetry. In making any one simple
perceptual judgment we concentrate on a given
characteristic of
the stimulus object to the exclusion of its other
characteristics which
are not relevant to the judgment
Affealve Judgments. An affective judgment expresses an in-
dividuals like or dislike for an object its
pleasantness or unpleasant-
ness for bim, in short, its personal value.
In judging a tone loud or
soft we shwld pay no attention to the fact
that hearing the tone
may be a pleasant or an unpleasant experience.
as svnrmptnrai nr I r- .
too
In judging a design
a
dsely Urn Idpd of personal reacUon which

is mkde°iihdt A iSe
rf ûlus materi^ have been used in eapeLents on S-
piclorial"raatÛ. Typiklly, ith^lr^^
EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF JUDGMENT
219
such stunuli on a scale of pleasantness
unpleasantness or accept
anee rejecUon ranging from ranxiroum
acceptance through indif
teren« to maximum rejection Subjects
usualK find it quite easy
to make such /udgments and arc fairly consistent wth
themselves
from one occasion to another
Affective judgments are also often obtamed
in the measurement of
social and pohlical altitudes In altitude questionnaires we are often
asked to rate various national or social groups in the
order of our
preference We are asked to indicate whether certain types of
people are acceptable to us as neighbors colleagues or fnends In
essence such judgments are affective judgments since they are
based on our penonal \alues and Inclinations rather than on an
attempt to gauge the “objective" situation as accurately as possible.
It is important to point to tlie continuity of the processes under
lying the type of affechve judgment studied in the Jaboratoty and
the type of Judgment which ^nogs from our pohlicaJ and social
attitudes
Affective Judgments are readily made but often the judge would
bo at a loss to state what spe^c diaractenstics of the sbmulus
object are responsible for his acceptance or rejechon for experienced
pleasantness and unpleasantness The results of past condihomng
and learmng and deep seated motives all come into play often in
subtle ways of which the subject is unaware Through systematic
variation of the stimulus matenab and mtensive study of his sub-
jects the experimenter may sometunes gam at least partjal insight
into the determinants of affective judgments
Conceptual Judgments Frequently judgments are based oa
abstract or conceptual characteristics of the stimulus objects char
acteristicswhich are derived from some scheme of classification A
botanist classifying plants or a zoologist classifying animals
assigns
characteristics as
specimens to vanous categones by Judging such
manner of reproduction or skeletal structure A
scienust evaluatmg
or consistency or a
theories according to their comprehensiveness
to their conformance with
logician judging propositions aecording
of conceptual judgment,
formal rules provides another example
Finally, many of our
judgments of persoaahty are of the abstract
attempt to evaluate people in terms of
or conceptual type when we
ciEjnscfentiousness or
liberalism To
sudi traits as cooperativeness
220
make such judgments, we usually need some
ready-made categories in terms of which we judge the
concrete
cases which we encounter. For

ciample, we may use a scale of
honesty, ranging from scrupulous uncompromising honesty to de-
liberate deceit, and try to place any given individual somewhere
along “continuum." Conceptual judgmc-nts are difficult
this scale or
to make because of their very abstractness. Often, what we believed

to be a conceptual judgment may turn out, after searching analysis,
'
tobe an affective one.
Conceptual Judgment and Thinking. Conceptual judgments
are processes which are frequently considered under the heading
of “thought” for successful thinking often depends on the ability
to abstract relevant features from a complex situation and on the
use of classificatory schemes. The analysis of thought, in its broad
sense, cannot, of course, be equated svith the analysis of conceptual
judgments. The interdependence of thought processes with percep-
tual functions, learning, memory, and transfer of training must be
considered. In this book we shall Umit ourselves, hosvcver, to
analyses of these basic cognitive functions which come to their
full fruition in what w'e call thought Our understanding of Ihou^t
will depend on the thoroughness of our grasp of the basic cognitive
processes.
The Kxpbession of JtnxJMENTS

There are two general ways (by no means mutually exclusive or
incompaUble with each other) in which we can study another per-
sons judgments; (1) verbal report and (2) inference from non-
verbal behavior.
Verbal Report. We can ask our subject to report his judgment
verbally, expressing it either orally or in writing. Our subject will
readily inform us whetherhe judges one tone louder than another,
whether an odor is pleasant or unpleasant,
whether he considers
a person hon^ and cooperative. With proper
instructions and train-
mg. most subjects are able to refine their
judgments and make
qu^htative Rations among different
amounts of the charac-
tei^c judged. They can assign different degrees of
pleasantness
and unpleasantness to taste or odor, indicate
varying degrees of
agreement or disagreement with a pobHcal
statement, use gradu- f
EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF JUDGMENT 221
ated scale of honesty or cooperativeness
in their evaluation of people,
and so on Such verbal reports have been
used veiy widely in the
evpenmenfai invesbgation of pidgment
Inference from Nonverbal Behavior
A verbal or wntten re-
port is however only one way in which
a judgment can be expressed.
Without asking any questions or receinng any reports
we can ob
serve an individuals behavior and infer from
his behavior what
judgments he has made Suppose we confront a hungry individual
with two foods He eagerly eats one of the foods but
does not touch
the other, even withdraws from it or pushes it away His
behavior
expresses a judgment of preference he likes one food better than
another We infer his judgment from the choice he makes In this
sense we can study the “judgments** of orgtmsms which are in
capable of xerbal communication As long as subjects make con
sistent choices among altemabve stimulus objects the) tell us tlieir
judgments as clearly as they could by any verbal statement
There is no inherent contradiction between these two methods of
studying judgment It would beasenouserrortosaj that in studying
verbal reports we deaf with ‘'mere words ’ whereas the other method
IS concerned Witli “real behavior* Verbal reports are as much be
/laoior as are muscular movements loman so much problem solving

behavior-and judgment is a type of problem solvmg-is mediated
by words and symbols that verbal report provides at least one im
porlant avenue of approacli to the study of judgment Critics have
sometimes raised the question of how sure we can be that a person
“
expressing a judgment is “telling the truth He may hold one [udg
ment and express another perhaps in order to please the expen
menler But the same criticism may he ipphed to mferenee bas«f
on nonverbal behavior An individual may pursue one course of
action although hemay prefer mother Our conclusion is that wc
behavior may
can never do more than study overt behivior Such
one ^pe of
be verbal or nonverbal and it is dangerous to consider
Each has its
behavior as inherently more important than another
place mthe experimental analysis of judgment
Stimulus Scales anu Response Scales

cxpenmental analysis
We have stated as the general aim of the
of lawful relationships between the
of judgment the estabhsliment
properties of the stimulus situation and the characteristics of judg-
ments. Wherever possible, we should like to
state these relationships
goal, we need ( 1 ) quantitative
in quantitaUve terms. To achieve this
indices for the description of the stimulus objects, and (2)
quantita-
short, quantification
tive indices of the variations in judgments. In
depends on the availability of proper stimulus scales and response
scales. Let us illustrate the concepts of stimulus scale and response
scale by means of a simple example.
The stimulus objects are five lines of different lengths, say, 2, 4,
6, 8, and 10 inches. These lines arc presented to the subject in
random order, and he is instructed to judge each line as long or short.
At first the subject will be guessing, since he docs not know what
range of lengths the series comprises, but after one or two rounds
of stimulus presentations, his judgments will settle do\vn. He will
almost invariably call the 2*inch line short and the 10-inch line Jong.
His judgments of the 6-inch line will probably be variable, and he
will call it long part of the time and short part of the time unless he
is making a constant error of overcstimation or underestimation. The
ranging from 2 to 10 inches is the stimulus scale. The
series of lines
responses, long and short, constitute a simple, two-categoiy response
scale. Furthermore, it is possible to slate a quantitative relationship
between the two scales. We can estimate that length of line which
is hkely to yield 50 percent of judgments of long and
50 percent of
judgments of short, i.e., the threshold or “boundary" separating the
categories long and short.
We may now require our subject to make finer distinctions in his
judgments and to use three categories of response; long, short, and
medium. The 2-inch line would sbll be called short almost invari-
ably, and the 10-inch line, long. The 6-inch hne would
probably be
called medium on the majority of the trials. The 4-inch line would
probably be called medium part of the time and short part of the
time; similarly, the judgments of the 8-inch line would
be divided
between medium and long. While the stimulus scale remained the
same, the subject’s response scale has been refined and
now includes
three categories. The threshold of each of these
categories can be
®
computed.
for eumahog a catagoiy ihrMhold is do-

scribed In Chapter 2 in connection with the method of constant stimulL
EXPERJAIENTAL ANALYSIS OF JUDGMENT
223
The fudges tasl. may be rendered even more exacting We may
^rom I5 in judging the lines, caibni
to
the shortMt 1 , and the Jongest
5 After some traming a subject can
perform this task successfully and assign
the numbers to the differ
ent Imes with a high degree of
consistency Again the thresholds
ot the various categories can
be calculated The shmulus scale is still
the same, but the response scale has
been refined even further and
now compnses as many response categories as there are stimulus
items A response scale results whenever numbers (or other symbols)
are assigned to stimulus objects m
accordance with peroened
changes in magnitude Clearly, response scales are highly
Bevble
To a given stimulus scale,
there may correspond a variety of response
scales, ranging from two category judgments to a refined scale
re-
quinng many and difBcuIl discnmmations on the part of the judge
The RelaUvUy of Judgments

The experimental procedure wbidi we have illustrated in the pre*
ceding paragraphs is k*nown as the method of single stimuli The
methi^ derives its name from the fact that each stimulus to be
judged IS presented singly, svithout a standard stimulus The method
of single stimuli is representative of many Judgments which we have
to make mdad) life Frequently ue do not judge objects in pairs
but rather judge them one at a time We see a mowe and we call it
interesting or dull without companng It with some standard mo\ie
We call a person's v’Oice loud or soft without companng it to a
standard voice level, and so on But even tiiough we may be judging
one objectat a time such judgments are, neiertheless, relative to a
response scale which we have acquired in the course of daily luing
We have seen a large number of movies and so liave acquired a
mtere'l
personal response scale for rating them, ranging from very
ing to veiy dull have heard a great many xoices and, again,
We
ranging from \eiy soft
have acquired a personal response scale,
to wry had When we judge any single object, we place it. often
without making an explicit companson. somewhere along the range
experienced We Uien assign to it
of similar objects which Me ha%c
scate which we haw for this
a value along the personal response
wemcasure thinp
hme of stimulus object In making <wr judgments,
y’ardsthk (personal response scale), a >'ardstick
wth a subjective
which we acquire as a result of being exposed to a range of stimulus
objects.
Such subjective yardsticks are highly flexible, and response
scales
in the context in
readily shift, expand, and contract with a change
which the judgments are made. Suppose we change our scries
of
lines so that the scries now consists of lines 10, 12, 14, 16,
and 18
inches long. We
again require our subject to use two categories of
response— fong and short. As soon as he is acquainted svith the series,
he will call the 10-inch line short on most trials. But in the previous
series, he usually called this very same line long. Obviously, the
context in which this line is judged has been radically altered; it

occupies an entirely diiferent position in the sUmulus series. At any
moment in time, the effective response scale is determined by the
nature and range of stimuli to which the fudge is responding. BecaU
again the type of judgments which we continually make about ob-
ject around us. A book is small, and a man is large. But if a house is
large, then a man is small. And if a book is small, and a house is

large, then a man is of medium size.
All judgments, then, arc, in the last analysis, comparative Judg'
ments. Sometimes the comparisons arc made explicit, as in psycho-
physical experiments which provide the subject with a standard
stimulus on every trial. Often the comparisons are not explicitly
made as in the method of single stimuli, in which case each stimulus
object is evaluated in terms of its which it
position in the series to
belongs.
The Anchoring of Judgments

Let us return for a moment to our experiment on the judgment of
lines. The sUmuIi are again 2, 4, 6,
8, and 10 inches in length. A
subject has learned to assign the numbers from
1 to 5 to them, with
satisfactory consistency, calUng the shortest
hne 1, and the longest,
5, We now introduce a 15-inch line into the series and instruct our
subject to consider this line as representing the
resume the e^^ment and ask our subject
category 5. then We
to assign the numbers
1 to 5 to each line presented singly as
before. Of course, he will
now virtuaUy always call the 15-inch Ime 5, but his
judgments of the
other lines will be affected as weU. I„
general, he will be inclined
to assign lower numbers to the different
lines than be did before.
EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF JUDGMENT
225
Tlic 8 mcj, ],ne for wimple
which preôusly hid been ludced 4
most of the hmc will r'-‘- frequently •’ » J
„ , ,
‘ be called 3 Similarly the
hne will be called 2 more often than
previously In relation
to the J5.inch line all the
other lines are likely to appear shorter
than Uiey did before If instead of
a 15-inch line we had added a
line Jx inch long to the senes
the judgments would have been pulled
in the opposite direction to
most of the lines h/g/jcr numbers would
have been assigned than before this addition to the senes
A 4 inch
line would then be bkcly to be called
3 where it had usually been
called 2 in S inch Imo would frequ«itly be assigned the number 5
and so on
Thus the response scale can be altered appreciably by a change
in (he stimulus scale Expressing it a little differently we can say
the response scale is anchored to the stimulus scale and that
tiiat
a cliange in the stimulus scale leads to a reanchormg of the response

scaleThe reponse categories available to the subject {say the num
bets 1 through 5J must be distributed among the var ous stimuli m
the senes ^Vhen the stimulus senes is changed the responses must
ntcessmly be redistnbuted The redistribution of responses has to
be jiicJi as to eneompiss the neiv stimulus as ivelJ as the old ones
The response categories may have to cover a wider range of stimuli
lu our evperintent the numbers; 1 to 5 which had been used for a
nnge from 2 to 10 inches had to be red stnbiited to eoier a range
from 2 to 15 inches or from h inch to JO inches As a result the
relative position of each of the old stimuli was changed making
them appear shorter in one case longer in tlie other A stimulus
which is added to a series and leads to a redistribution of judgments
ISknown as an anchoring stimidus The redistribution of judgments
is called
resulting from the introduction of an anchonng stimulus
anchoring
Andionng is a general prinaple of judgment and has been dem
judgments of weights
onstrated with a variety of stimulus materials
of temporal intervals as well
of tiie inci nation of lines of the length
have all been shown to be
as aesthetic and affective judgments
has been poss ble to ânge dis
subject to anchoring Invanabl> .t
to a series a„d thus re-
tobuhons of , ailment! by addmg stool,
response categories Indeed it is not
defirang the meaoing of the
anchonng stimuli to a senes Some-
always neeessaiy aetnally to add
226
EXPEIIIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
times it is sufficient to ask a subject to hold an anchoring stimulus
showing a 1^*"™
his judgments. Instead of
in mind while making
line to our subjects, could have asked them to imagine a 15-inch
wo
line as defining the category 5,
and a redistribuUon of judgments
would have occurred similar to that resulting from the actual presen-
tation of the anchoring stimulus.
Anchoring'ciperimcnts provide a dramatic illustration of the rela-
tivityand flexibility of judgments. A response scale is alw.iys
anchored to the stimulus scale to which it is applied. Changes in the
stimulus scale cause the response scale to be reanchored and, con
sequently, the response categories to be redistributed among the
stimulus objects. Truly, there is nothing absolute or fixed about any
judgment.
SoKfE General PiuNapLES of JuDC^Ê^•T

In spite o! the great variety of stimulus situations whidi have
been used in the experimental analysis of judgment, certain general
principles have emerged. Wc have already emphasized the relativ-
ity of all judgments as well as the universality of anchoring phcnom-
ena.There are other principles which appear to he characteristic of
the process of judgment In general, regardless of the particular
stimulus objects and the particular attributes which are judged.
Some of these general principles refer to properties of response
scales, others focus on the way in which the judge goes about mak-
ing his judgments, the nature of his performance. Here are some
of these general principles.
The Central Tendency of Judgment. In many situations sub-
jects show a pronounced tendency to avoid extremes in their judg-
ments, to use the center of (heir response scale more heavily than
the extremes. In judging sizes of a scries of objects, for example, the
extremely small ones are likely to be overestimated, and the ex-
tremely large ones to be underestimated. Similarly, when the lengths
of time intervals are judged, the extremely short ones
are judged
too long, the estimates of the extremely long ones are too
short The
judgments are displaced from the extremes toward the center. This
fact is aptly described as the central
tendency of judgment. The
CCTlral tendency judgment has been demonstrated with a variety
of stimulus materials, including judgments
of personality variables.
experimental analysis of judgment
227
In judging inteJLgence, we hesitate
to call an individua! a moron or
a genius and settle for a saf«-
and Jess colorful ntmg \Viien moral
judgments are involved, judges
may feel an even greater need to
shrink away from extremes
The Kound'Ntunber Tendency, Response scales differ
number of categones which th^ include Some response
m the
scales, as
we have seen, comprise onlytwo categones (e g long and short),
,
others include much larger numbers

of categones, e g , all the num
bers from 1 to 10, 1 to
20, and so on When judgments have to be
expressed by assigning numbers to stimulus objects, subjects show
clear preferences for some numbers over others They will
habitually
favor round numbers, such as 5, 10, 15, 20, etc or even numbers
,
This tendency— (he round number tcfidency^can be observed fn

many practical situations In grading their students on a scale from
0 to lOO teachers will show it, as will judges decidmg on the exact
length of a cnminal s sentence when the Uw prescribes only a cer
tain range Nor are scientists immune from it when reading instru*
ments and graphic records The round numbers provide, as it were,
clear cut landmarks along the response scale Preference for them
IS continually reinforced fay daily usage Such habits of response
readily assert themselves whenever and wherever judgments have

to be made
Variability at Different Points of the Response Scale The
same judgment is not always given m response to the same stimulus
(see Chapter 2) The greater the scatter of responses to a given
stimulus, the greater the variability of the judgment When a series
of stimuli IS judged (such as in our expenment with lines of different
the senes typically
lengths ) , judgments of stimuli near the center of
near the extremes
show greater variability than judgments of sttmuU
Even though the physical distances faetuTen successive
of the senes
it seems &at
sbmuli are equal (e g , lines of 2. 4.6 inches, eta),
are Urger than Ibty
subjectively the distances near the extremes
are toward the center of the scale
Hence, discnmmaliom near the
center are more difficult and more
variable
of making a
The Halo Effect ^Wien faced with the necessity for a pr^
substitete a general impression
difficult judgment, we may
Wen.ay,mAc or un™
c«ed«ckmtal.on
Ihe jridgmCTt Jodgmenb of
evant mfomiaHon to help u! imI»
specific personality characteristics are often determined in tliis man-
ner. When ashed to e%’aluate such characteristics of a person as
honesty, friendliness, reliability, and so on, each of our judgments
may be influenced by a general impression uhich \vc have formed
of that person; or our kno^vlcdgc of one characteristic may color our
judgments of all others. Wc may know from experience that a person
ishonest and, thereby, be prîsposed to rate him higli not only
in honesty, but also in friendliness, reliability, and other charac-
teristics as well. ^Vhen a generalized attitude determines the judg-
ments of specific characteristics, we speak of the Juilo effect. The
halo effect has been ohscrs'cd most frequently in judgments of per-
sonalit)*. The halo effect is especially pronounced when character-
isticscarrâng moral approval or disapproval are judged- In general,

whenever a subject is required to judge vague or poorly defined
characteristics, his judgments may become subject to the halo cffect-
Onc should not conclude too hakily, however, that there is a halo
effect Just because a judge assigns similar ratings on a variety of
characteristics. Only if it can shcrA-n on independent evidence
that such uniformly high (or uniformly low) judgments are invalid,
can a halo effect be reasonably inferred.
The Atmosphere Effect- The atmosphere effect is closely re-
lated to the halo effect and exemplifies another way
in which a
judgment may be determined by a general impression rather
by an exact discrimirulion. In judging the vaL'dity of sj’llogisms,
for example, subjects may be guided not only
by formal logical con-
siderations but by the “atmosphere*’ created by the premises. ^Vhen
one of the premises is negaUve, c.g., “no I’s
arc y’s or “some xs are
not t/ a negative atmosphere is created, and
s,
subjects are inclined
to accept a neptive conclusion. Similarly, the
presence of a “particu-
lar premise, i.e., a statement such as
“some x’s are us” predisposes
subjects to favor a conclusion of the same
type ev'en though this con-
ciMon be logically invalid. As in the case of
the halo effect, the
y^gmentd^ds on a general attitude toward the stimulus objects.
The dose sunilarily betsveen the halo effect in
judging peiso^lit)-
and the atmo^here lêct in logical reasoning
servis to aphasia
4e basic conlmm^ of the processes which operate
in judgment and^
m reasoning or thinking." *
Judgment Time, Confidence, and Difficulty of Judgment.

CXPCniMENTAL ANALISIS OF JUDGMENT 229
One characlcnslic of judgment whieh
\anes sj jtemalicall}' with
changes m the itj/nulus situation is die speed
with which the judg
ment ts made. Of course every
judgment takes a certain amount of
time Uul how much bme elapses behvecn the presentation of a
stimulus and the subjects report is
not accidental or haphazard In
eeci speed of judgment may
be more sensitive to changes in the
stimulus situation than the subjects report
fhe experimental ivork
on the relationship between judgment time
and other characterisbcs
of judgment has given rise to a number of
generalizations
1 The greater the difficulty of the discrimination the longer is the
judgment time TIus fact can easily be demonstrated ma con
\entionaI psychophysical expenmenl If the perceivxd difference
between the standard stimulus and tlie comparison stimulus is
large the Judgment (larger or smaller) :s usually given quite
rapidly If on the other hand the difference between the two
stimuli is small or zero the judgment is usually given much more
slowly Tlio same general relationship between difficulty and
speed of judgment can be shown m other judgment situations as
« ell Suppose for example a w-orker has to classify the products
of a factory as either mcebng speaficabons or as defecUve Those
items which are clearly dcfechve or clearly superior will be classi
fied quickly It is the borderline caseswhich will be judged most
slowly In general those slirouJus objects whidb fall near the
threshold of a response category will be judged more slowly than
those which are dearly above or below the threshold
2 Correct judgments are made more quickly than incorrect judg
ments This relabonship follows nccessanly from the fact that
judgments of stimuli near category thresholds require the longest
bmes Judgments of stimuli lo the ilireshold area are the most
of sbm
vanable and are more hkely to be wrong than judgments
ub which appreciably exceed the tlireshold v alue These variable
times as compared
and frequently wrong judgments require long
withies vanable and usually correct judgments
The more confident a subject is about his judgment the shorter
3
judgment is difficult eg when a
the iudgment tune When a
required the subject not only makes
very fine d scrimmation is
his ludement slowly
but he is also likely to have Iiftle confidence
certainly less confidence than m a
judgment
in his judgment
which is and quickly made. Tlius, there is an inverse rela-
easily
tionship between judgment time and the degree of confidence
which the subject expresses. Tills relationship has been frequently
established in experimental investigations.
The Reliadility and VALronr of Judgments

Reliability. Reliability refers not to the correctness or incorrect-
ness of a judgment but to the consistency with which a judgment is
given in response to a specific stimulus object. If a given stimulus
object always evokes the same judgment, we have complete re-
liability. At the other extreme, if the judgments vary as widely as
they would if the judges were guessing at random, we have com-
plete lack of reliability. In most practical situations, neither of these
extreme conditions is found. Few judgments have 100 percent re-
liability; nor do wc usually encounter zero reliability. In most cases,
judges show a fair amount of consistency which safely takes their
performance out of the realm of random guessing.
In the analysis of judgments, we may be concerned with two
types of reliability: (1) the reliability of the judgments made by one
judge and (2) interjudge reliability.
In the case of a single judge, we can inquire henv consistent he is
in his responses to a set of stimuli. To answer this question, we can
require him to repeat his judgments on two ( or more occasions and
) ^
correlate the two (or more) sets of judgments.
If the correlation is’
high, his judgments have high reliability. This
method of testing
reliability sometimes runs into difficulties, for
the judge may remem-
ber his previous ratings (say, in judging a group
of individuals on
some personality trait) and the test becomes in
part a test of memoiy
rather than a check of consistency.
The problem of reliability of judgments can
be approached from
a sonrewhat different point of view. Taking
some nttribute or char-
actenstio (say, again, some personality
trait), we can question how
insistent drlferent judges are with
each other in their judgments.
Rehabdrty may then be determined by
correlating the ju ênts of
perfect, we hive complete
fnferi^l 1 m-k Vr*c°
“ *=
“n-'taion is zero, the reliability is nil.
U
If there is satisfactory
agreement between the judges,
their mean judgment as a better esUmate we can use
of the aUribule in ques-
EXPEHIMENTAL analysis of judgment 231
bon than either of the judgments taVcn
singly Somehraes, when
lugwy abstract or complei judgments
are involved, it is advisable
to average tlie responses of many more than
two judges
Validit). A judgment is valid to the estenl
that it is independ-
ently \ enlied by the use of an cxienml
cntenon In many instances
validation must come from the observation of behavior For example,
if a personnel officer Judges & prospective employee to be coopera*
tiveand conswentious his judgments can be X’alidated agamsl the
workers subsequent conduct To the extent that predictions made
on the basis of liis judgment come true, his judgment is proved valid.
Since each judge is fallible, at least to some extent, the pooled judg
meiit of several indiâduals will usual!) be more valid than the judg
ment of a single individual Thus, not only the reliability but also
the validity of judgments increases with the number of judges
Often It IS difficult to 6nd an external cntenon for the vabdabon
of judgments Aesthebc and a0ecbve judgments especially are diffi
cult to validate As the old adage bas it, one man's meat is another
man's poison, and likes, dislikes, and preferences cannot be right

or wrong It is possible, however, to consider a fudges actions as
entena of the extent, then, that a judges actions, eg,
validity To
the choices he makes, are in accord with the affective and aesthetic
judgments he expresses, tliese judgments may be presumed to be
valid
important to note that highly rebahle judgments may be in
It is
valid or group of judges may be perfectly consistent m a
A judge
judgment which is proven mvahd by subsequent events Validation
bears
depends entirely on the extent to which an outside cntenon
out the assertion made in the judgment
ExPEn»tErfr XV
The Anchoring or a Besfonse Scale
of respome,
Puipoic demoostrale (I ) the nequuioeo of o sole
To
the tesponse scale cansed hy
to a seies of stnnoh, and (2) the ehangea in
the mtroducuan of an anchoring stimulus
u A.
Slmiutm Mulenals varmty of stimulus materiah
A
provided they can be mranged to
of toes of ‘hffe"nt togto »n
m drscretc slips For evample, u sene,
used, u senes of weights a graded
seno of square, e = Sifwa- espe"
ubeady been dneussed above e shah
rueut on the Judgment of hue, has
234
EXPnHIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
To
anchor The extent of the jM/l lx a quantllettve Index of anchoring
the category thresholds obtained
undw
measure this shift, we compare
sen
large anchor senes, and sinall anchor
the three conditions training
magnilu e
If several anchors are used at each end of the scale, the
the shifts caused by them should also be compared
the stimu
There an alternative ^vay for treating the data Taking
is
weights in turn, we determine for each of them the

mean category va ue
a scries Each of these means would be based
m on twenty
assigned to it
cases (or whatever the frequency with which each stimulus was presen
in a series) Anchoring can then be gauged by the upward or do^
The
ward change in the mean category assigned to each of the stimuli
tests of stabs
reliability of such shifts can be determined by conventional
tical significance
The above dcscnption illustrates the procedure of an anchoring
penment, using wei^ts as stimulus materials No basic changes in
procedure would result from the use of other stimulus materials
ExPEniMENtT XVI
Judgment Time as a Measure of Difficulty of Deosiok
of
purpose This expenment is concerned with the demonstraUon
of a
the general principle that judgment time increases as the threshold
response category approached
is
Materials Again we may choose from a large vanety of stimulus ma

of
terials Any senes of stimuli is adequate which leads to decisions
oarying degrees of difficulty For illustrative purposes, we choose as sbm-
ulus materials two sets of geometneal figures ® a learning senes and a test
series
The leammg senes consists of five angles, the sizes of which are 60,
70 80, 00 and 100 degrees The test senes consists of fifteen angled*
covering the range from 10 to 150 degrees in successive 10-degree steps
Thus, the test seres comprises the original figures plus ten new angles
which arc smaller and five larger than those used In the learning
five of
senes Each of the angles is drawn in heavy black ink on while cardboard
Experimental Procedure The learning senes is presented to the
subjects with the following instructions
8 This expenment Is modeled after D

Cartwright BelaHon of decision time
to the categories of response, Amcr / Ptychol 1941, 54 174 190
J
EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF JUDGMENT 235

want you
T shall prrsent lo )-ou a senM of angles of varying lo pick out
size
later
I
to look at them carefully since you will be required

the ones >-ou \m e seen from a large number of
angles
Umes fa noiem order
The cards are then presented to the subject five
jay* ^
Each card is exposed for a constant period of
presentrd mih tee
After a short rrsl. tho tat seria Is
present to you a scries of anês Some of
te'
-I shall again
Indoded
you bclorc Es ery lime a card
slicnvn lo
new and they ha« not
In rte previous scries olhert
are
Is shorn, I want
you to fai
shown In the first
^
11 as has-mg been
rale whelhcr or not jnu recosume
Tifetrt'serles Is ,he„ presented ten eTptg
.hfrs“ra;"hfpT:re;"^Brs.nd^.ud
¥n\m
" ijc-d In Experiment
XVI The
,
ttow
Fio 65 5Vinng Diagram »[ double pde
single
experimenter (E) a ® P°.

dock (C) through At to ' ,ooie
switch, and Uiercby “•‘""Jiit.^^y is normally open )
throw 115-solt relay (H) (10^ "“/e“,d in place by ihe *'
naf
time he releases the indicate "Ves"
The subject presses one of
No"), and thereby stops the
etoln"'“S V
(y to “"J
pressing his key.
^ ^
espenmenler ,i“eoord
to reeo
, also
o' '^1'
causes a bulb to light up (I-i
the nature o[ the response is greatly

oxpenmeat
the are used.
ol a stop watch Hosvever,
means of
enhanced I! standardized aaposed by
may be
The stimulus cards
Atmosphere Effect
Sells, S. B., The atmosphere effect. Arch. Psychol., 1036, No. 200.
Judgment Time, Confidence, and Difficulty of Judgment

Cartwright, D., Relation of dcasion*tIme to the categories of response,
Amer. J. Psychol, 1941, 54:174.190.
Johnson, D. M., Confidence and speed in the Iwocategory judgment,
Arch. Psychol 1939, No. 241.
Seward, G
, Recoîtlon time as a measure of confidence, Arch.
PsychoU
1928, No. 09.
Volkmann, of
J., The relation of the lime of judgment to the certainty
judgment, Psychol. Bull., 1934, 31:672-673.
REUABiLmr Arm Validity

Guilford, J. P., Psychometric methods. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co-*
1930, Chap. 13.
Symonds, P. M., Diagnosing personality and conduct, New Yw^'
D. Appleton-Ccntury Co., 1931, Chap. 3.
Thurslonc, L. L., The reliability and validity of tests, Ann Arbor*
Edwards Bros., 1931.
^
<“<
12
REACTION TIME AND ASSOCIATION
I REACTION TIME
of «.=
ONE or .ho class-cal o,pc„n,e„..
response .s g-ven *“
concon« the ,pccd ™ih >vh,cl. a
ore the duratio^f

Uon Some indeed '“H ^ function, ng of the ivJI These
.^di„tog.cal history, for it
hopes hate remained
pious P
has prosed impossible to , complex act
t*
processes of discriminating expcnmeotaluts had en
The mental ehronometry ss
^
J ,caetion time expen
visaged neser came to P” ^ a standard
ment has had a long
^ j
®5,c„ a„d is stdl
Although it has failed to
procedure In the reaction time
reac^^^
egpenment has
S.ve us a menul
chrono^te ^
prêd useful In
„f „n orgamsm to respond to
measure of the re or pre-
sensitive . .jg-jf sucli readiness
changes in the
^ nature of the stimulus
situa
paredness vanes lasvfuUy

tionand the state of the
svith
orga ^ ^
To know
criUcal importance
what determines readiness ^ ylie measurement
of in
m the predicUon and contro o often useful in

the
dividual differences
in ™ jnny„
,e -
,s
timing^ suremssjl,
selection of n^fonoJîi5‘I!!H!5£'S®^
response 239
lachistoscope.-* For the test series, the followng arrangement will iê
precise timing of the judgments: the tachisloscopc is
incorporated in an
stimulus
electric circuit wired in such a way that the exposure of the
card (opening of the shutter of the lachistoscope) closes a circuit
and
activates a chronoscopc. Also in the circuit arc two keys which the sub-
ject uses for indicating his judgments. One of the keys means "Yes,”
the
other, “No.” Depression of a key breaks the circuit and stops the clock-
The time elapsing can then be read directly from the clock. Each of the
response keys is also connected with a small bulb which li^ts up when-
ever the key is depressed. Thus, the experimenter can record both the
nature and lime of the judgment. A schematic wiring diagram shms-ing

such a circuit appears in Fig. 65.
Treatment of Results. For each ot the test stimuli, we compute the
percentage of trials on which it was recognixed (more exactly on whiti
it was judged as having been exposed in the learning series) and the
average judgment time. Tbus, we obtain a distribution arranged as shosvn

in the accompanying table.
Test Stimulus (Angle) SRecognition Av. Judgment Time

10 *
’
20
30*
We then plot the two distributions on the same graph: (1) percent
r^gnilions as a funcUon of stimulus size, and
(2) average judgment
time as a function of stimulus size. The critical
results to watch for are
the changes in these dependent variables
as the learning stimuh are ap-
proach^ on the left and on the right. At what
point is the judgment time
mmimal. Is the distribution of judgment
times ummodal or bimodal,
'^’’""Ses in judgment time re-
lated to the changes in frequency of
recognition’
In tôf these and similar questions,
the experimenter can apply the
general pnnciples of judgment discussed
above.
bnrf “f’
EXPEIUMENTAL ANALYSIS OF JUDGMENT 237
CnNCRAL Repeiievces
Guilford ?, Psychometric methods, Hew \orV McGraw Hill Book
J
Co,J936
Johmon, D M A s>’stematic Irealment of Judgment
,
Psychol Buu., 1945,
42 193*224
SriMtLus ScAixs xsTi Resros'SE Scales
H unt, W A. and Volkmann J. Tlic andionng

of an alleebve scale.
Anjcr J Psychol, 1937, i/O S3 92

McCarvey, H B, Anchoring effects m the absolute judgment or verba]
mntcmls Arch Psycho/, 1943, No 281 . , „ t ? iq.m

Arch Psychol, 1941,
Rogers.S , The anchoring of absolute luilgmcnls
Amct I ?s<jck>l, 1932,
Vontmaml. Hie method of single stannli.
J .
Ball, 1936, S3 712

Vottaa°tl,TAncl,onng of abiolnto scales Fsvehc!
Volljoanit, J .
Hunt,
pmcIo™lS M 277^84
ahsolute tndgment 9.
Wrr.'E t,\t‘'2"E?-U:m.L;of
35
psychophysics, Psychol nev,1923
GtvmSL PncaaiiS or Jutcuint

Central TettdeM^ . , ,ono
movement. Arch sje o .
inaccuracy of
HolUngoorth, H 1.. The
studies m judgment Arch

fWbuJôrth, H L, Experimental
1913, No 29
RouodNon^cr
re
Coover, J E ,
Experiments In pssjhmol
eerslfy, Stanford Uni>ersity,
19
New York
AoJbcfoj/ interpretation.
Allport. G W. Personality a
PP Pspeho
Henry Holt and Co .
1937,
pxacticabU? / Fduc
,
Kugg, H
,
Is the rating of 81 93
AppI
485-501. 19-2 ratings I
1921, 12 425-438 In psye
j„i„g,cal
emor
Thomdihe, E L, A constmit
Fsydwl, 1920, 4 25-29
Reaction Time, Judgment Time, and Latency

The study of temporal characteristics of response is of major
concern in many areas of psychological eiperimenlab'on. A variety
of measures of response speed have been developed. We shall begin,
therefore, with a brief survey of such measuresand of terminology.
Simple Reaction Time. Reaction time is the period between
the onset of the stimulus and the beginning of the response. In the
simple reaction-time experiment, there is usually a single stimulus
mch as a light, a sound, or a toucli to the sldn, and the subject is
instmeted to react as soon as he can to the stimulus
usually by
svithdrawmg his linger from a telegraph hey. In
this situation, a
premium IS put on the sheer speed of response, and the
subject is
often so highly motivated to react rapidly
that he may at times
Jump the gun and give his response prematurely, i.e., before
the
stimulus has been delivered.
Disjunniye Reaction Time. In the
disiuncllvc reaction-time
eyeriment, the subjects task is more
complicated. Instead of one
more different stimuli are presented
in a random
order, e.g., lights of different colors,
sounds of different quality, al-
react to one bu not to the other stimuli. For example, he may be
-arri
onf Thus, a discriminaUon
one.
- is
gl't. but not to that of a red
required in order to malte
reônse. the correct
task may be rendered even
more complex by usinc
nrt only alternative stimuh but also
altemaUve respo^r The
ject may be instructed to
respond to one tvne^ i /
green light) with his left hand Md
to anothe^Te 01.^“'^
red hght) with his right hand.
inabons are involved; idenbffcaUon
VnZZ^Tn^- ^
of the stimu/rt
Uon of the appropriate response or as .1, ’denhfica-
to put it, a dbrfminabonXbvee^ ^muIiTLndTcteîrb
responses). Such discriminations
highly automab'zed and after
and chotoi
suffiriîT
Xe ‘
I,
are not usually

veAdixedbythesubje^
(the appearance of
alighrsott
make a judgment about the stimulus, about its intensity, its
quality
its pleasantness or unpleasantness, its familianty,
to name but a
few ty-pes of judgment which may be required In such
situations,
the time of response may again bt deteimined-the
penod
behveen
tlie presentation of
tlie stimulus and the moment
at which the sub
ject makes judgment Here the responses vary from trial to tnal,
his
the subject must decide on a response each time a stimulus
is pre-
sealed The spetd of such responses is usuallj designated as decision
time or judgment time Judgment time is, of course, an example of
reaction tiipe, but the reaction is at a diiferent le\el of complexity
than simple recogmlion of a stimulus Judgment times, therefore,
cover a much wider range than reaction times to sensory stimuli
Difficult judgments may require many minutes, whereas even the
slowest sensory reactions rarely exceed a second Judgment time is a
sensitive measure of the difficulty or complexity of the judgment
which the subject is required to make For a fuller discussion of
this measure, see Chapter 11
Xîtcnc}. Speed of response is often used to gauge the effective
ness of stimuli to which an organism is exposed In sucli coses the
speed with which a response appears is usually designated by the

term Jatenaj In the field of learning, latency is sometimes taken as
an indication of the strength of a learned response The more thor
ougWy an association between two items is established, for example,
the more rapidly one item may be p\ en upon presentation of the
other In motor and verbal learning, a strong association may be
distinguished by speed of response For an illustrabon of latency as
a measure of strength of learning turn to Fig 66
Speed of response may also be an index of sensiUvity The speed
vanes
with w hich neural tissue reacts to changes in the environment
of sbmulabon
with the sensitivity of the tissue to the particular type
to vanous kinds of light
involved The response of the optic nerv’e
in a
sbmulabon case in point Fig 67 shows a result obtained
is a
processes in which lafea^' of re-
classical invesbgation of visual
sensibvity The subject here was
sponse was used as an index of
to intennty could not
Mva a photosensibve crab, whose sensitivity M
convenbonal psychophysical meffiod
vety well be tested by a
Mya's typical response to light (with
Fig FT shows, the latency of
2^2
the intensity of the
drawal of its antennae) varies inversely with
dif-
^''ihese differences in terminology
do not represent systematic
SUCCtSS(VC R£INrORcrUEHTS (N)
Fic. 60. Latency as a Measure of Response

Strength in Learning. This curve shows how the
latency of responses in a paired associate experiment
decreases as a function of the number of reinforce'
ments (correct responses). (From C. L. Hull, Prin-
ciples of hehavior, 1943, p. 105, by permission of
Applelon-Ccntury-Crofts, Inc.)
fe/enccs among the various measures of response speed; they have

arisen in the interest of convenient reference to different contexts
of measurement Basically, all these methods are continuous; they
eTv
“
reaction time and
association
'itr;/ >0 -pona

ms
Frc 67 Lafency as an Index of Sensitivity Tfie

greater llie intensity of the bght the faster does the
organism (the photosensiti\e crab Wyo) respond to
stimu/abon (From S Hecfat, Vision If The nature
of the photoreceptor process In C Murchison fed)
A handbook of general experimental psyehôgy
1934 p 716 by permission of Clark University
Press )
Standard Apparatus in Reaction TihtE Expeiuments

The reaction bme expenmenl requires standardized conditions
for the dehvery of the stimulus for the subject s response and for
the measurement of the time interval between the onset of the stun
ulus and the beginning ofthe re^nse A îca! arrangement con
sisls ofa stimulus source (such as a light bulb or buzzer), a pair of
telegraph ke)s and a chronoscope
The chronoscope is a prcasion instrument for the measurement
of short time intervals A constant speed motor moves a
pointer
244
EXPEBIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
electric one, though higUy
around a dial. (Usually the motor is an
the early work.) The ial
accurate clockwork motors were used in
is cahhrated in hundredths
of a second, or even finer divisions. The
pointer of the chronoscope is attached to a

magnetic clutch, so that
it ismoved around the dial at a constant speed when the clutch en-
gages with the motor. YVhen the clutch is disengaged, the movement
of the pointer is stopped.
Fic. 68. ASchematic Diagram of Typical Reaction-Time Apparatus.

(From N. L. Munn, A laboratory manual in general experimental psy-
chology, 1948, p. 1, by permission of Houghton Mifflin Company.)
The two telegraph keys are used to engage and disengage the
motor and, thus, to start and stop the movement of the pointer. One
of the ke)'s is operated by the experimenter. ^Vhen he presses his
key, he causes the stimulus to be delivered to the subject (e.g., a
li^t to flash or a buzzer to sound) and, at the same time, activates
the magnet which engages the motor and thereby starts the move-
ment of the pointer around the diai The subj'ect operates the sec-
ond key. Shortly before the onset of the stimulus, he is given a
“ready" signal and places bis finger on the key. As soon as he can
react to the stimulus, he vrithdraws his finger from the key, break-
ing the electric drcuit and thereby disengaging the motor so that
the mo>-ement of the pointer around the dial is stopped almost in-
stantaneously.
REACTION TIME AND ASSOCIATION 245
When stimuli or responses are verbal (such as in the association
experiment described below) voice ke^s instead of telegraph
keys
are used The electric circuit is made and broken by vibrations
of a
diaphragm set in motion by the \-oice of the experimenter or subject
Thus the expenmenter by speaking Into hfs voice key completes
the cu-cuit acbvates the magnet and starts the pointer of the
(dironoscope When a subject speaks into his key the vibrations of
the diaphragm break the circuit and stop the chronoscope
A schemabc diagram of a reaction time setup is shown in Fig 6S
As may be used m
the figure indicates a variety of sensory sbmuli
a reaction bme experiment Indeed reaction fames have been ob-
tained for sbmuh in all the sense modalities and the modality stun
ulated is one of the factors with which reacbon bme varies over a
considerable range
Tme Determinants of Reaction Time

We now turn to a discussion of the determinants of reaction tune
the variables of which its magnitude and variation are a function
For purposes of analysis we shall distinguish three sets of variables
(1) the characterisbcs of the sbmulus (2) set and attitude of the
reactor and (3) individual differences among subjects
Reactton Tttnc as a Function of Stimulus Charactenslies

Diiferenccs Among Sense Modalities In the conventional
reaction bme experiment the subject is instructed to respond to the
stimulus by withdrawing his finger from the key as soon as possible
The sense modalit) stimulated is dearly an important parameter

of everv reacbon fame experiment As the
iccompanîng table of
typical reacbon times indicates Uie

speed of response differs con
siderably for the various sense modal faes
Sense Kfodditv Typ <nl Range of ReacUon Time
JIU tns ISO ms
120
Vis on ISO
Temperature 150
200 - 500
Taste
200
-00 -1000
Pam
The wide range of reaction times reflects differences in the speed
with which the stimulation of various sensory systems leads to a
motor response. The locus of such differences may be at any one of
several levels or at a combination of levels. First of all, some recep-
tors are more accessible to peripheral stimulation than others. The
cold and warm receptors, for example, are located deeper down in
the skin than the touch receptors. More time must necessarily elapse
between the application of a tOcrmal stimulus and the beginning of
the sensory response than in the case of a touch stimulus. The
substantial difference between reaction time for touch, on the one
hand, and for cold and warmth, on the other, must, at least in part,
be due to this difference in the accessibility of the peripheral re-
ceptors. There may be differences in the speed with which the spe-
cialized receptors themselves respond to stimulation. Finally, some
sensory systems may link up with motor response systems more
readily than others. We must, moreover, not neglect the possible
influence of affective or emotional reactions to the various stimuli
which may slow down or speed up a response. In short, the effect
of the sense modality stimulated on reaction time may be either
peripheral or central in nature, possibly both.
Stimulus Differences Within a Modality. Within a given sense
modality, reaction time varies, often considerably, with the specific
characteristics of the stimulus. The experimental results support the
generalization that those characteristics of the stimulus which serve
to increase the magnitude of response in the sense organ lead to
quicker reaction times. Intensity of the stimulus is the first case in_
point. An intense stimulus produces a response of greater magnitude
in the seme organ than a \veak stimulus: it reaches the thresholds
of a larger number of receptors, causes a larger number of nerve
fibers to “fire.” An intense stimulus also leads to quicker reaction
time than a weak one. The relationship between intensity of stimulus
and reaction time is not linear, however. As the intensity of the
stimulus (say, a light or a sound) is increased above
threshold, there
is, at first, a rapid decrease in reaction
time. Additional increases in
intensity shorten the reaction time further,
though less rapidly, until
finally a point of diminishing returns is reached. Thus, reaction to
a stimulus of medium intensity will be as fast as to one of great in-
HEACTION time and association
247
tensily Indeed if the intensity becomes painful
we might
o expect
the zeacboD tune to be slowed up i'
In the case of visual stimuli egectwe

sbmulation depends not
only on the intensity of the sUmuIus but
within certain 1 mits also
on Its duration and the st^ and location of (he
area stimulated In
creases m
duration of \isual stimub and m
area of visual stunula
tion also shorten reachon tune again within
certain limits The
effect of these factors is not veiy stntang-a tenfold
increase m
dura
bon may decrease reaction time by only 5 to 10 milhseconds-but
the effect seems to be fairly reliable Nor should we expect
tlie in
fluence of duration or area of stimulus to be very great \ isual et
perimentation has shown that area and duration can increase the
effective intensity only over a stnctly limited range of values (of
intensity and time and of intensity and durabon) Finally reaction
bme IS shorter with foveal than with peripheral stimulation The
fovea IS the rod free area of the retina which is maximally funcbonal
in daylight contour and color vision It is the area of maximal aeuitj
for the conditions under wh ch the visual reaction bme is usually
earned out (with a light adapted rebna)
The coirelabon between speed of reaction and effectiveness of
sbmulation appears also when the subject responds not to the onset
(or cessation) of a stimulus but rather to a change or diêrence m
the level of stimulation Consider first the simple reaction bme to
change The subject may look for example at a visual stimulus of

a given bnghtness and is instructed to respond as soon as he per
eeives a change in brightness The greater the change introduced
by the expenmenter the faster will be the reaction time even if a!!
the changes are well above threshold Thus reaction time may sup
piement other psychophysical methods which are aimed at the
measurement of a threshold and which allow the subject only a "yes"
size of the per
or ‘‘no' response without regard to the subjecbve
ceived difference , , , i. u
of change is graphical^
The relabon of reaction bme to magnitude
that the speed of response
shovvn in Fig 69 Tins figure also shows
Intensity at which the subjeet is
s-anes with the general level of
rclit.ee rjsnges (i e
worbng II the subject reacts to the same
decrement) at d iferent Imtils
equal 4rcentages of increment and
speed of his reactions mcreases mth intensity Hus
of intensity the
„ experimental psychology
248
, . v,r«««wpr l\olds only up to a medium level of intensity
level is rais^
69. If the general intensity
"s^^cr^^ho’wn in Fig. change.
time becomes slower, Keachon time to
further, reaction
Fic. 69. The Belation oF Reaction Time to

Magnitude of Stimulus Change. In this graph re-
action time plotted against the relalhe magnitude
is
of the stimulus change at four different
lesels of intensity (log /). The greater the relative
change, the faster is the reaction time. Within the
limits shos^m in this Bgure, reaction time decreases
with increases in the general les’el of intensity. (From
A. R Steinman, Reaction time to change. Arch.
Psychol., 194-1, No. 292, p 15, by permission of the
journal and the American Psycholo^cal Assodation.)
then. Is faster at a medium level of intensity than at a low level, but

Is sloss’cr at a high les'el than at a medium level.
Disjuncticc rccctions based on a discriminatjon by the subject
yield similar results. Suppose the subject is instructed to react to the
249
longer of two lines presented to him
using his nght or left hand
a^rding to the side on which the longer of the two lines
appears
This IS a reaction based on a discrimination
The larger the differ
ence behveen the tivo hnes the quicker will
be the disjunctive
reactionAgain reaction bme differentiates behveen differences
which are all well abo\e the subjects threshold Such results have
been obtained with a variety of sbimilus differences luies of dif
ferent lengths sounds of different intensities and colors of
different
hues The way m
which disjunctive reaction time vanes with the
magmtude of differences
is closely reminiscent of a general principle
of judgment discussed in Chapter 11 There too the sjieed of judg
ment or decision was found to be iniersely rehted to the difficulty
of the choice confronting the judge
The dependence of reaction time on magnitude of sensoiy re
sponse is also supported by intersensoiy effects The speed of reac-
tion to light (or sound) accompanied bj electnc shock is faster
than reaction time to the light sound or shock by itself The addi
tion of an electnc shock proxided it is not excessively strong, may
“key up" the organism and serve to facihlate the effective intensi^
ofAe other stimulus The facibtative effect of shock in certain learn
mg situations supports this interpretation In summary an) condi
tion which serves to facihtale or intensify the impact of the sensoiy
stimulus will tend to shorten the reaction time This generalization
IS well m
accord with our view of reaction time as an index of the
organisms readiness to respond to stimulation
Reaction Ttmc os a Function of Set ond Attitude
Whatever the nature of the stimulus the organisms state of pre
varedness or “set” will greatly influence the speed of response \\ e

know well from daily experience that our efficiency m coping with
prepared for it The skillful
a situation is greatest when we are fully
the trigger at exactly the nght
hunter, hung in wait for a deer pulls
signal will
moment the experienced dnver waiting for a traffic
start his car and smoothly as soon as red changes to green
quicUy
quick
The examples showing the importance of preparatory set for
could I>e nrolhphed indefinitely
The reaction
and efficient action
excellent opportunity for studying the
tune experiment prowdes a Q
250
in the organisms state of
ways in which even small fluctuations
aflect the speed and efficiency of reaction.
readiness
a ^te ot
The Toreperiod. In the reaction-time espenment,
“ready" siâl
maximum readiness is produced in the subject by a
precedes the appearance of the stimulus by
a short time. The
which
FOREPERfOD (sec.)
Fig. 70. The Effects \ipon Reaction Time of the Length of the Fore-
penod. (After H. Woodrow, The measurement of attention, Psychol
Monogr^ 1914, J7, No. 76, p. 26, by permission of the Joum j and the
Aroencan Psychological Association.)
time interval between the “ready” signal and the appearance of the
stimulus is known as the foreperiod.
The experimental situation raises the subject’s general lev’el of
readiness. His set is one of preparedness. The “ready” signal max-
imizes preparedness and lowers the threshold of action. How long
after the “ready” signal is the person optimally ‘leyed” for a re-
sponse? How does reaction time vary, other things being equal, widi
FOREPERIOD (sec)
Plc 71 The Differential Effect of Regular and Irregular Orden of
Presentafjon upon Reaction Time The t^per graph war obtamed when
forepenods were irregularly vaned “nie lower graph was obtained with
an orderly senes of forepenods (After H Woodrou Measurement of
attention TrycAo/ Monogr I9H 17 J*e 76 p 43 by pernmsloit of
the journal and the American Psydiological Assoaation )
suit in longer reacbon tunes Fig 70 represents the results of a

thorough expenmental inveshgabon of the effects upon reacbon
time to sound of the length of the forepenod Qenr!) maxunum
"
readiness to respond is on the average, at 2 seconds after the "read)
cases, the range of optimal intervals is be-
For individual
signal.
tween 2 to 4 seconds.
The results shown in Fig. 70 were obtained when the length of
the foreperiod remained constant within any blocL of trials
and
changes were introduced with full kno\vledge of the subject. Thus,
tnals,
a 1-second foreperiod would be used for twenty-five successive
afterwhich the subject was informed that a 2-second period would
now be used for the next twenty-five trials and so on, until the
longest interval was reached. In this manner, the subject could
achieve a rhythm of expectancy and adjust himself optimally to
each successive interval. The results are extremely different, indeed,
when foreperiods of different lengths are mixed together and pre-
sented in random order. When such an irregular sequence is used,
reaction time varies very httle as a function of foreperiod. The dif-
ference beriveen a regular and irregular order of presentation is
graphically illustrated in Fig. 71. For all the periods used, reaction
time is longer with the irregular order of presentation. The optimal
interval (and the curve does not have a very striking minimum) is
displaced to the middle of the range of intervals— 12 seconds—while
the 2-second period now yields the longest reaction times. It seems
as the subjects adjust themselves to an average length of fore-
if
penod and that deviations in either direction lengthen their readi;

ness to respond.
The importance of the foreperiod emphasizes the dependence of
the speed of response on the degree of the subjects readiness. Re-
action time does not measure the speed with which a hypothetical
“sensorimotor arc" automatically completes itself. It takes time for
readiness to build up to a maximum; that is the most plausible in-
terpretation of the 2-second minimum in Fig. 70. It is also necessary
to sustain readiness over a period of waiting,
or not to build up to
a point of maximum readiness too quickly, if too
the foreperiod is
long. If the foreperiod remains the same through
a series of trials,
the rale at which readiness to respond is built
up becomes adjusted
to the duraUon of the period. When the foreperiod
changes from
tnal to trial, no such adjustment can
take place, and the best the
subject can do is to adapt to an average
lengi which is repre-
sentati\e of the series and which is either
too short or too long for
most individual trials. ^
BEACTION time and association
253
INTERVAL m SEC
Fic 72 The Effect of the Subject s Rhythm of
Expectancy on Reaction Tune TTie subjects had
been trained to expect the onset of a stimulus at
12 second intervals When stimuli were Interspersed
8t intecvsh other than i2 seconds the reaction
tunes increased as shown in the graph (After
O H Mowrer Preparatory set (expectancy! -some
methods of measurement PsjcIoJ Monogr 19-10
52 No 233 p 9 by permission of the journal and
the Amencan Psychological Association }
reflects the respondents expectant^ or "preparator} set' for tlie

stimulus Subjects bad been rnslnicted to respond as quicUy as
possible to the onset of a tone delivered to them tlirough a pair of
earphones In the first part of the etperunent these tones were
presented at a fixed interval of 12 seconds between successive
stimuli The subjects built up a rhythm of expectancy
and learned
of the expen
to respond with increasing speed In the second part
were
ment, the 12 second inter^ was maintained but 'test" tnals
254
from 3 to 24 seconds. As
interspersed at irregular intervals ranging
any interval different from the “expected one led
Fig. 72 shows,
interesting to note
to im increase in reaction time. It is especially
intervals led to
that under these special conditions, the very short
unusually long reaction times: the subject's expectancy builds
up
gradually, reaches a peak at the 12-second interval. Similar curves,
showing a maximum speed of reaction at the point of expectancy
established through experience, could, of course, be obtained with
other regular intervals. It should be further noted that not only
an unexpected change in interval but also an unexpected change
in the nature of the stimulus (e.g., a tone instead of a light expected
by the subject) will lengthen reaction time.
Successful adjustment to a changing temporal pattern depends on
the flexibility of the subject’s expectancies, his abib'ty to shift from
one preparatory set to another. For this reason, some experi-
menters in the field of behavior disorders have been interested in
studying the reaction times of mental patients. They found that the
critical difference behveen nonnal and abnormal subjects lay not
so much in the absolute values of reaction time, but in the impaired
capadt)' of patients to adjust to long foreperiods, their inability to
sustain their readiness to respond over a waiting period. This finding
is of considerable theoretical interest,
for it suggests that the
reaction-time situation may
be, within narrow limits, a paradigm
for the study of broader adjustive capacities.
Sensory and Motor Attitudes. Clearly, the degree of a sub-
ject’s readiness is an important determinant of his reaction time.
Naturally enough, the question has been asked, readiness for what?
Is it readiness for the appearance of the stimulus
or readiness for
the toQinr respoaxse? Fox a. Utor., attempted
to differentiate two attitudes of readiness or expectation in the
reaction-time situation; the sensorial and the muscular.
A
subject
wi\h a sensorial altitude directs his attention as completely
as pos-
sible toward the appearance of the sensory
stimulus-the light,
sound, touch, etc. A subject with a muscular
atUtude, on the other
hand, concentrates on the motor response which he
is to make as
soon as the stimulus appears, c.g.. the withdrawal
of his fingers
from a telegraph key. Usually such an atUtude
involves the ex-
perience of some muscular tension.
25S
«>“t.vely sensorial or musoihr
Evtlfw.fr
Even with concentrated attention on the stonulus there
remanB a
ce^m tnmimmn necessary readiness for the motor
response In
deed subjects have usually found
rt very difficult to maintain
a
sensory attitude and the practiced
performer mvanably lends
toward a motor type of attitude Similarly
even an ertreme toncen
tration on the muscular response still
leases the subject m a slate of
preparedness for the stimulus Sensory and
motor readiness are
necessarily associated It is not surprising then that in the Jong
run the distinction between sensorial and muscular attitudes has
failed to yield substantial and reliable differences in reaction tune
On the whole the trend has been the direction of shorter reaction
m
time with a muscular than with a sensorial attitude There ha\e
been however enough exceptions and conflicting interpretations
to throw senous doubt on the validity of the dishnebon
Range of Preparedness Let us return to the disbnction be
hveen sunple and disjunctive reaction bme introduced earlier Is
the simple reaction tune situation there is a s/ngJe Jond of shmulus
and a single hind of reaction e g a light and finger withdraw al In
the disjuncbve situation one of several stimuli may appear and/or
one of several reactions may be required Thus the stimulus may
be a hght or a sound the response withdrawal of the nght or left
hand The essential difference between the two sihiahons is there-
fore one of atbtude or readiness In one case there is readiness for
a narrowly circumscribed range of events the organism is as it
were sharply tuned In the other cas" the set must encompass a
wider range of events the organism is less sharply hined ^Vllen the
set is thus toward a range of altemabve events we would
expect
the response to be less efficient Jess automatic. This is indeed the

case Disjunctive reaction times are longer than simple renebon
limes the difference is frequently as large as 500 milliseconds
The wider the range of events for which the subject must be pre-
of these
pared the longer becomes bis reacbon time to any one
events This fact can be demonstrated expenmcntaliy
by increasing
revebon bme experimenl
the number of altemabves in a diquncbve
the number of
There is a steady increase in the reacbon time as
visual stimuli fm ex
altemabves is made larger and larger With
about ISO milliseconds With bvo
ample simple reaction time is
alternatives, it may well exceed 500 milliseconds and when the
number of alternatives is as large as ten, we may obtain a reaction
time of over 600 milliseconds.
Individual Differences in Reaction Time

The reaction-time experiment part of the mental-test tradiUon.
is
\Vhen mental testing was introduced in the United States, con-
siderable emphasis was put on the measurement of
"simple" capaci-
ties. Speed of response was one of these
capacities. Probably for
this reasonthere has always been considerable
interest in the
problem of individual consistency and individual
differences in
reaction time.
Individual (^nsisiency. Even though we speak of typical re-
ason hmes sound, and other stimuli,
to light,
we must remember
ftat reason times are highly variable.
Even
under constant con-
ditions of testing,
one subjects reaction times will
characterisUcally
cover a wide range of values. Some
reacUons will be very short,
srae very long. Atypically long reactions
are more hkely to occur
distnbution of reaLn times
ten^ to be positively skewed.
I.'-;.*®
There is a physiological limit below
"h^recs liere is no com-
oa*'raL^«?mv
parable ceilmg ffor long reactfons.
ReacUon time can be considerably
shortened by pracUce Prob-
ably such improvement is
due in large measure
nr#»nar-»»nTTr
SroT o7the
ca?L77 r
7r^See
w7
j .1
to a more effective
"Meet and on a better
“"ônent of the response. Obviously,
ST^cSTedZnrn 7?’ °"'y
'« “detotely shortened,
TuTZ uhtMnZr, 7
ZTfyf* ’*.1
ard “neutral” situaUon.

The posiUse faZZ“’'“’
giving the subject
knowledge's nerfZ P^^êd by
êt speed goals for himseU and
to stSveZr^
257
negahve incentive consisted of an electric
shock wh ch w as dehvered
^tomaticall) \vhene\er the reaction time exceeded
a certain value
The introduction of an incentive appreciably shortened
the reaction
time as Mmpared with the neutral situation The
negative incentive
proved the more effective of the hvo yielding an
average improve
ment of about 15 percent m
tune as against a shortenmg of the re
action tune by 6 percent m
the presence of the positive incentive
The study also showed that the effects of an incentive on reaction
time though appreciable are shortlived Such effects are most
noticeable m the reactions following shortly after the reward or
punishment but they quickly wear off and may even be followed
by a compensatory slow up of rc^nse Nor are such improvements
carried over from one day to the next Incentives probably mtensify
temporarily tlic subjects attitude of readiness and concentration
on the response and bnng about a “state of much keener attention.’'
Not only do reaction times of a single subject vary considerably
from moment to moment but there is also wide variation from sub
jeet to subject Investigators have hoped to relate individual differ
ences in reaction tunc to broader characteristics of the person
Is Reaction Time Related to a General Speed Factor? Is
reaction time the manifestation of a general speed factor and do

extensive individual differences reflect the distribution of such a
general speed factor in the population^ If this were the case we
would expect high mtercorrelabons between (1) various reaction
tune measures and (2) between reaction tune and other measures
of response speed
The evidence is not in favor of one general
speed factor nor
speed measures
does point to complete independence of vanous
it
There are high correlations between simple reaction times to vanous

between performances in different
types of stimuli The correlations
simple and disjuncUve reactions
reaction tune situations sudi as
onl> very low eorrelafoas
are posiUve butta.er FwaDy
Ihere are
such as tapping and
betwen reaction times and other performanecs
,0 wliidi êed is Nor are there ve^
canceUntmn of letters
positive but low

IL ASSOCIATION EXPERIMENTS
The reaction-time experiment is part and parcel of an experi-
mental tradition which has put its main emphasis on the analysis
of behavior into stimulus and response elements and which has used
the concept of association as its primary principle of organization of
behavior. In the reaction-time experiment, we are concerned
primarily with the speed with which a sensory stimulus can evohe
an associated motor response. In the same experimental tradition,
much interest has centered on the various hinds of response that a
given stimulus can evoke, and the differences in speed among
various kinds of responses. In this section, we shall be concerned
with experimental investigations of association, especially those
which call for verbal responses and use words as stimuli.
The Concept of Association, A few words should be said
about the concept of association which gives rise to these experi-
ments and pervades their interpretation. Analysis of behavior into
elements— however broadly or narrowly these elements may bo
defined— at once raises the question of the law or laws governing
the secjuence of elements. The coherent flow of language and
thougjit, the orderliness of complex senes of motor acts, in short,
the reliable functioning of our vast hierarchy of habits-all these
illustrate the lawful sequence of acts (stimulus and response ele-
ments) which characterizes behavior. To account for such lawful

sequences, the principle of association has been invoked. Laws
governing the formation of associations have been stated. Most
prominent among these has been the principle of contiguity, accord-
ing to which events that occur together or in
immediate succession
are associated. AfterA and B have occurred together or im-
mediately followng each other, the occurrence
of A alone is likely
to bring about B.
The concept of association has had a long
and distinguished his.
lojy m experimental psychology. The
definition of the elements
winch are associated has been varied,
and there has been much
debate about the laws of association
In addition to contiguity,
\eTa pnncip es— such as
frequency, similarity, and vividness—
JlEACTION TIME AND ASSOCIATION
2J9
have been suggested at one lime
or another, but they have all re-
mametl secondary to contiguity
The concept of association has been so hardy
because it has been
so useful to the cspenmenter in
two broad areas (I) many
phenomena in the field of learning are
conveniently desenbed and
analy2 ed as the establishment of
new associatJons, (2) many re-
actions to environmental stimuh
(espcciall) verbal reachons) may
be ascribed to (he functioning of already well established
assoaa
tions The experimental procedures about to
be described have as
their purpose the sampling and analysis of the rich store
of \erbal
associations ivhich man accumulates through the use of language
Types of Verhol Association Experiments

In verbal association experiments, the sub;ect’s task is to second
by a word or words, usually as quicU) as he can after presentation
of the stimulus According to the fype of sbmulus used, we can
group such experiments under two general headings object uord
And iiord word assoaa (ion
Object'IVord Association In the object word experiment, the
stimulus may be almost any kind of object—a piece of colored paper,
a geometnc design an object of daily use-and the subject is in
structed to react to this object with a word, e g , to name die object
Or, it may be a visually presented pnnted word which must be
read aloud Since the spoken word cames the meaning of the
object, such experiments are designed to test the speed with which
the \erbal meaning of an object can be reported Verbal associations
are slower than simple motor iractious A subject wall for example,
take about 500 milliseconds to name a color, as compared with a
motor reaction time of 180 imUiseconds to a simple light stimulus A
naming response, moreover, is sIo%ver than a reading response to
read the printed name of a color requires on the average about 350
milliseconds
experiment meas
In summary then, the object word association
urestIiespMtfofvei6afizafioii Tie qiinsfim K
»«.• TOidJy zsn
the presence of an
the apnropnate verbal response be
given in
object or conventional symbol? The

answer is that veibahzation
tends to be rather slow, certainly «5
eompared with a simple motor
reaction By a simple motor reacUon, the subject merely indicates
that “something is there.” In giving a
verbal association, the sub-
ject must make a selective

response-the word must be appropriate
to the object. Such a selective reaction takes time.
Word-Word Association: Free and Controlled. In word-word
association experiments, both stimulus and response are spoken
words. The relation between the stimulus word and the response
word may or may not be presenbed. In the frcc’ossociation experi-
ment, the subject responds with the very Brst word that occurs to
him. In the case of controlled association, the type of response is
determined by the instructions given to the subject. Thus he may
be required to respond to a stimulus word by naming its opposite
(gay-sad, big-small, etc.), or by naming the genus of which the
stimulus word is a species (dog-mammal, trout-6sh, etc.), and so
Such control of association may
on, for any variety of relationships.
he more or less complete. There may be only one correct response
to the stimulus word naming Uie genus of which the stimulus
(as in
word is a species), or there may be several alternative responses (as
In naming a speaes when the stimulus word is a genus).
The contrast betiveen free and controlled association is perhaps
somewhat misleading. There is no implication that one is hap-
hazard and the other lawful. Both types of association alike must
be considered to be lawfully determined. In the case of controlled
associations, the experimental instructions provide a determining
tendency^the direction of the associations is regulated by the in-
structions. We may say that the association is controlled externally.
When association is free, the determinationis, as it were, internal.
The subject’s past experience, his motives and habits of thought
constitute the determining tendencies which cause him to respond
witli one word rather than another.
The Speed of Word-Word Assodations. The speed of both
freeand controlled assodations varies over a wide range, depending
on the particular word in conjunction with the kmd
of instruction.
In general, tlie more fully controlled the association
is by
instruc-
tion,the shorter the reaction time tends to be,
provided of course,
such factors as familiarity of the words are held
constant.
Since association times are distinguished
by great variability from
word to word and from subject to subject, it is difficult to state
261
truly representatne average
\alues. For controlled word asrcaa
tion, a median value of a little
less than 1 second probably represents
a fair estimate For free associations,
as W the average value should be
as 1100 milliseconds and as high as
2^ milliseconds have been reported
the distnbution of
The most notable fact about
free association times
is tlie unusual slowness of
some responses Responses which take 5 or even 10 seconds are
infrequent but not out of the ordinary (As
«e shall see, such veiy
slow responses may somebmes be indicative of emotional blocks
)
C/ossificailon of Associations
The analysis of verbal associations does not end with measure-

ments of their speed The kinds of responses which are given are
of interest Investigators have hoped fora long time that the classifi-
cation of verbal associations would provide an important instrument
for (he study of individual differences in cognitive functions. Two
mam approaches have been used in the evaluation of verbal asso
cialions(1) frcqttcnaj tables, and (2) content analysis
Frequency Tables \Vlien we adminuter a free association test
to a large representative sample of subjects, we obtain a distribution
of responses to each stimulus word We
can tabulate the frequency
With which tlie various responses are given ranging from the most
frequent associations given by a pJiinJity of the subjects to those

which are highly individual and given only by one in a thousand
subjectsBy meaps of such a frequency table, we can evaluate any
given association in terms of the relative frequency with which it
occurs in the sample
To provide a standard basis for the measurement of individual
fables has e been worfed
differences ses eral sets of such frequency
the bent Basanaff frequency
ouf The first, and best inmra. are
distnbutions of responses gnen by
fables They contain frequency
common nouns under standard
a sample of 1000 subjects to 100
of frequency tables hstog the responses
otmdstous to example tlie
to the word trhlto, appears in the foHorvmg table
a n heat and A1 BosmoO A Mndy of msoebUon m Imaalty, Amer I
JiuaB.1910.6?37 96 3t7J!90
3
Frequency of Responses lo Uie Word While
1
cotton 1 lady 1 ribbon

1 almost
cream 1 lawn 1 rlglitness
2 apron 1
2 curtain 1 lead 2 rose

baby 1 curtains 1 lemon
1 beach Hie 1 sand
1 beautiful 85 dark 51 light 1 Sarah
1 beauty 1 darkness 3 linen 1 sltade
Ibiid Iday 1 lovely 0 sheet
308 black 1 daylight 1 shoes
1 bleached 2 dazzling 2 man 1 sliroud
9 blue 1 delicate 1 marble 1 silvery
Iboat 2 dove 0 milk 1 simple

IBob 34 dress 1 Mountain 1 skirt
Ibody 1 dresses 1 Mountains 2 iky
1 bride 3 muslin 01 snow
4 bright 2easy 1 snowflake
I brightness 1 evening 1 snowy
1 napldo
1 Broadway Isofl
1 nearly
2 brown 1 face 1 scrul
2 nice 1 space
2 feathers
2 cat 2 Sag 1 spread
1 cerement 2 flower 5 paint 2 still
Ichalr 2 pale 1 summer

3 chalk 2 garment 17 paper 1 sunlight
X cheerful 1 ghost 1 pencil 1 swan
1 cherries 1 glare 2 person
10 clean 1 good 1 pigeon 4 tablecloth
2 cleanliness Zgtay 2 pink 1 tent
1 cleanness 6 green 1 pleasing 1 tile
2 clear 1 powder 1 trees
17 cloth lhaU 1 pretty 1 trousers
1 clothing 2 handkerchief 20 pure
4 cloud 1 hands 19 purity
2 waist
2 clouds 1 hard
6 wall
1 coat 2 horse Irace 1 wash
170 color 4 house 7 red 2 wedding
1 colored 1 restful
11 colorless
The sample used by Lent and RosanofF included subjects of both

sexeswhose ages ranged from ei^t to over eighty years. They came
from different geographical areas and varied widely in intelligence
and education. Their subjects were not, however, a truly reprC"
HEACTION time and association
263
“") H-s fart mate tte appl.
ration of Ihcir (rcquonc) tables
oUltr ircqacacy fabJex basetf on
somewhat uncertam There
more systematically controlled
L
samples the O Connor tables obtained
from a sample of 1000 adult
rnm incl the iroot/roit Louel!
tables based on the responses of
lUUO urban school children In using
tliese tables it is important *0
h«r in mind the nature of the sample on which they are based If
the sample is not representatue of the
population to which the sub-
ject belongs the use of the tables
becomes at best hazardous Such
a procedure would be analogous to the use of test norms
with sub
jects to whom the norms do not appl) such as the application
of
adult intclhgcnee norms to the performance of children or vice
versa
Anal) sis of word associations by means of frequency tables has
shown lliat subjects may differ widely in the convenbonahty of
their rc-sponses A measure of conformance can be obtained by

Ending the frequency with whicli a subjects responses are given m
the population The best measure of conformance is perhaps the
median of population frequencies for the responses given by him
\Vlien this measure is appbed the most striking differences are
found between normal subjects and mental patients Wiereas
normal subjects give on the average over 00 percent common re-
actions the percentage of such responses drops to about 70 in the
case of patients Schizophrenics in particular are given to bizarre
unusual associations including neologisms and incoherent re
sponscs By the use of frequency tables the conventionality of a
subjects responses can thus be gauged— the degree to
wluch his
is interestwg to
assoaations form common or unique patfems It
note that the more frequent a response the
more quickly if is
given Tins generalization is known as Marbes
law Frequency and
effecbve strength
speed are two complementary wa)$ fn which the
of associations expresses itself We
recall again the parallel o
learning The weff-cstablished response is not only

measures of
but alw more quickly
elioted frequently and regularly
Content .Vnalysis Not saUsfied with sheer frequency wunts
invesugators have long been .nlererted
ciationf aceording to the eontent
mthe class,firat,on of
tho eejponseJ They hoped to
of
^
between the content of associative
re-
find significant correlations
intellectual, aeslheUc, and emotional characteristics of
sponses and
the subjects. To many
this end, different classifications of associa-
tions have been attempted. The variety of associative responses is
and the categories used in their classification have been

rich, indeed,
correspondingly numerous. They were based on the grammatical
and logical relationships between the stimulus and the response
word, on the type of evaluation of the stimulus word contained in
the response, on the objectivity as against the cgocentricily of the
response, and so on. Many of these categories were not mutually
exclusive. Littlepurpose would be scrv'cd by a detailed survey of
wc shall cite here a classifica-
these various classifications. Instead,
tion proposed by Woodworth- which, under four general headings,
subsumes most of the more specific detailed classifications used by
experimental and clinical workers. These categories follow:
1. De^niitorw. These include synonyms, e g justice-right, and supra-
,
ordmates, e.g., sheep-animal. Such responses arc especially fre-

quent when the subject is not very familiar with the stimulus
word and uses the responses to clarify its meaning.
2. Completions or predications Such responses tell something about
the stimulus, elaborate on it Occan-blue, bread-cat are examples
of such responses. Children are more prone to such responses ân
adults, and hterary individuals use them more frequently than
Such responses seem to stem from a
scientifically oriented ones.
descriptive rather than an analytic approach.
3. Coordinates. The stimulus-response relationship represents a jux-
taposition of terms rather than a subordination or supraordina-
tion.Stimulus-response pairs like hunger-appetite, religion-church
provide illustrations. These words arc juxtaposed because they
refer to the same realm of acHvily or feeling, are examples of the
same class of events, and so on The frequently
used contrast
responses, such as black-wHtc, long-short,
belong to the same
category. Adult subjects give more coordinate than
assodaUons
children. Again, a difference between individuals with a h'terary
and a onentatlon has been reported, coordinate re-
scientific
sponses being more frequent among the
scientists. Coordinate
ptychology. New York: Henry Holt and

265
responses are more analjUcal
or conceptui! as compared with
completion responses
4 Valuatlotis and personal
assoaations Here we have the large
group of responses which stem from a
subject s unique past experi
ence from his valuations and athtudes
needs and emotions Some
of these responses are well desenbed as
egocentric because they
represent a personal tcocfion of e subject
tl to tJie stimulus svord
The scheme reproduced here has the virtue of comprehensiveness
and uses clear and well defined but at the same time fiexible cate-
gories Although the reader may encounter altcrnabve
classificaf ons
with valid claims for considemtion Woodworths scheme maj be
inviluable to the experimenter and chtucian in "i first organization
of the results of an association etpenment
Clinical and Diagnostic Use of Associations

We have emphasized throughout that word associabons should
not be regarded ns haphazard but as lawfully determined by in
structions nnd tendencies within the indiNidual In many cases such
determining tendencies are attributable not so much to the con
venbons of logic and language but rather to the personal erpen
enecs needs and values of the individual For this reason the
word association procedure has been of value to choicians In diag
nosing sources of emotional disturbance
Complex Indicators The assumption is made that stimulus
words which tap sources of emotional disturbance (of which the
subject himself may be completely unaware) will produce responses
sufficientlyunusual to catch the exammers attenbon and to convey
a suggestion of trouble Thus the chnicians search has been for
“complex indicators” in word associabon A large number of indi
tested but
cators have at one bme or another been proposed and
only a few have proved reliable Perhaps foremost
among tliese is
an unusual increase in the association time Although assocntion
has a normal range
times are typically quite v inable each subject
Within whidi most of hs sespccoses fall
Response tunes falling out
unusually long ones frequently
side this typical range especially
charged” word itself which
spell trouble Sometimes it is not the
yields the abnormally long association fame but the one following it
2gg
took some lime for the full impact of the emotional stimulus
as i£ it
to manifest itself. ,
pattern have also served
Other disruptions of the normal response
these are repetition of the stimulus
as complex indicators. Among
word, misunderstanding of the stimulus,
and highly incongruent or
bizarre responses. It seems as if the subject
were using sucli means
to defend him-
(in all likelihood without being aware of doing so)
self against the full emotional
impact of the stimulus svord.
There is, then, a variety of complex indicators which an emo-
tionally charged stimulus word may arouse. How arc these indica-
tors related toeach other? Does the occurrence of one increase the
probability that the others will appear? If the indicators were
systematically associated with each other, our confidence in their
validity would be increased. A thorough investigation of the corre-
lations among the various complex indicators has shown that a few
of them do, indeed, tend to be regularly accompanied by others,
notably hng association time, misundersi ending of the siltnulus, and
repetition of the stimulus. When one of these indicators is present,
there is a good chance that some other emotional response will
appear as well. This correlation among indicators is presumptive

evidence for their validity.
Diagnostic Applications. As a diagnostic tool, the wurd-
assodation experiment has had two main uses: (1) as an adjunct
to other methods of psychiatric diagnosis, and (2) as one in a
battery of procedures aimed at the detection of guilt.
The word-assoaation procedure may help the psychiatrist local-
ize the general area of his patients difficulties. Thus, C. G. Jung,
the psychiatrist who pioneered in the study of word assodations,
devised a standard list of 100 stimulus words related to common
sources of emotional difficulties (sickness, financial difficulties, mari-
tal problems, etc.). He found that the diagnostic
hunches provided
by the word-association test were frequently borne out by more
intensive psychoanalytic procedures. Additional validation
of the
complex indicators is provided by correlations with other indices
of emotional disturbance, such as the galvanic skin
and response
fluctuations in respiration. The correlations have tended to be posi-
tive but not always statistically significant
The word-association test is used in a similar manner in the de-
tccfjon of guilt A uord
list is prepared m which words
related to
the crime, such as the names of the objects stolen, are scattered
through a of presumably “neutrar items This
list
test is admims
tered to the suspect as Hell
as to control subjects If the suspect
shows unusual disturbances m
response to tlie cntical words, such
as significant increases in reaction
tune, as compared iwth the con-
trols, this fact is taheii
presumptive evidence of
as his guilt The
uncertainties of such a procedure are obvious
If isdifficult *o be
sure that the neutral words with which tlie
enbeal words are com
pared are indeed neutral In addition, emotional responses to the
critical words ma) not necessarily be due to guilt The
subject may
be acquainted with the details of the crime, and aware of the sus
picion resting on him Under such circumstances he may well react
emotionall) to the critical vvordsl
In spite of such limitations, the word-association technique has
at times helped m
the discovery of guilty persons though failures
also have been reported TTie technique has received dramatic
(though indirect) confirmation through the use of hypnosis It is
possible to suggest to a subject under deep hypnosis that he has
committed a certain enme and, thus, to induce guilt feelings in him
As long as the hypnotic suggestion lasts, these guilt feelings may,
indeed, be profound The subject is given a word association test
before and ^ter the hypnotic suggestion has been accepted by him
His responses to flie critical crime stimuli diHer significantly on the
two occasions After he has accepted the suggeshon guilt indicators
appear among hts responses— lengthened association times repeti-
tions of the stimulus, etc Whenthe suggestion is remov ed, the guilt
of guilt
indicators disappear Thus, the expenmentol manipulabon
feelings produces predictable changes m
the word associations It
must be remembered, howev er, that deep hypnosis is a very unusual
generalize too confidently
state, indeed, and it would be rash to
from such experiments to the general validity of the word
assoaa
tion technique ,
is at best an
In summary, then, the word associabon technique
to narrow down
adjunct to other diagnostic techniques It may help
focus of a parents
the range of suspects, to locale the probable
be based
emobonal dilBculties No definite «mclusion can, however,
on word assoaations alone It must always be considered m
coo
268
and carefully checked by other
junction with other tcchniq.ies
e\'i<lencc.
ExPEniMEST XVTI
Simple and Disjunctive Reaction Time
Purpose. To Investigate the difTefcncc I>etwcci» simple and disjunc-
tive reaction times. The specific problem is. How

reaction time in-
is
the
fluenced by the difficulty oi the discrimination which must precede
response?
Apparatus. A standard rcactfon-timc apparatus, os descnbctl on
two
pp. 243-245 and showm in Fig. 68, is required. In this experiment,
diflerent visual slimuli-a red light and a green light-will be used
and the apparatus should be so adjusted that the experimenter can
ssvilch at will from one to the other. To this end, there should be Rvo
pairs of lights: a red and a green pair on the left and a similar pair on
the right. Correspondingly, during part of the experiment, the subject
needs two response keys: one for tlic right hand and one for the left.
As usual, the experimenter by pressing hb key delivers the stimulus and
starts the clock; the subject stops the clock by withdrawing hfs hand from
the key.
Procedure. There is an experimental poup and a control group.
For the experimental poup, the experiment falls into two parts: (1) a
simple reaction-time scries, and (2) a disjunctive reaction-time series. A
control group is ceciuifcd to take into account the effects of practice. In
order to obtain an estimate of the effects of practice, the control group Is
given two successive simple reacUon-llroc series. The experimental design
may be summarized as follows.
Part I Part II
Experimental Group Simple reaction lime Disjunctive reaction time
Control Group Simple reaction lime Simple reaction time
The two groups should be matched according to their performance in

Part I. Only if the average reaction times of the two
groups are approxi-
mately the same in Part I, can the difference between the conditions in
Part II be properly evaluated.
The subject is seated in front of his reaction key, separated from the
expenmenter and the chronoscope by a partition. The stimulus lights are
mounted so as to appear comfortably in the subject’s line of
vision.
For the simple reaction-lime senes, only one of the say,
stimulus hghts,
the red one, is used, and it is always presented in the same position.
ise h,s
êfe„ed tod o„ halt tok, h» non
proferrod hand on the other halt
ot the Irtalr Th.s alletnahon between
he <"0 tan* wiU mate potable to compare chrecUy the resullt of llm
,t
series noth those of the disjunctive
reaction time senes At the beginning
of th^îes, he is given fhe
/oJJoiving Instruonons
u IS an etpenmenl in reaction time We are interested fn meas-
imng the sp^d N\nth which you can react to
the appearance of a light
the light will always appear m
the some place (experimenter demon
strafes the hght stimulus) When I say
ready/ place your index finger
on the telegraph Iêy As soon as you have seen the light, xvithdraw
your finger from the hey Be sure to respond as soon as jxju have
seen
the light but try never to vvitJidraw )our finger before you have seen
”
the light
The subject is then gn en twenty to thirty practice trials to acquaint
him with tlie procedure The results of these practice trials arc not used
m the final computation of the experimental results Folloinng the prac
tioe series, the subject is given ioo triab which constitute the simple
reaction time senes Throughout this senes, ihe durabon of the fore-
penod-the Interval between the “ready" signal md the dehvery of tlie
stimulus-is held constant at 2 seconds Following each tnal lie ex-
perimentef reads the chronoscope, records tie reaction time on a pre-
arranged score sheet, resets the chronoscope, and then proceeds to tie
next trial
Sometimes the subject may give premature reactions, fe, withdraw his
finger from the response key before the stimulus has been presented
Such reactions may occur if the subjects readiness to respond is very
" To reduce the number of pre
great, causing him to “jump the gim
mature reactions, it is adnsnble to intersperse a number of “catch tnab
at irregular intervals throughout the senes In a catch trial, the "ready"
If a subject,
signal is given as usual but is not followed by n stimulus
him, and he is
nevertheless, gives a response, his error is pointed out to
cautioned to respond only after seeing the stimulus hght
come on
given a rest penod
After the simple reaction time senes the subject is
control group are given
Following the rest interval the members of the
expcnmenfal group pro-
another hundred simple reaction lime trials Tlie
ceeds to the disjunctive reaction time senes
of disjunctive reaction time lx)fh the green and
For the measurement
red light stimuli are used and the subject is
provi^ v«th two
and one for his left hxnd The following instruc-
keys one for his right
tions arc given
In this part of theexperiment wc shaH continue to measure the
70
speed with which you can react to the
appearance of a light. This time,
however, we shall present either a ^cen light or a red light.
between these two lights in random order. The
We shall alternate
red light will sometimes appear on the left, sometimes on the
right, ^d
red light
the same is true of the green light Your task is to react to the
the same
only, not to the green light. You are, moreover, to respond on
side on which the red light appears. When I say, ‘ready,'
place the
index finger of your left hand on the left key, and the index finger of
the right hand on the right key. If the red light appears on the right
side, withdraw the finger of your right hand; if the red light
appean
on ie withdraw the finger of your left hand. If the green
left side,
do not withdraw either finger."
light appears,
The experimenter then presents the red and green lights in a pre-
arranged random series, at the same time varying the positions of the lights
at random. A typical group of trials may be: RL (red left), GH (green
right), RR, GL, GL, RL, GR, etc. As before, the foreperiod is kept con-
stant at 2 seconds, and reaction time recorded after each trial. There is
again a practice scries of twenty to thirty trials followed by a series of
100 test trials.
Wrong as well as correct reactions should be noted. Wrong reactions
may be (1) responses to the incoaect stimulus (the green light), (2) re-
actions with the wrong hand, and (3) premature reactions.
Treatment of Results. For each subject, the average reaction time
in Part 1 and Part
11 is computed. We
may then ask the following ques-
tions: (1) Was
the average reaction time of the control subjects sig-
nificantly shorter in Part II than in Part 1? If so, this effect may be
ascribed to practice. (2) Is there a significant difference between simple
and disjunctive reaction lime? To answer ibis question, we compare the
average reaction times of the control group and the experimental group
in Part 11. In Part 11, both groups were equally well practic»d. If their
reaction times are significantly different, we may ascribe this discrepancy
to the difference between simpleand disjunctive reaction time. com- We
plete our analysis with a comparison of incorrect, especially premature,
responses imdcr the two conditions. If a difference is found, to what
features of the tw'O situations may it be attributed?
ExPEnCkfENT XVIII
Detectiov or Gtni.T Timouen Word Association
We shah describe the conventional experiment using the word-associa-
Uon technique as a method of detecUng guilt. Experience has shown that
fuch experiments are as likely as not to be failures, especially under the
271
Mtificjal rondiUons of a classroom demonstration
wth laboratory pro.
duMd gmlt Nevertheless, the performance of
this experiment is probably
ins^chve m highlighting the limitations of this technique
wbch along
with other he detecting dewees, has long
enjoyed considerable, and fre-
quenlly unvsarranted, popular appeal
Purpose To demonstrate the me of the word association technique
as a method for the detection of guilt
Materials A list of stimulus words containing neutral and “critical
”
ie , guilt relevant, items js constructed The cntical words should
refer to
things unequivocally associated with the “crime ” The
neutral svords are
neutral in the sense that they refer to items which are in no
recognizable
way associated with the crime Whether or not they may have emotional
connotations for the subjects due to other experiences is unknoswi A
Voice key arrangement provides the most precise method for measuring
the association time (see p 245) If voice keys are not available, a stop
watch may be used for good approximations to the assocution tunes
Procedure. Thu expenment u best performed as a classroom dem-
onstration The expenmenter chooses a small group of subjects (three is
an adequate number) All the subjects are sent out of the room One has
been pnvately instructed to commit a “crime," the others senre as con-
trols The controls, of course, are kept in ignorance of the nature of (he
enme The nature of the crime must be left to the ingenuity of the ex
perlmenter in using available faalilies Sometimes it is possible to find a
cooperative bbranan who agrees to the theft of a book Another favonte
misdeed is the killmg of a rot Agom, other experimenters have required
their subjects to read highly emobonal passages ^V'h3te\cr the enme,
the critical stimulus words refer m detail to Its nature and to the cir-
cumstances under which it ivas committed
^Vhile the subjects are out of the room the procedure Is fully ex
plained to the class and the neutral and cniical items m the word list are
identified The audience is also reminded of the reactions
which are emn-
association times repetitions
monly regarded as complex indicators long
blushing etc
of the stimulus word, misunderstanding, laughing
the cuipnt and the controls submit
Tlie crime hiving been committed,
course tested one at a tune
to the word association test They are. of
his ^cL to the ex-
The subject is seated comfortably, preferably with
may otherww influence Ae
perimenter whose facial expression
us word with
iponses Tbe subject instructed to respond to each stimu
is
he Stst xvord that comes to mmd, regardless of ati,

losical “ P-™;'
restmoses is lead the
cal reUt,oosh,p The speed of the assoaatise
liom the stop watch The re
throooscope (if vo.ee lejs are used) or
relevant characteristics of
sponsc words are written down as svell as any
blushing, and other signs of
the subject’s behavior, such as laughing,
embarrassment.
test with other meastircs
It is possible to combine the word-association
of emofionaJ response, such as the gaWanic response and chanscs in
the breathing cycle. For a description of these techniques, see
Chapter
19, Ejeperiment XXVII.
Treatment of Results. The main quantitative data arc, of course,
the association times. The average association limes for neutral and
critical words are computed for each of the subjects. In each case, the
size and reliability of the difference in association time for neutral and
critical words are determined. This analysis is supplemented with evalua-
tion of the subjects’ behavior during the test— the extent to which they
showed signs of guilt in the presence of the critical words. If physiological
indices of emotion have been obtained, these are, of course, added to the
picture. On the basis of all the available evidence, the members of the
class are asked to Indicate the most likely suspect. The vote should be
taken in ^vTlting to eliminate the possible inducncc of suggestion. In all
probability the vote will be divided, perhaps the majority wll condemn
one of the innocent controls-an object lesson in the cautious interpreta-
tion of evidence and the pitfalls of lie detection.
Gen-ekal Refteiiences-Beactios' Time

Garrett, H. m psychologij. New York: D. Appleton-
E., Great experiments
Century Co., 1941, Chap. 14.
Woodworth, R. S., Experimental pvjchologtj, Ne%v York: Henry Holt and
Co., 1938, Chap. 14.
Determlnants of Reactio.v Time

Eeaction Time as a Function of Stimulus
Characteristics
Ftoeberg S., The relation between the
magnitude of stimulus and the
time of reaction. Arch. Psychol 1907,
, No. 8.
A
Henmim, V. C., Professor Cattell’s work m reacUon Ume. In The
êhologn^ researches of James McKeen CatteU, Arch. Fcychdl,
1914, No. 30.
Johanson, A M The mBuence of incenUve and pnnishment upon react-
bon bme. Arch. Psychol, 1922, No. 54.
^ afunukaon. Arch. Psychol,
, ,

073
Stemman A R Reaction time to change, Arch Tsijchol.
.
J944. No 29'>
locld.j W , Reaction to multiple stimuli, Arc/j Pii/c/jof
, 1012. No 25
Reaction Time as a Function of Set and Attitude
Breihveiser,
J V , Attention and movement m reaction tune Arch
Psychol , 1911, No 18
Mowrer, O H
Preparator> set (expectancy) -some methods of measure-
.
ment. Psychol Monogr . lOJO. 52. No 233

Rodnitk, E , Shakott, H md
Set the schizophrenic os measured by D m
a composite reaction time index, Amcr J Psychiat 1910. 97 214 225
,
Woodrow, H, The measurement of attention, Psychol 3/onogr, lOM

I", No 70
Indicidtial Differences
Johanson, A M ,
The mnuence of incentive and punishment on reaction-
time, Arc/i Ps-yc/io/, 1922. No 54
Lamer, L 11, The inferreJatioiw of speed of reaction measurements,
] Exper Psychol, 193-1. 17 371-399
Lemmon, \' W , The rchiion of reaction lime to measures of intelligence.
memory, and learning. Arch Psychol, 1927, No 94
Miles, Wn Age and human ability, Psychol Rev 1033, 40 99-123
,
CrVERAU REFEPEVCES-ASSOCIVTIOV EXPEHlVirNTS

Jung, C G Studies in uord association Experiments In the rfia-gnom of
,
psychopathological conditions carried out at the pjych/fltric clinic of

the University of Zuertch. New lorl Moffat, Vard, 1919
Woodworth. R S .Experimerdal psychology, hew \or\. Henry Holt and
Co , 1938, Qiap 15
Tites of Vct8.1i;. Assocmtios EtPEniMEvrs

Cason, H . and Cason, E B ,
Association tendencies and learning ability,
/ Exper Psychol 1925, 8 167-169 ,
Catfell, / XfcK, Expenments on the association of ideas, Mind, 18S7,

12 68 74
Exper
Tlie role of practice in speed
of association, }
Lund, r H,
Psychol, 1927, 10 424A02 , „ t 1
May, M A The mechanism of controlled association. Arch Psychot ,
,
1017, No 39 r *
scientific t)-p« Amer
,
Murphy, C. An experimental study of htcmr> >$

; Psyc/iof, 1917, 25 238
262.
Association tests, being a part of the
M'oodworth. R S and Wells. F L . .
274 EXPERIMENTAL -PSYCHOLOGY
report of the committee of the American Psychological Association
on
standardizing procedure in experimental tests, Psychol Monogr., 1911,
13, No. 57.
Classification or Assocutjovs
Kent, G. H., and Rosanoif, A. A study of association in insanity, Amer.
/. Insan., 1910, 67:36-98; 317^90.
Murphy, G., An experimental study of literary vs. scientific types, Amer.
J. Psychol, 1917, 28:238-262.

O'Connor, J., Born that tcay, Baltimore: The Wilh'ams and Wilkins Co.,
1928.
Wells, F. L., A preliminary note on the categories of association reactions,
Psychol. Rev., 1911, 18:229-233.
Woodrow, H., and Lowell, F., Children's association frequency tables,
Psr/chal. Monogr., 3910, 22, Ho. 97,
Clinical and Diagnostic Uses of Association Expeiuments

Crane, H. W., A study in association reaction and reaction time, Psychol
Monogr., 1915, 18, No. 80.
Crosland, H. It, The psychological methods of word-association and
reaction-lime as tests of deception. Unto. Ore. Publ, Psychol Ser.,
1929, No. 1.
"HuU, C. L., and LugoS, L- S., Complex signs in diagnosttc free associa-
tion, J. Exper. Psychol, 1921, 4:111-130.
Huston, P. E., Shakow, D., and Erickson, M. H., A study of hypnotically
induced complexes by means of the Luria technique.
/. Gen. Psychol,
1934, 11:65-97.
Jung, C. G., Studies in word association. Experiments in
the diagnosis of
pstjchopathohgical conditions carried out at the
psychiatric clinic of
the University of Zuerich, New York: Moffat,
Yard, 1919.
Wells, F. L., Mental tests in clinical practice,
Nw
York: Wald Book
Co.,
»M ««<
MEASUREMENT OF LEARNING
ONE of the outstanding characlenstics of the behavior of organisms

IS the continual modification of responses through learning
From
birth on and even before, organisms acquire new responses and
changing circumstances achieving an e\er
adapt their old ones to
persist in tune Some
growine repertory of reacbons These habits
others funcbon agam and again
last only for a short period while
Lcaming and
and may do so throughout the life of an mdmdual
of “
rêmwn are key «mceplr in Ihe analyse
capacity to learn and to retain
imagine an orgamnn without the
would be fcrevôom^
what It has leamedi Such an organism
which it was nahve^
to repeal the responses with
and teaching reward imd
out benefit from expenence
If we consider any area of
The influence of learning is universal solving, atbtudcs and
t a - ond verbal skilb problem
P
i.
behavior-motor an
countless ways
vahies-we find
Not only is learning
learning
and are
“"““f^ in many fonis of behavior changes
ubiquitous but ' Because of this variety and com
and at many levels of “"-P'^ „ „„elytioally under con
it IS no
plenty of learning, some
MndiU ^ ^„c„ental analysis
trolled laboratory 8 learning have been iso-
Lmany lypa
“
of the basic
laled
duld
With
F«SorV“Stothes^^^
in a specific
culture
pinri
prinapte oncarmng
Terms
in
to
laboratoiy it
of
DEFiNTnON OF Basic
1
276 EXPERIMENTAL PSYCIIOLOCy
terms which common usage has endowed with a rich variety of
meanings. Wherever posslldc. dcniiitions should !>e authored in llic
experimental procedures from whicli they are derived. In defining
Icarnlu^, psychologists referlo^ncmurahJc changes in behavior at
a result of pradiceynd the conditions that nccompajiy practice.* To
give one simple cample: ns a subject rends a prose passage over
and over, he can reprodticc more and more words of the passage
in theirproper sequence. Obviously, this progressixe improvement
can he qu.intificd and related to tlie number of readings and other
relevant conditions.
Retention. An individual who has learned to repeat
n prose
passage without error usually can reproduce at least
part of it again
at a later date. Tlie nmûf>t that he can rcp
rodtjcc is a measure of
his retention. By retention, then, wc mean
the ncrshtrnrr of the
lojîrahle_changc^njicjhnctor_jhatjincc_hce_n acquired through
l>rac^ Since the learning of most actlvaticsls
a gradual process
requiring a certain amount of time to
reach a given level, the
progress of learning implies the retention
of tliat previously ac-
quired. For example, our subject
may learn tlie first two lines of
may add another line or two. In order to
reach his goal of perfect
reproduction, he n™« retain on
tlio carher ones. In the
later trials svhat lie
Ls
learned on
laljoratory, the distinction
between learning
n'casnrcments arf
madjn,sf"'
made. cnstomaiy
It is to designate the
period diirinn wiiich the
process of acquisition goes on os the /corning partod
U
"'."t
analvsis is tn i
first stop m the
and the stimnlns condilionfimder
lication occur. Tlie coal of ^
îch" nira‘'‘^"‘
* r
acquisition
•
and modi-
•
I,..,
Iawfulrelationsl„pU®etteL „i "
"
hZJ'it"'’'"T"‘
conditions as frequency
t , . of stimu-
w. bTlween w...
tion of performance). beliav.or changes

(mual^ detenora-
MEASUIIEMENT OF LEARNING
"’"”‘='™'‘''”g=»‘lp“"Mhing consequences etc
on Ihe one hand and the occurrence
of responses on fie oilier Yet
cleirly il is never possible to
describe all the possible properties
of
n stimulus or n response or to repent
either stimulus or response
identica ly we hnve pointed out in Chapter 1 all we can do is
As
to establish classes of events
with certain common enheal proper
ties Thtse classes we then
describe and treat expenmentally as
stimuli and responses The subject learning the prose passage
may
read it on successive practice (rials under slight changes of illumuia
UoT) with differenteye mot cments and at slight/j different speeds
On the response side he may reproduce it again at sLghtly different
rates at different voice levels and with various inflections We
do
not hesitate however to call the words on the printed page the
stimuli and the subjects ora! reproduction of these words the
responses
The degree of restnction on the classes of stimuli and classes of
responses is dictated by the specific purpose of the experiment If
we were interested in determintog the number of tnaJs required for
perfect repetition nf the passage clearly it would not suffice to
consider as a response i statement of the meaning of Ihe selection
Our unit m
that case would need to be the indiv idual word On the
other hand if we were interested in determining the number of
trials necessary for the subject to reproduce the passage at a umform
rate in a perfect monotone we would require not only that the m

dividual words and their sequence be correct but in add tion that
words be spolên at a uniform rale and at the same \ oice lev el This
definition of response would be a much narrower one than the
definitions adopted m the previous examples Tliere is no one degree
of restriction inherently superior to others it all depends
w hich is
on the question asked by the evpenment In the field of verbal

items without
learning the correct reproduction of Ihe stimulus
of voice is
regard to such variables as inflection and loudness
usually considered adequate
Association \Vhenever a stimulus situation comes to evoke
a response which it did not evoke previously
we say that an assoc/a
response
tton has been formed between the st mulus and the
history because for
Tlie concept of assocfaUori has had a stormy
was used synonymously with particular kinds of asso-
a while It
denoted the connection of one
ciaUon. For example, at one
time it
idea with another idea; at

another time, the formaUon of synaptic
association, however, has
bonds in the nervous system. The term
association is
much higher generality. The fundamental aspect of
the property of leading to a
the fact that a given stimulus acquires
associated "may be as
given response. As McGeoch said, the events
analytically small as a pinpoint of discriminated light and a
single
muscle twitch thereto; they may be as large as the total perceived

and the most complex possible response. . In
field of objects .
this sense, association is a basic concept in learning. What units are
profitably singled out for the study of the process of association is
an altogether different problem.
, Types of Leaiininc
Almost any hind of behavior can be modified by learning. Because
of this very universality, experimental analysis is greatly aided by a
classification of the various areas of behavior in which responses
are acquired and modified by learning. Of course, any such classi-
fication will, to a considerable extent, be arbitrary. The behavior of
organisms does not readily lend itself to classification in terms of
mutually exclusive categories. The justification for a breakdown into
different types of learning lies purely in experimental expediency.
Different areas of behavior pose their own problems of experimental
design, instrumentation, and For example, the con-
quantification.
ditioning of hand withdrawal to an electric shock obviously re-
quires different methods of measurement than those needed in the
case of learning a prose passage. For these reasons, experimenters
have classified forms of behavior and materials of learning into
different categories.
Verbal I.eaming. Man isprimarily a verbal learner. Wlien a
subject enters the laboratory, he already possesses a rich repertory
of verbal responses which is well overleamed and highly organized.
For this reason, it has been difficult to find
standardized materials
for the study of verbal learning. Faced with
verbal material, each
subject has his own complex of associations, meanings, and
prefer-
ences in relation to that material. So great did this difficulty appear
2 J. A. Môch, Thepnjchologtf of humen learning. New York; Longmans,
ureen and Co , 1942, p. 25.
27g
l"
IS
lAal
“P'S"'”'"
he attemplcd
'“"'"S (Hermann Ebbinghaua)
to overcomeIt by creaUng the nitnsensff
pliable.
The noascnse syllable consists of a vowel between two consonants
meaning. Examples of nonsense jyJlaWes are
vnT
•* s>’!lable has been widely used in the hope
au
that different learners would find the ma temJs of equal difficuJh- and
tliat different conditions of learning could be directly compart.
Of course, tlie individual nonsense syllable is anjtbing but non-
sensical in tlie full sense of the word. Furthermore, even
where there
are no assodations due to experience and simibrity to
conventional
words, the learner soon creates them. However, a particular se-
quence of nonsense sj-lJabIcs is neiv to the sub/eet, and it is rela-
tK-ely easy to construct many lists of syllables of the same difficulty.
Tliere have been attempts to quantify the degree of assodatioa
possessed by a given nonsense s)’llablc. One experimenter presented
nonsense ^Jlablos indiw'dually and asled his subjects to report
whether or not the sj'llable evoked any association. Depending on
the percentage of sub/ects repertieig an associotfon, he dassiBed the
syllables sWth respect to association value.* This is, of course, only
one s^*a)' for appraising (he association sulue of a nonsense s)'IlabJe.
Another investigator had as hfs aim the measurement of association

value in terms of actual speed of learning and, on the basis of Jus
results, published standardized lists of sj’llabics.* Helpful as these
standardizations have been, there still r«na/n wide individual differ-
ences among subjects \vilh respect to the association values of

syllabic lists.
The investigation of VCTbal learning has not been confined to non-

sense materials. Eager to come as close ns possible to practical con-
hesitated to employ
ditions of learning, investigators Iiave not
use of such
meaningful words, poems, and passages of prose. Tlie
esperimcntal con-
material makes it difficult to compare different
of the uncciual diflieulty of the
ditions svith one another because
aid of careful controls, some
learning tasks. Nevertheless, with the
Amcr. A PiycM.. J033, «i730-731.

relationships of a high degree of generality have been discovered
through the use of such verbal materials. For example, the use of
large numbers of subjects under each experimental condition makes
itlikely that individual differences in learning di£Bculty will cancel
out to some extent and not influence the results unduly.
The examples listed above by no means exhaust the sources of
verbal materials. Many kinds and combinations of materials have
been tried out and found useful. Thus, the consonant syllable, e.g.,
CKN or JFH, has been employed along with the nonsense syllable.
Lists of numbers and word-number combinations have also been
used.
Motor Skills. Though man may use words in practically any
task he attempts, there are certain kinds of activities where words
play a less important role than in the
type of learning we have dis-
cussed above. This is generally true for motor
skills. Take the
example of an individual who is learning to play
tennis. Certainly
words hllp him by the specification of some of
the movements
required for the mastery of the task. On the
other hand, the execu-
tion of a smooth, expert movement
does not depend on a proper
veAal sequence. After sufficient practice,
the verbal component
vaâlly drops out The study of the
acquisition of
s!^ of course, mvolv« somewhat different concepts ‘such arts
of
and measures
from those usrf m
the invesUgaffon of verbal
learning. In the
example, great emphasis may
movements as well as on
ffie r^lts aelueved by them. Thus, the
tennis teacher may evaluate
“
Lobe or
tain class of
m
p"
til'
“pmimental
A
>>“ rtance during
a backhand
with a cer-
situation, a subject may
ffbX MirtSsÊCTT are

‘Vi
MXred.'ând
he can.
282 EXPEHIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
a series of responses. Let us now consider the principal methods for
the measurement of strength of association.
Prcqucncy of Response E\ocation. A strong association is in-
ferred from the fact that a response is given on nearly every occa-
sion that the stimulus is presented. By this measure, a scale of
strength is established in terms of the proportion of the total num-
ber of stimulus presentations which evoke the response. Complete
absence of assodation is deitned by 0 percent evocation; full
strength of association, by 100 percent cs’ocation; 100 percent evoca-

tion,however, does not necessarily denote the greatest possible
two associations may both yield 100
strength of assodation. Thus,
percent responses hut turn out to be of different strength when
testedby more sensitive indices. Moreover, the meaning of any pro-
portion varies with the number of trials on which the proportion is
based. Thus, the associations established by learning a list of non-
sense syllables to a criterion of two perfect repetitions will not be
as s&ong as the associations resulting from learning the same list to
a criterion of five perfect repetitions. In general, the larger
the num-
ber of tnals yielding 100 percent response evocation,
the greater
the inferred strength of assodation.
Resutance Forgetting. As we have seen, percent response
to
evocation not an unequivocal measure of strength.
is
This frequency
measure may be made more sensiUve by introducing varying time
mtervals between the end of practice
and the of measurement
associative strength. Differences not
apparent at the end of pracUce
may be measurable after a time interval. Thus,
in our previous ex-
r,?. ° 100 percent

S'"" ”
rcpchtions were
steength nt the end of
praeUec. Dilferenees in
,1??
their stren^ wmH
become apparent on a test a week after the
I'ctttr would be recalled from the
In this way, resistance to
fmitZJ “ supplementary to ôenry of re-
s;'o‘ê":®oLTom“
intervenes between
thf ^d°of
the end of practice and the test, the assodaUons
»
are weakened by
^nring that time interval.
of°toe“ After a given intervd
“vTJVT®
.mtrally weak one.
Qearly, a greater
'ison^ger
amount of prance
than an
wfll be
V
283
required for the weaker assoaaUon
than for the stronger one d the
hvo are to be brought back to the same strength
Hence, the num-
er 0 trials for relearning to a
given cnlenon provides another
measure of the relative strength of associabons
Let us return to
our example of lists learned to fw^ and
five perfect repetitions If
both lists are relearned after one week, the list originally
learned
to a entenon of tvvo repetitions will require
more tnals to yield
100 percent evocation again than will the other list
Latency. One rather different measure of the strength of
an
assoaation Is that of the htency of the response fefgre tn
’
the amount of time which elapses between th e onset of the stimulus
and the bcgmnjng of the gsponse A^trong association implies' a
high degree of r^diness to give the response under appropnate
stimulus conditions Experimental investigations have, indeed,
shown that the more frequently evoked responses are also the
quicker ones Sometimes latency measures will detect differences
which are not easil) measured by the frequency method
The specific experimental procûres by which these measures of
associative strength are made will be elaborated m subsequent
chapters
VÊARNiNC Curves
Having defined a scale of associat ive strength, we can proceed
to plot jt as a function of number^ tnab Such a plot is
practice
called a learning curve Strength ol learning can be measured m
various ways, and the particulw units employed mil help to deter
mine the characteristics of the learning curve
When the performance measure is the number of responses ac-
quired, we obtain a rising curve When the performance measure
refers to the ehmmaUon of wrong responses or
the tune required
for the completion of the task, we obtam a falhng

curve For ex
ample, when a maze Is learned the number of correct

choices per
practice would show a rising curve On the

tnal as a function of
the bme per tnal as a
other hand, either the number of errors or
curve
funebon of pracbee would yield a falling
, , _ ,
or falhng, learning curves may develop

differenUj
Whether rismg
in bme The amount of change m performance between two suc-
cessive measurements may keep Increasing or keep decreasing over
2g4
each successive change is greater than
a certain number of
trials. If
resulting curve shows poMce accehrallon.

the preceding one. the
Fig. 73. On the other hand, if
Such a curve is the one labeled 2 in
th.an the preceding one, the curve
each successive change is smaller
shows negatlce acceleration (Curve 1 in Fig. 73).
Some curves
show an period of positive acceleration followed by a period
iniUal
of negative acceleration. Such curves are designated as S-shaped
(Curve 3 in Fig. 73).
Fic. 73. Typical Learning Curves. Curv’c 1

shows negalivc accclcraUonj Curve 2 shovvs positive
acceleration; Curve 3 shows an initial period of
positive acceleration follow'ed by negalivc aecclcra*
lion (S*shaped).
There is no simple rule for predicting the form of a learning

curve in advance. Certain general relations between learning pro*
cedure and the form of the resulting curve have, however, been
established. For example, if Ure material consists of some parts
which are easy and some parts which arc difficult to leam, a nega-
tively accelerated curve is typically obtained. The easier parts are
quickly learned at the beginning, with the harder parts being ac-
quired more slowly later on. Positively accelerated curves, on the
other hand, are typically obtained for learning tasks which become
proêssively easier as practice continues. Since the S-shaped curva
Is a combination of the two other types, a
proper combination of
factors leading first to positive and then to
negative acceleration
yields such a curve. Even
thougli such general relationships hold up
fairly well, the particular
shape of a learning curve is always jointly
determined by the particular materials, the characteristics of the
learner, the learning procedure, and the methods and units of
measurement.
Vincent Curves. A learning curve describing
the peifonnance
of a single subject is usually quite irregular,
probably because it is
MEASUREMENT OF LEABNING 285
not possible to control adequate]),
mmy of the factors which ron-
tnbute to nutations in peifonnance from moment to moment. For
this reason, it is necessary to average the performances of many
in order to ofafaiu a goorf picture of" the general
retitionship.
The averaging of learning data, however, poses a special problem.
Different individuals enter the learning situation
with different
capacities to leam and with different preparations
for (he tasfc
Therefore, different states of acquisition will be represented by
different subjects' performances on any ^ven trial. Suppose
a group
of subjects has the task of learning a hst of ten ^vords. Some are
fast learners, others are slow learners On a given trial, say the fifth,
the fast learners will have nearly achieved the goal of a perfect
repetition while the slow learners svill have learned only a few items.
To average the raw data trial by tnal m

order to obtain a composite
Curve would introduce a senous distortion. To do so would mean to
combine the data for individuals at different stages of learning.
One method, which at least partially takes this difficulty into ao*
eounh is the construction of a Vtneent curve This method consists
of dividing each individual’s total learning period into a given
number of divisions. The number of divisions is the same for all
subjects,but the size of these divisions wiJI vary from subject to
subject depending on the total length of tbeir learning periods The
peifonnance at the end of cortespondmg periods are averaged to
obtain the composite learning curve.
The construction of a Vincent curve may be illustrated hy the
following simple example There are hvo subjects learning a
hst
the other a slow
of 10 words. One of the subjects is a hst learner,
entenoo of one
one. The first subject needs 5 trials to reach the
perfect repetibon, the second, 10 tnals. The
accompanying figures
subjects on
show the number of correct responses given by the two
each successive trial.
1 2 3 J 'd 7 8 9 iO
Subject A.
"2 4 7 8 10
3 3 5 7 6 7 8 8 10
Subject B: 2
into five diyirions
We divide the learning periods of the hvu subjects
tnal, fw Subj^ B,
For Subject A, each division e»mists of 1
each. A
of his learning penod. Subject
first fifth
2 trials. At the end of the
gives 2 conect responses, Subject B, 3 correct responses. The aver-
age value at the end of the first fifth is, therefore, 2.5. In a similar
manner, the values in the accompanying table arc oblafnetl.
Successive Fifths of Learning Period

1 2 3 4 5
Subject A: o 4 7 8 lU
3 5 0 8 JO
Average: 25 45 65 8 10
^Vhcn these average values arc plotted, a composite learning curve

is obtained. WTicn the values for a large number of subjects arc so
averaged, a fairly smooth curve usually results.

Tlicrc are certain dangers in tlic use of Vincent curves which
should be mentioned. Such average curves should be computed only
if there is reasonable assurance that each subject
begins the task at
the same level of performance. Thus, if one subject enters the learn-
ing situation with one-third of the learning already accomplished
while another subject starts from the beginning, we arc averaging
together different segments of the total learning
curves. Weassume
when we use the Vincent method that each subject would give the
same form of the curve even though some subjects take
more trials
than others. Unless all subjects start at about
the same level, the
method is likely to be misleading.
CcvEnAi, REixnrNCES
Hunto, W. S., LMmlng; IV. Experimimtal sludlej
of learning. In
Applcion-
»»>
14 ««<
CONDITIONING
(^THE study of conditioning was begun by physiologists

and then
enthusiastically adopted by psychologists who saw in it
an asenue
to the objective invesbgation of behavior The
great advantage of
the conditioning experiment is that it pros ides a method
for deSn
ing learning strictly in stimulus response terms Eager to anal^'ze
even the most complex behavior into simple uiuls some psythol
ogistshave been willing to consider the condiboned response as
typical of all leamingj In this way, they were able to bridge the
gap behveen animal and human behavior Some of the most im
portant systematic theories of learning toda) ha\e been based upon
conditioning concepts Houever, os expenmentation proceeded in
the laboratory, conditioning turned out to be a much more complex
process than the origmal investigators had believed It is now clear
that the estahhslaneni of a conditioned response, both in loner
animals and In man is a function of a large number of \anables
Of course, some of these vanables arc crucnl to condiboniag othen
merely serve to modify the course of the condiboning process
A Typical CoNumo\a>c ExpEniMEtrr

Let us now look at a typical conditioning expenment as it was
performed innumerable bmes in the laboratory of the Bussian physf
ologist I P Pavlov, the father of conditioning
We find a dog strapped comfortably in a harness, standing on
tlie ex
the experimental table The dog is thoroughly familiar witli
penmratal situation and does not object to the confinement Thf
room is soundproofed against external noises and the expcnmentci
observes the animal, through a glass partition from
an adjoining
room 50 as not to disturb bis subject Hanging from the dogs
dieek
connected to duct of a salivary
IS a rubber tube which has been
tlie
2£7
gland. A metronome sounds, the dog pricla up his cars and turns
his head toward the sound. No saliva drops from the rubber tube.
Several minutes later, a plate of meat powder is moved witliin reacli
of the dog's mouth. As he cats the food, several drops of saliva fall
from the rubber tube and are collected in a sensitive measuring de-
vice. Some time after the meat has been removed, the metronome
sounds again, and this time it is followed svithin 10 seconds by the
plate of meat At the sight of the food, the dog salivates. This pair-
ing of the metronome and the meat is repeated over and over. On
the fifth presentation of this combination of stimuli, two drops of
saliva fall from the rubber tube after the sounding of the metronome
but before the meat is presented. On the tenth sounding of the
metronome, the meat powder is omitted entirely. The metronome
sounds for 30 seconds and during this period eight drops of saliva
are collected from the rubber tube.
The Main Concepts of CoNDmoNn.'c

We shall now examine
the main concepts which have been used
and interpretation of such experiments.
in the description
The Unconditioned Stimulus and the Unconditioned Re-
sponse. In order to bo conditioned, th e animal must initiallv-have
aumform_and consistent response to a' particular stimulus. Thus, a
dog uniformly and consistently salivates when there is food in his
mouth. Thejlimulus which at-lhe.beginning of the
experiment_mn
,b^îed uppnjoêvolce a particular response isjalled the vncoydi-
Jhned stimulus The response elicited by the'uncondiHoned
sUmulus is the uucondttimed respons e (UR) This response part
. is
of the innate equipment of the animiST
’
The Conditioned Stimulus and the Conditioned Response.

we have
^ response
in
seen, Pavlov’s experimental animal
to a
metronome. Here lies the crux of
learned to salivate
the conditioning
process. A stimulus comes to elicit
a response which it originally did
not evoke. At first, the dog did not
salivate at the sound of the
repeatedly with the meat powder,
the metronome finally became
a reliable sUmulus for salivation. The
";!^™'’'»?e « the conditioned stimulm
r° (CS), and the
wSm ? '’’c
whmh comes to evofe theunconditipned
response
response
(CR) Any stimuluL-
.
by ^ti^5fbSg
CONDITIONING
jaircd vviUi the unconditioned stimulus
is oaUed a conditioned
stimulus vVJjeSTJje uncondittoned
response js made to the condi
tioned stunulus it is called the conditioned
response
CRand UR
Are Not Necessarily Identical An important
quahficatioQ has to be added to our description
of the conditioning
process In many expenm entat situations the conditioned
response
ISdifFercnlfrom the unconditioned response ^tl^n its nature
and
For example one of the unconditioned responses of the
intensity^
guinea pig to electnc shock (US) is a sharp intake of the breath
(UR) ^Vhen this response was conditioned to an auditory signal
(CS) a conditioned response was restrained breathing (CR) As
we shall see later the unconditioned response and the conditioned
response may even involve different effector organs
Experimental Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery A con
dilioned response is established when the conditioned stimulus is
assoaated wlh an unconditioned stimulus \Vlien the unconditioned
stimulus 1$ later omitted the condiboned response gradually dis
appears Let us retuni for a moment to Pavlovs experiment After
the dog had teamed to salnate at the sound of the metronome the
experimenter presented the metronome repeatedly but he failed to
give food to the dog As this procedure was continued the salivation
first decreased in volume and finally stopped altogether The re
sponsc had been expenmentalfy extinguished Usually the dog was

then returned to his living quarters On the following day the ex
penment was lesumed tVIien the metronome sounded again the
salivary response reappeared The phen opienon is kno vn as spon
tan eous recovery C learly experimental «tinction is diitereut from
fSrgetling Whe n a response is ioigotten it does^not^recur with out
relearning When- a response is extinguish^ reappear iêr
certain experimental ronditions

Generalization and Discrimination When conditioning has
conditioned stimulus
taken place the particular sbmulus used as llie
elicit the cond tinned response
IS not the only stimulus which will
conditioning took place
Otlier stunuh, which were neutral before
stimulus is a
also come to elicit the response If the conditioned
other lights of esser wtensity
light of given intensity (say u) then
and of greater infensi^ (/« it is is) will also ehcit the
(fi ii is ii)
original cond tioned stim
response though less frequently than the
ulus, fs. The f act that c onditioned
jcsponscs nrc made lo-stimuli
other thaiTtHe specific conditioned stimulus is known as gcncraltza-
tfonrThc êater tKe 'difference between the TOndilioncd'stifnuIus
and the stimulus used to test for generalization, the less frequently
will the response be elicited. Thus, /j and /» would produpc condi*
tioned responses less frequently than {4 and /«. In short, there is a
gradient of generalization: the closer a test stimulus is to the original
conditioned stimulus, the more effective it is in evoking the condi*
tioned response. Generalization is most marked when the condi-
tioned stimulus differs from the stimuli used to test for generaliza-
tion along a single physical dimension, such as the intensity of tight.
(See also pp. 431 f.)
The degree of generalization can be reduced by presenting the
unconditioned stimulus (c.g., food or shock) after responses to the
conditioned stimulus proper, e.g., only after responses to fj but not
after responses to other stimulus intensities. By
this procedure, the
animal is led to discriminate between the conditioned
stimulus and
other stimuli. The degree to which discrimination
can be pushed
provides us with a good measure of the animal’s
sensitivity to stim-
ulus differences. The conditioning procedure has, in fact, been used
as an eqidvalCTt to psychophysical methods to measure the dif-
ferential thresholds of animals.
Sometimes the eipenmcnter may make the task of disciiminahon
X h*™
tms^
capacities,
" 'o make discriminations
making, for example, the in-
sS t ^h-mnlns and the test

differential threshold.
In such eases, the animals
behavior may be severely disrupted- it
Sue “
Pennanently intSpable of
oSrior is^mlf r “f '“““"g experimeot. Such disruption
nient faces an impossible .“ “"ditioning expen-
task,
'
wh™
IT
“‘!““"’ent of rewards and
punishments depLds on a fine d'.
of making.
fnthro^mo^hic
tiveen responding and
not respond I '’u
cannot resolve a conflict, '
it beês "neurdue.”
CONDITIONING
291
IHE MAIN I'AHAMETERS OF CONDITIONING

i^XPERIMENTS
We ba\ e said that the establishment of a conditioned response
and
^ response takes depend on
XI
manv >-inaWes
Nevertheless, we may distinguish between major determinants of
e process and those factors which merely modify it^B; major
de-
terminants, we sh all meanj hose cspenmeatal procedures ^vithont
,Hmcô_conmône^jesponsej?anJje ehcit^ Tlie modifying fae
l2r^.^r£-thos o^vhich affect llie late^nd degree of conditioning We
shall discuss the majy determina
nts first
Strength of iJnconditioned Response. It is not sufficient for
the establishment of a conditioned response that two sbmuh occur
together As we have emphasized, the u ncond itioned stimulus must
um^rnilE_an d_consistentl> ehci^the unconditioned.respon ge It^ is
for this reason that cond itioned responses can always be traced
'back-tojnn'ite response patferos-the most uniform and consistent
responses in the repertory of the organism
Nature of CS The conditionmg experiment tnes to establish a
connec tion.b ehvcen jhe^CS-and tbeÛJUAt the beginning of the
experiment, therefore, the CS must be "neutral* with respect to the
UR This does not mean that iniliilly the CS never evokes the UR at
all It does mean that at the start the CS should not evoke the UR
uniformly and consistently Nor should the ongmal response to the

CS be of such a nature as to compete seriously with the UR Sup-
pose, for example, the US is a pinpnck to the right forcUmb of a
dog The CS is a strong electric shock to the rfght hindhmb The
UR to the pinprick is a flexion of the right foreleg, while the original
response to the electric shock includes flexion of the right hindleg
Under these arcumstances, the dog may not learn to flex its fore-
timb in response to the electric shodc. Apart from these
restrictions,
virtually any stimulus may serve as the CS

Temporal Relations Betiveen CS and US The temporal in
unconditioned stim-
tervalbetween the conditioned stimulus and the
great of
ilus may vary Tius interval, however, must not be too
is most successful it
the
Iiljoning will not take place Conditioning
WOSseconds^ As the interval is chang^
:S precedes the US by a
conditioning becomes more and more
diffi-
TOm this optimal length,
interval, it is easier to estabLsfa a concii-
aiU Tor a given temporal
tioned response when the CS precedes the US than when
it follows
it. Fig. 74 graphically shows

how degree of conditioning varies 'With
the temporal interval behvecn CS and US.
It should be noted that conditioning apparently occurs even
when
the conditioned stimulus follows in time the unconditioned stimulus.
The acquisition of a response under these particular temporal con*
Fro. 74. Degree of Conditioning (percent of

conditioned responses obtained) as a Function of the
Time Interval Between the CondiUoned Stimulus
and the Un^diboned Stimulus. Negative time in-
tewals indicate that the conditioned
stimulus
followed the unconditioned sUmulus.
(From C. L.
Hull, Frlncipka of behador,
1943, p. 170, by per-
mission of AppletonCentury-Crofts,
Inc. From data
by H. M. Wofle, Conditioning as a function
of the
interval between the conditioned
and the original
stimulus, Gen. PttjchoU 1932, 7:80-103.)
diUom IS diffimlt to obtain, and some

investigators have maintained
that backward conditioning does not occur.
The may or may not overlap with the US
in timo. For eJ-
™ônome may still be sounding
when the food is pre-
ITT case,
«
we speak of a dehyed
hefnr? turnedoff some time
rneTorl dmlrf^r'""’ T CB. Trace CB’s
“ «>"d.Uoned stimulus, and the CB

tends to appear toward the
end of the interval
,
CONDITIONING
Tig 75 This Curve Shows How a Conditioned Response (conditioned

eyeblink of human subjects) Grows in Stren^ as a Function of the
Number of Repetitions (After C A XunbJe, Conditioning as a function
of tJie time between conditioned and uncondiboaed stimuh / Exper
Psychol 2917, 37 8 by permission of the journal and the Amencan
Psychological Associatiou )
acquisition curves for verbal materials so there ire acquisition

cunes for conditioned responses Fig 75 shows how a conditioned
response grows in strength as the number of repetitions increases
Summary of Ufajor Determinants The estabhsliment of a CR
requires (1) tlie presence mthe subject of a reliable UR to a US,
respect to the UR (3) a dose
(2) initia] neutrality of the CS with
sequence in time of tlie CS and US and(4) several paired presen*
tations of CS and US The espenmenfal conditions must conform to
each of these factors However, these factors are interdependent
The number of acquisition trials required for conditioning, for ex-
ample, vanes with the strength of the US Fig 76 shows that the
trials by tens
a function of the time betwew, ^ Kimble, Conditioning as

/ Exper Ptychol 1047 37 « unconditioned stimulus,
American Psychologica]
AisodftlJli?^)’^
niaior dêrmTnanU ir
^ ^favorable to conditioning, this
situation
pammet
may be oSsm
^ V,^,
value, of the other
CONDITIONING 295
SeCONDABT DETEBAflNAJm
Distribution o! Practice, 'ni^niunber of acquKihon tnaj5 per
i n fluences th e degree of learning
In gêral.ê more
distributed th e tnals are ui OieJfsUer Fig 77
snows that a condiboned eyelid response m man is acquired much
Flo 77. The Infineocc of Distnbubon el Frae*

tice on the Acquisition of a Condiboned Eyebd Re*
spouse Tie conditioned stimulus and uncondihoned
stimulus Were paired 50 tunes at the three rates m
rheated. The supeaenty of a sfe»»v taie is appazeal
(From E R HUgard and D C Marquis, Condition-
of
ing end learning. 1940. p M9, by penmssioo
Appletoit-Ccntury Crolts, Inc.)
more readilywhen the ztimuh are presented once emy

20 seconds
than they follow each other at a faster rate
if
For the estab-
Percentage of Trials in IVhidi VS Appears.
with Ihe CS Howwer. to
lishment of a CR, the US must be paired
US need not accompany to CS on every to) A
®
be estabhshed even d to US appeam
ivdl discover for what
fiacboo of to Inals
Only further eipenments
wo desenb^
"e^WiSiEo In to capetoent which
thf aoinial was kept in a soundproofed,
—
2gg
expebimental psychology
To this phenomenon, the term erlemal Inhibition has been
applied.
of short
The eSect of the extraneous stimulus, characteristically, is
duration. An extraneous stimulus may also have the
opposite effect
(disinWbition). JfJhis.stimulus_occurs immediatel y after

the CT
has been expeiimentaUy, extinguished, the response may
temporanly
rM^pear.
Îndividual Differences. Conditioned responses, like all the
activities of living organisms, show individual differences. Anmial

and human subjects alike differ in the ease with which they can be
conditioned. Little is known as yet about the constitutional and al-
titudinal factors responsible for these differences.
Attitudinal Factors. Whenever the UR is under voluntary con-
trol(human subjects), even if only partially, attitudinal factors may
assume a major role. Much will depend on how the subject in-
terprets the task set him by the experimenter. If a shock *^0 'the hands
is the US, for example, the subject may a test of endur-
consider it
ance, or a test of the speed with which he can achieve the with-
drawal. Attitudinal factors need to be controlled carefully when
human subjects are involved.
Types OF CoNprnoNiNc Experiments

The term conditioning was originally restricted to the procedures
which we have The connotation of the term was,
just described.
however, soon extended to encompass a greater variety of learning
The essential differences among the various conditioning
situations.
experiments reside in the role played by the subject's motivation. In
the Pavlovian experiment, an adequate degree of motivation is in-
sured by the use of an unconditioned stimulus which elidts a strong
innate response. The unconditioned stimulus Is paired with the con-
ditioned stimulusno matter what the animal does. However, condi-
tioned responses can also be established in situations where the
animal has to discover by a process of trial and error the means of
bringing about the unconditioned stimulus In these trial-and-error
situations, motivating factors play
a crucial part in that they lead to
the selection of tlic response that finally becomes conditioned. It
thus becomes necessary to distinguish between two general
types of
conditioning procedures.
Classical Conditioning. When the experimental conditions are
CONDITIONING 297
such that thfiJJS accompanies the^CS no matter what the subject

does a classical condiiionlng, experiment is performed This pro
cûre Is calfS classical conditiomng because it represents the pro-
cedure used by Paalov Since the CR markedly resembles the le
ônsc ( UR ) ev oked by the US the application of the US is termed
/lomogcncous rei nforcement The term retjnforccment is used b**
cause Uie p resentation of the US strengthen s, or reinforces ihe.Cll
The adjcctisc homogeneous refers to the fact that CR and UR are
same effector organs eg salivabon.
similar activities invohang the
Instrumental Conditioning When the experimental condi
tions are such that tli c a p plication of the rein forc ing_s^timulus .de-
pends upon w hat the tmim al does in responsÔ-theXS
performed It is so called because
memffl/ conditioning experiment is
con-Hitioncd stimulus is instrumental in produc-

tKeresponselo the
response
ing the reinforcmg stimulus In this case the conditioned
unconditioned stun
does not resemble the response exoked by the
ulus For this reason, we speak ofJieterogencous rejnforceme^
RESPONSE
CoVDTTlOVING AN InSTOUMENTAL
behveen
In order to dlustate the d.slmction
a sitnahon
mental cond.tmnmg we shall desenbe ^
learns an mstmmeotal response
Agam 7=
table bn
standmg on the espemnental
h« harness
h« cheek A soon* “
dangling from bell
f
reiur„ra7n^':i''i'thrd"'og
-
^rdtd r/rlt's
be gun to sou ndjhanjhe dogs the's^ce ofjound and
head svith
have
saliva drops
^ j-erTtonteamedBut note we
he
t earsand turning the bead , a classical
condiboning
at the same bme “""S^jJêasure the increase m saliwbon
experiment We response and the
proceed The totnimental
as the experiment
classicalresponse have both been established through the same
reinforcing stimulus-food. One response— salivation-has been es-
tablished by homogeneous reinforcement, the olher-the instrumen-
tal one—by heterogeneous reinforcement.
Four main types of instrumental conditioning have been dis-
tinguished according to the consequences of the instrumental

response for the motivated subject
Reward Training. The instrumental response leads to a re-
ward. For example, a bu2zcr is sounded and food is delivered to the
animal only if it performs some instrumental act such as pressing
a lever or turning its head toward the sound. The appearance of the
reward (reinforcing stimulus) is contingent upon the Instrumental
act.*-
Escape Training. The instrumental response allows the sub-

ject to escape, a harmful or painful stimulus. For example, the
animal may terminate a continuous clcctric shock by an instrument^
act such as pressing a pedal or standing upright. The weii-condi-
Uoned animal will perform this instrumental act very shortly after
the onset of the noxious stimulus.
Avoidance Training. The instrumental response enables_the
object Jto avoid Jthe oâ
harmful or painful stimulus. For
onse^
example, a buzzer sounded and followed after^ set time interv'al
is
by an electric shock. By perfonning an instrumental act such as

withdrawng from the electrodes during this time interval, the'sub-
ject may avoid the application of the shock.
Secondary Reward Training. The instrumental response leads
to a stimulus object which may later be exchanged for a reward. In
other words, the subject works for a token. This token is originally
neutral and acquires reinforcing properties because it is paired with
a re^vard. For example, an animal will learn to pull a string \vith a
weight attached to it in order to obtain a poker chip or similar
token, provided tlie animal can use the token to get
food.
1 Sometimes no specific condiboned shmulus, such as a buzzer,
is given and
Ac instrumental response (e g pressing a lever) must occur
, spontaneously be-
fore reinforcement Is given. In such cases, we may think
of the instrumental
response as conditioned to the total pattern of sUinuh in
the eroenmental
^ sit-
uation.
CONDITIONING 299
’
^QuANTTTA'mT Metoods rJ CoSDmONINC

and dependent variables
Let US reconsider the mim independent
emphasis on tlie meth
of the conditioning csperlment with special
themselves
ods of quantification to which the) lend
Imlcpcmlcnt Variallcs
in a condiUoning
Tlie principal independent variables
intcnsit) of the US
l'-o ê motiva
" rf
nre (1^ the nature and
the siibjert, (-) e
tion and the plqsical state of
the CS and Urn
tensita of the CS. (3) the
lime interval between
O’'
US or'hetvveen the Cn and the US. (^) tTlaUve
e re a v
of acquislUon trials, (6)
cessive (5) the number
tnals,
frequenej of reinforcements Wa ba\e cmnbasized
behavior
beyond a certain point, the
^^li'l'iôf dm Uîstt'ased
sequence ina) be disrupted ni the US m order to pre-
not suiTicieiit to
It IS
diet the strength of
the VB S^^-êct vylmajaamDÛ.'
motivation andjilgdcd S° - -^•jîJfcUve-as.aJeirforcing
s;^3:rGrgeJood revâ_^L_J^,^^ „.U have different
stimulus than a r.,-ifinn of the
animal
eTe^TlqKnanrgmnrie
moU^tm" „uh.n
^
of reyeet to
â.ure and Intensity
of th In desent
the sensory capacity
yeeiaj
^ quantification
adequate
the UR ..raises no Jan. to give an
CS in Although this vanable is

de^CTip'l.on'’rf the *'J^S
«
Se interval B0t''“”
tle«no““*
“nma„ga. ef conditioning
,„;ra„on because
diere
it is stat
an important j
proo
again no special
units of physical time. In instrumental conditioning, the time interval
behveen CR and US may become a critical variable.
Time Interval Between Succcsshc Trials. The same consid-
erations apply as to the question of the inter%'al between CS and US
although laboratory control is usually achieved without diillculty.
Number of Acquisition Trials. The number of acquisition
trials is a simple counting variable. This means that we are simply
concerned with the frequency of occurrence rather than with the
intensity or form of a given e\'cnt.
Relative Frequency of Reinforcement. This variable refers to
the percentage of the total number of trials on which the reinforc-
ing stimulus presented Again, we arc dealing with a simple count-
IS
ing vanable. Strength of conditioning can be plotted as a function

of the relative frequency of rcinforcemcnL
Dependent Variables
Two features of the conditioned response constitute the main de-
pendeiit variables: the f^rm of the CR and the strcnuth of the CR.
One of these, the form of the CR, cannot be^quantifiedT If in“the
course of conditioning, a response becomes more
and precisemore
and circumscribed as istypically the case in withdrawal from shock,
it is difficult to find a meaningful quantitative index of this change
in the form of the response.
On the other hand, the strength of a
CR can be rigorously quanti-
fied.i:ouLimport5nt_»2yîn_vîclê_5trerig(h of the CR can be
jneasure^re^ (1) the frequency of occurrence
of CR; (2) resistance
to expenmental extincUon, i e., the
number of unreinforced trials
required to reach a given critenon of
experimental extinction; (3)
the latency of the CR; and
(4) the amplitude of the CR
Prequency of Occurrence of CR. This
variable is perhaps the
most miportant single measure of the strength
of the CR. It is again
a simple counting variable. The experimenter
must decide in ad-
vance on unequivocal requirements
which a response has to meet in
order to be considered a CR. Once
this decision has been made, it
of CR-s that occur in
a specified block "^r
of trials.
Extinction. Once a CR has been

esHHilr?
established, it can be extinguished if the reinforcement
is omitted.
CONDITIONING 301
When weAâjtrengthjif CB in tenns of rKistance to eaUnchon,

a
w^jnenn-that a^trojig CR requires more trials for extinction than
one This index has been applied veiy widely m the measure-
ment ormstrumental reward conditioning
resistance to
Latency of the CR Trequeney of occurrence and
of the CR pro
extinction do not tell the whole story The latency
experimental con
vides one supplementary measure Under
certain
escep
ditions, iLshrutJalency sigm Ses a strong C R One important
universal measure In
tion to this rule shows why latency is not a
the case of the delayed CR and the trace CR
more strong es a s e
creases as the response becomes y
close temporal proximity
established CR of this type occurs in
X.Rî’e^ê^Âgam under certanieênm^

response can be used »
ditions only. Uie omplitude of a
strength Têth.n say>aê ^«erthe
^ter thoamiplitude of the^s^ . g

Again we may cite an ' electric shock
a strong
not umversil An animals . « reroonse of large
IS and dûse
violent
,[,5 shock, the
response
amplitude As the ammaUeam leaminc is complete and
be^mes more loonlised and P'^^'X ^dapre" tage 'he CB has
maximally adaptive
Us g
the response has reached
original amplitud
only a fraction of its
SPECUi-Fitouur^ôrCoôLiN
CoNDmONlNC E'tPEWMl!''^
UONDIII delicate
basic notion of “‘"^‘"“'Xdilioni^ expemnent WiUiout

The
in any
problems of control arise now discuss some of
these
exhaustive, we shall
LempUng to be
special problems many psychological ex
„.vnment In
Cont«l ol ores need .0 be
4,
penments, only certain
f “JX^tinmental
re
determine the laws
of
carefully controlled
For P absolutely quiet In
tlie cond
-
mirlure-m a room which » > exen'minute duturbani^

color
referrrf
protss We have
tromng experiment already
the ‘Xma connection with such
m
can interfere with .^lubmonJ
ot ex
to Pavlov’s concept
CONDITIONING 303
Control of Subject’s Motivation. The effectiveness of the rein*
forcing stimulus is not determined by its physical intensity alone,
but varies significantly with the subject’s motivation. Two sources

of reinforcement, which have been widely used in conditioning, ^vill
serve to illustrate this point: food and shock. Food is an
effective
reinforcing stimulus only if the animal is sufficiently hungry. The
F,.,
79^ o1
of food eaten before

ih
^ ^ number of
C..«.rr-Crrf«,
^ by tie staple
legiee of tie subjects b“"S' the greater
rrocedure of feeding
he degree
and fasMg.
hunger, the
of
^ , certain range,
conditioned response
established, the
degree of
is
istabliSed, Once tte Xatoess with which it is usrf.

runger will help *
„Sl responds in an
instnnnenta
svith whig “^^^fhenger. Fig. 79 illnstnr.es
dns
rhe freque-ty
jrpSfSe^l^P-",^^ suet, as
.ehaves in a stailar
A noidous stimulus,
way: the efFectiveness of shock in the conditioning process varies
with the subject’s sensitivity to it. Holding the physical intensity of
the shock constant from trial to trial does not insure constant rein*
forcement. Under some conditions, it is necessary to increase the
a constant
intensity of the shock in order to maintain the response at
level; under other conditions, the shock must be^ decreased in in-
tensity. Thus, two factors which lead to changes in the effectiveness
of shock are habituation to the punishment and changes in skin
resistance (perspiration). These two factors may work in opposite
^
Pic 80. A Simplified Diagram of the Condi-
tioned Response. In the course of conditioninc
S.
(CS) comes to evoke Rj (UR).
directions. Furthermore, individual differences

among subjects arc
so great that they need to be taken carefully into
account.
Control of the Time Interval Between CS and
US. The im-
portance of this factor has already been
emphasized. It leads to a
special problem in one form of instrumental
training: avoidance
conditioning. In this training procedure, the
situation is so arranged
that the CR enables the subject to avoid
punishment Thus, a sub-
ject may avoid the shock by withdrawing
his hand a short time after
presentabon of a CS. The time interval behveen
CS and US must
be long to allow for the latency of the CR
sufficiently
Clearly it
takes time for the CR to occur after the CS has been presented (as
much or more Ume as is required for a voluntary
reacUon). If the
US follows the CS too quickly, the subject
cannot avoid shock, and
the purpose of the training procedure is
defeated.
CONDITIONING 303
These arc but a problems of control which arise m

fe^v of the
conditioning experiments Thej serxe to emphasize the delicate

na
danger of
ture of the conditioning process and to point up the
one reproduced
portraying it in terms of a simple diagram as the
that temporal
in Fig SO This diagram tells us correctly enough,
indicate the com
pairing of stimuli is essential It fails however, to
which man) \anablcs determine the establishment ot
plex way in
aCR
Expewment XIX
CovomovED Hand Wctiidrawal
n,= axpenment ^.Iud, ™ .hall p<nv oute cpfe t”
human subiects We have .Ireed> cmphesiKd
the
o[
taere ere nt mep, .mporlance in <h^ tlTP ot
tho nnconditioned reepon.- is de^r
e»ee Tnd
rfeets
or to faeJ.tate it
iect-s «. to mh.b,t the retpenee
always we
persistence of conditioning It is will tahe a
w,U
that his subiect
subject
Albeit The erpermienter should not assume
he does not Instruct him
“neutra] set" If
»_rtTyimenta! conditioning
^pccwl
This expenment illustrates tj,e fact that
term
viz , avoidance eondtUoning The noxious stimulus
j
to the
the condiuoned resi>ome leads
than to tlie
(electric shod() rather response of a human
Puqsosc To condition the band ^ sUmulus which
stimulus ism
subject Tlic remforemg subjects The subject is
generally elicits wlhdrawul hand at a signal which
by
to leam to avoid Uie shock „ilbdrasvaJ
H»djr therefore is the re-
precedes the noxious

swulns
sponse instrumental m the avoi
.
(1) a source of electnc
Apparatus The a hoaxer which serves

xlioei; (2) a relatively
pf u,e sUmuli m
a Exed temponl
for pros' the wa*
ax the CS (3) a device '^Xlltument for recording
and if poHih>'
sequence
movement will dehvet a
conwlbwe
dtaxval Any deviee which
electric shod Any ^ maximum electric
shock
1 Source of
MflXloch .0 .he
A
this il'^™"?"
typical source
of shocl
of dry
O’ -<
an
cells
^ aahematic
i"il“f"r
diagram
“ condenser
discharge
” “
The
pair of elecf 0^^®
source of shock
may oe
306 EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOCV
electrodes consist of two plates of polished metal, c g ,
brass A con-
venient size for the larger electrode is 3 inches square, the smaller
one may be about 1 inch square Tlie larger electrode is mounted so
that the palm of the hand may rest comfortably on it The other,
Fig 81 Schematic Diagram of an Electrical Circuit for Administra-

tion of Electric Shock in CondiUoned Hand Withdrawal Expenments
„
tl'= Posibon of the Subiect's Hand
Tb wlSon Experiment (From
^ F^yc/io/ogy from the aandpoirtt
of the behaciorist 1919
P 33, by permmion of J B Lippmcott Oimpany
)
smaller, electrode is mounted so that the ball of the

middle finoer may
“• ho" the hand S
tuL'^Sy Sde
hÂ^rf
hand withdrawal response may be used as the
<>'>« not Itself elicit a
CS A buzzer may be
CONDITIONING
307
employed but care should he taken that ft is not startling to the sub-
The click of a telegraph sounder,
or a hgbt. ivffl serve equally
8 Presentation of stimuli A device is

needed to present the stimuli in
faxed temporal sequence For
example a pendulum which in the
course of its fall successively closes two
trip ssvitches is adequate
A uniformly rotating disk may be used instead of a pendulum The
toiDg device should, if possible deliver the CS about 05 seconds
before the US Of course if ibe interval is made much
shorter than
0-5 seconds, the subject will not be able to avoid
the shock If no
mechanical device for presentation of the stimuli is available, the
experimenter can operate two manual switches in quick succession
and achieve adequate results
d Recording device It is desirable to record on a polygraph or kymo-
graph the occurrence of the stmuh and the responses It is not neces-
sary for the purpose of this experiment to make a record of the exact
tune at which these events occur Only the presence or absence of
hand withdrawal is critical If sudi mechanical recording devices are
not at hand, the procedure may be altered somewhat Since the US Is
omitted on the test tnals, the experimenter nay sunply note whether
or not the withdraival response occurs
Procedure The subject is seated comfortably at a table The ex
perunenter demonstrates to him how to pbee palm and middle finger on
the two electrodes The following instrucbODS are then read
"A senes of electnc shocks %\ill be administered to you We need at
first to determme wbat intensity of shock you can tolerate wfhout
senous discomfort Place yow hand on the electrode as demonstrated,

and I shall gradually Increase Ibe intensity of the shock Tcl! me
when
the shock Is strong enough to cause your hand to withdraw auto-
os well as you can and do not resist the
impulse to
matically Belax
wthdraw your hand.
In making this detenmnatlon, it is inporfant not to Increase the
in-
Bather, a discrete senes of
tensity while a shock is being administered
than pjoce<l,ng one After
shoch J5 pr«eni«J. each oae more fatenso (Ire
eonuooea «fth the totmeftoM

the deteniioabon the erpenmeoter
rira); iMie
ptowed to the ejperiraental series Some of Ifto
Repbee
o'l^haod as soon as jmti feel the electric shock
m^ plates immediately This Is not a test of your
he metal P
your hand on the
Keo“t feSt eleetrm sho.^ Sometimes, the electne .h»k

will not
will notbe preceded by the buzzer; at other times, the buzzer
to force
be followed by the electric shock. At no time should you
try
youi band to stay on the metal plates.”

series
After having read the instructions, the experimenter presents the
of stimuli.At first, the experimenter presents the buzzer alone a few
with
times (say, six) in order to establish the neutrality of the buzzer
respect to the withdrawal response. The interval between stimuli should
be varied shghtly from and should be about 15 seconds. The
trial to trial
experimenter then presents the shock alone for about the same number of
trials. This is followed by a second scries of the CS by itself. Although
buzzer and shock have never been paired, some subjects may already re-
spond to the buzzer by hand withdrawal. If they do, there has been
pseudo-conditioning which is probably due to the sensitizing effect of the
shock. If pseudo-conditioning has taken place, the CS should be presented
alone until the subject does not respond for several trials in succession.
^Vhcn the experimenter is certain that the subject is not responding to CS
alone, he begins to pair buzzer with shock. The interval between pairs
should again be about 15 seconds. As the experimenter continues to pair
buzzer and shock, he intersperses test trials at irregular intervals. A test
trial consists of the presentation of the CS alone. Probably about every
sixth trial, there should be a test trial. However, in order to prevent the
mbject from exx>ecting a test, these trials should be irregularly spaced.
If possible, the pair^ presentations arc continued until the subject
reaches a predetermined criterion, say CR's on five successive test trials.
After such a criterion has been reached, the experimenter tries to ex-
tinguish the response. For this purpose, he repeatedly presents the buzzer
without shock. Again the procedure is continued until a predetermined
criterion is reached, say, five successive failures to
respond.
GeMHIAI. IlEFEnENCES
Hflgard, E. E. The relalimship between the conditioned response and
^venUonal learning cipcrimcnts, Piychol Bull.
1937, 3<;61-102.
” “I learning. New York; Applcton-Centuiy-Crofts,
Ifttn’
Hllgard. E. R.. and Marquis, D. C., Condllloning and learning. D. Apple-
i r-
ton-Ccntuiy Co., 1940.
Hull. C. L Learning; II, The factor of the conditioned rcflei. In
c. .Murdiison (ed.). A handbook
of general erperlmcnltd prychalogy.
v y or
Worcester. Clark Unhersily Press.
1934.
, ,
CONDITIONING
3^^
New Tori D Calmy Co
"fm Appleton
Pavlov,I P, Uctures an condilianed

-New York JntemahonaJ, 1928
refeies (Trans ty W H Canttl
B F, The behavior of organisms. New York

Sfcfaner,
D Annleton
Century Co 1938
W
,
Spence, K , Theoretical faterpretahons of learning In F A Moss

(eS), Comparative psychology New York Prenliee-Hall 194*2
Nature of CoNDmo-m) SnifULus avd Response

E Recent advances m some concepts of condiboning Pstjchol
Culler, ,
Beo, 1938, 45 134 153

HUgard,E R The nature of the conditioned response I The case for
,
and against stimulus substituhoo, Psychol Rec 1936 43 36641S5

HUgard, E R , The nature of the coniboned response 11 Altemabves
to Stimulus Substitution Psychol Rco 1936 43 54T>564
,
Schlosberg H, The reJatrooship betiveen success and the laws of con

dibonlag, Ps^cfioJ Rev, 1937, 44 379^94
AcQUismoN AM> Exnhcnov

Brogden, \V J , and Culler, E
Eipcnmental eTtinetioo of higher-order
,
responses, Amcr 1935 , 47 665-669

/ Psychol
Brogden W
J Lipman, E A . and Culler, E The role of incentive
,
m
conditioning and extinction Amer f Psychol, 1938 51 109 117
Finch, G , and Culler, E Relation of forgetting to experimental extino-
tion Amer JPsychol 1935 47 656 G02
HUgard. E R and Campbell A A , The course of acguiation and re*
,
tention of conditioned eyel/d responses in man, / Exper Psychol,

1936 29 227 247
Humphreys, L G The effect of random aUemotion
of reinforcement
conditioned eyelid reactions.
on the acquisition and extinction of
158
/ Exper Psychol, 1939, 55 J41
conditioning and maze learning,
Hunter, \V S Leanung curves for
,
J9121 128
I Exper Fsijchal ,1936, ^ 1
KimWs G A.Co»d*oi.,ngM.f™c6onofl8=nm=beW«,,m,to^
uncondiboned atmull I
Exper FxpcM I9J7 37 1 15
and
”
to", fee .
txpcr
“^,-"'22
.
non Pavlowan reaction J
310 EXPEKIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
GENEnALlZATlOM AND DISCRIMINATION
The generalization of conditioned responses; I. The
Hovland, C. I.,
sensory generalization of conditioned responses with varying fre-
quencies of tone, J. Gen. Psychol., 1937, 17:125-148.

Hovland, C. L, "The generalization of conditioned responses: II. The
sensory generalization of conditioned responses with varying intensities
of tone, /. Genet. Psychol., 1937, 51:270-291.
Hovland, C. I., The generalization of conditioned responses: III. Extinc-
spontaneous recovery, and disinhibition of conditioned and of
tion,
/. Exper. Psychol., 1937, 21 :47-C2.
generalized responses,
Hovland, C. I., The generalization of conditioned responses: IV. The
effects of varying amounts of reinforcement upon the degree of gen-
eralization of oonditioned responses, /. Exper. Psychol., 1937, 21 :261'
278.
Lashley, K. S., An examination of the “continuit/’ theory as applied to
J. Gen. Psychol., 1942, 28:241-265.
discriminative learning,
Liddell, H. Conditioned reflex method and experimental neurosis.
S.,
In J. McV. Hunt (ed.), FersonalUy and the behavior disorders, Vol. II»
New York: The Ronald Press Co., 1944.
Spence, K. W., The nature of discrimination learning In animals, Psychol
Rev., 1938, 43:427-449.
Spence, K. \V., The differential response in animals to stimuli varying
within a single dimension, Psychol Rev., 1937, 44:430-444.
TEilPOlUl. Relahovs
Bernstein, A. L., Temporal factors in the formation of conditioned eyelid
reactions in human subjects, /. Gen. Psychol, 1934, 10:173-197.
Kappauf, W. E., and Schlosberg, H., Conditioned responses in the white
rat: III.Conditioning as a function of the length of the period of delay,
/. Genet. Psychol., 1937, 50.27-45.
Perin, C. T., A quantitative investigation of the delay-of-reinforcement
gradient, /. Exper. Psychol, 1043, 32;37-51.
WolQe, H. M., Time factors in conditioning finger-withdrawal, Gen.
J.
Psychol, 1930, 4:372-378.
Atitiudinai. Factohs
Cole, L. E., A comparison of the factors of practice and knowledge of ex-
perimental procedure in conditioning the eyelid response
of human
subjects, /. Gen. Psychol, 1939, 20:349-373.
. ,
CONDITIONING 311
Grant, D A , The influence of attitude on the conditioned eyelid re

sponsB, J Exper Psychol , 1939, 25 333-346
Hilgard, E R , An algebraic analysts of conditioned discrimination in
man, Psychol Reo , 1938, 4S 472496
HiJgard,E R and Humphreys, L C
, ,
The effect of supporting and
antagonistic voluntary Instructions on conditioned discnmmation
7.Exper Psychol 1938. 22 291-304
Razran, G H S Atbtudinal control of human
,
conditioning, 7 Psychol
1936, 2 327-337.
««<
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF HUMAN LEARNING
FOR over half a century, experimenters

have pursued a patient
search for the conditions of
which the learners performance is a
nin^’on, and for the most cfBdent
methods of measurement and
analysis. Th^ have found
the number of significant variables large
an e mo ®^f interaction
of these variables even more multiple
an comp e ever-growing body
of experimental data has led
ly veiy slowly to the
emergence of broad generalizations and uni-
systematic theory. Th^
exists today a solid
Itnowkdge concerning the
enJthe^J^ condiUons which inflo-
Se"rv of Sc m A comprehensive
-Its
OF PlUCnCE
Serial T
Naming is aerial m
nature. The
material whkrth!fieamer
nonsense syllables non^
^ Piaster consists of a series of items-
At the begirmine of thp ^"sonants, digits, meaningful words-

acquainted with the subject may or may not be
b^ are paiTof ht iif Meaningful words and nuin-
wfll probably
be the nonsense materials
component items his ^hatêr his acquaintance with the
other, to form ° connect them with each
associatimis a
come to form an them so that the disjointed parts
orcanirc/l
syllables, a prose passage ^’“"“sizing a list of nonsense
serial learning. In
the care nf
poetry are all examples of
terized by meanine the series is charac-
ng. but in .n
in the
^ of
senes has little more meining than each component part In both
cases, houe\er, Icanung depends on the formation of associations
among the members of the senes * Much of the study of verbal
learning, therefore is concerned with the conditions leading to as
sociations among the members of a senes
The members of a senes are associated wath each other as a
result of practice Se\eral methods of stimulus presentation and
in etperiments on serial learning
jUifctice have been de\ eloped
The Method of Complete Presentation The total senes is
presented to the subject, and he is allowed to read it and
eiplore it
at his oivn speed A tune limit is usually set,

but within the allotted
controlled and he is free to linger
time the learner s hehai lor is not
the eapenmenter
over some parts, slip bghtly over others Nor can
the roatenal and
be sure at what point the subject begins to rehearse
expenmenter finally *«*' *’’=
to recite to himself When the
retention, he may find it difficult to Inteipret the resu t ^ “‘jf
information about .the ivays m

which the subjMt
or about the temporal course of his
learning The m^
-ractiwl
is its
of the method of complete presentation
each
the subject IS instructed to nuHeipofe
The eoireet item is presented whether ap-
atlemji a
tempted to anticipate it If he does
response
pearanee of the correct item presentation of the
Ha
If he fails to anUcipate, he is .P^P
-e senes is both a learning
correct item Thus, each presentation usually conbnued
trial and a test of letention
This proeedur “ „ter
“
until the subject has reached
the of
errorless senes
More often than not, this entenon successive
cn na,
anticipations but more exacting
connec-
remind the reader of the
We of neural
1
rrt connote tw
associauon is used. The term docs
bons or similar explanatory hypothes
errorless series of anticipations, are sometimes used. The greatest
the ex-
advantage of the method of anticipation is that it allows
perimenter to obtain a full picture of the temporal course of learn-
ing, both for the series as a whole and for each
individual item. We
can see at what point any given item is correctly anticipated for
the first time and how stable the retention for the item is, i.e , ho^v
often it is learned, forgotten, and relearned. Wc can gauge the
amount of improvement which results from a test trial at various
stages of learning. The method is ideally suited for the study of
serial learning, for it is in terms of their serial position that the sub-
jectmust connect the items with each other.
The Method of Paired Associates. Anyone who has tried to
memorize a list of foreign words and their English equivalents is
familiar with this method. On the first trial, paired items (e.g., two
nonsense syllables, a syllable and a number, two meaningful words,
or a meaningful word and a number) are presented to the subject.
On all subsequent trials,the first member of the pair is presented to
the subject, and he attempts to recall the second. The subject is
given a limited amount of time in which to supply the missing mem-
ber of the pair, after which the correct item is presented to him.
The method thus is a special case of the method of anticipation, and
again each trial is both a learning Inal and a test of retention. Again,
the temporal course of learning can be followed in detail. The em-
is on connection between the members of a pair (each of
phasis here
which may be considered a series of two items) rather than on the
connection of a long series of individual items. It is customary, there-
fore, to present the pairs in a different random order on each trial
in order to prevent the subject from Jearaing the second members
of the pairs as a series of responses independent of the first members.
The three methods discussed here represent the basic procedures
used in the practice of verbal materials. They are used for serial
learning as well as for learning that is not primarily serial in nature.
In experimental pracUce, departures from these standard models
are frequendy introduced, and features of several methods
may be
combined in order to find the answer to a particular problem. As in
the case of psychophysical methods (see
pp. 14-15), these pro-
cedures must not be considered as cut and dried,
inflexible pre-
scriptions but rather as models which the
experimenter is free to
vary and adapt according to his needs. Two aspects of the procedure
which are often vaned are the order of presentation of the stimulus
items and the criterion to which learning is carried.
Uniform vs. Random Order of Presentation. On the
practice
trials, the items of the series may be

presented either in uniform or
sequence of items re-
in random order. If the order is uniform, the
tnal to tnal. If the order is
mndom an en-
mains unchanged from
tirely different sequence is used
on eveiy trial. The subject s task and
the Lining prooiss radically aHected by the orfer
me P'®®;
umfomt, the snbjecfs effort »
tlon. If the mdci is
serial order,
learning the items in their proper
f
aôciation -““S
Wrin^put hts main emphasis on tteil^s
Aem^ often
disregarding serial posiHon “ He, „ umforai order

of
the method of ant.ctpahon order
of pairs. Either order ma
. ot
learning of the individual independently
to study
effectsof positron m order ,he quer-
of such effects. For erompi/.
w „ less rapidly
tion of whether “emotional in random order

than “neutral" ones,
we P for both types
nf serial position
way '1“ ease of
to compare the
and in this
of items. On the other hand
.fwe rvish
^ _
learning items located

we would
at
keep the order

of ^
pr^ *
n„„rta„t from trial to
.
^ period
tnat.
pra^
Criterion to Which indeEmtely. There Is
with
to state
any aOTr-
lice ta
„o
a learning fP'™'"'
one point nt which
it ^ JXr
p<®,blc
a learner has
mastered a
has cnas^.
E^" " crê
anee thl learning „„.le it without
when he is h performance may lx«me
list of items-fe.,
learning is to be
mcnt, on a criterion of 'performance to which
One frequently used criterion, which we have already men-
carried.
tioned, is complete mastery, i.e., one errorless recall of the material.
If practice is continued beyond that point to, say, three or five
errorless repetitions, overlearning takes place. It would
be difficult
experiment
to state a general rule concerning the best criterion iri an
on verbal learning. The optimal criterion will vary from experiment
to experiment. In many experiments, the criterion of complete mas-
tery has been found useful, but less exacting criteria, such as cor-
rect repetitions of75 percent of the items, have also been used suc-
cessfully. If degree of learning is one of the independent variables,
several criteria may be used within one experimental design.
Instead of carrying learning to a criterion, it is possible to prac-
tice the material for a fixed number of trials and then test for
retention. Such a procedure may often save time, espedally in the

performance of group experiments. It has, however, one serious
disadvantage. At the end of a fixed number of trials, there will be
considerable variability in the degree of mastery achieved by indi-
vidual learners. Diffci enccs in learning ability arc appreciable, even
among subjects with fairly homogeneous educational and social
backgrounds. Thus, with a constant amount of practice, the amount
of learning is far from constant from subject to subject. Generaliza-
tion about the effects of experimental variables becomes difficult
when individual differences in strength of learning are uncontrolled.
If all subjects are carried to the same criterion, their results become
more comparable.
Mastery, as revealed by the ability to reproduce the material, pro-
vides, of course, only one of several possible criteria of learning, al-
though it is the one most frequently used. Other criteria may
be set,
e.g., the ability to recognize a certain percentage of items correctly,
or aminimum speed of performance. The choice of criterion de-
pends on the particular method used to measure the strength of
learning.
The Basic Vabiables in Learning Experiments

In any experimental situation, the learner’s performance
(however
measured) is a joint function of many conditions. As
we have em-
phasized, one of the most striking facts revealed
by investigations
in this field is the multipliaty and complexity of the vanables which

significantly influence learning To evaluate the effects of these van
ables, it IS desirable to vary one or a few at a tune, holding all other
relevant factors as constant as possible Three important sets of
vanables have been investigated under conditions of controlled ex-
learned
penmentabon (1) the nature of the materials or acbvibes
place, and
(2) the condibODS of practice under which learning takes
subjects, such as their age,
(3) the personal charactenstics of the
sex, and intelhgence Measurable performance depends on
uliat is
learned how learned and who learns it We shall bnefly sum

it is
experimental find-
manze the most important methodological and
ings under each of these three headings
Pehfohmance as a Function of What Is

LEAHum
do not benefit from Ioot-
There are few human acBviUes which
ing, but the effects are by no
means imiferm for all
verbal materials each

Dimensional Analysis V
j„eh malermls can
other m many ways A syste oM/yrfs' We must begin
best be earned out 'h™“gh aspect to which
by stating the charactensti
verbal materials vaiy „,nc or dimension and be
alike
tenals may differ

one m ,
differ from each
m another or, as
frequently « J„etion m each of
diniensions (eiperimen
other in several i,„|dini: constant
the dimensions can «>“ dimensions We shall
tally and/or
consider three
y)
statistica
dimension
_ verbal material which hav
meaningfulness, (2)
c
affectivitj,
expenmentauy i /
been isolated
and (3) amount
(« dmieinle"'
"The need
nrjelrfoai cf thon’cS'i
ew'pwh™'''
Itcalise
detenninanls of hum
318
The Dimension of Meaning. Verbal materials may or may not
have standard dictionary meaning. As we have seen, the
nonsense
syllable was invented with tlie express

purpose of eliminating mean-
ing in order to study “pure” learning and retention,
unencumbered
by uncontrolled associations introduced by meaning. It is now clear
that meaning is a question of degree. Few nonsense items arc com-
pletely meaningless, and even if they lack meaning at the beginning
of an experiment, the subject soon succeeds in making them more
or less meaningful by invoking associations and similarities, how-
ever far-fetched and remote. TTie advantage of nonsense materials
lies primarily in the fact that they allow the use of materials of
fairly uniform difficulty, A h*st of nonsense syllables can be con-
structed so that members are reasonably equal in difficulty and
its
susceptibility to meaningful associations. Individual subjects, more-

over, may be assumed to have fairly equal degrees of acquaintance
with nonsense material (provided previous service fn learning ex-
periments is held constant), whereas experience with meaningful
words varies much more widely from individual to individual.
The difference in degree of meaning between nonsense materials
and standard dictionary words is reflected in the speed with which
words arc learned. There is general agreement that meaningful items
are learned significantly faster than nonsense materials. This gen-
eralization holds whether the nonsense materials be ^llables, con-
sonants, or groups of digits, and the meaningful materials be discrete
words, prose passages, or stanzas of poetry.
Within the two broad classes of nonsense and meaningful mate-
rials, individual items vary continuously in degree of meaning. Some
nonsense words suggest meanings and associations more readily

than others (cf. p. 279). Other things being equal, the greater the
"association value” of a nonsense item, i.e., the more frequently it
reminds subjects of meaningful words, the more quickly it is learned.
Meaningful materials themselves vary in degree of meaning and
consequently in ease of learning. A series of discrete words is
learned more slowly than a connected passage. A prose passage, in
turn, is likely to be learned less quickly than a
comparable amount
of poetry which has the additional advantage of rhyme and rhythm.
Meaning facilitates learning because it makes it easier
to connect
individual items with each other, to bring to bear on
the new learn-
STUDY OF HUMAN LEAHNINC
Mg tasi. previous learning and previous espenence Espeaally md
senal materials, rale of learning depends largely
on the case ivid
which the subject can organize and group the items Weaning
is ar
important aid in achievmg such organization
Xhe Dimension of AfTectn ity Meaning facilitates learning by
allowing the subject to utilize past learning in the formation of new
associations The kinds of past expenences which may function in
the acquisihon of new materials am, of course, many and vaned
Past experience with the learning malena} may, for example, be
characiemed by differences in affeetivity or "emotional tone " \fean*
words may be pleasant, unpleasant, or neutral being asso-
iflgful
ciated to varying degrees with emotional experiences in the past
Tilers have been many studies of rote learning as a function of tho
affective characteristics of Uie material The results have not always
been univocal, but, zn genera), pleasant sbmuhs items have shown
quickest learning, with unpleasant and neutral ones following in
that order A senous methodolopcal problem is the difBcuICy of
amvmg at valid independent classifications of learning materials as
pleasant, unpleasant, and neutral A priori classifications merely re-
flectthe experimenter's judgment and may have httle or no validity
for some of hia subjects Frequently, experimenters have asked the
subjects themselves to judge the matenals some time before or after
leaniing As far as the subjects* judgments are reliable and valid,
they may legiUmately be used in studying the correlation behieen
affectivity and of learning Affectiie judgments, however, are
rate
Beraiise of the veo" fact that emo-
difficult io validate (cf p 231)
the subject himseif ma, he a poor
tional responses are involved
of the material AlTectuily Ss not a
radea of the affective nature
be easily measurrf or vaned erpenmentally
variable which can
limited topleasantnej unpte-
Thedimeusionof affectivity is not
anfness Verbal material
may evoke a vanety o attitudes in he
learner, and sucli alhtodor
may he significant de ermmants of the
a «• f - Tf hiis boon shoivn, for example, that materials
rate of
preferenc^ may be leamed
congruen whicli he
forgotten more slowly than materials to
more
"‘"l^rênments sex differences in learning per-
IS opposed
differences in attitude or interest fa
Jh“ Findings such as Uicse do not as ,et bale the

generalizations, for the study of learning
status of well-established
to attitudes and interests is stiU very much m
Us begin-
^relation
is, however, of
great potential sig-
nings This area of investigation
helps to eztend the horizon of
learmng ezpen-
ntonce because it
social psychology and

personality.
ments to problems of
Fic. 83. The Effect of Length of List on

DiIBcully of Learning. In this figure, the amount of
time required to learn a list of nonsense syllables
is plotted against the number of syllables in the Lst.
Clearly, the longer the list, the longer it takes to
learn it. In addition, the relationship is not linear,
i e., the longer the list, the more time is required per
item learned. (From J. A. McGeoch, The psychology

of human learning, 1942, p. 178, by permission of
Longmans, Green & Co , Inc. After D. O. Lyon,
Memory and tlie learning process, 1917, by i>er-
mlssion of Wai^lck & York, Inc.)
The Dimension of Amount Learned. \\Tiatcver the nature of

the indKidual items in a learning task, the learner must establish
connections among Ihern, group them, and organize them so that he
may finally perform the whole task (or meet some other criterion
set by the experimenter). Amot/nf to be learned is one of the dimen-
sions along which \erbal materials vary, quite apart from their spe-
cific nature How is rale of learning affected by the magnitude of
the subject's total task? As far as sheer amount of time to reach
critenon Is concerned, a long task must necessarily take more time
presented or read at a constant

than a short one If the items are
»ill ocmpv more time than
speed each presentation of a long list
maj further ask, hoisever. wheUier
fte
that of a short list Wo
remains constant or changes as
nmoililt of time per Kern kerned
eipenmental evidence clearly Ao
length of a task IS i aried The
does be»me pealer M
the kng^
that the amount of time per item
of the leaming task is increased Fig S3 'I nstia ms
number of sylhhks in a list increases

them increaLs
the total
The curve is not «
disproportionately
^^
but shows positne acceleration
have to p'"'' 83
“‘^\;;j^„'hÎelat,onsh,p depicted in Fig
as complete not very
„os,|„e acceleration is
IS dearly not linear
the straight
•ôsely approximates a
tb
great Oicr a wade range becomes really
hue Tlie disproportionate
senous only when the list

i-aming time with increased
increases
Disproportionate ^ vanety of activities
amounts of material general one
relationship myb Re considered a
and materials the
_ellect
The degree of leammg shows the
„» For
learning situation Rjêaming for understanding d ffl
“"'fdo« m
extent f^n an mcrease
to a greater
practiced subjects a '“"e as these sugges
variations such
V
untrained one [^^„er Sad
culty than for
per iteiu as Uie
in time .ê b,s responses
the mcrease he
more Crand^rger In a long list
d more and '
material other
amount of
are
‘'^“R.Se 'vdh each expect this effect
individual Items We should
organiang and gr P 5
skillful than an o„s ids m
m using vanou
and
effects
matenal
Sene’ Fos«‘« „
The Effect! of ^
’'StiS
the speed with
The serial
order (e-g
ê antrapatioa method)
a deflnite
322
its posl-
wWcli any given member of tbc scries is learned varies with
general, tbe Erst item in the senes is
l<mmed
tinn in tte series. In
of learning decreases as a function of
fastest; thereafter, speed
a minimum near the middle of the
senes.
serial position, reaches
Tic. B4. A
Set of Serfal Position Curves. The
Dumber of correct anticipations per trial is plotted
agawil Ae
-pcftWon tA VKe in \is\. The
numbers on the curves refer to the criterion met by

the subject on, the trial for which the curve Is
plotted. In the early stages of learning there is a
striking sag to^vard the center of the list As learning
approaches completion, the curve necessarily levels
out more and more. (From J. A. McGeoch, The
psychology of hurruin learning, 1942, p. 98, by per-
mission of Longmans, Green & Co., Inc. After L. B.
Ward, Beminiscence and rote leanung, Vsychol.
Monogr., 1937, 49, No. 220, p. 35, by permission of
tlic journal and the American Psychological Associa-
tion.)
and then rises again. The last item is learned considerably faster
than the middle ones though usually not as well ti5 the first one.
Fig. 84 shows a set of typic^, Txjw-shaped,” serial-position curves.
In Fig. 64, the mean number of correct anticipations per trial is
plott^ against the serial petition of the item. As these curves show,
the effects of serial position are greatest in the early stages of prac-
tice. iVheii only three or five successful anticipations are made on
g
and more ot the items m the m *

* i^^sh and the
a result the differences among the scmôsiiiii
learning is camri to a
curve IS flnttened out If Since
final trial is by
' “ ^
terj , the cun e for the ,„ 3) There are
‘
recalled
all the Items ate posiUons than at the
more failures in
howeier always
ends of the senes before
,u^r"rronJ;^ê—
^ of senal posiUon
are fre-
the In the hrt

Fonned Between , „ems
Tlie letters A h^vy
represent
nonsense 'y'lf. dotted orroivs
e g The
Toe
imm^dute associaHons McCeocb
So SsSiations
;;“oloe7o/to»«nfeîn|^ ,„o,
B ^
mission of Longm
between ad
“ irol "uTaC other

jacent °„' backward
d from each
rorBl&tngaS!^—
mS^remole
duection Before 5 «ssocmUo^^_^^
^
let us consider letters A foêd behveen
ad
^ ™
associations
Consider Fig represent
hsl The hensy repres'n‘ j
jacent items
tlie
??J artmvs
o only ^n ^ p ood
U,ect Fnc..eesjl^^'^„.d.c A-th^ EjmUiols freguent than
forn^BXarJtemo.e«B«“
of them
provided one
'

learned the we can reshuffle the items (for example, in the
list,
order A C E G B D F) and have the subject learn the new

sequence. He will learn the new or "derived" list faster than the
originallist. The fact that he learns the derived list faster
suggests
that remote associations were formed during the original learning
which facilitated mastery of the new task.
Evidence for the formation of remote associations also comes
from an analysis of the errors which the subject makes while
prac-
ticing a list of items. Not infrequently we
note "anticipatory" errors.
In recalling the items, the subject will sometimes
skip one or more
intermediate steps and connect remote items
with each other. Thus,
after recalling A, he may reproduce
C
or D, or even E, F, or G. Such
errors are caUed anHcipatory because
the items reproduced, though
correct, are given too early in the
sequence. Without postulating
remote associaUons, such errors would
be difficult to explain. While
«soeiations in the
^ P^'^âUve error occurs when

TniZZ ™
r may Ibe 'he series. For
example, C correctly recalled follosving
B, and then be re-
peated foUowing E. In general, the
further hvo items are separated
from each other, the less likely are
they to be ZnnZed bTlm
bcipatory or perseveraUve error.
Both anticipatory and perserera-
S eZn learning is
Passes
thus characterized
to"”e
îTn by the decrease
reiStr^îir^zre^sirr
large number ''"es is practiced, a

siZ
shois, the
of
nZL?:) zj : “sr “ ^ ««
depends on Us serial position More forward associarions
span items in the middle
of tbi. T
endsoftheserieTweZeie^LtZ b"""
study of human learning
snaim^^L “f ‘k= senes are

number of remote assomlions such
nil he , ^
be subject to the greatest
items
amount of inhibition in the course
of
Fjc 80 A Schemabc Diagram Showwg the Im

mediate and Remote AssoaaUons VVIuch Are Be-
Beved to Spaa the Items in a Learning Series TTie
broten arrmvs represent essociaboru between
adjiceot items The curved arrows represent remote
forward associatians The numbers under the non
sense syllables indicate the number of forward
remote associations presumably spanning that item
The items m the middle of the list are spanned by
the largest number of associations (From J A
McGeodi, TAe ptt/cAohg!/ o/ Airman learning 1942,
p 109, by permission of LoDgrnans Green & Co
Inc After C L Hull The conflicting psychologies
of learning—3 way out Psychol Rev 1935 42 502
by permission of the journal and the Amertcaa Psy
chological AssociaboD )
practice, and it will tale a relatively long lime to o\ercome such in

hibition and to stiengtben immediate associations sufBciently Thus,
may be asenbed to the infubitoiy action of
senal position effects
remote associations which must be overcome before complete mas
tery can be obtained
speaking of remote" assoaa
in our discussion we have been
tions Remoteness should be
understood to refer only to position in
the series In the last analysis
remote assoaaUons may turn out to
associabons between ad/acent items in
be no less immediate than
^Vhatever neural counfeipaits the perception of a ^'liable
the series
for a smalf finite period of time after
has they probably persist
presented and it is this persisting "trace"
the’ syllable has been
which may immediately be assouated -with a remote item Thus,
turning to Fig. 88, the aftereffect or trace of KEM may be still
KEM is assodated
active when 2/T is presented. Thus, tlie trace of
with ZIT, and a remote association is formed. Such speculations
serve to emphasize that immediate and remote assodations arc
probably not qualitatively different.
Performance as a Functio.v of How

Learning Proceeds
No matter what the material or activity learned, the speed and
effidency of the subiect's performance are crcatly influenced
by the
condiUons under which he pracUccs, his motivation, and his mode
of attack. In this scebon we shall consider a
selected group of con-
ditions of practice which significantly influence the learner's per-
^
formance.
Set and MotioaUon

In the experimental analysis of verbal
learning, no less than in
the analysis of pother behavior, the
problem of motivation must
be i^sidercd. There is a twofold problem
here: (1) with what
inotivaUon does the learner approach
his task; and (2) hosv do
changes in his moUvation, his successes
and failures, affect the
progress of his learning? Turning
to the first of these problems, we
moUvaUonal condiUon is the suVet a intent
to le!m
laboratory to
nartiLw“ 'âriment, he comes with the intent to
S'' f-
” « “mplex and its nature
Îv^lt r "'’“'gated Curiosity, interest
3er ^d d
subject
in the
(or the need to
Xlte him ^ he
plarate Tta if I. happens to be an inslractor)
all nlav a nart It
intent to r'”
'bo active effort
rf a
ot wTer wriFT*;
l^cr. Without learn, httle leaminv takes nlace We
"'^">;>>""^ôd» ofLes a^dTail to
XêXe?
rêmber them
to .« i
In
"O'’"" bad the intention
most experiments on
verbai learning, it is
reten m UUs pmblam Uto,
ante fl,, ^
to create in him adequate

sufficient to instnicl the subject in older
molnatton or Intention to learn The espenmeatcr woAing mft
more fortunate than the aamal
human learners is in Uiis regard
and shock to crea
psjchologist ssho has to use hunger
thirst
llie proper moUvntJon in Ills subjects

t j e « fP#
a sri to
to
desaibed
The Uole of Set Intent to l«m Is o ten ^
learn Tliongh ssidely used In
set
esperlmental
of set ha, sLetimes lacked dear

definition
denotes a readiness to respond to

wa>, to respond to some objects
an
In
stlmnli.s ^ ,Xe
events
organism is sel^li
than others Dv its sd the y aiaj
Thus In teadi g P
in the endronment e® enjoyment or
lead us to read it for understanding
for {|
'^"‘1“'"''^
,
” or more
><
for the purpose of reproducing
such sets may be the subject
usually has a
general uo TeTm
set
In addition to llic which he prao-
activity
more spcciGc set toward tor esaet sequence
ticcs He maybe set to ““''„„ce so as to be able to recog
regard answenng
to learn them without ^ ca
tliem later, or
In this speeJe
nizo /ffjaalcrial Usually
espenmental
questions about the '„a ,|,e nature of the
instrucbons
set is established by ““''V'* 7^.“ nation for esample
pmcedure In the method
of the items and
al order of
attention onjh'^7 and requm
focus Uie subjects ^
strengthens
the procedure of “P®'"® they appear
nime ,
ing the subject to » * ^-Hs

association efficiency if
the subject s se
set for serial ^
'tn'ê^nments on
am merely to
^^r^:
rs^Te-'how- nôt
subject op
tions tlie
result of instructions; they often represent well-established habits
of perceiving and responding. We
rarely read, for example, with a
completely passive attitude. Whether or not we have been so in-
structed, we are set to understand and perhaps to reproduce what
we have read. Instructions do not, then, impose a set on an other-
wise “setless” organism; rather, they control and specify the set
Incidental Learning. It is predsely because sets to learn seem
to be ubiquitous, even in the absence of specific instructions, that
“inddental learning” is so difficult to interpret. Learning which oc-
curs without spedfic instructions to learn has often been designated
as incidental. In a typical experiment on inddental learning, the
subject may be instructed to learn a list of words printed on a sheet
of paper and may then be tested for his memoiy of such physical
details as the color of the paper, designs on the margin of the sheet,
etc. Since he was not spcdfically instructed to learn these physical
details,whatever memoiy he shows for them is considered inri-
dental. Various other procedures have been used to test incidental
learning, but they all have two conditions in common: (1) the
materials must be presented in such a way that the sense
organs are
stimulated by the inddental items; and (2) the subject is not in-
structed to learn these items and his attention is
directed to other
parts or characteristics of the material.
The experimental evidence is clear; incidental learning docs take
place although performance never so good as under instructions
is
to leam. The occurrence of so-caUed inddental learning, however,
does not prove that learning can ever take
place in the absence of a
set to learn. Subjec^ may instruct
themselves to leam even when
toe experimenter fails to do so, and there
is good evidence that they,
m fact, do so. A drcumscribed set suggested by the experimenters
ms^ction may be generalized to other incidental
items not covered
by toe instrurtions. Espedally in an experimental
situation, in whid<
a subject IS alert and moUvated to
respond acUvely to the task be
fore him generalization of
a learning set to extraneous features r
easily take place. The weight of the evidenc
noU', fffT
never truly inddental
is i
toe sense of being undetermined
or haphazard.
Let us now consider motivational
changes which take place
the course of the learrung process notably the effects of successes
(rewards) and failures (punishments)

The Effects of Success and Failure Consider a subject in an
aiticipibon expenment He tnes to pronounce a senes of nonsense
syllables before they appear in the window of the memory drum
As soon as he has made his anticipation the correct pliable appears
Sometimes his anticipation pro\es nght but frequently it is wrong,
especially in the early stages of learning If his anticipation was
triaL If
correct he is more likely than not to repeat it on the next
his anticipation was wrong he wll probably not repeat it
on the
Success and
next tnal and eventually make the correct response
of progressive changes
failure arc extremely important determinants
as well as for much
in behavior This is true for verbal learning
other learning both of animals and of
human subjects
unsuecessW ones are no
Successful responses me strengthened
““-y
and eventually drop out Much of modem
learmng
on this general prme.ple-the pmetple of

effect -The pnLple has found .ts most ‘<^8
animal experiments Ifturning nght in
°
ah«s^l»
turning left
path whenever
dees not a hungry
^
animal iviff
^ to choose the right
sponse le the response leaoingm

a, the expense of Jhe -spo«o
Reinforcement by rew-ard pr
verbal learning but Its demons^
y P / .
OD^
^
mforcement is strengthened
'Vortant part m
„ j,ggn easy One
more
probibly been used
partinilar experimental procedure is
than any other to show the ^ of reward^ Hieassoaates The

essentially an adaptation
of tb ^ subject who is
expenmenter presents » ^ response to each of

required to guess a number
r
these numbers
, jjj ^ few of
thewords The expenmenter ..VrongMt
to rmvarf the othe
“Right” and fails
has been shown again and » than those which
are not so
are learned faster (remember found that
punishment by
time it
reinforced At the same false responses.
-Wrong- IS not an Chapter H

* For further discuss on of the pnncip
punishment by "Wrong" weakens a response much
less
Certainly,
it. An announcement of “Wrong
than reward by "Right” strengthens
usually serves to make responses more variable
but does not neces-
sarily reduce the probability of repetition of
the false response.
Whatever influence punishment exerts is indirect: by making be-

correct
havior more variable, it increases the opportunity for the
response to be given and strengthened by reward.
The question has often been raised whether announcements of
“Right” and “Wrong” can legitimately be considered rewards and
punishments. Are they not simply ways of conveying information
to the subject? The question is difficult to answer and largely a
matter of definition. The important thing is that the consequences
of a response (announcement of “Right” or “Wrong”) significantly
influence further responses.
In verbal learning experiments, reinforcement (reward) need
not necessarily originate \vilh the experimenter. The learning situa-
tion itself may be a source of reinforcements. Anticipating a -/liable
correctly and in time and reciting a list without error are reinforc-
ing states of affairs evenno announcement of “Right” or other
If
approval comes from the experimenter. Tlie quick modification of

responses and the selective elimination of errors which are so char-
acteristic of verbal learning greatly favor an explanation of the
learning In terms of reinforcement
Knowledge of Results and Active Recitation. Continuous
with the effects of success and failure
is the influence which knowl-
edge of results exercises on learning performance. If the subject is
kept informed of his progress—e.g., if he is given his score on suc-
cessive trials-his learning is faster and better than kept in
if he is
ignorance of the results throughout the practice period. Knowledge
of results probably serves a double purpose:
(1) it serves as
“reward” and “punishment," especially in relation
to the goals
which the subject sets for himself; and
(2) it serves to guide the
learners efforts, enabling him to evaluate the
efficiency of his attack
on the problem by the results which he achieves.
Even if no information is supplied by the experimenter, the sub-
ject can achieve at least some knowledge
of results by active recita-
tion of the material. He can readily discover
how far he is still from
"
STUDY OF HUMAN LEARNING S31
his goal, where and his weakness are Active recifabon

his strength
shown ex
during practice, supplemented by prompting has been
practice The earlier
penmentally to be a most effective method of
faster and the more effiaent is
active recitation is introduced, the
allot a considerable pr^
the course of learning It is efficient to
recitation, even as much
porUon of the total learning time to acbve
we have seen rec.tat.oi. FO
L 4/5 of the total practice period As
to du-ect the eam^s
v.des Wledge of results and helps
In addition active recitation « a most suitable
in relation to the learners goal
The leêr
new responses “"ti
tempts to perform these responses
P“
oy IJ’^rieLlion.
the Lre
eventual goal
directly does he drive at his
Distnbutlon of Work
Speed and efficiency
of the activity and the ™ We

™ h^
are dealmg here
Dioblem
methods or modes of
with the same tjpe of P^hlem
™
^^
^ knoiv under the heading of
matenal
“study habits What is ,fe outset that
there is no
,
for a test? It is necessary » yhe psychologist must
simple, all purpose
answer vaiy
I
_^j,tods of practice
sound the familiar warning from individual
to Indi
to situaUon
an certam
from situation -e^lmenlal evidence,
availabte
vidual On the basis of
neverthe es to
generalizations can Whenever the material
Whole vs Part
Methods of practiced either
consists of a
serms » J esample,
be learned u poem for
as a whole or m
stanzas
P^ it up into
J," poem or break method
one may try to practice Uie port
Practice may be by
the to devoted to an
deal of
espenm^lal p„d the results have
A great
ra;:t:n êJor»s.cb£
standardized, w
nals has been
experiments difficult, if The balance of the evidence,
not impossible.
however, favors the whole method, especially ior practiced learners
and meaningful materials.
A consideration of the time relationships involved may help to
explain the frequent superiority of the whole method and also some
of its failures to surpass the part method. We already know that
time-per-item increases with increases in amount of material. Time-
per-item will, therefore, generally be less when the part method is
used. However, once the separate parts are learned, a considerable
amount of time must be spent combining the parts into a w'hole,
and the advantage of shorter time-per-unit, inherent in the part
method, may be lost Such is indeed frequently, but not always,
the case.
Comparison of the whole and part methods involves more than
the algebraic sums of the times spent indeaming by the two pro-
cedures. They represent different ways of organizing the material.
If learning is by the whole method, the total pattern of the task is
before the learner at all times, and individual parts are gradually
fitted in. If learning is by the part method, the organization of the
total pattern of responses is delayed.
The more closely organized
and meaningful the material is, the
more important becomes to apprehend the total pattern at an
it
early stage of the learning. It has, indeed, been frequently found

’that the whole method is especially suitable for complex
and mean-
ingful materials. Conversely, the part method, which
allows the
learner to concentrate on a few specific responses at
a time, has
sometimes proved superior in the rote learning of
disparate items.
It IS not surprising that the whole method yields its best results
wth expênced learners. Practiced subjects
are more skillful at
handhng large amounts of material and organizing
them They also
save less ê-per-ilem usmg the part method than
do inexperienced
leamm. The ability to achieve superior results by the
whole method
IS itself a result of learning.
DUtnbution ot Practice. Just as the leanung

materiol may be
attached as a whole or m
parts, so leamiog time may
either be spent
ronlinuously or spaced out over periods
of varying lengths. Fine-
b«! may be mossed or dmributed in time.
Suppose we hSve n min-
utes at our disposal to devote to learning
a task. Under conditions
STUD\ or HUMAN LEARNING 353
of missed pracUcc, ue ivould use the entire n minutes in one con-

of distributed practice,
tinuous learning session Under conditions
tale a rest period
wc should practicefor a fraction of n minutes
the learning task),
(Nvhere rest is defined as an activity unrelated to
presents typical results, illustrating the faster rate of learning under
distributed as compared with massed practice.
The extent to which practice is distributed may, of course, vary.
Rest periods of dilFerent lengths may be interpolated between suc-
cessive practice periods. The practice periods may themselves vary
in length: they may be as
short as one trial or comprise a long block
The advantage gained by distribution of practice depends
of trials.
jointlyon these two variables: duration of individual practice
periods and duration of interpolated rest intervals. For a given
activity, there is usually an optimal combination of practice periods
and rest Intervals which results in maximum learning efiiciency.
Other things being equal, rather short practice periods, followed
by short rest intervals, arc frequently found to be most effective and
most practical. The longer the individual practice periods, the
longer the rest intervals must be for optimal speed
of learning and
retention. Increasing the length of the rest interval
beyond a
certain
optimal amount has, however, no further facilitating
effect nor is
such a procedure usually practical. Distribution
should never be
over periods so long as to lead to serious
amounts of forgetting
between successive practice periods.
Not all activities benefit equally from distribuUon
of practice.
Materials which are very easy or very
short may be profitably
learned at one sitting i.e., by massed
practice. The learning and
retention of long and difficult materials,
on the other hand, are
greatly faa litated by distribution.
The task of learning a list of
wCo" distribution
considerably
have been
by
dLon-
dis-
of ai^vities including
perceptual-motor
conditions of distributL from
STd
bpliirn7»
Uricnl
length
wl""
i""
’
nt the rest interval at

of
distribuUon part of
may also vary
tlie
different stages of learning. No
behavior i. undesirable, as for example,

in the discovery of nw
)
STUD*! or HUMAN LEARNING 335
relations Inproblem soKnng distribution is beneficial \\Tien it is

important to fi.xalc a newly learned response before t is lost massed
practice maj be advantageous In the leaming of a complex actmty,
both the discover) of new relations and the stamping m of re-
sponses arc necessary A judiaous sequence of distributed and
"
4 0 ® ^
J
«siTiworsn.t«vc w
curve IS flatter
serial position j
Uibulcd than „
rote learning
j
Hovland by
following learning
theory I
/ E'PP'’
massed and of ihe journal
and the
Assoaation
develop unde.
bod. o£ leanang .o
..sed pracuce ây aUcw
ttSêdee^ of
: oTa
ue to the fact that fVrong' assoeiaUons
dunag the «t ,„tetfnls
.nte^
isk .s dissipated
irg backward
re frequentlyweaker ftan fonvard and
Fot a grater
ur.ngd.= re;tpenod
tot
ssocatrons may ha F.g SS shows
rtent than the
““ wrth d,s.nbu.ed
pract.ee. the
to
jch appears ind'êu
in and proceeds at a very slow rate. Tliis finding Is especially true
for learning which involves the mastery of relationships and ideas.
Tlic main difliculty is almost impossible to isolate experi-

that it Is
mentally “pure learning ability* in the sense of “neural plasticity.

Older subjects may Iiavc learned how to learn, may be more sVill-
ful in their attacks on problems. Tlicy also have a larger repertory
of information and responses whieh may be applied to a new prob-
lem. On the other hand, older subjects may be “out of practice.
After leaving school, many of them have little opportunity to
engage in formal learning activities. Thus, “pure learning abilit)’*
or “neural plasticity” arc, for all practical intents and ptirposcs, out
ôf reach of experimental inquiry, at least with human subjects. As
far as observable level of performance is concerned, there does
seem to be a gradual slow decline with age, as schematically repre-
sented in Fig. 89. This graph summari7es the results of a compre-
hensive study of learning performance over a wide age ran^. Even
this general trend, though supported by extensive experimental evd-
dence, must be interpreted willi caution. The task of obtaining a
truly representative sample of learners of all age groups fs a for-
midable one. Any valid generalization about learning as a function
of age must be based on such a sample.
Learning as a Function of Sex. Arc men or women belter
learners? The most valid general answer is: neither. From a large
number of experimental comparisons of men and women learners,
no consistent difference in learning ability between the sexes has
emerged. Whatever reliable differences liave been found can be
ascribed to differences in interest and training.
Men may be more
eiffclent in learning materials dealing
with mechanical problems?
women may show greater proficiency in learning items relating to
home life. Such results are, of course, due to differences in Interest
and training associated with sex differences.
They do not reflect any
inherent differences between the sexes
in learning ability. To the
extent that such differences in interest
and training disappear or
chaise, differences in learning ability may be expected
to disappear
or change concomitantly. In choosing
subjects for experiments on
verbal learning, it is important to ask
whether or not sex differences
m learning ability are likely. With
nonsense materials, for example,
there is no reason to expect other
than random differences between
men and women learners, and A is not important that the number
of men and women learners be equated under vanous expenmental
conditions If the malcnal is meamngful and likely to have differ
ential appeal to men and women sex differences need to be care

fully controlled and c\alualcd
Learning as a Function of Intelligence ^Vheneve^ learning
abihty correlated with scores on intelligence tests a positive
Is
relation is found The correlation is especially high if the learning

task includes abstract ideational matenal We
should expect such
a relationship a priori since the score on an intelligence test is cer
previous learning abihty
tainly not Independent of the subjects
Those who have learned well in the past score high on mtelligence
tests and are also successful m
handling new learning siâtions
test measures « ahtltlj/ to
One of the things which an intelligence
relabonship between intc^
learn and failure to obtain a positive
would throw doubt
gcnce Ifsl score and learamg pcrfomancc
'^kt;tô.:^f:rr;Ls..onsfor.h.ospenu,cuter.^^^^^^^^^^
of practice ore =
ferenl Icamins mafensls or conditions
pored, subTccts must be reasonably
'"V’reiTnmell aroup
it IS impossible to match
for intelligence random
subjects rn
Xe ZtoS
al erpcrimental samples
butions of intelligent should b®
«
“htioa systematic dif
are all drawn at random from a
ferences in "''^'>6'"“
co
‘
^ ^
j,er^
^ unlikely, especially
b) a narrow
range of
is oia
since the population itself
intelligence scores
of Conteol m
Special Pboplems
Learning EIxpEniwENrs
control are
Certain problems of j°„”°fblems of eiperr
shall list here
som
learning We ^^ntinuously aware
mental control of which
we mu emphasized the
Standardization of The
learning performance
rmportanee of set as n r^âStel f
expenmenter usually contro flexible and sensibve to
hig>y to
mstruchons to the subject ^j^^gfore important
«
instiu
even slight variations in
330
curve is considerably flatter than with massed
prac-
serial position
tice. Not only is the
series as a whole learned faster with distribu-
tion, but the items in the middle

positions are the ones which are
primarily responsible for the improved

performance. If the inter-
pretation of serial-position clfcets suggested above is
correct, dis-
( wrong)
tributed practice docs result in cjuicbcr forgetting of remote
associations and relative strengthening of immediate (correct) asso-
ciations. The concept of differential forgetting allov/s a common
interpretation of a large number of experiments showing the positive
effects of distribution.
Distribution of practice may ewe part of its effect to improve-
ment in the subject s motivation. Rest periods prevent the learning
task from becoming too tedious and irritating. It is doubtful, how-
ever, that recovery from fatigue accounts to any appreciable extent
for the facilitating effects of distribution. Even with practice
periods so short as to exclude the possibility of fatigue, distribution
is stiff superior to massed practice.
Individual Differences Among Learners

spheres of behavior, individual differences among organisms
I n all
constitute an important fact. This Is certainly true of learning in

general, and of verbal learning in particular. As experimenters, we
may choose one of two alternatives in dealing with the problem of
individual differences. We may try to reduce the influence of indi-
\ldual differences to a minimum by choosing random samples of
subjects for each experimental condition and hoping that in the long
run the effects of such differences v/ill cancel out A refinement con-
sists of the use of matched groups of subjects, making sure that
individual differences will affect different experimental conditions

to fairly equal extents. In most practical experimental situations,
we follow this procedure and try to minimize and randomize indi-
vidual differences.
The second alternative calls for the treatment of individual dif-
ferences as a systematic variable. Instead of randomizing and
minimizing individual differences, we can vary them systematically,
maximize their effects, as it were, and gauge their influence on
observed behavior. In the field of human learning, three sources of
individual differences have been systematically explored in this
STUDl OF HUMAN LEARNING S37
fashion age sex and intelligence We shall bncfly summarize the

results of thisx\orh
I-caming as a Function of Age Tlicre is good evidence that
a certain amount of learning takes phee before birth Certainly
learning begins on a hrge scale immcdntel) after birth and con
tinues indcfinilclv from then on To what extent does the ability
to loam vary as a function of age’ Clearly learning ability depends
CHltO«X«8 Ok
Learning AbiLty as a Function of

Age
Fic 89
a comprcheosive
This ! vTiothctical curve based on
learning performance over a wide range Is
study of
rehton hehvwn
beleved to represent the general
to Jeam JTrom
chronologcal age and tic ability
pstjcloloey of human
T A McGcoch The Lonâns
1042 p 226 b> permission of
Adult learning The
Co Inc After E h. Thorndike
127 bypennisson
SiciLllan Smpany 1928 p
of Professor Thorndike )
n development of eertain
llie Taming
thcr
’nsory and motor Obvioiisl) minimum level al
tfore language of learning As
ionghsochdevc!opn,ent.si se«b^
l^^q^
1C organism grows and
>'''"'’1’
. ,p„reciable mcrcases
rsîW .0 learn .?'“r?X

deal ne is very sieve .0 set
^^LTaSbtyTi^measurabte
340
learning experiment and
standardize the instructions for any given
subject. Reading a standard
to keep them constant from subject to
is the safest procedure. Never give the
set of instructions verbatim
subject more information than is contained in the
standardized
instructions.
Rate and Duration of Presentation of Materials. The rate
at which materials are presented to the subject and the duration for
which each item is exposed should be carefully controlled. These
temporal conditions should be held strictly constant for a given
experiment, unless variation in rate or duration is itself an experi-
mental variable. Speed of learning is appreciably Influenced by
both these factors.
The Experience of the Learner. The amount of experience
which a subject has had with tasks of the same type as the one on
which he is tested is a critical variable. One learns how to leam,
how to attack a certain kind of problem. This is especially true for
an unusual problem, such as memorizing nonsense syllables. In com-
paring the effects of experimental conditions, we must be sure that
learners with reasonably equal amounts of experience are tested
under each of the conditions. A balanced design such as the one
described in Experiment XX may help to control the factor of
experience.
Environmental Conditions. It is important to cany out a
given experiment under constant environmental conditions (unless
variations in environment are an experimental variable). In practice,
this means that the whole experiment should be conducted in the
same place. Ifan experiment comprises several sessions, it is prefer-
able to conduct each session at the same time of day. The amount
of distraction to which the learner is exposed must also be con-
trolled. Ideally, a verbal learning experiment should be conducted

in a well-lighted, quiet room. If a certain amount of noise is inevi-
table, an attempt should be made to keep it as constant as possible
throughout the experiment.
Use of Different Experimenters. For practical reasons, it is
often necessary to assign parts of the same experiment to different
experimenters. Such a situation frequently arises in laboratory
classes. The use of different experimenters is not likely to introduce
any serious amount of error provided all the experimenters are
STUDl OP HUMAN LEABNING
^41
^reined an
ExPERIXtEJTT XX
SauAL Posrrrov Effects Ukder ACassed avd DisraiBirrED PRAcncE
Pjirjê The purpose of this expenmenf
is to demonstrate several
principles of senalJeamuig 0} the *enil position curxe
(2) die dif
ference in rale of learning under massed
and distributed practice and
(3) the difference in serial position effects under massed and distributed
practice
hfitenals Lists of three letter nonsense syllables For this expeii
ment a reasonably short list say twelve syllables will suffice For rules
to be followed in the construction of a list of nonsense syllables see
pp 347
Apparatus The standard exposure device for verbal matenals is the
memory drum This device consists of a drum mounted behind a screen
A strip of paper on v. hich the syllables are printed is fastened around the
drum Tlie drum is driven by a constant speed motor and exposes each
syllable for a short period of time (usually 2 seconds) through a wndow
m the screen A typical memory drum Is shown in Fig 60 If a memory
drum not avaJable, the syllables may be printed on cards and pre*
js
seated manually Since rate nnd length of exposure are of great im

portance manual presentation rnust be carefully timed
General Procedure The method of anticipation should be used The
sub/ect IS seated in front of the drum and the /oUoivmg losfruclions are
read to him
Tlus IS a learning expenment A series of nonsense syllables vnll be
shown to you through the window in this screen (experimenter points
to memory drum) A nonsense syllable « a combination of three letters
wthout any meaning I want you to look at these syllables carefully
After the hst has been presented once the syllables will be sho%vn
again but this time it will be your task to anticipate each syllable that
is to spell it out before if appears m
the nindow When the symbol
marking the beginning of the Jot appears » you arc to spell out the first
to spell out the
syllable When the first syllable appears you are
your task is to
second and so on through the entire list Remember
sped out each syllable before it appears in the ivmdtnv We shall con
8 A simpla geometric design such a square or m triangle may be used as a
cue symbol to mark tbe beginning of the

list
Fic. 00. A Typical Memory Dnim. On the left is a view of the device
with the screen removed. On tlie nght, the drum is shown ready for use in
on experiment.
tintiff this procedure unbl you have spelled out each syllable correctly
on the same trial.”
After the instructions have been read, the subject should be given an
opportunity to ask questions. It is essential that the procedure be quite
clear to the subject before the cxperimeni begins, ^lên the procedure
has been fully clarified, the memory drum is started. The rate at which
the syllables appear depends on their spacing on the drum. Presentation
at 2-second intervals is customary.
Presentation of the list is continued until the criterion is reached. As
staled in the, instructions, we are suggesting the criterion of complete
oiastery. The experimenter may, of course, choose a different criterion (a
less more exacting one
exacting one like seven correct anticipations or a
like and modify the instructions accordingly.
three errorless trials)
Massed Practice. Under conditions of massed practice, the presenta-
tions of the list follow each other ir dose succession. An interval of 6
seconds between trials would constitute massed practice.
Distributed Practice. For distribution of practice, rest intervals are
Introduced between successive presentations of the list For this experi-
tnent, we suggest a rest interval of 2 minutes. It is important to control the
subject’s behavior during the rest intervals. If left to himself, the subject
may use the rest interval to rehearse the list and, in effect, mass his prac-
tice. The best way to control the rest interval is to require the subject to
perform a task which does not leave him any time to rehearse the sylla-
bles. For example, he may be asked to name a series of colors which ap-
pear in the windov,' o! the memory drum. Other tasks may be used, but
the experimenter must make reasonably sure that the subject does not
use the rest period for rehearsal.
Order of Conditions. One of the purposes of the experiment is to
compare performance under massed and distributed practice. To obtain
the necessary data, it is possible; (1) to divide the members of the
laboratory into two groups, one of whidi works with distributed, the
other with massed practice; or (2) to have each learner work under both
conditions, li the second of these alternatives is chosen, it
is, of course,
necessar>' to use two different lists of approximately equal difficulty If
each learner w'orks under both conditions, it is also advisable to work
out a balanced ciperimenlal design. Each of the two lists should be used
equally often in massed and in distributed practice. Thus, differences in
difficultybetween the two lists will affect the two methods of practice
to an equal extent and presumably cancel out. Furthermore, half the
subjects should start vnth massed practice, the other half
with distributed
practice. This balanced sequence of conditions wtH allow
both methods
-
STUDY OP HUMAN LEAHNING

345
design IS
«.e Kirx
summarized in the accompanymg table
S'*
Te s“:~; “ -ft'
P^nmentai
Massed Practice
Order of
Conditions First Second First Second
List A Croup 1 Group 4 Croup 3 Group 2
List 6 Group 2 Croup 3 Group 4 Group 1
Record of Results Throughout the expenment, a
careful record
must be made of each individual attempt at anticipation
A tj-pjcaJ record
sheet \vill look somewhat as shown
in the accompan>Tng tabulation
Trial Number
Syllable
f
J 2 5
-— •
On each trial, and for each syllable, correct anticipahons are indicated by
fl check mark, incorrect ones by an ar (or any odier system of notation,
such as pluses or minuses, which the ejpenmenlcr may prefer) In this

manner, an accurate picture of the temporal trend of learning can be
obtained
Treatment of Results We first compare the rate of learning under
massed and distrfiiuted practice We find for each subject the number of
trials required to reach the criterion The mew number of tnals to
criterion is then determined for the livo conditions Our expectation on

the basis of previous experimental results is that the criterion u reached in
fewer trials with distributed than with mossed practice To show the
differences rate of acquisition Icanimg curves showing number of
m
correct anticipations for successive trials should be plotted For Icamftig
curv es showing the average results for several learners the Vincent curve
technique, described in Chipfer J3, should be used.
Next, serial posmon curves are plotted for Jeammg under the two con
plotted in twu waj-s,
ditions of practice Serial position curves may be
mustratedrespeqtnelyinFIg 84 and Fig 83 In Fig 84
average nuniber
against position in the scries
of correct antiapations per tnal is plotted
were coiTTctiy an-
jiclding a typical bow shaped curve If a syllable
,

also inone of the first three units of the same list. The same vowel
may not, however, be used in the first and last unit of the same list.
3. No four consecutive syllables shall have any letter (either vowel or
consonant) in common. However, up to three initial and three final
consonants may be the same in any given list, especially if the list
contains more than twelve syllables. For shorter lists, neither initial
nor finalconsonants need be repeated.
4. No two same list should have two letters in common,
syllables in the
i e., neither one vowel and one consonant, nor two consonants.
5. Alphabetical progressions of initial and final consonants should be

avoided.
Careful observance of these rules will help to make the nonsense
syllable a useful type of item for experiments on verbal learning, es-
pecially where materials of uniform difficulty are desired.
Genehajl References
Hxmter, W. S., Learning: IV. Experimental studies of learning. In
C. Murchison (ed.), A handbook of general experimental psychology.
Wordier: Clark Universjty Press, 1934.
Katona, G., Organizing and memorizing: studies in ihe^sychology of
learning and teaching. New York: Columbia University IVess, J940.
McGcoch, J. A., The psychology of human learning, Ne^v York: Long-
mans, Green and Co., 1942.
Melton, A. W., Article on learning. In W. S. Monroe (ed.). Encyclopedia
of educational research. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1941.
VVoodivorlh, R. S., Experimental psychology. New York: Henry Holt and
Co., 1938, Chaps- 1, 7, and 9.
ifETiroDs OF Practice
See General References
Performance as a Function of What Is Learned

hfeaning
&rUon, H B.. and Carr. H. A.. Bote and
logical retenhon memory,
;. Exper. Psychol, 1940, 26:199-210.
Glaze, J. A., The association value of

non-sense syllables 7. Genet
Psychol , 1928, 35:255-267.
Hull, C. L., The meaningfulness of 320 selected
nonsense syllables.
Amer. /. Psychol 1933, 45.730-734
J

McGeoch J A The influence of nssocmtive value
„po„ „I
nons^^syllable lisls J Genet Psychol 1930 37 421428
419430^*^^*™^ ^ learning / Educ Psychol 193S
Affectivil
Carter H D Jones HE
and Shoot V W
An espernnental study of
anectjve factors in Jeaming
f Educ Psychol 1934 25 203 215
Cason HThe learning and retent on of pleasant and unpleasant actiW
ties Arch Psychol 1932 No 134
Levine J M and ^ûTphy G The learning and fcugefting of contro-
versial malenal J Abn Soc Psi«:ho/ 1943 38 507-517
Meltzer H Tlie present status of expenmcntal studies on the rebtionship
of feeling to memory Psychol Pteo 1930 37 124 139
Amounts Learned
Lyon D O Memory and the teaming process Palumoxe IVanvich and
York 1917
Jlobmson E S and Heron W
T Results of varntions in length of
memonzed material } Exper Psychol 1922 5 428445
Scott T C, and Hemiinger L. L. The relation between length and
difScuIty m motor learning a comparison with verbal learning / Ex
per Psychol 1933 i6e37 6“8
Senal Fostfion
Hovland C Experimental studies m rote learning theory II Remin $
I
cence with varying speeds of syllable presenfaton / Exper Psyctol
I93S 22 338-353
Hovland C I Experimental studies in rote-leam ng tl eory III Ds
tnbuhon of practice mtb varymg speeds of s>llab1e presentaton
; Exper Psychol 1938 23 172 190
Hull C L The confl cting psychologies of leammg-a way out Ps^jclol
Rev 1935 42 491-516
W M consdered as cond fioncd react ons
Lepley
Psychol Monogr
McGeoch J A The
Serial reactions
1934 46
direction
No
and
20a
...
extent of intra-jcrial associations at
recall Amcr / I936 45M12lo

mrm-
„„„ mem-
Robmson E and Broum
S A. Effect of serial posiUon upon
M
orization Amer / 1926 37 538-5o-
learning Psychol Monogr 1937
Ward L B Bemimscence and rote
49 No 220
,
PraiFOBMANCE AS A FuNCTioM OF How Leau.mnc Phoceeds

Set and Motivation
Gates, A. I., Recitation as a factor in memorizing, Arch. Psychol., 1917,
No. 40.
critical review of the concept of set in contemporary ex-
Gibson, J. J., A
perimental psychology, Psychol. Bull., 1941, 38:781-817.
Gilhland, A. R., The effect of practice with and without kno\vledge of
results in grading handwriting, J. Educ. Psychol., i025, J6;532-538.
Jenldns, J. G., Instruction as a factor in ‘‘incidental’' learning, Amer. J.
Psychol, 1933, 45:471-477.

Shellow, S. M., Individual differences in incidental memory, Arch-
Psychol , 1923, No. 64.
Thorndike, E. L., The psychology of u.ants, interests, and attitudes. New
York: D. Applcton-Century Co., 1935.
Distribution of Work
WIOLE VS. PART LEAIWtNC
Cook, T, W., ^Vhole versus part learning the spider maze, J. Exper.
Psychol, 1937, 20:477-494.
Crafts, L. W., Whole and part methods with visual spatial material,
Amer. J. Psychol, 1932, 44:520-534.
McGeoch, G. O., ^ôle-part problem, Psychol BuU., 1931, 28:713-739.
Pechstein, L. 'A., The whole vs. part methods in learning: comparison and
summary, Stud. Educ. (Yearb. Nat. Soc. Coll Teach. Edue.), 1926,
15:181-186.
DlSmiBOTED VS. XtASSCD PRACnCE

Cook, T. W., Massed and distributed practice in puzzle solving, Psychol
Rev., 1934, 41:330-355.
Hovland, C
I-, Experimentzl studies in rote-Jeanting theory:
J. Remi-
niscence follmving learning by massed and by distributed practice,
J. Exper. Psychol, 1938, 22:201-224.
Hovland, C. I., ExperimenUl studies in rote-leaming: HI. Distribution of
practice with varying speeds of syllable presentation, /. Exper. Psychol
1938,23:172-190.
Hovland, C. I., Experimental studies in rote-leaming theory; V. Compari-
son of distribution of practice in serial and paired-associate learning,
J. Exper. Psychol, 1939, 25:622-633.
Hovland, C. I., Experimental studies in rote-leaming theory; VII. Distri-
551
Lorge I lafluence of regularfy interpolated

tune intervals upon subse-
quent learning Teach Colt Contr
Educ 1930 No 438
Leaiwing as a FirrcnoN of Individuai. Differences
Age
Bird C
Socwl psychology New 'iorl D Appletoo-Ctntury Co IWO
Chap 12
Pyle W
H Nature and deoelopment of learning capacity Baltimore
Warwick and York 1925
Thorndike E h ei al Adult teaming New York The Macmillan Com
pany 1928
Sex
Boynton P L. Are guls superior to boys in visual memory? / See
Psychol, 1931 2 496-500
Conrad H S and Jones H E Psychological studies of motion p elutes
V Adolescent and adult sex differences m immediate and delayed re
call ; Soc Psychol 1931 2 433-457
Pyle WH The relahon of sex differences to the land of matenal used
; Edue Psychol 1925 15 261 264
Infeffigencc
De Weerdt, E H Astudy of the impwvabihty of fifth grade school

children In eerOtut mental faocUoiis } Educ Psychid 1927 18
547
557 . . ,
Garrett HE , The relaUon of tests of memory and Icaminff to each otl er
bi^ly selected adult group } Educ

and to general intelligence in a
Psychol 1928 19 601-015 ^ ^ ^ ,
Teach CoU Contr
Wilson F T Learning of bright and duff children
Educ 1028 No 292
»«. «<«
]^5
retention and forgetting—
the problenis of learning and retention are treated under separate

headings only for convenience of experimental analysis and meas-
urement The processes and conditions of learning and retention
are continuous: one always implies the other. Lrcaming is defined
and measured as progressive improvement in performance as a
result of practice.No such improvement would be possible if prac-
tice did not result in cumulati\e retention. Similarly, it would be
senseless to talk about retention except in reference to a le\el of
performance achieved during a period of learning. The practical
distinctionbetween learning and retention stems from the differ-
ence in the times at which performance is measured. Measures
obtained during a period of acquisition-i.e., while the subject is
working to reach a criterion—are Jeamlnn scores. Measures obtained
at varying time intervals after the end of practice arc retention
scores. Thus measures of learning desenbe the rate at which associ-
ations areformed and responses built up to adequate strength;
measures of retention show how lasting Ac associations are, and
what Ae changes in response strengA are after a period of Asuse.
The Measurement of Retention

There is no one pure measure of retention. There are se\'eTal
experimental operations for gauging Ae degree of retention, each
of Aem valid in its own right, showing the avaflabflity of certain
types of response. Measures of retention do, however, vary in
sensitivity: some operations are more suitable Aan oAers for reveal-
ing small differences in degree of retention. The most common pro-
cedures for measuring retention are recall, recognition, relearning,
reconstruction, and speed of response.
Recall. This procedure is best described as active recall. It is
352
nETENTJON AND FORGETTING-I
353
Hie subjects Iasi actively
to reproduce Ibo correct responses
wha
t'ZlZ'ZttTZ
In tests by the method
of retained members, tlie subject is simply
TcquireU to reproduce as many
items as he can remember He may
or may not have to do so
m
a definite order Of eouree die latter
task is the more difficult
one and usually requires a longer period
of practice The retention score ts simply the number of items cor*
rcctly reproduced Accurate scoring depends
on the extent to winch
the learning materials can be broLco down into
discrete items
basts of nonsense syllables, digits, and discrete meaningful words
offer no difficulty On the other liand, a connected passage of prose
or poetry does not provide equally clear cut umts One cannot
Simply use the number of words correctly recalled, because many
of them (articles adjectives, pronouns, prepositions etc ) frequently
recur in the same passage Moreover, such a sconng procedure
would fail to show to what degree the learner has mastered the con
tent of the passage Tor these reasons, a connected passage is
usually divided into “ideas” or “thought units csbmated to be of
equal difficulty, and the final score is determined by the number of
such thought units correctly reproduced
The memory span method is closely related to the method of
retained members The subject is presented (Wsualiy or orally)
with a list of items such as digits, letters or words and is required
to reproduce them immediately after presentation The number of
Items is successively increased until the subject fails m his attempt
at reproduetJoa The longest series

which be can reproduce without
error defines his memory span A

more reliable measure of the span
the psychophysical method of
can be obtained by appheabon of
constant stimuli (see Chapter 2) By this procedure, a graded senes
lists IS repeatedly
presented to the subject The percent of the
of
correctly reproduced « tabu
triaU on which each length of list was
span is defined as that length of list which can
kttd Tbs memory
on 50 porcenl of fie tmi m
be reproduced coreectly threshold
is closely akin to a psychophysical
this manner the span
the limit of immediate retention It goes
It IS a threshold defining
saying that the
magnitude of the span vanes widely with
without
'

of presentation, the subject's
the nature of the stimuli, the speed
set and other experimental
conditions.
(see
The method of aniicipalhn, previously discussed in detail
pp. 313 f.)> Is
another procedure In which retention is measured
active recall. It is peculiarly characterized by the fact that
eacli
by
item must be reproduced in response to a specific stimulus: the
item immediately preceding it in the scries. TTie retention score
is
given by the number of correct anticipations.

The method of paired associates (see pp. 314 f.) also requires
active recall by the subject. Here one member of a pair becomes
the specific stimulus for the reproduction of the second member.
The number of conectly completed pairs is the retention score.
Tests of active recall constitute a very exacting method of measur-
ing retention. Only those responses which have acquired sufficient
strength to be available for active reproduction can contribute to
the subject's score. Weaker associations have little chance to mani-
fest themselves in active recall, although they may aid other types
of retention performance.
The minimum strength which a response must have to be actively
reproduced is designated as Uic threshold of recall. Like all thresh-
olds, the threshold of recall is not a fixed stable value but fluctuates
In time. As a result, an item which is not available for active repro-

duction at one moment may emerge above the threshold of recall a
few moments later. Such
oscillations at the threshold of recall fre-
quently occur in retention tests for verbal materials. On
successive
retention tests, new
items not previously recalled may appear. New
items may emerge above the threshold of recall even if the total
amount of retention is going down.
Active recall, then, docs not usually yield a maximum measure of
retention. Not only must responses have acquired considerable
strength in order to be actively reproduced, but what is available
for recall is subject to appredablc temporal fluctuations.
Recognition. In a recognition test, the subject is confronted

with a scries containing both correct (previously learned) and incor-
rect (new) items, arranged in a random order. pick
His task is to
out the items which he recognizes as correct. Such a test inevitably
invites guessing on the part of the subject. Some
individuals are
more inclined to guess than others, and a correction for guessing
must be introduced in order to render the scores of different sub-
RETENTION AND FORGETTING--I
jects comparable The s
- 2 adequately
, adjusted bj
aujuJCCU oy su
subtract-
ing the percent of items
mcotrecHy recognaed from lire
percent
coirectl) recognized Suppose, for
example that the oripnal )«im.
ing task consists of hvcn^ noosense
syllables These tuenly sylla-
files, mixed with [arty new ones, appear on the recognition
test
Subject A
recognizes ten syllables cotrecUy but aUo makes
four
wrong identifications His score is 10/20 4 /Ad 50% 10^ — — ~
401 Subject B also recognizes ten syllables
correctly but addition m
makes twenty incorrect recognitions His score is 10 '20 20/40 = —
50$ —
50$ =
0$ Thus, with proper adjustments for incorrect re-
sponses the same number of corrert “recognitions* ma) result m
Widely diflenng retention scores False recognitions are not neces-
sarily the result of ratidom guessing butmay be due stmp}y to poor
learning so that the subject is unable to discriminate between cor-
rect and incorrect items A penalty for wong responses is still in
order if a fair estimate of retention is to be made
There is no rule speafjing the ratio of correct (o incorrect items
m a recognition test An equal number of correct and incorrect
stimuli, mued at random, is frequently used Other ratios are, bo«-
ever, equally permissible The larger the number of incorrect
Items tile more difficult it becomes to hit on a correct re^nse
through lucky guessing A one toone ratio of correct and incorrect
items would thus appear to be a minimum, but larger proportions
of wong items may be used with profit
A recognition test may or may not be a successful lest of reten-
tion If there or no sunilanty between the old and the new

is little
to measure retention
items, tile test will be much too insensitive
An extreme example will jlluslrate the point If our subject leams
and we test bis retention for them by
a hst of nonsense syllables,
mmng these syllables «ith an equal number of .voids, beObvious!),

.nil cor-
tbe syllables and reject all the .voids

tainly identify all
retention for nonsense syllableson be tested best by lUKuig them

for adjeeti.o by msTln g
xvith other nonsense syllables, retention
Ihemwitbotheradjectives andsoon The
sensili.aty of the r^j-
upon the degiee of sunilanty bet., een tbe old
will depend
tiim test
been found generall) snponor to

“"neroradion performance has
xvero compared
actiinrÎl ..Ln retention scores
to reeognne an item seem,
to
abibq-
amounts of practice Tbe
depend on a lesser degree of learning than the ability to reproduce
an item actively. This result is not surprising if we consider the
differences between the two test situations. All the correct
items
appear on the recognition test. Those items which have been poorly
learned may be strengthened by the very fact of their reappearance
as test stimuli. Many weaUy learned items, though not mastered
well enough for active recall, still have greater strength than wrong
items and are, therefore, correctly recognized when contrasted with
entirely new items. In active recall, the learner has no opportunity
to be exposed once more to the correct items, nor can he benefit
from the difference between weakly learned correct items and even
weaker wrong items. Much of what the learner has acquired during
practice cannot manifest itself in recall because it falls short of the
minimum degree of mastery required for active recall. Tlic method
of recognition is more sensitive because weaker associations have a
better opportunity to contribute to the subject’s performance.
Relearning. Retention can be measured by the speed with
which a subject can relearn a task to criterion some time after the
cessation of practice. Tlie greater his retention, the faster he can
reestablish his old level of performance. If his retention were per-
fect, he would reach criterion on the first trial of relearning. If there
were no retention, it would take him as long to relearn the task as
it took him originally to learn it. Over a long time interval after the
end of practice neither of these extreme cases is likely to occur.

Relearning usually takes less time than original learning, and the
amount of time or number of trials saved is an index of the degree
of retention. Hence, this method of measuring retention is also
known as the method of saving.
Asimple example ^vill illustrate the use of this method. A subject
learns a list of words in twenty trials to the criterion of
one perfect
A week later, he relearns the same list to the same cri-
repetition.
terion, thistime in twelve trials. He has saved eight trials or 40
percent (8/20). Similar computations of saving can
be made for
measures of time, numbers of errors, or whatever other indices of
learning are employed. Percent saving is given by
the following
formula.
Measure for Original Learning —

Measure for Relearning
*
Measure for Original Learning ~~ ^
.
=
RETENTION AND FORGETTING-I 357
methodological diffl
Use mcU.od of sa«ng is not wthout
of the
task some time alter the
culties Thesubicct necessarily relearns the
he may haae
original learning During this intenal,
acquired more
practiced learner and he may hare
Part of the saving may. tl eretore be due
of attack on tlie prohlem
i:feal;:rttrer:::t:e,vetn^^J..^^^^^^^^
learning as a >1““ onginal hst
m difficulty with the
We
anew 1'=*
‘‘^"S^'rtnalTToleli thrt new list
Suppose It takes him eighteen j^syia 3337 This =
that he
avould then conclude would take the
measure would «>“ -h«>y
change in 8=”=”'
“ ”:nntnSur to construct a neiv
procedure depends, o'
P”f 'rsrour ability task With nonsense
““.'“"i learning
equivalent to tte
tisk rtsictly
matenals, equivalent
lists cm ^ without loo
P
constructed
,i,e problem of oblatn
much difficulty AVith j®
« ^ difficult one in the fact that
mg equivalent tasks “ „( celearnmg
lies
the meth^ »
Ue special value of todcF"*;"^ cSiifeW.ly of
single
T'f
Hem
it measures retenUon „call actively a
MryTshlra'mSialarno^^^^^^^^^
but puts its m task consists

of a
method of saving
ore ôramb ed
m a
of
’“".we^s- The method
rs-^rlntem prn^^P-- W'of Lvmg d the
teconstruction
merges into
^
.At.mk-ora.r=cn.hd»»d^^^,,asrn«
^ ,,,^1
„ce between onginal

sm"”
allowed to continue his efforts until he has reestablished tlic original
order. The saving in time or trials ($ then computed as usual.
Reconstruction yields a very specialized measure of retention
because of the exclusive emphasis put on sequence or order. In
this stress on sequence, it is probably most closely allied to the
method of anticipation. Like the latter (and recognition), the
method of reconstruction can be used only with materials which can
be readily broken down into separate units.
Speed of Response. The measures discussed so far arc based
primarily on the amount of work achieved by the subject on the
test of retention, e.g., the number of items correctly recalled, recog-
nized, and reconstructed. It is possible to gain additional informa-
tion about degree of retention by observing the subject’s behavior
during the test, i.e., by examining the nature of the performance as
well as the results of performance. The temporal characteristics of
the responses in particular arc sensitive ini'ccs of the degree of
retention.
First of all, there is latency. Hmv
quickly upon presentation of
the test stimulus the response given? Students of aci.mal condi-
is
tioning have frequently used latency as a measure

of the strength of
conditioning (see p. 301). In many situations, latency
is inversely
related to strength: the smaller the latency, the greater
the strength
of the response. This measure is also applicable
to verbal learning,
especially to the method of paired associates. The
speed with which
the missing member of the pair is supplied
by the subject is a
measure of the availability of the response, and
an index of the
strength of retention supplementary to measures
of sheer amount
retained.
Another temporal indei of strength of retention
is the rale at
which responses arc given, i.e.. the speed with which
they follow
each other. Again, this measure has been found
most useful in ani-
mal conditioning to measure the strength of condiHouing. Measure-
ments of rate are aUo applicable to verbal learning, especially to
active recall (method of retained members). The faster
the rate at
which the correct items are reproduced, the greater the availability
of the responses. Thus rate, hke latenty, is a measure of retenUon
which supplements nfeasures of amount.
Temporal measures may yield significant differences even when
retention and FORCETTING-I 3'
there are no significant dilTerences in

the amount of mateiml -
tamed Thus two individuals may recall (fie same

number of iten
but one may recall them at a taster rate than
another The fast
rate then indicates greater avaifabifity of responses
and fay fnfe
enee a higher degree of i^tentioo
The Temporal Coorse of Forcetting

The most outstanding characterisUc of retention is its decrease
time With a few exceptions the amount of retention becomes le
and Jess as the time interval betiveerj the end of practice and tl
Ftc 91 The Course of Forgetting in Time Jn

this curve retention for nonsense s>llables as
measured by percentage tune saved m relearning is
plotted against time (From data of II Ebbinghaus
Memor j a contnbtdhn to expenmentot psycf ohgy
Trans by H A Roger and 5 S Basseaias New
TorJf Columbia University J9J3 p 78 )
memory lest is lengthened When amount retained Is plotted against

time we obtain a curve of forgetting Fig 91 shows a forgetting
curve which is a classic in the field of memoiy it represents the
work of the first expenweuter jd the field of human learning and
memory Hermann Ebbinghius Based on experiments performed
more than six^ years ago on one subject (Ebbinghaus himself) it
has stood the test of time omazing/y well and has in its main
fea
hires been borne out by much subsequent work done with

larger
samples and considerable refinements of procedure

QQO experimental psycholocv
Ebbinghaus’ curve shows rclcntion, as measured by relearning
or saving, after varying intervals of time
followfng the end of prac-
tice. The most striking feature of the

curve is its decelerated drop.
Retention loss is considerable during the first few hours-aftcr 1
hour there is a saving of only 44.2 percent; after 8 hours, the amount
saved has dropped to 35 percent. After the first day, the decline is
much slower and the slope of the curve is very gentle. Although
there is no one, truly typical curve of retention, the decelerated
decline a feature common to curves obtained under many dif-
is
ferent experimental conditions.

The gentle slope of the later part of the curve indicates a fact
which has been independently confirmed: forgetting only very,
very slmvly, if ever, becomes complete. As we have mentioned
above, a certain amount of saving has been demonstrated fn some
cases even after decades. There is also “anecdotal* and clinical
evidence about the revival of remote childhood experiences fn old
age and at moments of extreme stress. In spite of tlie sketchy nature
of the evidence, it is probably reasonable to conclude that some
effects of past learning persist indefinitely if only our measures are
sensitive enough to detect them.
TiIE DCTEI\^^NANTS OF THE RaTE OF FoR CET llK C

We forget in time, but how much we forget and at what rate is
not determined by the sheer passage of lime but by a multitude of
conditions which exercise their effects in time. Amount of forgetting
is a joint function of a multitude of specific conditions, many of
which can be varied experimentally. Proceeding, as it were, diron-

olo^cally, we can localize and study determinants of retenUon
( 1) at the time of original learning, (2) in the time interval between
tiie end of practice and memory test, and (3) at the time of the
retention test.
Retention as a Function of the

Conditions of Leaiininc
The basic continuity of the processes of learning and retention
would lead us to expect that the degree to which learning is carried,
the nature of the materials learned, and the conditions under which
learning takes place are important determinants of the course of
RETENTION AND rORGETTINC-I 381
retention Tins expectation is supported by a considerable amount

ot experimental e\idence
Degree of Learning. Measures of retention gauge bow lasting
the effects of learning are That which is strongly fixated should last
longer, and it has, indeed, been found experimentally that the
higher the degree of onginal learning, the greater the retention In
some cases this relationship approaches hneanty. Over a
consider-
able range the increase mretention of nonsense syllables as meas-

jg2
learning, the less
degree of learning, but the higher the degree of
is
retention likely to benefit from furlherlcaming.

In relating retention to degree of learning, tlie latter may be
varied in several ways. Number of practice trials
provides one way
for varying degree of learning: the larger the

number of repetitions,
the higher, presumably, the degree of learning. A constant number
of repetitions, however, results in different degrees of mastery from
subject to subject, and, therefore, number of repetitions may have
different effects on the retention performance of different subjects.
It is often desirable, therefore, to define degree of learning in terms
of the criterion reached by the subjects, such as one perfect repeti*
tion, two perfect repetitions, and so on. Retention may then be
measured following different criteria of mastery.
Not even a constant criterion of mastery insures a constant degree
of learning. When two individuals can Satisfy a criterion of, say,
one perfect repetition, we can only conclude that both pibjects have
at the time of testing reached the minimum degree of mastery neces-
They may still differ in degree of learn-
sary to satisfy the criterion.
by more sensitive tests. Whether or not equal test
ing as measured
performance means equal degrees of learning depends, among
other things, on the ege of the associations involved. Suppose indi-
vidual A learns a list to criterion at time ti and relearns it to the
same criterion at time tj. Individual B learns the same list to the
same criterion but does so only once, at time tz. At time ti, then,
both subject A and subject B show the same degree of learning as
measured by their ability to reach the criterion. On a test of reten-
tion some time after ti, howev'er, individual A is hkely to be
superior to B. His learning (associations) of the list are older and
"stronger.” The dependence of retention on age of association is
formally known as Jost’s law: Of two associations which meet the
same criterion, the older one diminishes less tvith time. In other
words, each relearning of the material to a constant criterion
increases the degree of learning, leads to longer retention. In the
light of Jost’s law, the abibty to reach a criterion is not an unequivo-
cal index of degree of learning. Whenever degree of learning is used
as an independent variable, as in measuring its effect on retention,
&e effects predicted by Jost’s law must be borne in mind and, if
possible, controlled (e.g., by using associations of equal age).
HETENTION AND FOBCETTING-I
283
D.str.bu..on of Pract.ce We
have already eoled (pn S32^)
*at retention u better after thstnbutcd than after
massed practice
ibe mpenonty of retention after
distribution folloivs immedi
ntely from Jost s law Distribution
of practice imnlves the interpola
ptacticc Thus, when a cnlenon is
reached by dislnbuhon of practice, the
associabons axe oJdcr thaa
m tlie case of massed practice
The factors which lead to faster
learning by distnbutcd practice (eg. the
forgetting of incoirech
interfering associations) are probably also teônsible
for the su-
perior retention following this method of practice
Amount of Afatenat Itcgardlcss of the specific conditions of
practice, degree of retention \'anes wiUi the lengtli of the task We
saw before (see pp Ji20 f ) that a long task is more difficult to learn
than a short one %vhcn the task Is long the learner has to spend
a larger amount of time on eadi item than m the case of a short
task. Once teamed however, the long task is better remembered
than the short one When two lists of different lengths ore learned
to the same cnlenon of mastery, a larger percentage of items is
retained from the longer of the two lists
The direct relationship between amount of matenal and the
relalu e degree of retention may at first be surprising but is a logical
consequence of the greater dilBculty of the longer task, A Jong task
requires a longpenod of practice and a coniiderable amount of
time IS spent on the indnaduaJ items as weJJ as in the effort to con
nect and organize them As a result, many 0/ the items are over
learned Having been overleamed th^ have higher retenhon value
than the items in a short list which are easier to learn and require
a briefer penocl of practice The dependence of retention on the
of another
length of the task thus reduces in large part to the effect
basic variable degree of learning
Rate learning vanes for dif
Nature of the Learning Task of
rate of forgetting Aieaningful
ferent kinds of activiUes and so does
items The general con
matenals are better retained than nonsense
tent and meaning of a passage are
retamed better 4an the verbatmi
favora vivid and distinct erpen
statements In general retenbon
suppOTt
ences that are nch in associative
expeneaces are farored m mem
The fact that vivid and mmsoal
the way in which retenbon depends
ory provides a valuable cue to
on the nature of the matcnals. A scries of stimuli, all of which
are
homogeneous in form and quality, such as a series of nonsense

syllables, is retained only with great difficulty. After the
end of
practice, the discrimination among these highly similar items,
which
was difficult enough while th<^ were physically present, becomes
more and more inaccurate. As the Gestalt psychologists put it, the
traces of homogeneous or “crowded" materials cannot maintain
their identitj' for long. Because of their similarity, there is maximum
opportunity for mutual interference among the traces of the indi-
vidual items. On the other hand, any stimulus or experience which
stands out from its background, which is “isolated" in a series by
virtue of its form and quality, is heavily favored in retention.
It is possible to demonstrate the greater retention value of
“isolated” material by a simple experiment. The stimulus list con-
sists of a series of items, most of whidi are of the same general form,
say,nonsense s)’llables. Interspersed among the syllables are a fev^
items of an entirely different nature, c.g., three-digit numbers, geo-
metric figures, etc. After a constant amount of practice, the isolated
items will invariably show a higher degree of retention. As a neces-
saiy control, the relation between the two kinds of materials should
he reversed in another senes: the numbers or geometric figures are
“crowded” and the nonsense syllables are “isolated." If the isolated
items are favored in retention, that is obviously due to the verj'
still
fact of theirbeing isolated and not to the intrinsic ease or difficulty

of nonsense syllables, geometric designs, etc. This general
type of
experiment has been performed repeatedly and the results have
clearly established the superior retention value
of isolated materials
in a homogeneous series.
Motivational Determinants
In discussing the retention value of different types of materials,

the learner’s attitude toward the matcnals, his set, his interests, and
emotional responses are an ever-present source of variation. We
have already discussed these factors as variables in learning esperi-
ments (see pp. 328.331). They play an equally important role as
determinants of the course of retention.
Set. Without a set to learn (whether induced by the esperi-
mentcr or by self-instruction), little or no learning takes place (see
HETENTION AND FORGETTtNG-I
305
pp f) Since retenlion vmes wi!h degree of leomtog, only
those learners who practice under an adequate set will
show good
retentJOn A jpecifio set to recall wH
aid retention further A subject
tvho expects a retention test after the end of
practice will do better
than one whose memory is tested unexpectedly
The more fully a learner loio^ss how his retenUon be tested, wU
the better will he his performance If a subject
knows in advance
that his retention will be tested by a particular method say, anlici
pation or recognition he wiU attempt to practice the material so
as to be maximally prepared for the test If he knous that there will
be an anticipation test he will emphasize serial position during the
period of practice If he expects a recognition test he wdl disregard
position and concentrate on the nature of the individual if»ms Per
tormance is optimal if the subject knows the nature of the retention
test and prepares himself while practicing the material If the
expected test and the one actually administered differ retention is
impaired For example, if the subject practices the matennl with
a view to an anticipation procedure and is then confronted with a
recognition test, his performance is poorer than if he had practiced
spe^cally for a recognition test Learning always involves selective

emphasis on certain aspects of the stimulus material (such as serial
order, meaning, etc ) The learners subsequent performance de-
pends on the extent to which the retention lest calls for the same
land of response that he selectively emphasized during the penod
of practice
Interests, Attitudes, and Values Explicit instmctions are by
no means the sole determinants of selective retention The subjects
reachon to the matenal is important the degree of his interest In It
the attitudes winch it evokes the way in which it fits into his system
of values ^Ve have already considered sucli factors as determiners
influence as
of the rate of learning they continue to eacerewe their
determinants of the course of retention
Although these variables
well explored certain general conclusions have
have not been too
nlready begun to emerge
1 The greater a subject s personal interest m tne material
better wdl be his retention for it over a con

he has learned the
may be
siderobJe period of Umc A measure of interest
learning material on a scale of
by raquirmg the subject to rate the
interest (ranging from very interesting through indifferent to very
dull), but unfortunately the validity of such ratings is
not too
well established. The degree of interest in the learning material
may also be estimated from known characteristics of tlie learner,
such as his occupation and his social background.
2. Attitudes of acceptance and rejection toward the content of the
learning material may be significant determinants of the degree
of retention. If the material learned is controversial (concerning,
for example, a political or religious issue), subjects who differ
toward the controversial issue are also
radically in their attitudes
likely to show such material. There is
differential retention for
some experimental evidence showing that material which is in
agreement with the subject’s own \icsv is favored in retention.
Similarly, it has been shown that material which is probably ex*
perienced as hostile or threatening to established values and
attitudes may be retained more poorly than material which is
acceptable to the subject or toward which he is indifferent.
3. The success of experiments studying the relationship between
attitudes and values on the one hand and retention on the other
depends on the investigators ability to find materials which do
indeed have important personal relevance for the subject. One of
the most successful studies in this area was one in which the sub-
jects were psychiatnc patients, and emotionally toned learning
materials were selected on the basis of these very patients’ clin-
ical records. Items which these records suggested to be acceptable
to the subjects were retained significantly better than items sim-
ilarly classified as indifferent or unacceptable.
The experimenter must guard against assuming lightly that his
subjects will share his own judgments of pleasantness and unpleas-
antness, his mvn feelings of acceptance and rejection toward the
learning materials. Experiments on the relation of attitude to reten-
tion may easily founder on the failure to select materials of true
personal relevance to the subjects.
Memory for Completed and Interrupted (Successful and
Unsuccessful) Tasks. The role of motivational determinants is
by the difference in retention for completed and
clearly illustrated
interrupted tasks In a typical experiment, subjects are given a series
of tasks (usually simple manual tasks) to .perform. They are per-
retention and FORGETTING-I
367
rnptcd by Ibe raperimemer and remains

micomplcled At the end
of sucli an CTpenipental session, »he
subjects are
or
required to recall
as mill) of the tasks on whidi the)
Ind worked as they can remem-
ber Frequenll)- nncJ reliably, a higlier
percentage of interrupted
than completed (asks is recalled *
TJie supenont} of iaterrupted over completed
tasks can be quan-
titathel) expressed b> means of the J/C ratio, where I equals num
ber of interrupted tasks recalled and C equals number of completed
tasks recalled If there Is no difference m the retention salue of the
two t)pes of task, tlie ratio is equal to 1 The greater the ratio The
more are interrupted tasks favored in retention //C ratios as high
as J 9 Jiave been reported A valid J/C ratio depends, of course,
on adequate control of factors other than completion
and inter
ruption of the task A
counterbabneed design (see
p 345) must
be used, so that each task appean both in the completed group and
the interrupted group an equal number of times In this manner, it
U impossible hr tiio mhire of the task as such (its faxnihanty,
Wv'ldness, etc ) to affect the I/C ratio
Whether or not an I/C ratio greater tlian unity is obtained de
pends to a considerable extent on what the fact of mtcmiption
means to the subject, how lus motivation in performing the tasks is
affected b> (he inteimption Subjects may interpret interruption as
a sign of either success or failure m
the task If the interruption is
made without explanation or under some vague pretext, many sub
jects are likelj to interpret it as an indication of failure in the task
Under these conditions, the l/C ratio is often high On the other
hind, subjects may be led to bebeve that being interrupted a m
task means that they have succeeded in it In experiments in which
intemiption stood for success, the I/C ratio is often considerably
diminished and may even drop below 1
value, at least in part,
Interrupted tasks owe their retention
to their interpretation as success
and failure by the subjects Such
however, only serves to raise a further quesUon
a statement,
How do successful and unsuccessful (asks differ w dieiroften
retention
been
to this quesbon have
value? The experimental answers
of
a Subjects not only rctato s higher proportwn
given an opportunity to do so
tend spintanmisly to resume them tf
.
370 EXPCniMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

described as retroactive inhihUhn. Tlic concept may best be defined
by the experimental operations which arc usc'd to establish and
measure it.
Suppose tlicrc are an experimental group and a control, group
well maldicd in learning ability. Doth groups Icam a task. A, to a
criterion. We then treat the two groups differently during the reten-
tion period. The experimental group learns another task, B, wluch
often bears a certain amount of similarity to A (c.g.I A And B may
be two different lists of nonsense s)'llables). While the members of
the experimental group arc learning B, the members of the control
group "rest/* i.c^ they do not learn anything but are occupied with
something which bears as little relationship to A as possible (e.g.,
if task A was learning a list of nonsense syllables, thc)' might read
entertaining prose or perform a simple mechanical task). The

members of both groups are tlien tested for their retention of the
original learning of task A. Tnclime whicli has clapscd’since the
learning of A is exactly the same for the hvo
groups, they differ only
in the nature of the actjyity filling thattim^ interval. To the extent
that the retention of the experimental group is poorer thin that of
the control group, retroactive inhibition has taken place. Thc experi-
mental paradigm of retroactive inhibition may be sumrnarized as
shown by the accompanying design.
Experimental Group: '
Learn A Learn B Retention Test ior A

Control Group:
Learn A Rest Retention Test for A
/
DiUcrence = Ketroach\e Inhibilion -
Reliractive inhibiUon, then, refers to the' d

JFerence in degree of for-
gettmg caused by' the fnferpdlatfon of a fonnal
leafhing "fasra
rampared svith a time interval free of fonhal leamidg
actndty. Eiên'
the control group is not entirely inactive
but the amount oB formal
learning IS minimized.
\
HetacUye mhibition is an example of negative
transfer. The
learning and reteiition of any one particular
task or skill is never
entirely unreeled by previous learuing
activities of the subieef.
Vyl^êr the leaimng of a task. B, facilitates the learuing
or rirten-
Uon of-hnother task. A, sve speak of positive transfer.
Whenever the
RETENTION AND FORGETTING-I
37i
learatog of a task, B, interferes sw’lh
the learning or retention of
artier ^k. A, there is negatire transfer (see Chapter
18)êtro-
a^ve intobition is a special esampfe of negative
transfer’ Sanse
thêaming of one task Interferes ivithTthe retention of another.
Ice term, retroactive inhibition, should not be interpreted to
Imply backward action of one activity upon
another. The inter'
polated activity(^y interferes with the results or “traces” of the
êvious activity (A) The term is, perhaps, unfortunate
because
of its possible misinterpretation m the sense of backward
action, it
isused merely to emphasize that it is the retention for an earlier
learned task with which the interpolated acbvity interferes.
Determinants of lietroactlce /nliibition
The basic paradigm and variations on it have been employed
with a wide^'itriety of stimulus materials, under many experimental

conditions, using several mdthods of measuring degreemThtention
Frrtn this wealth of experimentation, retroactive inhibition has
emerged os a highly refiable and predictable phenomenon. At the
same time, it has become dear that retroactive inhibition is not an
aJl-or*none effect but varies m degree over a wde range'as a fun's*
tion of a number of experimental xâbles. ^Ve turn next to a con-
knmvn determinanb of 'retroactive- inhibition.
sideration of the
Method of Measurement. Retroactive inhibition is inferred
from differences between retention scores resulJJng from differences
In interpolated activity, as in the paradigm above. Amount of
^troactive inhibition depends, therefore, on the particular method
of measuring retention. Differences in acti% e-recall scores are the
most widely use^^ and are sensitive Indicators of degree of retro-
active inhibition. On the first retest trial after ialeipoJated activity,
the differences between recall scores of the expemnental group

and
the control group are likely to be considerable This difference,
which
may be converted into a percentage of loss, provides a reliable
retroactive inhibition. If the lest tnals are
continu^,
measure of
i.e , if the two groups are required to
relearn the material to the
groups
original entenon of masteiy, the differences behveen the two
trials. The effects of retro-
will become Jess and less on successive
relearning, at leari
active inbibiUon are rapidly dissipated during
numbers of items retained
as far as they are measured by the
contradictory but order emerges out of the data when
the char-
acteristics of the subjects who succeed and fail in

the tasks arc
taken into account. Preferential retention for successes and failures
is correlated with personabty characteristics of the
significantly
subjects and witli the importance which they attach to success and
failure in any parliailar tasks. Thus, the more “proud” the indi-
vidual, the more he feels his self-esteem threatened by failure, the
more likely he is to remember a greater proportion of successes
than failures. Similarly, the more important and significant he be-
lieves the task to be as a measure of his ability, the more likely he is
to favor successes over failures in memory. The measurement of
independent variables such as “importance” and "threat to self-
esteem” is often difficult and involves the use of ratings and judg-
ments, the reliability and validity of which are far from perfect.
Nevertheless, even rough classifications of subjects according to
these variables show important differences in the retention of com-
pleted and interrupted, successful and unsuccessful tasks. Rela*
tionships such as these underscore the importance of considering
the motivation of the subject in studying the determinants of
retention.
Retention as a Function -of iNrnnpoLATED Activity:

RETnoAcnvE Inhibition
Wc have studied degree of retention in relation to the conditions
under which the original learning .oMhe given material takes
place. We now turn to a second group of determinants— the nature
of the activities which fill the interval between the end of practice
and the test of recall. We must emphasize again that time-fn and
of itself does not
do anything and is not a useful independent vari-
able in the study of retention any more than it would be a useful
independent variable in the interpretation of physical and chemical
processes. Time provides us with a framework of measurement
within which the lawful determinants of retention and forgetting
take their course Among these determinants, the activities between
learning and recall are of paramount importance.
The Concept of Retroactive Inhibition

Retention After Sleep and Waking. The importance of the
activity filling the interval between learning and recall can be
RETENTION AND FORGETTING-1 369
dramabcally by comparing the effects upon retenhon of

illustrated
periods of sleep and waiving Penods of sleep and waking, which

in strikingly
differ so clearly in amount of activity, affect retention
different ways A period of sleep immediatoly
following the end of
compared with
practice greatly reduces the amount of forgettmg as
for example, subjects
a penod of wakefulness In one experiment,
cntenon of perfect mastery
learned a list of nonsense syllables to a
and 8 hours spent eiaer
and then were tested after penods of 1, 2 4,
actinbes At all points tested a
in sleep or in ordmaiy waking
m
superior retenhon The differences are
penod of sleep resulted
There is forgetbng
Lpeaally after thejonger periods
striking
but thereafter the ™ount of
dunng the fast few hours of sleep
unchanged, whereas a penod of ivakeful
retenhon remams almost
ness Yields a steady
downward trend (forgetting curve)
^ nteresting paraUel to
been -s ^hshed mth
these findmgs with hman subjects
animals and indeed, with a
has
veiy humb e
simple
can learn a
Ui cockroach A
? cockroach
expenmen alsubjert
,
^
^
dironminahon t T 5 cct may be„ complelclju
mediately atrer the m i, p
Eollovnng such a
consideraUy
discrimination is relamed
”™d of
period o‘f ISiX to
nhvsical achvily As in the
better than protects the
od of ph^cal inaohvaty
case of human s“h)““’ penod, few events can
^
organism from forge
take place
Itis tniethatsom
^ orge^
'or^"to^
^ the results of learning
^“"”5 ‘'“P’
end of practice Even
T'
after the
fa
cially during the achvity A certain penod
of
j|t,jc„ce of all
sleep does full onset of sleep
cannot
e icj,n„„g and the
time behveen the .^rtunt of activity continues
dunng sleep
be centroUed A
of dre
retenbon could not
be
as the presence forectting
ties were be rash, however, to
petf
expected to he about the causes of f“'S'*‘'"S
make such a sweepmg g following sleep does
demon
supen^P'^^^^^ ^fainiing
.
recall is a mafor
What to and
of the The adverse effectu^n

Defimlion of Rem between learnmg
an^^l
TPiPoHo p of an
acuvT
^
Because of their initial advantage, however, the
members of the
control group will relearn the original material to
mastery in fewer
trials or less time than the members of
the experimental group.
of
Tims, differences in percent sflofng provide another measure
retroactive inhibition. Due to the transient nature of retroactive
effects, this measure is likely to be les^ sensitive than
active-recall
scores obtained on the first test trial following interpolation.

Other retention mcasures--e.g., scores on tests of recognition and
reconstruction— may also be used to gauge degree of retroactive
inhibition although they arc not as likefy as the first two methods
to yield fine discriminations between various conditions of learning
and interpolation. In the case of both recognition and reconstruction
tests, the presence of the correct items on the test may serve as a
rehearsal which counteracts, at least in part, the effects of the

interpolated activity.
Retroactive inhibition is most commonly measured by comparing
the amounts retained under different conditions of intcrpolalfon.
An interpolated activity may, however, not only decrease Ae sheer
amount retained but also affect the effidency of performance for
those parts of the original learning which are correctly retained.
Retroactive inhibition may, for example, result in reduced speed of
performance. Fig. 93 demonstrates the effects of an interpolated
activity on the speed (reaction time) with which paired associates
are anticipated. Even when only correct responses arc considered,
retroactive inhibition manifests itself in consistent slowing of reac-
tion times. Similarly,an interpolated activity reduces the Tate at
which tmrrect responses are gi\cn on an active-recall test. Temporal
indices such as these illustrate the far-reaching effects of an inter-
polated activity upon retention and the need for sensitive indices to
gauge their full extent
Similarity Between Original and Interpolated Âctivities.
However measured, amount of retroactive inhibition is determined
to a large extent by the degree of similarity between original and
interpolated learning (A and B in our paradigm). If the original
activity (A)
is learning a list of nonsense syllables, an interpolated
second of nonsense syllables (B) will cause considerably more
list
retroactive inhibition than the interpolated learning of a meaningful

prose passage or of a motor skilL Two activities do not interfere
RETENTION AND FORGETTING-
mth each other too seriously it they
mvolse eulirelj different types
of responses As the two achvities
become more similar and iiiS^
“ retroactive interference mneases
Finally, the similarity
1
between learmng and interpolated
original
learning may become so great that the interpolated actmty
plays
FiC 93 The Measurement of Retroactive InJubibon Roth retenbon

scores and reaction bmes may be used to gauge the effect of an inter
pointed activity During the onginal learning the errors decline and
reaction tunes become faster After mterpohboa envrs increase and
reacbon times become slower for the erpenmeafal group The control
group which had not interpolated leammg shows no comparable in
crease in errors and reaction boies These data were obtained m
an experi
ment using the method of paired assocutes (From L Postman and H L.
Aaplan Reaction time as a measure of retroacbve inhibition } Exper
Pst/chol 1947, 37 I4I by perroisnoD of the journal and the Ameneaa
Psychological Association )
the part of a rehearsal or practice tnal for the original actmty and
serves to strengthen its releotioo rather than to inhibit it
These considerations of the role of ûnilanty of ongmal and

interpolated learning have Jed to the formulation of the Skaggs
Robinson hypothesis which can best be understood bj reference to
Fig 94 The abscissa of Fig 94 represents a h)-potheticaI scale of
sunilarity between original leanung and interpolated learning rang
(A) to complete unrektedness (C).
ing from complete idenUty
of retention foUowmg
On the ordinate is plotted relative degree
According to the Skaggs-Hobinson hypothe^, rela-
interpolation.
degree of retention is marimal when the
two activities are
tive
identic^. The transfer from
one task to itself is positive. As simi-
larity decreases, so does
degree of recall unHl it reaches a minimum
ttcfttt Of sncLMirY etrmttn iirrcufouiTto activitt

OMotMit. MCwoKczATim- ouctRoma ftCMX
Fjc. 94- This Hypothetical Curve Shows Hov/

Effiacncy of Recall m a Retroactive Inhibition Ei-
pentnent Varies as a Function of the Degree of
Similarity Between Original and Interpolated Learn'
ing. %Vhen similarity is very great (A) or very small
(C), effidency is high, i-c., there is httle interference.
Maximum interference occurs with an intermediate
degree of simflanty (B). (From J. A. McCeoch, The
psychology of human learning, 1942, p. 462, by per-
mission of Longmans, Green & Co., Inc, After E. S.
Robinson, the “simflan^ factor m
retroaction,
Amer. /, Ptychol, 1927, 39:299, by permission of
the iourziaL)
at an uAermediate degree ol samdaiily (B). At &is point, the two

activities involvea sufficient number of common responses to pro-
vide considerable opportunity for interference, but they are too far
removed from identity to allow mutual facilitation. Two lists of dif-
ferent nonsense syllables are representative of this condition. At
point B, then, the transfer from one task to the other is predomi-
nantly negative. As the similarity between the two tasks decreases
even further, in the direction of complete unrelatedness, degree of
retention rises until it reaches a second maximum at C. At C the
j
DETENTION AND FOBCETTINC-I
375
hra iasls do aol Involve an) common
responses and there is I.ltic
or DO opportun.ly for intefcrcnce
Ifoneser, retention cannot Ins
as high at C as it is at A, since complete
idenlit) of the onginal and
interpolate taste (A) means additional
practice ssherJas com
plete unrelatedness (C) simply unplies a minimiiin of inlerferenm
but no addttional pracbee
The Shaggs Robinson hypothesis has rccciscd at least partial
verification in expenmenlal investigabons of retroactive Inhibition
Separate seebons of tlie tlieoretical curve liave been
empirically
approximated Identity of ongfiiaf and mterpotitcd feandng does
of course, result in maxunuen retention An^ degree of similantv
Jess tlian identity results in Jouer refenbon increased retroactnc
inhibibon [A B section of SUggs Itobinson curve) It has also been
shown that over a considerable range the amount of retroaction
decreases with decreasing degree of sunilantv (B-C section of
Skaggs Robinsancunc) It lias not been possible at least thus far, (o
obtain empincall) a curve corresponding to tlie theoretical Sfcajgs

I?ob/nsofl ftrrrctfoa otw rts entire range TTie cun-e shovvii in frg
04 has remained a theorctica) model The most scnoiis obstacle to
a conclusive test of the theory has been the difliculh ol varving
similarity of the Interpolated acUvI^ continuously over a range as
Wide as tliat demanded bj the tiieory
We are thoroughly accustomed to think in terms of similanties
and differences, but these concepts are difficult to measure and
manipulate experlmentall) StncUv speaUnc s/mflarfty is a matter
of (he learner# perception of the stimulus matenals the rsperi
menter must always guard agamrt asciibmg his owm perception of
similarity to the jeamer wnlhout Independent lest Lcanung
mate-
morcov'er, may be similar or different in many respects siml

rials,
lanty can vary along many dimcmlons. Two leiming tasks

miv be
items
sunilarbecause they contain common (identical) elements or
or because they arc more or less alike in
meaning Tliere may f"?
per
similaritywath respect to the set under which two tasks are
reTutrrd of
formed or vvitfi respect to the operations and responses
similanbes have demonstrable effects on tliC
die learner All such
degree of relroactivr inhibition
terms of the operattoni
Similantv must be carefully defined In
which the experimenter uses to make tlic stimulus materials similar.
A few examples will illustrate this point.
Similarity due to common elements. Tlie similarity between two
learning tasks may be due to the fact that they contain common
elements or items. For example, it is possible to construct lists of
nonsense syllables which overlap in structure. List A may contain
the following syllables: HUJ, CEX, WAP; List B: HUZ, DEX, WIP.
These have two out of three letters in common. If similar
syllables
syllables appear in corresponding positions in the two lists (as is
the case in the example above), the degree of similarity between the
two lists is enhanced. Two motor tasl^ may call for partially, but
not entirely, identical movements; two mazes may have partially,
but not entirely, identical paths. In all such cases, degree of simi-
larity is deBncd by number of common stimulus elements.
Similarity of meaning. Stimulus materials may not be alike for-
mally or physically and yet be perceived and responded to as similar
because of common meaning and interpretation. Synonyms ex-
emplify this dimension of similarity. When the original learning
consists of a list of meaningful words, interpolation of a list of
synonyms causes greater retroactive inhibition than tJie Interpolation
of a list of unrelated meaningful words. Such similarity can some-
times be defined a priori on the basis of dictionary meaning. An
alternative and preferable procedure consists of obtaining ratings
or judgments of similarity from a group of independent judges. In
this manner, a rough scale of similarity can be constructed and
amount compared for different degrees of
of retroactive inhibition
similarity. The rating
procedure can be used for approximate
scaling of similarity with a wide variety of stimulus materials, such
as words and geometric designs.
Simifarity of operations. Quite apart from the nature of the stimu-
lus materials, tasks may be similar or diEcrcnt with respect to the
types of responses or operations required of the subject. One list
may, for example, be learned by the method of anticipation, the
other, by the method of complete presentation. Similar or different
motor responses, such as approach and withdrawal, may be called
for in Original and interpolated learning. In general, similarity of
operations leads to incrc.ased retroactive interference.
Sfmfiflri/fy of set. Similarity of operations is an example of a more
RETENTION AND FORGETTING—
pneral d,mc.M,on Similanty of set
The oneraUon of a set results
in science response to the
stimulus matena] and hence leamms
and retention Amount of Interference
vanes with the extent to
which original and interpolated learning are carried
on under the
same or different selectl\e sets Similar selective sets
maximize the
responses common to the two tasks and increase retroacbve inhibi
tion If one passage is memorized \erb3f1m and another learned “for
understanding there is less Interference than if both are learned
under the same set In general the more different the sets under
wfiich the original and fntcipo/afed activity are learned the fes
^vlll be the retroactive interference Whatever serves to reduce th<
responses common to the original and interpolated activi^, de-
creases the amount of retroactive inhibiUon The importance of
“functional Isolation* of the two activities is dramatically illustrated
with the aid of hypnosis If one of the tasks (either original or
Interpolated) is learned under hypnosis whJe the other is learned
in a state of wakefulness the amount of retroactive inhibition is
reduced as compared with normal conditions (both tasks learned
in a w'aking state)
To summarize our discussion of the factor of similarity whatever
leads to establishment of incompatible or competing responses for
the original and interpolated activities increases retroactive inhibi
tion In practice similanty between the two activities (short of
identity) with respect to materials methods and sets will over a
w^de range result in decreased retention of the original task
Amount and Strength of Original and Interpolated Learn
mg Holding the nature of tlie tasks and the sub/ects set constant,
amount of retroactive inhibition depCTids on the strength to which
original and inteipolaled learning are earned as well as on
the
amount of the two acbvitjes

better learned (or the more overleamed) the ongnal
ac-
The
tivity is the less susceptible it is to retroactive inhibition A strongly
e'ftablished response cannot be easily disturbed A

simple example
will illustrate this point We continually (and

often to our ^0“
probably be
rassment) forget the names of new acquaintances
among poorly
cause there is considerable retroactive inhibition
learned names or name
foce assoeiettoas No matter how many new
names we have to learn however there is no retroacbve inhibitiou
for our own names or thoseof our closest friends-these responses
greater the
are too well established. In experimental pracU'ce, the
frequency of repetitions of the original material or the more exact-
ing the criterion to which it is carried, the less is the detrimental
effect of an interpolated activity.
The interpolated activity must be learned to at least a minimum
strength in order to be an effective inhibiter. If the interpolated task
is greatly overleamed, however, it cannot be easily “confused” with
the original activity, and amount of retroactive inhibition
diminishes. If amount of retroactive inhibition is plotted against
degree of interpolated learning (other things being equal), we
obtain a function which rises to a maximum and then declines as the
strength of the interpolated learning exceeds a certain value.
In addition to the strength of the original and interpolated learn-
ing taken separately, it is necessary to consider their strength rela-
tive to each other. If one is extremely strong as compared with the
other, there is mutual interference. Maximum retroaction
little
occurs when and interpolated learning are approximately

original
equal in strength. If both taskshave been learned to a moderate de-
gree, considerable interference effects may be expected.
Temporal Point of Interpolation. The interpolated activity
may be introduced at varying time intervals after the end of the
original learning. An interpolated task may effectively reduce the
efficiency of recall even if it is introduced a long time after the end
of practice. In all probability,an interpolation will have some
detrimental effect so long as there' is retention for the original
activity.
Amount of retroaction may vary with the exact point in time at
which the interpolated activity is introduced. Let us assume a
constant time interval between the end of practice and the test of
retention. An interpolated activity may be introduced
at various
intermediate points. The experimental work on the effect of this
variable has been neither extensive nor conclusive. Nevertheless,
the evidence points to two temporal loci of interpolation
which pro-
duce maximum interference: (1) interpolation shortly after the end
of practice, and (2) interpolation shortly before
the test of reten-
tion.Other times of interpolation yield intermediate degrees of ret-
roaction. It is possible that the process of retroactive
inhibition may
RETENTION AND FORCETTING-I
379
U dae to two factors Ooo
of these factors may have mariroim.
rfechveoKS immedmtely after the ongrna! learmng,
the other
shortly before recaU In this way the
existence of the tivo maxfaiaUv-
effective points of interpolation could
be explained It is to a con
sidcration of such a two factor theory that
we turn next /
A Two-Factor Theory of Retroactive Inliibiuoii, /Consider
a ^îcal experiment on retroacbve inhibition *on^nal
learning-
test— interpolated activity— retest If we ana 1)’ze carefully
the records
obtamed on the retest, we frerjuently find intrusiû from the inter-
polated activity For example, ^llables oT words from the inter-
polated list wiU appear among the items recalled from the ongmal
list The occurrence of su ch overt mansidnir suggests that retro-
active inhibition is due, at least in part, to competition among re
sponses established during original and interpolated learning Sudi
compebbon can best be demonstrated when the following taperi
mental procedure is used
Original Learning Interpolated Learning Retest

A6 AL AB
The experiment is of the paired assoaate type The left hand mem
ber of the pair (A) Is the same during ongwaJ and interpolated
learning The hand member vanes (D and K) In this manner,

ngfat
two different incompabble responses, B and K
are connected with
A Durmg the retest, these two responses compete with each other,
and tliere may be frequent overt intrusions of K m the place of S
Overt intrusions, however, do not account for the total amount of
loss due to the interpolated activity For this reason, another factor—
sometimes called “unlearmng"—hw been postulated Dunng the m-
terpolated learning, some of the ongioaJ responses may be so much
weakened or inhibited that they arc made completely unavailable
" Such unlearning may have some
i e , they are “unlearned
for recall,
responses Dunng
of the properbes of the extinction of condiUoned
the mferpo/afed activity, the original connecUons,
egÂBm
our
paradigm, fail to receive any reinforcement, since the correct con
nection now is A K. and, faiLng of semfotcement, become weaker

and weaker until they are unlearned
process of retro-
According to the two-factor theory, then, the
active inhibition may be
conceptualiaed m terms of two factors-
unlearning and competition among responses. Unlearning
consists
of the weakening of the original responses so that they

arc no longer
fact
available for recall. Competition of responses results from the
that two incompatible response tendencies arc acquired during
original and interpolated learning. Tliese response (endenefes com-
pete with each other during the retention test.
Retention as a Function of the Test Situation

It would be an error to localize the determinants of forgetUng
exclusively in the conditions of original learning and in the time
interval between the end of practice and rccali. The conditions at
the time of the retention test are of critical importance. have We
already emphasized that degree of retention is a function of the
particular test used. With any given test, maximum retention is
obtained if the original training procedure has involved preparation
for the type of test by which retention is measured.
The context in which retention is measured is important. The
learner forms associations not only among the items which he ex-
plicitly attempts to master but also between the performance of his
task and a definite environmental context. Physical environment,
time of day, the personality of the experimenter, the presence or
absence of an audience— all these form a background of stimulation
with which the performance of a specific task is more or less
strongly associated during the practice period. When retention is
tested, an environmental context identical, or at least very similar,
to the practice situation provides strong “behavioral support" to the
learner. There is good expenmental evidence that alterations in en-
vironmental context impair the efficiency of retention. Those who
have had occasion to perform a familiar task in an unfamiliar en-
vironment can readily verify this fact.
In some ways, the effects of altered stimulus context are related
to retroactive inhibition. A new or changed environment requires
new adjustments, new associations, as it were, between situation and
the performance of the task. These new associations interfere with
those formed during the original practice period. Such interference
Is not very serious if the task has been overleamed
to a degree which
makes it independent of supports from the environmental stimulus
context. In this respect, too, Aere is a parallel to retroactive inhibi-
gSl
t.ot. for bghly ovcrlcaroed actmUcs cannot be
aflecled apnreaably
fnicrpolaled tasks RctroacUve inhibition and the detnmental
effects of altered stimulus contexts are seen to
be continuous and
govern^ by similar prmciples In both cases,
the retention of the
onginal activity is disrupted by the intrusion
of neiv associations
REAflNlSCENCE
The Phenomenon of Reminiscence.In genera?, degree of re»
tention continuall)* diminishes as the time fnterv*aJ
between the end
of practice and the test of retenbon increases Under certain con
Pic 95 Retention Cxuve Showing the nerniniscence Phenomenon

(After L B NVard, Remmuecnce and rote leammg Psychol Monogr,
1937, 49, No ^0, p 30, by permission of the joumal and the Amencan
Psychological Association )
dibons, however, the curve of retention shows a reversal amount

retained at first increases as a funchon of time and then decreases
in the usual manner Such a temporary improvement In performance
occurring without the benefit of pracbce is laioivn as rcmmwccnce
Pig 95 presents a retention curve showing the reminiscence phe-
nomenon The fact of reminiscence underscores the point that
processes m
time in and of itself is not a condition of forgetting, for
retention
time may lead to an increase rather than a decrease in
Expenmentol Demonstration of Uemtawenoe

Two procedures have been used to demonstrate reminiscence
Successsivc Test Performances Subjects are given a ciâin
amount of practice and their xefenboa js tested. Some

tune later
(the intervals are usually on the order of a
few days), fhei'r reten-
If perform-
tion is again tested, without any intervening practice.
ance on the second test is better than on the first, reminiscence
is
said to have occurred. Amount of Teminiscence is defined by the

percent improvement on the second test as compared with the first
This procedure is open to serious methodological criticism. First
and most important, it is difficult, if not impossible, to control re-
hearsal during the period between the two tests. There is no formal
practice, but informal rehearsal by the subject cannot be prevented,
especiallywhen the interval between the two tests is a day or more.
The only evidence we can ohUtin regarding review beriveen tests is
the subjects’ own reports. It is true that amount of rehearsal as
reported by the subjects seems to be uncorrelated with degree of
reminiscence. Those who report that they did not rehearse the
learning material between tests often show considerable reminis-
cence. Subjects' testimonies, however, are at best unreliable bases

for evaluating the effects of informal review between tests.
There is a second difficulty. The first of the two tests is not only
a test but also in many ways a practice trial. Performance of the
learning task strengthens the assodations established during the
practice period. The second test may thus benefit from the oppor-
tunity for practice provided by the first test Furthermore, new
items may emerge on the second test, partly because the first test
has strengthened the organization of the material, and partly be-
cause items near the threshold will sometimes be available for recall
and sometimes not Since reminiscence is defined as improvement
in performance u-ithout benefit of practice, effects due to practice
on the first test cannot be considered as true reminiscence.
The tw'o basic difficulties in the type of reminiscence experiment

under consideration thus are (1) informal review between succes-
sive tests, and (2) opportunity for practice provided by the first
test. These difficulties are adequately met by another type of
reminiscence experiment which has been widely used in recent

years.
Use of Equated Groups. Instead of testing the same subjects
on two successive occasions, we use two equated groups. Both
groups learn the material to a given degree of mastery, as meas-
ured on a criterion test One group receives a retest immediately
383
foUowing the criterion test. The other group receives a retest some
fame after the criterion test. Typically, short intervals of the
order
of a few minutes are used During this interval, an attempt is usually
made to control the subjects* activify in order
to prevent or mini-
mize rehearsal. For example, if the leaming
material consists of
verbal items, the subjects may be engaged in
naming colors or other
tasks which are as unrelated as possible to the
activity practiced.
Comparison of the performances of the favo groups on the retest
measure of reminiscence. If the retest followmig the criterion
yields a
an interval of time yields better results than the immediate
test after
reminiscence has occurred The percent difference between

retest,
the two retests yields a measure of reminiscence.
This procedure minimizes the problem of informal rehearsal by
using short time intervals dunog which the subjects’ activity can he
reasonably well controlled. Tbe problem of practice effects is held
constant since both groups receive a test and a retest. Tbe belter
equated the hvo groups are, the more vabd the conclusions regard-
ing reminiscence which can be based on such an experimental pro-
cedure, since differences between them can then be ascribed to the
difference in time interval between lest and retest
Determinants of Reminiscence
At first glance, the fact of reminiscence appcan most improbable.
Why should performance improve rather than decline as a function
of time without intervemng practice? Again, time in and of itself
does not do anything. The fame interval between test and retest
does, however, allow inhibitory effects which accumulate during
practice to be dissipated. In serial learning, for example, remote
an-
associations are formed among nonadjacent items, leading to
ticipatory and perseverative errors (for a
full discussion of intra-
serial inhibition, see pp. S2iM26). In

motor learning, inadequate
and wrong responses are acquired along with the correct ones
Wrong and inadequate responses are reinforced less frequently and
weaker than correct responses During the time in-
are. therefore,
end of practice, such weak responses are for-
terval following the
correct responses Such
gotten more quickly than the stronger
may account, at least in part, for the improve-
differential forgetting
ment of performance following a time interval. Thus, reminiscence
and the beneBcial effects of distributed practice (sec pp. 332-330)
are in all likelihood closely related. In both cases,
dissipation of
inhibitory connections or differential forgetting leads to improved

performance.
If reminiscence is due primarily to the dissipation of inhibition,
reminiscence should be most pronounced If a considerable amount
of inhibition is built up during the practice period. There is good
experimental evidence that such is indeed the case.
Spacing of Practice. Massed periods of concentrated practice
With only short rest intervals lead to an accumulation of inhibitoiy
effects and do not allow them’ to be dissipated. With distributed
practice, on the other hand, differential forgetting can take place.
Reminiscence effects are more pronounced after massed than after
distributed practice, supporting the view that dissipation of Inhibi*
lion is at least in part responsible for the phenomenon.
Effects of Serial Position. In serial learning, maximum inhibi-
middle of the list, which is spanned by the
tion effects occur in the
greatestnumber of remote associations (cf. p. Q25). As the theory
would lead us to believe, the middle items of a list show greater
reminiscence than Items at the beginning and end of a list.
Rate of Presentation of Items. Closely related to the effects
of spacing is the dependence of reminiscence on the rate at which
items are exposed during the practice period. A fast rate of ex-
posure-item following upon item in quick succession—leads to more
reminiscence than does a slow rate of exposure. Presumably, a fast
rate of exposure leads to a greater accumulation of inhibitory effects,
which are dissipated during the time interval following the end of
practice.
Method of Practice. When the conditions of learning do not
favor the accumulation of inhibitory effects, reminiscence may fail
to occur. For example, when verbal items are learned by the method
of paired associates, the pairs are presented in random order and
remote associations are minimized. Again, in accordance with a
by paired associates fails to
differential forgetting theory, learning
show reminiscence, whereas learning by the anUdpab'on method
does.
RETENTION AND FORGETTING-!
yile of such supporting evidence, the
In
inhibitoiy or differential
forgetting theory of reminiscence
cannot as yet be regarded as
established fact There are results on record showing failure
of
remmscence even when in&asena! inhibibon
(as shown for ex-
ample, by senal position effects) is present
Whether factors other
than the dissipation of inhibition may be
responsible for remims
cence must remain an open Question
Degree of learning Remimscence, hte all measures of
re-
tention vanes with the degree of mastery to which learning
has
been earned If learning is poor, there is htOe reminiscence, for few
assoaations are strong enough to be elicited on the retest On the
other hand if tne degree of learning is great, there is httle room
for improvement or remmiscence It is thus for intermediate degrees
ot learning that the number of items remmisced is greatest As far
as relative reminiscence ts concerned i e ,
the percentage of the
number of items m the total list which is reminisced it tends to vaiy
inversely with degree of learning
Weasuremenc of Rerauiiscence Reminiscence is defined as
improvement in retention without benefit of practice Comparison
of retention scores obtained immediate)/ and at different bme
intervals after the end of practice thus provides a measure of
reminiscence Before designating improvement retention as m
reminiscence, the stabsbcal significance of the increment in reten
bon must be tested
In achial experimental pracbee, the comparison of average reten
bon scores has been found unsabsfactory in the measurement of
reminiscence The difficulty is that in a group of subjects some will
show remimscence while others iviU not Reminiscence by some and
by others will cancel each other when the resulu
are
forgetting
reports often slate the per
averaged For this reason espenmeDtal
If a larger percentage
centage of subjects who show reminiscence
reminiscence than can be expected
of experimental subjects shows
is evidenre of remmhcence
on the basis of chance vanabon there
an analîs of indMdmd
Remimscence can also be gauged by
We cat.tabulate the number of .t^t
wtach fn^ to ^t
items
test to retest It rt the new .terns wlrdt faffed to app<^ tte tot ™
the retest wind, conshtute remnuscence The
test but appear on
ggg
EXPEItlMENTAL PSYCIIOLOGV
analysis appear in Fig. 90. The
results of such on item
immediately following practice constitutes
items recalled on the test
expressed as per-
the 100-perccnl level and subsequent recalls arc
Fic. 98. The Measuremcnl oi Reinmisccncc.

This curve shws to %vhat extent reminiscence is due
to the appearance of new items on successive tests.
The upper curve shows the total retention scores at
varying time intervals after the end of practice. The
lower curve shows the retention for those items
which were recalled on the test immediately follow-
ing learning. Wide some of the originally recall^
Items are forgotten, new items come in, yieldmg
recall scores about 100 percent The shad^ area
represents the reminiscence effect due to the appear-
ance of new Items vwthout practice. (After P. B.
Ballard, Oblnescence and reminiscence, Brit. J.
Psychol. Memogr. Suppl, 1913, 1:22, by permission
of the journal.)
centages to that base. The lower curve in Fig. 96 shows the per-
centage of items persisting from test to retest; the upper curve
shows the total retention scores obtained at varjdng time intervals
after the end of practice Wlule some of the items ori^nally recalled
HETENTION AND FORGETTING-I
337
ore come in and cause the total recall curve
tonse above 100 The shaded arm
therefore represents the renunls
ccnce effect-lhe ne^v items whidi are
recalled without intervenin?
practice °
ErpmiMBiT XXn
RETTiOAcnvE IwnamoM
Purpose To demonstrate the phenomenon of retroacbve
inhibiHon
and to study one of its most important determinants-similanty of
original
and intcipointed learning
Matenais A hst of J2 hvo-syl/able adjectives (List A) a second hst
of 12 hvo-syllable adjectives (List B) which are svnmyias of the
adjec~
A and a list of 12 three-placcjmrobers (List C) are required.
lives in List
A memory drum Is used for the exposure of the stimulus items Prepared
score sheets as shouTi on p S45 are required for recording the results
Procedure The subjects are divided into three groups two Experi
mental Groups-the Similar Croup and the DlSerent Crmip-and a Con
trol Croup
The procedures used with the three groups are as follows
J Similar Croup The members of this group Jean) List A by the method
of anticipation to the criterion one perfect repetition Immediately
after readiing this criterion these subjects receive sue tnals with
List B * They are then given a rest penod of 5 minutes dunng which
they read some light prose or engage In some other activity unrO'
Jalr^ to the Jearning task Jt is important to ccnliol the activity of the
subjects during the rest penod in order to prevent review At the end
of the rest penod List A is relearned to a entenon of one perfect
repetition
2 Different Group The procedure for this group is identical with that
for the Similar Group except for the interpolated acUvily In this case
List C is interpolated for six truls
3 Control Croup The members of this group leam List A to enterion
rest (ie engage in an activity unrelated to the learning task) and
then relearn List A to criterion It is naturally important that the

the amount of time which
length of the rest penod be equal to
elapses between the end of learning A
and the relearning of the Am
case of the experimental groups
» A constantnumber of practice Wab is used for the

of the three groups
in order to mate possible equal on of tberelentioo lotervals
used in
The experimental design illustrates the paradigm eonventionally
the study of retroactive inhibition. It may be
summarized as follows:
Control Group:
Learn A Rest Relearn A
Similcr Group:
Learn A Leom B Rest Relearn A
Diêrent Group:
Learn A Learn C Rest Relearn A
Control Group, then, rests whfle the experimental groups practice
The
an interpolated activity. The two experimental groups differ from each
other m
the nature of the interpolated activity. For the Similar Group,
the origmal and the interpolated activities are very much alike, viz., one
list consists of synonyms of the other. For the Different Group, the two
activities are much less similar, a list of adjectives and a list of three-
place numbers.
Treatment of Results. Retroartive inhibition is defined as decre-
ment in retention due to an interpolated activity. To demonstrate this
effect, we compare the relearning performance of the Control Group with
that of the Ehcperimental Groups.

Two measures of retention may be used: (1) the inanber of items cor*
rectly anUapated on the first relearning trial,and (2) the number of
These two measures are com-
fcriab^required for relearning to criterion.
puted for the Control Croup and the Experimental Croups (at this stage
of the analysis, the data for the two expciimental groups may be pooled).
If the performance of the Experimental Groups is significantly
than that of the Control Group, retroactive inhibition has been dem-
onstrated.
To evaluate the effect of stmilarity of origmal
and interpolated ac-
tivity, relearning performances of the two experimental groups
are com-
pared with each other. The same two measures of retention-number
of items correctly anticipated on the first relearmng trial and number of
trialsrequired to relearn to entenon-are used. Comparison of the two
experimental groups on these measures will show whether or not. and to
what extent, the degree of similarity of original and interpolated learning
has influenced the amount of retroactive inhibition.
The results of this cipenmenl also provide data for plotting serial
position curves.
I
nCTENTION AND FORGETTING—

ExpEMunjjT XXIII
RETENnov Fon CoxnuErm) and iNTERnuFTED
Tasks^
Purple. To the hypothesis that other things
test
being equaJ ui-
temipled tasks are retained belter than
completed tasks
Materials For the purposes of this espenmeat it is necessary
for the
subject to perform a large number of tasks say
bventy The tasks should
meet two requirements (1) jt should be possible
lo complete each of
them within a fauly short period of time such as 5 to 5
minutes (2) it
should also be possible to intern pt iJ ese tasks at any time
prior to com-
pletion They should not therefore be problems which
the subject can
solve by a verbal formula or by recognition of a principle For these rea
sons manual tasks such os card sorting tweexer-dexterity tests canceIJa
lion of letters nrrongements of blocks coding exercises etc are suitable
For a list of twenty tasks successfully used in this type of experiment see
the monograph of Martin ®
Experimental Design The problem of this experiment is to deter
mme \shether interrupted tasks are remembered better than completed
ones The subjects are therefore allowed to hnish half the tasksand ore
snlerrupted in the performance of the other half We must make sure
however that whatever differences m retention are found may be reason
ably ascribed to the factor of intcmipbon ratlier than to diHerences m
the ense svith which various tasks can be remembered (One task may be
more familiar more vivid, more interesting than another and be remem
bered better for these reasons )
For purposes of controlhng possible differences m the ease of remem
benng the vanous tasks we divide the subjects into two groups The
firstgroup os allowed to complete all the even numbered tasks (a number

having been assigned to each of the tasks) and is interrupted m the per
formanee of the odd numbered ones the second group is allowed to com
plete the odd numbered tasks and m emipled in the performance of the
pre
even numbered ones Of course the order in whidi the tasks are
be randomized and uniform alternation of completed and
sealed should
interrupted tasks should be avoided
the pur
Procedure It is essential that the subject be in ignorance of
tasks is presented to the subject
pose of the expenment The senes of
some plausible pretext e g that his cooperabon is needed in the
under
experiment
<Only “na ve" subjects <aa be used ia this mO S2
sj n Martin Reminiscence and Gestalt theory PsijehoL Mmogr
should not be
standardization of a series of tests. Above all, the subject
led to suspect that his retention for the taslcs will be
tested.
session. The
The subject performs the entire scries of tasks during one
tasks are presented to him, one by one, wth appropriate instructions. If
earmarked for interruption, the experimenter watches the
a task has been
subject’s performance closely and interrupts his work before completion.
The experimenter informs the subject that he has. reached the time limit
next
for this test and, after a brief rest period, introduces him to the
If, on the other hand, a task is scheduled for completion, the
sub-
ject is, of course, allowed all the time he needs to carry it out. It is de-
sirable that the average time si>ent on completed and interrupted tasks be
eqtial.
A few (say, 3) minutes after the last task has been completed, the ex-
perimenter hands the subject a piece of paper and requests him to wnte
down all the tasks that he remembers doing during the preceding session.
The subject is allowed to continue until he fails to remember anything
for a predetermined period (say, 5 minutes).
Treatment of Results. The experimenter tabulates the number of
completed (C) and interrupted (f) tasks recalled by the subjects. He
then divides the nrimber of incomplete by the number of completed tasks,
thus determining the 7/C ratio (see p. 867). If the ratio is greater than
one, interrupted tasks are remember^ better tbgn completed ones. Con-
versely, superior retention of completed tasks woula yield a ratio smaller
than one. The significance of the difference between the average numbers
of completed and interrupted tasks remembered must be test^
Cekerai. References
Ebbinghaus, H., Memory: a contr&ution to experimental psychology
Trans, by H. A. Huger and C. E. Bussenius, New York: Teachers Col-
lege, Columbia University, 1913.
Katona, G-, Organizing and memorizing: studies in the psychology of
learning and teaching. New York: Columbia University Press, 1940.
Koffka, K., Principles of Gestalt psychology. New York: Harcourt, Brace
and Co., 1935, Chap. 11.
McGeocb, J. A., The psychohgy of human learning. New York: Long-
mans. Green and Co., 1942.
Woodworth, R. S., EipeHmental psychology. New York: Henry Holt and
Co., 1938, Chaps. 2, 3, 4, and 9.
RETENTION AND FORGETTING-I
891
MEASURElifBNT OF RETENTION
See General Beferences. especialljr
Ebbmghaiis,
McGeocb, and Woodworth
Anastas!, A Further studies on the manory {actor. Arch Psychol 1832
No 142
AndreNV, D M ,
and Bird, C A comparison
, of hvo new t>’pe questions
recall and recognition , ) Educ Psychol, 1938 29 175 193
Luh, CW., The condibons of retention, Psydiol Uonogr 1922, SI,
,
No 142
Postman, L, and Kaplan H L», Reaction time as a measure of retro-
achve inhibition, / Ezper Psychol, 1947, 57 138-145
Raffel, C , The effect of recall on forgetting J Exper Psychol 1934,
J7 828-838
l>E7E»»aVAVrS OF THE RaTB OP FORCETITVO

Degree of Leamlfxg
Krueger, W
C F , The effect of overlearning on refcnlion, 7 Exper
Psychol, 1929, 12 71-78
Krueger, W, C. F , Further studies In ovcrJeaintog J Exper Psychol,
1930, 13 152-163
youtr,A C , An experimental evaluation of Jost s laws, fijic/wf Monogr,
1941, 53, No 238
Distribution of Practice
Cam, L F , and Willey, B de V The effect of spaced learmng on the

curve of retention, J Exper Psychol . 1939, 25 209 214
Hovland, C
I , Experanental studies in rote-Jeanwng theory VI Com
parison of retention following learning to same criterion by massed and
distributed pracbee, J Exper Psychol^ 1840, 26 568-587
Arrtount of Material
Robinson, E and Heron,

S ,
W
T , Results of variations in length of
memorized roatenal, 7 Exper Psychol , 1922, S 428-ii8
Robinson, E S , and Darrow, C W
Effect of length of list upon memory
for numbers, Amer f Psychol, 1924,

SS 235-243
Nature of Learning Task
Buxton, C E, and Neivman E B. Ue forgetting of 'crowded and

Exper Psychol, 1940, 2fi 180-193
isolated materials 7
comparative rcteafaoa values of a maze habit of
McGeocb, J A., The
1932,
nonsense syllables, and of rational learning, /. Eiper. Tsychot,
15:662-680.
Spurenfeld
Restorff, H. v., Uber die Wirbung von Bereichsbildungen im
(Analyse von Vorgangen im Spurenfeld), Psychol. Forsch., 1933,
18:299-342. (English summary In K. Koffka, Principles of Gestalt psy-
chology, New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1933, pp. 481-489.)
MoTTivATioyAi. Detehmixants
Interests, Attitudes and Values
Clark, K. B., Some factors mfluencing the remembering of prose ma-
Arch. Psychol., 1940, No. 253.
terial,
Edwards, A- L., Political frames of reference as a factor influencing

recognition, /. Abn. Soc. Psychol., 1941, 36:34-50.
Levine, J. M., and Murphy, G., The laming and forgetting of contro-
versial material, /. Abn. Soc. Psychol., 1943, 38:507-517.
Secleman, V,, The influence of attitude upon the remembering of pictorial
material. Arch. Psychol., 1940, No. 258.
Sharp, A, A., An experimental test of Freud’s doctrine of the relation of
hônic tone to memory revival, /. Exper. Psychol., 19-38, 22:395-418.
Watson, W. S., and Hartmann, G. W., The rigidity of a basic altitudinal
frame, /. Abn. Soc. Psychol., 1939, 34:314-335.
Completed and Interrupted Tasks

Martin, J. R-, Reminiscence and Gestalt theory, Psychol. Monoar., 1940,
52, No. 235.
McKirmey, F., Studies in the retention of interrupted learning activities,
/. Ctrnip. Psychol.,1035, 19:265-296.
Rosenzweig, Preferences in the repeUlion of successful and unsuccess-
S.,
a function of age and personality. J. Genet. Psychol,
ful activities as
1933. 42:42.3-440.
Zeigamik, B., Das Behalten eriedigter tmd unerledicter Handltmgen,
Psychol. Forsch., 1927, 9:1-85.
ReTTOACTIVZ iNTUBmov
General References
Britt, S. H., Retroactive inhibition: a review of the literature Psychol
BuU., 1935, 32:331-440.
Britt. S. H., Theories of retroactive inhibition,
Psychol Rev 1936,
43:207-210.
SwensOT, E. Retroactive inhibition: a review
J.. of the literature, Minne-
apolis: University of Minnesota Press,
1041.
KETENTION AND FORGETTING-I
G93
Retention A/ter Sleep and Wahng

Jcnkiw, J G, and Dallenbach, K
M. Oblnescence dimng ileep and
«’ai/ng. Amer J Psychol 19SU, SS
. 005-612
hUnaml, II and Dadenbach. K
,
The M effect of actmty upon kanung
and retention in the cofckroach,
Periplaneta ametkana, Amer J
?syc/ioM946 59 1 58
Van Ornier, E B , Retention after intervals of sleep and of waking, Arch
Psychol, 1932, No 137
Similarity Seticcen Ongtnal and Interpolated Activities

Gibson, E J , and Gibson, J J , Retention and the interpolated task,
Amer J Psychol. 1934, 40 003 610
Harden, L M
The effect of emotional reacbons upon retention, J Gen
,
Psyched, 1930, 0 197-221

Kcnnelly, T ^V, The role of smulanty in retroacbve inhibibon. Arch.
Psychol, 1941, No 260
hfcGcoch, J A , and McDimld, W
T , Meaningful relation and retro*
achve inhibition, Amer J Psychol, 1931, 43 579*588
Robinson, E S Some facto** determiomg the degree of retroacUve In
,
hibition, Psychol hfonogr 1920, 28, No 128

Robinsoj) E S , The ‘simdanty’ factor in retroaction, Amer J Psychtd,
1927, 59 297-312
Skaggs, E B Further studies
, m retroactive inhibition, Psychof Afonogr,
1925. 34, No 161
Amount and Strength of Original and Interpolated Learning
McGeoch, J A , Studies in retroacbve inhibition VII Retroactive inhibl

tion as a funcUon of the length and frequency of presentation of the
interpolated lists, J Exper Psycho/, 1930, 19 674-693
Melton, A W, and Jnvm, J McQ, The influence of degree of inter-
polated learning on relroichve mhibiUon and the overt transfer of
specific responses, Amer } Psychol 1940 53 173 203
Robinson, E S. and Darrow, C W, E&ct of length of list upon
memory for numbers, Amer J Psychol , 1924 35 235 243
length of
Robmson. E S. and Heron, VV T, Results of variabons in
memorized material, / Exper Psychol, 1922, 5 428-448
activity and laptt
rwning, P E , The relahve Importance of intervening
bme m the produebon of fOTgeltiog / ExpCf Psychol, 1940,
of
26 483 501 , .
interpolabons on retroacbve
Underwood, B J , The effect of successive
59. No 3
and proacbve inhibibon, Psychol Monogr 1945
,
894 EXPEntMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Temporal Point of Interpolation
Kohler, W., Dynamics in psychologij. New York: Livcn'ght Publishing
Corp., 1940, Chap. 3.
Postman, L., and Alpcr, T. G., Retroactive inhibition as a function of the
time of interpolation of the inhibitor between learning and recall,
Amer. J. Psychol. 1940, 59:439-449.
Ttco-Foctor Theory
Melton, A. W., and Von Lackum, W. J., Relroaclivo and proactive in-
hibition in retention: evidence for a two-factor theory of retroactive
inhibition, Amer. J. Psychol, 1941, 54:157-173.
Retfntiov as a FoKcnoM or tjie Test Shtuatio-v

Dulsky, S. G., The effect of a change of background on recall and re-
learning, ]. Exper. Psychol, 1933, Jfl:723-740.
Pan, S., The influence of context upon learning and recall, J, Exper.
Psychol, 1928, 9:468-491.
Reminiscence
and reminiscence, Brit. J. Psychol Monogr.
Ballard, P. B., Oblivescence
Suppl, 1913, 1, No. 12.
Buxton, C. E., The status of research in reminiscence, Psychol Bull,
1943, 40:3134340.
Hovland, C. I., Experimental studies in rote-Ieaming theory:
I. Remi-
niscence following learning by massed and by distributed practice,
7. Exper. Psychol, 1938, 22:201-224.
Hovland, C. I., Experimental studies in role-learning

theory: IV. Com-
parison
of reminiscence in serial and paired-associate learning,
Exper. Psychol, 1939, 24.466-484.
/.
Hovland, C. I., Experimental studies in rote-Ieaming theory: VI. Com-
parison of retention following learning to same criterion by massed and
distributed practice, J. Exper, Psychol 1940, 26.568-587.
Martin, J. R., Reminiscence and Gestalt theory, Psychol Monoar 1940,
52, No. 233.
McGeocb, G. O., The conditions of reminiscence, Amer. /. Psuchol 1935,
47:65-89.
Ward, L. B., Reminiscence and role learning, Psychol Monoar 1937,
49, No. 220.
Wilhams, O., A study of the phenomenon of reminiscence T. Exper.
Psychol, 1926, 9:368-387.
«««
Yi
RETENTION AND PORGETTING—
II: QUALITATIVE CHANGES
IN THE course of bme, w e nol only remember less and less of what
we have learned but what we do remember frequently suffers
senous transformations and d^tortions We
can merease our msight
Into the processes of remembering and forgetting if we do not limit
ourselves to the measurement of the sheer amounts remembered
and forgotten over a period of lime We must also examine carefully
the types of qualitative changes and errors Nvbjcb characterize the
temporal course of memory Eventually, such qualitative changes
may lend themselves to proper quantification The twin problems of
mamory loss (decreases w amount remembered) and memory
change (transformations, distortions, and errors) must always be
considered together, for th^ are complementary aspects of the
same process
Tiie Pncxaiss of Meaiory CfiAWE

The Concept of Trace In theoretical discussions of memory,
it Js convenient to refer to the more or less lasting results of learn
ing as traces In its broadest sense the term trace refers simply to
the modification which the organism has undergone as a result of
learning Having learned the organism is no longer the same as jt
was learning has left a trace in the organism Use of the concept
of trace does not necessarily imply any assumption about the
physiological or neurological counterparts of learning Trace is a
hypothetical concept which helps us develop a convenient termf
nology about the memory process One of the tasks of memory theory
fate of the memory trace
has been to ash the question What is the
in time? Haw does it develop and diange?
395
The Fate of the Trace in Time. Does the trace merely de-
teriorate in time,become, as it were, more and more blurred and
hence increasingly inelRdent in recall? Or does the trace change
and develop in systematic ways? A considerable amount of theo-
retical and experimental argument has centered around this
ques-
tion. psychologists have believed that the development of the

Some
trace in time follows the same general laws as does perceptual
organization (see Chapter 8). According to this view, the trace
tends to develop progressively in the direction of greater simplicity,
symmetry, and closure so as to conform more and more to the laws
of “good” figure. This theory of the “dynamic evolution” of the
trace has not remained uncontested by those who believe that jHe
tcmporaljdewlopment of the tiacejs simply in th^ diction of_de-
creasing accuracy and efficiency. We shall now review the main ex-
perimental findings and"the methodological problems which arise
in attempts to test hypotheses about the temporal development of
the memory trace.
The Method of Successive Reproduction

The Nature of the Method. Progressive changes
in the na-
t\ire of the trace must be inferred from progressive changes in
retention measured after various retention intervals. For this pur-
pose, many investigators havejised the method of successive repro-
duction. In a typical experiment, the stimulus materials (usually
geometric designs) are presented to the subject, and he is then re-
quired to reproduce them at different time intervals after the
original exposure. The important feature of the method is that the
same subject reproduces the same materials on several succressive
occasions. It was believed that progressive changes in the repro-
ductions would reflect the development of the memory trace of the
original stimulus Geometric designs were generally used as stimulus
materials because they are ideally suited for testing the hypothesis
that the memory trace de\'eIops in accordance with the laws of per-
ceptual configuration.The time intervals ov'cr which successive
reproductions were obtained have varied and often extended over
several months.
Progressive Changes in Successive Reproductions. Consider
Fig. 97.The figure shows two stimulus designs and three succes-
)
retention and FORGETTING-II

ottained from fire same aibmcl
> The first reproduotroo ,var made
froWro “f
ately after presentahon of
the strmuhs, the seeond
drarvm- was
Fic 97 Progressive Changes in

Successive Reprûcdons of Visual
Stimuli At the lop of the Egure are
the ongmal stimuli and below it three
successive repioducbons obfuned
from the same subject (a child) im
mediately after presentation (I), after
two sseeks (2), and after 4 months
(3) (From C W Allport, Change
and decay in the sisual memory
image, Brit J Psychol^ 1930 21 183,
by permission of the journal
made two weefe later, sad the third, four months after exposure to
the stimulus material Clearly, the changes in these successive

reproductions are not haphazard but shmv a progressn-e trend
toward greater symmetry and simplicity Features of the design
which disturb a simple and tymmetncal organization, such as the
unequal proportions of the sides in the truncated pyramid and the
center stalk in the key, are eliminated. The final product is a simple
and compact “good” figure.
It must be noted, however, that progressive unidirectional
changes have not always been found in successive reproductions.
Frequently, reproductions show progressive changes in some respect
but not in others. Again frequently, clear progressive changes fail
to appear. When they do occur, progressive changes in reproduc-
tions can be described in terms of a few general principles of de-
Fic. 98. This Figure Shews How Differences in

Interpretation of a Stimulus Lead to Differences in
Reproduction. The labels attached by the subject to
the stimulus figure are given below the conrespond*
ing reproduction. (From G. W. Allport and L. Post-
man, The psychology of rumor, 1947, p. 140, by
permission of Henry Holt and Company, Inc. After
J. J. Gibson, Reproductions of visually perceived
forms, J. Exper. Psychol, 1929, 12:1-39,
by per-
mission of the foumal and the American
Psycholog-
ical Association.)
velopment. First of all, complex figures ore leveled

the course of
time, i.c, many detafis drop out or arc equalized so as to make the
resulUng figure simpler and more uniform.
Complementary to level-
ing IS the process of Sharpening. Some features
of the original figure
are not only preserved in successive
reproductions but are em-
phasized and exaggerated. Thus the unequal
sides of the truncated
pj-ramid in Fig. 97 are leveled out, but
the rectangular frame fs
preserved and finally sharpened into a
double square.
Concurrently vnlh lei cling and sharpening, /
a process of assimOa-
(ion o^rs: details of complex stimulus
objects are changed so as
to conl^ to normal expectations
and eslabhshed habits of percep-
Uon. Often such assimilation is due to
a verbal label or dcsSpUon
RETENTION AND FORGETTING-II
399
wliich IS attached to a geometncal design
Fig 93 illustrates the
process of assimilation in memoiy The figure
shows a stunulus and
its reproductions by subjects who
attached diflerent verbal labels
to itThe expenmenler did not name the designs, but the subjects
did when they first perceived them, and their subsequent reproduc-
tions were clearly assimilated to the conventional picture
of the
object named Both the initial perception of the object
and subse-
quent memoiy changes are significantly iSected by verbal labels
The mfiuence of verbal labels on perception and memory can be
strikingly demonstrated by intentionally attaching different labels
to the same geometncal figure In one expenmental invesbgation,
00 oo 00
Fic
STIMULUS
99
nrECLASStS DUMBSrU
Mnemotuc Assimilation le Verbal
Labels Here is a stimulus figure and its reproduc-
tions by two subjects to whom it bad been presented
with different verbal labeb—‘eyeglasses'* and ‘'dumb-
bell ” (From G W Allport and L Postman The
psychology of nimor, 1947, p 143, by permission of
Henry Holt and Company,.Ioc After L Cannichael
H P Hogan, and A A Walter, An experimental
study of the effect of language on (he reproduction
of visually perceived forms, / Expcr Psychol , 1932,
25 75, by pennissioa of the journal and tJie Amen
can Psychological Assoaetian )
the subjects were shown a set of geometnc designs, each of which

resembled two well known objects For some subjects, one name was
attached to a given design, to other subjects, the alternative name
was given When the subjects later reproduced the designs as
labels on their
accurately as they could, the influence of the verbal
memory was dramaticdly proved Fig 99 shows a stimidus
"êglasses," for the other,
figure which for one subject was called
the habitual
"dumbbell " The reproductions are well assimilated to
rely very heavily
appearance of these objects Since human subjects
and learning situations, assuni
on verbal responses in most problem
critical factor in memo^
cliange
lation to verbal labels is a
Verbal Maierials. The
Progressive Qianges in Memory /or
method of successive reproduction has been used with verbal
also
materials.^ The general procedure is tiie same as in the case of geo-
metric designs. passage of meaningful material (usually a prose
A
passage) is to the subject who is then required to reproduce
shown
it at varying time intervals. The progressive changes in the
repro-
ductions of verbal materials follow Ae same general pattern as in
the case of visual forms and may be again subsumed under the gen-
eral headings of leveling, sharpening, and assimilation. As time goes
on, the reproduction becomes shorter and shorter, i.e., it is leveled
due an increasing number of items. At the same
to the omission of
time, a few features of the original story become dominant (are
sharpened) and the details of the reproduction are arranged and
grouped so as to fit in with the sharpened items. Finally, the repro-
duction as a whole tends to be reorganized and simplified into a
coherent, conventionalized, and easily understandable account
( assimilation ).
Successive reproductions of verbal materials may frequently
demonstrate the influence whi^ social attitudes and cultural back-
ground exercise on memory change. The process of assimilation
often molds and distorts the reproductions in such a way as to con-
form with the learner’s well-established attitudes and cultural ex-
pectations. In the course of such assimilation, materials dealing with
past events are often modernized, unfamiliar events and circum-
stances translated into familiar terms, moral and ethical conclusions
restated to conform with the subjects own values.
In summary, then, successive reproductions of verbal materials
by the same individual may show, like the reproductions of visual
forms, progressive leveling, sharpening, and assimilation.
Methodological Criticism of the Method of Successive Re-
production. The method of successive reproduction has been
used to gauge the nature of the changes which the memory trace
undergoes in time. As a means of discovering progressive changes
in the trace, the method of successive reproduction is, however,
subject to serious methodological criticisms. First of all, a subject’s
reproduction cannot be simply regarded as an index of the state of
L\otaI)iy by F. C. Bart?e«, wliosc boot. Remembering (Cambridge. Cam-

midge Uruvcnlty Press, 1932), desetibes a monumental series of eiperiroenls
dealing with the problem of memory change.
BETENTION AND FORCETTINC-II
Ôj
the trace In repraducmg a gB,n.etr.cal
design, for example, (1,^
1 subject IS limited
by his drawing abihty He may fail to
put doivn
oa piper eveiything he remembers as
:
he remembers it A more
serious difficulty, however, steins
,
from the fact that the \ery act

of reproduction probably changes the
nature of the trace Thus
milang sticcesswe reproductions the subject is
m
mauenced not only
by his original perception and the trace formed by but also by his
it
preceding reproductions If he made an error or introduced a dis
tortion during the fint in a senes of recalls he remembers
his error
when he attempts his second reproduction, and so on As Wood
worth his pointed out “We cannot observe the state of a memory
trace %vithout letting it act and perhaps distorting it and a]tering its
subsequent history - To summan2e ottempts have been made to
follow the temporal development of the memory trace by comparing
successive reproductions of the same matenaJ by the same uidi
vidual, but the successive acts of reproduction themselves senously
affect the nature of the trace
CoMpAiusov OF Successive and Single Recalls

The Method of Single Reproduction To meet at least in
part the methodological objection to the melliod of succcsswe re-
production, the method of single reproduciion Las been used
Under this procedure equated groups of different subjects repro
duce the same stimulus xniterials but at different tune intervals
after onginil learning Reproductions obtained at different time

intervals are then compared wfh each other There are strilmg
differences between the pictures of forgetting yielded by the
methods of successive and single reproduction First of all, the two
methods result completely different amounts of forgettmg As
m
Fig 100 shows, the method of single reproduction shows
a
forgetting
steadily increasing loss in time—a more or less typical
Witli successive reproductions on the other hand the
curve
repich
chances amount retained are much sfoim Each successive
m
rehearsal or learning trial senes to fixate
and
duction serves as a
perpetuate what has been initially retained , i. .i.
^ differences between the results obtained ivith the
The quahtaUve
tork I/cao* IWt «ad
S "B Experimental psych<}loS!,
Co, 193S,p 91
402
EXPnniMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
the method of successive
two raethoas arc equally striking. Whereas
changes In time,
reproduction often yields progressive
single reproductions inade By
trends have been found when the
the
differentsubjects varying time intervals ore compared. In
after
that recall becomes
case of single reproductions, it has been found
less and less accurate as the
interval between original learning and
Fxc 100. Comparison of Relcnbon Sexires Ob-

tained by the Method of Successive reproduction
and the Method of Single Reproduction. (From
J.A. McGeoch, The psychology of human learning,
1942, p. 360, by permission of Longmans, Green &
Co., Inc. After N
C. Hanawall, Memory trace for
figures in recall and recognition. Arch. Psychol.,
1937, 31, No, 16, p 23, by permission of the
journal and the American Psycholo^cal Association.)
retention testis lengthened but there is no evidence for progressiv'
changes. There is, rather, what has been described as “true foi
getting— fewer and fewer items are remembered and what is rc

membered becomes less and less accurate.
Similar results have been obtained with the method of singl
recognition. Equated groups of subjects are given recognition test
for the original materials at varying time intervals. There is n
evidence for progressive changes toward simplicity, symmetry, a”
closure in the figures recognized by the subj'ects. Again, only d(
creasing accuracy of rcco^bon behavior is found as a function c
RETENTION AND FORCETTING-II
^03
hme recognUiom hy (he eeme sab|ech, en
the other
pmpessive changes m the direction
of ^tto"f"ms"'°
IJe radically different pichirai of foigetling
yielded by the
methods of single reproduction (recognition)
and successive re-
production (rccogniUon) underline the
methodological dilemma
\vhich ive hce when » e attempt to chart
the femporaf development
of the memory trace In successive recalls by the
same subject each
test is profoundly influenced b) the preceding
tests Recalls by
different subjects at different time iDten-als obviate this
difficulty,
but they do not yield information about the temporal development
of any one single system of memory traces, for individuals, howev er
well equated, arc not latercbangeabh
Methodological Outlook Our discussion leads to the con
elusion that there is no foolproof method for studying the temporal
development of one Individuals memorj traces Nevertheless the

types of progressive changes which are obtained by the method of
successive reproduction are worth studying because of the Lghl
which they help throw on the lands of memory functions with which
we hive to deal continually m practical situations True, each suc-
cessive reproduction is influenced by the preceding ones, but is this
not exactly what happens in daily remembering? If we want to
recall a childhood expcnence, we cannot tap the pure trace of that
event, but we must perforce recall it, warped as it is by ail its
previous reproductions. To identify and study the changes which
arise in the course of successive recalls of the same event remains an
important task for the experimental psychology of memory
The Method of Seiual REPivoDucnoN

Nature of the Afethod, The omissions changes, and dis
tortions which characterize successive reproduchons by

the same
individual are exaggerated and accelerated m

serial reproductions
exposed
Under this procedure, only the first of a group of subjects is
-eyewitness” passes on what he
to the stimulus matenals The
members to the second subject, who in turn transmits it to a ^
completed The
and so on, until a chain of reproductions has been
miUal stimulus matenal may be a prose passage, a picture, or smy
w
unmediafe meraoiy It admabJe
other Item exceeding the span of
whidi are rather rich in details, thus
to employ stimulus materials
providing an opportunity for various types of
memory change to
unfold themselves in the course of serial transmission.

The presen-
auditory. The time
tation of the material may be cither visual oi
of the material may
interval between presentation .and transmission
Fig 101. A Stimulus Picture Which Has Been Employed in a Senes

of Experiments on Serial Reproduction A typical terminal report, the
last in a chain of six follows. “Picture of a trolley car
with seven people.
There is a woman with a baby. There are some colored people. Someone
IS flashing a razor blade” (From G. W. Allport and L Postman, The
psychology of rumor, 1947, p. 71, by permission of Henry Holt and
Company, Inc
be varied Good results arc obtained even if the successive links in

the chain follow each other immediately
Memory Loss and Change in Serial Reproductions. A senes
of reproductions by a chain of individuals yields the same general
kinds of memory loss, change, and distortion as successive repro-
ductions by the same individuals, but the speed and the m^nitude
RETENTION AND FORGETTING-H
455
of Ihc changes are greaUy enhanced
The nature and Client of suen
changes are most easily Illustrated
with the aid of a concrete
cxnmpio
Fig 101 shws a picture uhfch has been
emploxcd in a senes
of experiments on serial reproductions This picture
was espeaally
designed for use in such CTperlmenls It is ratJier dramatic
in nuahty
and contains a large number of details uhicli are easily
subject to
error and distortion The picture was projected
on a screen and
shown to the first subject who described it m considerable detail to
the second subject (the latter, of course, was unable to see the
screen liimself), the secotii} lub/ect transmitted what be had heard
to the third subject, and so on
Under Fig "e present a ^"pical terminal report, the last in
a diain of six tflie Initial dcsaiption w’as accunte and rich in de-
tailsBy the time it has traveled down to the final link in the chain.
the descriptionIs not only inaccurate hut also exceedingly short-a
highly condensed, skeletonized account In the course of serial

transmission the story has been rapidly leveled ConaderabJe level-
ing jnvambly characterizes senal irprodnetions unfi! the accounts
bewme- short, concise, casdy told and remembered As Fig 102
show sQe\ cling takes a continuous progressive coursCcIuring a senes
of reproductions Tlie initial rate of leveling is quite steep Early m
the series, cacli subject loses a considerable proportion of what is
presented to him Later on, however, the reproductions become so
short that thej may be repeated virtually by rote Thus leveling,
tliough extensive, never leads to complete obliteration
j
The speed with vvhidi Itvelmg protx^ds under conditions of senal
reproduction is notevvorthy In the expenments In which Fig 102
was obtained, successive subjects bansmilled the reproductions ini
is ex-
mediately after hearing them, and yet the loss of detail
tremcl) rapid With serial transmission, there is as much leveling m
may be weeks with single reproduc
fl few mnvtcs as there after
of the material occur not
lions Selective perception and retention
the series. The effects
once but as many times as there are aib/ects in
matenal remains at the
cumulate and a mere skeleton of the original
ena or inc series , , , c
be sharpening, for
( Wbeic there is leveling, there must necessanly
ârpening is the selective emphasis
on a few features or details
406
experimental psycholoct
INDEX OF LEVELING
pjc. 102. 'Ibe CoTjise of leveliag in Serial Be-

production. The curve shows the percent of the
onginal reported detafls retained fn a series of re-
prûctions. (From G. W. ADport and L. Postman,
The psychology of rumor, 1947, p. 76, by permission
of Henry Holt and Company, Inc.)
from a larger context^ the terminal report under Fig, 101 illus-
trates, a few of the maity v^'ed details of the picture were retained
until the end of the series/Sy the very fact of their selective reten-
7 retention and FORGETTING-II
tion ayhe of other .terns, they may be considered
sharp,
coed Frûently, moreover, sudi selected
Items are exaggerated and
magnifiw out of alJ proportion and come to dominate
the reproduc-
tions Sharpening is by no means
a haphazard matter If the material
is \isual, certain physical characteristics such as relative size, move-
inent, and brightness may determine what sharpened. These are
is
the w ell-knowm determinants of “attention " The
presence of familiar
objects and symbols, \erbal labels attached to parts
of the material,
may result in selecbvc sharpening Last but not least, interests and
attitudes are ever-present, important determmants of selective
per-
cepbon and retention Out of a multitude of items, we select and
remember tliose which fit in with our interests and values, or which
conform to our habits and expectations
Finally, in serial as in successive reproductions, assimtJailoe proc-
esses are constantlj at uork Details are grouped around a pnnapal
theme so as to make the reproductions more coherent and meaning-
ful That which is unfamiliar and unusual is rendered famfiiar and
conventional Facts may be distorted in order to be assimilated to
the individuals* attitudes and values In summary, then, the major
diangcs mserial as well as successive reproductions can be de-
scribed in terms of the three pronged process of leveling, sharpen-
ing, and assimilabon \
In senal reproductions, the speed and magmtude of memoiy dis-
tortions are at a maximum \Vhen successive reproductions are

made by the same individual, the distortions are held in check, at
least to a certain extent, by the fact that he had been exposed to
the original stuAulus materials and xvas able to identify and label
them In serial reproductions, no such checks can operate Each
successive subject in the series has nothing to rely on except a re-
individual
port (frequently confused and hailing) from another
His retention not anchored to any stable points of reference, a
is
the
subject who merely a link in a chain has no “general idea of
is
materials to which he can
nature or content of the ongmal sbmulus
which serial reproduc
cling in his attempts at recall The extent to
drama icaliy ifius-
bon? can stray away from the iratial stimulus is
see a schematic drawing of an
owl, passed on
trated in Fig 103 We
into a fanciful draw-
from subject to subject, gradually transformed
the line the critical mistalo was made
mg of a cat Somewhere along
and the verbal label "cat" instead of “o^v^ was attached to an am-
biguous drawing. Tliis mistake was irreversible and thenceforth the
errors cumulated as the reproductions were assimilated more and
more to the new conception. It is more than unlikely that distortions
would ever follow a similar course in successive reproductions b)'
Fig. 103. How an Owl Became a

Cat In a Senes of Reproductions by
DilFerent Subjects. (From F. C.
Bartlett, Remeinberlng, 1932,
pp!
180-181, by pennission of the Cam-
bridge University Press.)
the same individiml. Herein lies the critical difference

behveen suc-
cessiveand serial reproductions. Successive
reproductions by the
same individual, no matter how distorted,
are Ukcly to develop
mthin definite Imits set by the original
perception. The picture of
the owl mi^t change in many ways, but an
owl it would remain
once It had been identilied. In the absence
of such constraints, there
IS virtually no limit to the
cumulation of error and distortion in
senal reproductions.
RETENTION AND rORGETTING-II
Tiic CONTINOTTY OFPERCEpnos, MEiionY, AM) Report

T/le analysis of memoiy
I05S and change points up the
basic con-
tlnuitj*of pcrcoiving. remembering, and reporting.
These three ac-
tivities nro inextricably fused
and jointly determine measurable re-
tention performance.
The process of memory is launched on its course by the learner’s
initial percepUon of the stimulus situation. Perception is selective,
and out of the totafity of stimufi present onfv a limited fraction is
perceived. Only those events vvliich arc favored by selective
percep-
tion are well retained. Not only is perception selective, but it entails
active organization and interpretation (eg, with the aid of verbal
labels) of (he stimulus materials Afemories of past events and ex-
periences, learned liabits of seeing and responding, profoundly in-
fluence the initial perception and hence subsequent memoiy. Under
the directive influence of the imbal perception, changes continue
«nd cumulate-leveling, sharpening, and assimilabon tale their
course. When the time has come for active recall, the individual
attempts to reconstruct his past expenence, and in die process of re-
construction the contmuons scries of omissions, changes, interpreta-
tions, and distortions winch began at the very first moment of per-
ception finds its full expression. The act of recall itself, the ability
to reproduce or report what one remembers, is a final source of
memoiy change. Memoiy, then, is a constructive, creative process, a
process which actively unfolds itself from the very first moment of
initial perception. No analogy could be less apt than the comparison
of memoiy to an image fixed on a phtrtographic plate, an image

which fades in time but is available for reproduction as long as its
outlines have not hopelessly blurred. On the contrary, whenever an
subject to
individual remembers, he re-creates his past experience,
all the errors and transformaUous which have accumulated
smee he
first perceived the event which he is trying to remember.
ME^ro^v Changes and Testoxony

Tlie Observer as Keporter. Nov9herB we
the continvilty zvji
reportmgdemon-
Interdependence of perceiving, remembering, and
strated more fully than the m
psychology of testimony. Jhe p^-
described as the study of the
chology of testimony has been aptly
tlie first fields of prac-
“observer as reporter.” Testimony was one of
tical application of experimental
psychology, precisely because in
its study the newly gained knowledge
of the processes of perception
and memory could be used to practical advantage.
The psychology of testimony Is concerned with two broad classes
of problems; (1) How much docs an eyewitness perceive of an

event at which he is present, and how accurately and clearly does
he perceive it? (2) How accurate and reliable is his report of the
event after a period of time? The practical implications of the an-
swers to these questions for such fields as trial law and newspaper
reporting arc self-evident.
Types of Testimony Experiments. Laboratory experiments on
testimony fall into two main classes; (1) picture tests, and (2) real-
ity experiments. In a picture-test situation, a complex scene is shoNvn

to tile and he is later required to remember as many
subject, details
as he some dramatic incident is un-

can. In a reality experiment,
expectedly enacted in the presence of a group of subjects. An un-
expected intrusion into tlie classroom, a well-rchcarsed, violent
quarrel, tlireatencd physical attack on the professor arc favorite
classroom situations for reaUly experiments. After^vard, the eye-
witness* memoiy for the details of the inddent is tested.
Test IMclhods in Testimony Experiments. As in all memory
experiments, the results obtained in testimony experiments vary xvith
the methods of measurement employed. Two basic test methods
have been used: (1) free narrative, and (2) interrogatory or cross-
examination. In the method of free narrative, the subject is simply
requested to give as full an account of the scene or incident as he
can. He is allmved to do so xvithout any questions or guidance from
the experimenter. For an interrogatory, a long list of questions is
prepared which the subject must answer. These questions carefully
^
probe the witness* memory for all the details of the situation. Thev
interrogatory is likely to give a much more complete picture of the
witness’ memory for the event, since the questions serve to remind
him of details which he may otherwise have
failed to mention. This
advantage of the interrogatory is, however, a double-edged one.
Subjected to an interrogatory, the witness may easily fall victim to
suggestion and give the answers which he believes to
be implied in
the questions. Probably a judicious combination of
the two meth-
JlETENTJON AND POflCETTING-H
411
^s-a sj^ntoD^s account foHowed by carefuUy worded
ques
'™ ^ sensitive measures m
testimony espen
^ 6^13
The Fallibility of Witness
Testimony expenments provide
dramaUc demonstrations of the inaccuracy of
human observers and
the fnllibility of their memory
Experimental results almost invan
ably show that the vv itncss perr*{^n_and j-f teiztioiujf the^tuation
a re highly sel^tivc an d hmi^ He fails to notice or quickly forgets
many ottne details burhe
usually remembers those which help to
explain and interpret the situnbon as he conceives of it Most
of the
other items he fails to remember Names, places, and times are espe
cially subject to confusion and forgettmg In most cases the result
is a highly eUipticnl nndjrub;ectiYeI>_cDlored account
An) thing that is unusual or unfamiliar has a small chance of being

correctly observed and remembered by a witness The expenmental
records show ngairwand again that events wluch are out of the
ordinary are either assimilated in memor) e recast m terms of
i
jiormo} cetpechUons or exaggerated out of proportion and made the

central theme of the report This inability to observe and report the
unusual correctly is especially pronounced under conditions of ex
citement and emotional stress And vet it is precisely m relation to
unusual occurrences that the testimony of eyewitnesses is roost
important
The expenmcntal invesbgabons of teslimonj have served to un
derlinc the fallibility of observation and report but th“ findings re-
g-irdmg the inaccuracies of testimony cm
be easily exaggerated The
experimental records show a considerable amount of correct recog
nitionand recall There are substantial positive correlations between
age and intelligence on the one band and fidelity of testimony on
not
the other If the time interval between observation and report is
too long,much of the testimony of lotelhgent adults is often fairly
reliable and accurate
may not be his first report
The ofSaal testimony ot an eyewitness
of the inadent at which he was present he
may Iiave previously told
It to others in effect the

witness may give successive reproductions
hmitations of successive repro-
of the same event The nature and
in evaluating such testi
ductions must, therefore be borne in mind
individual recaUs is
mony In giving consecutive reports what the
be considerably influenced not only by his memory
of the
likely to
reports. Initial
event proper but also by his memory of his previous
distortions and errors may be fixated and perpetuated in
the course
critical or
of successive reports. The sooner after the event the
“offlciar testimony is obtained, the less danger there is
of perpetua*
tion of errors by successive reproductions.
Memory Chance and Rumor

Rumor and the Method of Serial Reproduction. Memory
change plays a major role in another important area of social
munication: rumor. A rumor may be defined as a communication
which is passed on from individual to individual, unsupported by
reliable evidence. Throughout history, rumors have been a favorite
unofficial source of "news,” rife especially in times of emergency and
crisis.
The method of serial reproduction provides the experimental

paradigm for rumor. As in the case of many rumors, this type of
experiment starts with a fact or event perceived by an eyewitness
and passed on by word of mouth from individual to individual. The
types of memory change and loss revealed by the method of serial
reproduction are, indeed, characteristic of many rumors. As a nimor
travels from person to person, it tends to become shorter, crisper,
acquiring a slogan-like quality {leceling). Rumors are character-
ized by emphasis and frequent exaggeration of some fea-
selective
tures of an event at the expense of others {sharpening). Finally, in
rumor, the process of assmilation-îhe powerful influence on mem-
ory change of habits, interests, and values—comes fully into its o^vn.
Rumors, then, may be regarded as the results of serial reproductions
in social life.
Laboratory Study of Rumor. It is often difficult, if not impos-

sible, to follow the course of a rumor m real to record the
life,
changes and distortions as a story is passed on from individual to
individual. The experimental study of rumor, therefore, relies pri-
marily on the method of serial reproduction. A laboratory rumor
simply consists of the telling and retelling of a story by a scries of
subjects.
Although this method brings us as close as we r?n ever come
under the controlled conditions of the laboratory to the study of
il RETENTION AND FO]\CETTING-U
rumor, important differences between
laboratory-created and real-
1 life rumors remain.
1. Sulijecls in a serial reproduction

j
experiment will liav e a set toward
r maximum accuracj' of reproduction by virtue
of the \ery fact
- that the investigation is conducted
in the laboratory. Rumor
• mercliants in daily life rarely have such
concern about the ac-
^
curacy of the information which they pass on.
2. The practical exigencies of experimentab'on will usually
male it
» necessary to use only short time intervals (often of the
order of
minutes or hours) between successive linls in the rumor chain.
;
In daily life, the times whiclt elapse between the hearing and
telling of a rumor arc varied and frequently much longer.
3. The personal relationship I*ctween the members of the chain is
likely to be veiy different in a laboratory situabon from what it
is in the transmission of actual rumors Rumors usually travel
among individuals with common interests and motives Accounts
are often passed on os part of inbmate personal conversab'oa, in
situations altogether different from a laboratory setting for an ex-
periment on serial reproduction
4. Finally, and perJups most important of all, the sub/ects in a
serial-reproduction experiment and the rumor monger differ
radically in their motivation. The laboratory subject tries to cany
out, to tJic best of his abih^, the experimenters instructions. In
passing on the report which is presented to him, he does not by
to grind a personal ax. How' different the mobvafaonal picture is
in the case of the rumor monger} The tales which he receives
and transmits are often actuated by deep-seated fears, inspired
by liates and aversions of long standing, embody the fulfillment
of hopes and wishes. To these dominant motives,
the stones he
spreads arc inevitably assimilated. Unlike the laboratory

subject,
the story
the rumor agent often has a deep personal stake in
which he tells. ^ ^
We have examined the differences between a "bboratoryandrumor
have
and the type o( rumors which we so frequently
encounter
to fishl in daily life to rllustrate

the type of problem which ejpert-
frequently faces. The eyerr-
menlal worh of social psychology so
must begin wrth a bhomtory paradrgn,.
mental social psychologist
rach as the reproduction model for the study of rumor. In
serial
414
'
conditions
many respects, the paradigm will fail to reproduce the
paradigm
under which the social event occurs. But the experimental
is nevertheless very much worth while: from
the experimental
paradigm we obtain the variables, concepts, and hypothesw
in
rwl
terms of which we may proceed to plan the investigation of the
thin^ in the field. Armed with knowledge of the nature and d^
terminants of memory change, we may be better able to deal wim
the practical problems of testimony and rumor. The laboratory
work
helps to define the variables and to provide the essential methodo-
logical tools for the researcher in the field.
Experiment XXIV
MEMonv Chance in Serial REPROOOcnoN
Purpose. To investigate the amount of memory loss and the nature
of memory change under conditions of serial reproduction.
Materials. Both verbal and visual stimulus materials may
be used.
Whether verbal or visual, the stimulus material should be complex and
contain a number of details well beyond the subiect's immediate span of
memory. A scene such as the one shown in Fig. 101 can be used with
good results. We shall describe the procedure for an experiment using
such a visual stimulus. The procedure, however, remains substantially un-
changed if verbal material is used.
Apparatus. It is most convenient to present the stimulus picture by
projecting it on a screen. A lantern slide of the picture should be prepared
and then exposed by means of a standard projector. The screen should he
placed so that successive subjects can enter the room without seeing h'
Procedure. '^Six or seven subjects irif'slnt out of the room. The slide
is projected on the screen throughout the demonstration. The first subject
is called in and he is requested to stand in a position from which he
cannot see the screen. The experimenter (or some other person) then
gives him a detailed description of the scene (including about twenty to
twenty-five items), preceded by the following instructions:
“Therd is a picture on the screen which I am going to describe to you
in some detail. I want you to listen carefully. You nvjII be asked to re-
peat what you have heard to the next subject."
After the initial “eyewitness” description has been given, the second
subject is called in and asked to take his place beside
the first He is
given the following instructions:
Mr. (Kliss) X will transmit to you a description of the picture on
nETCN'TlOV AND ronCETTING-II
415
Ihe he Im fmt heard t jou to hslen MrefuIIy You
uiH be aded to repeat nhat you h »»c heird to (he next sub/ecl -
(These instructions are used for all oilier subjects
In the senes )
The first subject then gives hu reprodticUon of uhat
he has heard and
talcs his sent Tlic third suh^xl Js called
in and (he procedure is con
tinued until the entire series of reprodoclions has
been obtained
Records Jt Is important to obtarn as accurate a record as possible
of cich reproduction includme the fnftiil one ideally
a device such as
a wire recordtr should be used If an automatic recording
appsratus is
not uv liLiblc a quick nole-taVeT usually can obtain a complete record
especial!) if (he subjects arc instructed to speak slowly and distinctly Of
course, the reproductions miy be obtained In wTjtten rather tJjan oral
form In tliat case howeser tl»e etperiment cannot be ujed aj a class
room demomtntlon
Audience The presence of an audience wifi hnve an important effect
on Uic subjects liebssior Conscious of being under observation the sub
jecli arc likily to be very cnutious and careful bemg afraid to “make
foob of themsiNes " They wifi tend to irpcU only items of which they
feel SiUe Reports ohtiincd In the presence of an audience will tliere-
fojt* be shorter and more conservative than those obtained without an
atiiliencc An interesting variation of (bo c(i>enment is to obtain reports

with and without an audience and to compare l>iem
Treatment of Results The swing of the records will neecssanly
Invufveaccrtmnamountofsubjcctiveintcrpretation it is advisable there-
fore to have so crnl experimenters score each record Independently Dis
agreements and differences of mterprctallon should be discussed until
a consensus h achieved
The jm> profitably be scored with a view to the three dimen
records
sfons of memory chingc Jcvehng sh-irpemng and asumilMion
I hor eicb reproduction die number of details correctly re
Lectr/inff
membered is scored Under (I «, conditions of this aTpcrlment an item
need not bo remembered verbitim In order to be scored as correct it
ng
must howTiver be retained witlwut substintial operation of mean
plotted
Tlic number or percentage of correctly retained Kerns is then
to depict the temporal trend of levebng
The sig
as in Fig 102
successive points can be tested
nifeanc© of the differences between
statistically
sprail olMtoi W ouH
. . . i u
Shtmmmg fc evstatog |I» reprodutUons
rettined ihreughoul lha smes of le
1» paid to Ibo lima wlifcli are .lems?
prodocMM (Aarpmed) Mnt a.o the Aaractorfal.cs of there
Are color degree of movement? Were
Wore they oulsBoAoB i"
, , ,

they familiar or unfamiliar items’ Were the sharpened
items ex-
aggerated or magnified’ Did the sharpened items come to dominate

the reproductions, resulting in a shdt in the entire theme of
the
description?
3. Afsimilation. In looking for evidence of assimflation, search the repro-
ductions for errors and distortions which can reasonably be ascribed
to the influence of established habits, expectations, and attitudes. If an
unfamihar feature is changed so as to conform v.ith what is usual and
expected, if an odd phrase is turned into a well-worn cliche, you base
an example of assimilation. If the distortions and errors seem to re-
flect the teller’s wishes, fears, or antipathies, they are probably exam-
ples of assimilation. If there has been a shift in llie general theme of
the reproductions, show how specific details are changed so as to fit
in with the new
theme. This type of analysis is somewhat subjective
and rather difficult at first, but it is a rewarding exercise in the inter-
pretation of qualitative data.
GeN*f3VAL Referesces
Bartlett, F. C , Remembering, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,

1932.
Katona, G., Organising and memorizing- studies in the psychology of
learning and teaching. New York: Columbia University Press, 1940.
Koflka, K., Principles of Gestalt psychology. New York: Harcourt, Brace
and Co., 1935, Chap 11.
McCeoch, J. A., The psychology of human learning. New York; Long-
mans, Green and Co., 1942, Chap, 8.
Woodworth, R. S , Experimental psychology. New York; Henry Holt and
Co., 1938, Chap. 4.
Method or Successtve A^^> Srcle Recaix

ADporl, G. W., Change and decay in the visual memory
image. Brit. /•
Psycho!., 1930, 2I:ia}-148.
Carmichael, L., Hogan, H. P., and Walter, n. A., An
espenmental study
of the effect o! language on the seproducUon of nstiaBy
perceived form,
J. Exper. Psychol 1932, 15:73-86.
ClarV, X. B.,Some factors influencing the remembeimg of prose matena].
Arch. Psychol 1940, No. 253.
Gibson. J. J., The reproduction of visually perceived
forms. /. Piper.
Psychol 1929, 12.1-39
,
RETENTION AND FORCETTING-II 417
Hanawalt N G Mcmorj trace for figures in recall and recognition,

Arch rsychol, 1937, No 216
Ilcbb D O anti Foord E N Errors ol Wsual recognihon and the
nature of the tnce } Zxper Vttjchd 10 13 35 333-348
SmiAL Rrproovenos Tcstimovy and IIumor

Allport G V) and Postimn h , Tli^ psychology of rumor Nw lork
Ilenr) Holt and Co 1017
Kirkpatrick C, A tentati>p stud/ in experimental social psycliology
Amer Soc 1932 3S 19t 206
J
Stem W
Cenrraf piye/iofogy from the perjonuhif/o standpoint
,
New
lork Tlie Macmillan Companj 1038 Chap 14
\\3iipple C M a survey of the "psjchology
Tlie obsera-cr as reporter
of testimon) ^Psychol Bull, 1009 6 153-170
««<
TRANSFER OF TRAINING
time.
'IraE effects of learning and conditioning arc cumulative in
VVhen an organism learns a list of words or undergoes conditioning,
it is more or less permanently modified by tins experience.
When
this organism faces new tasks and new problems, its behavior may
be senously affected by the results of past learning and condition-
ing. It is onlythrough such cumulative effects of learning that steady
intellectual development and growth, progressive refinement of
skills, and creative thinking are made possible. Sometimes, it is true,
past experience hinders rather than aids the acquisition of new

sblls, but the balance is overwhelmingly on the credit side. The
effect of pastjeaming on ncwjcaming is designated as transfer of
^flining^ransfer of training is one of the most pervasive charac-
teristics of behavior, for it is transfer of training which guarantees
the continuity and lawful development of habits of ever-growing

complexity. The emergence of consistent personality traits no less
than the organization and integration of knowledge depends on
transfer of training.
Types of Transfeu
The effects of past learning on new learning may be classified in
qnôf three categories;
^Po sitive transfer effects occur if experience facilitates the acquisi-
tion of a ne\v skill or the solution of
a new problem. Placed in the
new situation, the learnerperforms significantly better than he
^
would without the benefit of past training ifA tit. ®
Ncgotice transfer effects arc inferred ffpast experience renders
more difficult or slows down the acquisition of a new skill or the
solution of a new problem. Placed in the new situation, the learner
performs more poorly than he would without previous trainings
)
Z£TD transfer effect denotes the fart that performance
in the new
” Sundered by past training A statement
tW Jh
there zero transfer can mean onlj that
is
with the measuring
devices at our disposal no transfer
efforts from one situation to the
other can be delected Where one
method of measurement shows
zero transfer effect, another more sensitive
one may reveal either
positive or negative effects
Design of Transfer Experiments

Use of Equated Groups One basic experimental paradigm
calls for the use of an expenmental group and a control group
Suppose we wish trailer effects from memorizing
to investigate the
nonsense syllables memorizing prose We select a group of sub-
to
jects and set them (he task of memorizing a prose passage (Task Tj
On the basis of their performance, we divide our subjects into tivo
groups matched for ability to memorize prose One of these groups
serves as the experimental group, the other as the control group
The experimental group is given practice m
memorizing nonsense
tyUables (Task Tj), while the control group rests or engages to some
activity whiclus quite unrelated to memonzmg Finally both groups
are given a new test on merooriziug prose material The dxfference in
the gam (or loss) of the two groups from initial lest to âl test is
0 measure of tlie transfer effect Hius if the expenmental group
shosvs a greater improvement on the final test than does the con
trol group, we may attribute this difference to the positiie transfer
from the interpolated practice The general design of this expen
*
ment may be summanzed as follows
Experimental Croup
Initial Test on Ti Training on T? — Final Test on Ti
Control Group
Initial Test on Ti ^Rest Final Test on T,
factor of trans-
This design allows an expenmenial isolation of the
'“‘I'
• Tho ,ader ,hcM 11*
iIwo desl^ th® same.
eraenment on p S70 Tlie fomul rt««we
of is
tion
negative tmnster ettect

billon may thus be considered an example of
420 EXPEniMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
fer. Improvement on the final test may be due to factors other than
interpolated practice, such as the experience provided by the

initial
test. By treating the two groups alike in all respects, except

for the
interpolated training period, it is possible to ascribe differences in

gains or losses to this training. Clearly, this experiment can yield
valid results only if the two groups are equated with respect to
their performance on the initial test. Benefit from training varies
with initial ability. memonyer can derive con*
Typically, a poor
siderable benefit from practice— there is so much room for improve*
ment. A sVillful memorizer, on the other hand, cannot improve much
more by practice. It is only by equating the initial performance lev'cl
that wc render the gains or losses of the two groups comparable.
Instead of using a foretest, it may be possible to equate the two
groups by means of an outside criterion. For example, if the transfer
value of different methods of teaching is to be evaluated, subjects
maybe equated on the basis of examination grades. The foretest may
then be omitted and the design shortened as follows:
Experimental Group: Training on Ts—Test on Tj

Control Group: Test on Ti
On the assumption that the two groups were initially equal, any
difference on the test of Ti may be asenbed to the effect of training.
This procedure has the virtue of being brief, but it has little else to
recommend it. It is always safer to equate the two groups explicitly
on the activity to which transfer is expected.
Use of Equated Tasks. Instead of equating subjects, we may
equate tasks and use only one group of subjects. Suppose we wish
to study the transfer from solving one set of mathematical problems,
Ti, to soUing another set of problems, Ta. T, and Tz are two stand-
ardized sets of problems knmvn to be of equal difficulty. A group of
subjects solves the two sets in succession. If their performance on
the second set is superior to their performance on the first, we may
attribute this gain to positive transfer. This interpretation would, of
course, depend on the correctness of the assumption that the two
problems are strictly equal in difficulty. Such an assumption
sets of
should not be lightly made in the absence of thoroughly reliable
norms of difficulty.
transfer of training
42J
A Counterbalanced Design Another expenmenlal procedure
again employs two groups but instead
of dmduig them into an ex-
perimental and a control group, it uses
a counterbalanced design
Suppose we \visH measure tlie transfer from mastermg one maze
to
to the learning of a second maze
We have, of course, to use two
mazes, Ti and Tj We attempt to make these two mazes
approxi-
mately equal m
difficulty although it may not be possible to make
them exactly so The members of one group first leam maze and Ti
then maze Ta, the other group reverses the order, Ti is learned after
Tg. We then compare the avenge performance of the two groups on
the first task with their average perfoimance on the second task,
using time scores, error scores, or whatever measure of learning is
most appropnate The design of the expenment may be summarized
as follows*
Group I Tj followed by Tg
Group II Tj followed by Ti
2f the average performance on the task /earned second is sig-
nificantly better tlian on the task learned first, there has been posi-
tive transfer If there is no such significant difference, we conclude
that there has been zero transfer Finally, if performance on the
second task is significantly poorerjhan on the first, there has been
negative transfer
The design outlined above has the advantage of making unneces-
sary the strict equation of either subjects’ abih^ or difficulty of
tasks Both groups of subjects practice both tasks in counterbalanced
order Still, if the two groups differ greatly m abili^ or the two
tasks in difficulty, disturbmg interaction effects may

occur If an
poor group
able group has to go from an easy to a hard task and a
an easy task, it would be difficult to compare average
from a hard to
performance on the first task with average performance on the
sec-
difficulty, on the other
ond task Minor vanations in ability' and
adequately controlled by this design
hand, are
Degree of LeaniiBg As m all learning studies, degree of mas
tery is an important vanable m

the transfer experiment The acUvi-
ties from which and to which

there is transfer can be practiced to
concerning transfer may be
varying extents, and the conclusions
senouslj affected by these vanaMes
Consider Erst the activity from which tlierc is transfer. Not
only
(positive or
the amount but also the sign of the transfer effects
negative) may depend on the amount of practice fn this activity.
If the transfer effects from a Erst to a second task tend to be posi*

live, the amount of transfer will vary with the degree to which
the
first task has been mastered. For example, if the first of two
mazes
has been poorly learned, the learning of the second maze will be
little facilitated. Tliorough mastery of the first maze, on the other
hand, may greatly accelerate the learning of the second. Tlie evi-
dence strongly points to the conclusion that the beneficial effect of
past training on new learning is positively correlated ssith the
amount of that training.
Negative transfer effects from a first task to a second also show
considerable dependence on the degree to whicb the first task has
been learned. Negative transfer effects arc likely to appear when
the first task has not received extensive practice. With increased
practice in the first task, negative transfer effects may turn Into
positive.
The degree which the second task is learned is also important
to
In some experiments, there is only one trial of the second activity
and amount of transfer is computed on the basis of this test trial.

For example, in gauging transfer from one maze to another, the
first maze may be learned to the criterion of one errorless run, and
then one test trial given on tlie second maze. It is possible, and often
desirable, however, to carry the second activity to the same criterion
as the first, maze until an errorless run
e.g, to practice the second
ISachieved. In that ease, transfer effects at successive stages of the
second learning activity can be measured, and additional measures
of transfer, such as amount of lime or number of trials saved, can
be obtained. Experiments using this procedure have tended to show
that the main transfer effects appear early in the learning, although
the experimental (transfer) group may retain a small
advantage
over the control (nontransfer) group over the total learning period.
By carrying out the second activity to a criterion
of mastery, we
not only lan study the temporal course of the
transfer effects but
also provide adequate opportunity for
these effects to manifest
themselves fully. In situations in which
an initial readjustment to
TRANSFER OP TRAINING
the second situation
^
is necessaiy, use of only
one test trial may
indeed prevent transfer effects from
appearing or minimue them
In any transfer erpenment. then, the
degree to which eacli of the
activities IS learned is an important
parameter It is often necessary
to vary this parameter in order to
obtain a full picture of the transfe
elFect
Interval Between the Two Learning Acthities
In nlamime
an expeument on transfer of training, another variable
\ihjcli de-
serv'es careful attention is the bme inten~il behveen tbc learning
tasks We must
consider (i> the nature of the activities filling (be
interval, and (2) the length of the interval
If we are interested in measuring transfer from a first task, Tj,
to a second tash, Tg, it is miportint that no uncontrolled acuities
intervene between Ti and TV which could obscure t!ie transfer ef-
fects If an activity, T,, similar to Tu were to occur dunng tius In-
terval, it might cither increase or decrease the transfer effects under
consideration Thus if we are measuring the transfer effects from
one memory task to another, we must make sure that there is no
uncontrolled memory practice between the two expcnmental bsls
Tor this reason, it is advisable to space the experimental tasks so
that the activity dunng the interval behveen Tj and Tg can be con
trolledby the expenmenter Of course, it is never possible to control
the actmty of a saibject compIcteI>, but by engaging him in some
work, quite unrelated to the cntical tasks, it is possible to minimize
uncontrolled interference
As for the time interval between Ti and Tg there is some expen-
mental evidence that transfer effects remain virtuali> constant over
a long penod of time In one study, for estnmple, transfer effects
from T, to Tg (ideational learning problems) were measured after
intervals ranging from two days to ninety diys Lengthening of the
time interval did not produce any significant deertsases in transfer
effect This result is at first surpwmg since degree of transfer is a
decline
measure of retention, and retention ^picaliy shows a steady
whicJi eonsti
m tunc It appears that the type of bchavnor change
because transfer
tiites transfer is resistant to forgetting, proliably
effects frequently do not depend on the retention of ^ccific re-
methods and ap-
sponses but rather on the acqouihon of useful
proaches to new problems.
WlIAT Is TnANSFERRED IN TRANSFER OF TRAINING

The Search for Elements. One theory of transfer is the so-
called theory of identical elements. Since sign and amount of
transfer effects vary with specific materials and conditions of train-
amount of transfer is proportional to the
ing, this theory held that
number of elements common to the activities between which transfer
we think along the lines of this tl)eory, we must analyze Tt
occurs. If
and Tg— the activity from which there is transfer and the activity to
which there is transfer— and break them down into constituent ele-
ments, say, stimulus and response elements. We should, then, expect
transfer to increase as the number of elements common to Tx and Tj
increases.
One of the early experiments carried out by psychologists work-
ing in the framework oi this theory will illustrate
this approach.
Subjectswere trained in estimating the areas of rectangular designs
within a limited size range. Tlie transfer from
this esti- activity to
mates of other sizes of rectangles and other designs was The
tested.
transfer effects
were found to be small, unreliable, and not com-
parable to improvement in, the specific
acUvity practiced. Results
^ch as these were presumptive evidence for the importance of
identical elements.
Complete idratity of stimuli and of responses
is, of course, im-
possible. Abandoning the requirement of pure
idenUty, it is usually
poyible to describe dimensions of similarity
alone which stimulus
^d elements in different situations can
be shovvn to vary.
The defimtions of such dimensions and
the operations for their
measênt must ne^ssarffy vary in different
areas of investiga-
dimension of simnarity depends
not only on
which it allows but, above all,
In
hypotheses which can be formulated and
tested with lb aid., -I?®
The dimensional analysis of verbal materials
presented in Chapter 15 may serve
as an illustration,
and T B'havror is a continuous process,

novements and speciac verbal units
r^r«™t ?
• d ^ r”"?
invesUgator. It may be
•>>'=
^' theory rf identical elemenb
that its augers
hn^
bOity, all d-
according ^ 7
to the requirements of
^ •’Sh degree of Beri-
speciEc raperimental prob-
transfeb of training
4J.
hrm In some cases such as the
analysis of highly
may be useful to define cfement terms of cncumsmbed
acts. It
m
specific move
ments, in other cases, such as
problem solving an element ma; be
conceived as broadly as “general mode
of attack' or “attitude" Tbo
term element was probably unfortunate
m implying reduction to
minimal units and svo shall do weU to follow Woodworth in speak
ing of components instead *
Clioice of Units in Terms of Experimental
Usefulness As
long as we Avish to study transfer of training {or any
other kind of
behavior, for that matter) experimentally, we must apply
anal) sis
into units ivhich can be handled experimentally We may
clioose
such umts or "components' at different levels of specificity and com
plenty, according to the needs and emphases of a given iinestiga
tion We may compare two tasks with respect to circumscribed
stimulus and response units (granting that they may not he abso
Jutely identical) ontJ/or with respect to general attitudes and modes
of attack In tlie course of expenmentation we may succeed m
breaking down a rough and broad unit tnto more specific and cu-
cumsenbed ones if that is useful for prediction and control The
question what is transferred in a transfer experunen^ cannot be
answered by a cut and dried formula In any given expenment we
may attempt an answer m terms of specific stimulus response asso-
ciations and/or m
terms of general attitudes and modes of attack
The Expeiumental Analysis of Xeiansfeii
The task of the experimenter has been of course to define and

study significant variables of which transfer is a function The ex-
perimental work devoted to the study of such variables could be
classified m several ways for example according to stimulus mate-
rials tyiie of experimental procedure type of activity and so on
general
We prefer to marshal the evidence lo tehuon to some
the experimental %v ork
pnnciples of transfer wbch have ansen from
What are the achieccments of transfer, and what svays aremthese
achievements brought about?

to Perform a Task
kVhatever field «e « ork m what
Learning
ever skill we are tiymg to acquire there are certain general atbtudes
which no specific problem can
and general modes of att-ick mfhout
pjycfaJoffif New Yo* Heuiy
Holt and
a B S Woodworth Experimental
Co 1938 p 177
full success. It is through transfer that such
general
be solved with
of
adjustments are learned and effortlessly applied to a manifold
situations.
As a first example, let us consider sensory and perceptual sblls.
Psychophysidsts have long been in the habit of distinguishing be-
tween "trained” and "untrained” observers. In experiments con-
cerned with the measurement of sensitivity, it is usually found that
experienced observers have lower thresholds and give more reliable
judgments than do inexperienced ones. It is extremely unlikely that
the sensory systems of experienced observers have been made more
acute by continued practice. A more reasonable interpretaUon is
that the trained observer has learned how to utilize cues with max-
imum effidency, to discount irrelevant indications, and to resist
distracting influences. The bencfidal effects of past experience on
sensory capadty are thus most probably due to the transfer of obser-
vational techniques and attitudes. The extent to which perceptual
performance can benefit from training (transfer) was dramatically
illustrated in an experiment in which subjects were trained to rec-
ognize stimulus items presented tachistoscopically at very rapid
speeds. The speed of reading of some subjects was increased on the
average from 547 to 1295 words per minute. By observing and dis-
criminating we leam hmv to observe and discriminate.®
We also become more skillful at memorizing by memorizing. For
example, the more lists of nonsense syllables we learn, the more
quicldy we can learn new lists. The initial improvement after the
first few lists is very considerable. After about ten lists, however,
further improvements in memorizing skill axe likely to be rather

smalL
The learner soon adopts spedfic skills and attitudes which are in-
dispensable for the successful masteiy of nonsense material. He
learns to utilize rhythm and other methods of grouping, he finds
out what types of assodations arc useful and what kinds are likely
to hinder his progress. Soon the task of learning nonsense syllables
no longer appears strange, and the subject approaches each new
list with confidence.
The ability to perform perceptual-motor tasks derives similar

> S Renstaw, The visual
perception and reproduction of forms by tachis-
toscoptc methods, J. Vtychol 1945, SO 217-232.
TRANSFEU OF TnAININC
^
maze for the Ume, we ore hUly to be somewhat
first
awkivarf in
our movemenb and our -trtaU
and errors.- Both animal and human
subjects show increasing speed
and accuracy in themastety of mazes
with ronlinued practice. Other
perccptual-motor tasb, such as can-
ccifation of Ictten, show like improvements.
Tlie Specificity of Transfer. The
altitudes and adjustments
Which we acquire and transfer from one
situation to another may
tiave a more or less wide range of application. Transfer
cfFert^ jn
short, may be more or less specific.
In learning hmv to obser\e, we may often leam only how to ob-
serve a dreumserfbed class of events. In experiments on
tactual
sensitivity, forexample, it has been found that the two-point Iimen—
the ability to discriminate the presence of hvo stimuli from one-~is
lowered considerably in a practiced area but only little in other
areas. Wchave already dted experiments m
which practice in
estimating areas showed only little and irregular transfer to the task
of estimating the areas of other designs. ^Vhen the stunufus materials
were ohjects of different weights and lines of different length.,
simibar results were obtained. The fact, however, that in these ex-
periments transfer, though small, is usually positive indicates that
certain attitudes and skills arc transferred but that th^ do not suf-
fice to result in improvement os great as is achieved by direct prac-
tice on a spedfic problem.
The picture is similar in the fields of memoriaa'ug and perceptual-
motor tasks. Practice wth nonsense Îlables does greatly improve
our skill in memorizing syllables, but the transfer to memorizing
other material, such as prose passages and poetry, tends to be small
and unreliable. In some cases, ind^, the transfer effects are nega-
tive. And so it is svith cancellation tests. When subjects
practice
cancellaUon of specific letters, they are hindered rather than helped

parts of
by their experience when switched to canceling specific
speech. The spccifidty of transfer raises with
urgency the quesUon
factors on which sign
of specific deteiminants of transfer, of the
of the determinants,
and amount of transfer depend. With some
we shall be concerned in the sections which follow.
subject be tramed in
Direction of Associative Change- Let a
be tested on Task Tj.
Task Ti and the transfer effects of this traming
Ti and Tg may differfrom each other in various ways. Analyzing
the two tasks into stimulus and response components, wc may find
that the stimuli in the t\vo situations are (nearly) the same but that
different responses are required of the subject On the other hand,
the stimulus components in the two situations may be different and
the same response demanded in both situations in spite of the
stimulus difference. Finally, Ti and Ta may, of course, differ in re-
spect to both stimulus and response components.
Amount and sign of transfer may vary with the direction of the
associative change which the switch from Ti to Ta entails for the
subject. Must he learn to make an old response to a new stimulus
or must he learn to make a new response to an old stimulus? There
is good experimental evidence for the generalization that transfer
effects are positive when an old response must be transferred to a

new stimulus. Positive transfer effects are even greater if the stimulus
isonly partly changed and the old response is retained. The degree
towhich Ti has been learned is, of course, an important parameter:
the better practiced Ti is, the greater are the positive transfer effects
On the other hand, if the subject must leam to make a new re
sponse to an old stimulus, the transfer effects are likely to be nega-
tive.Indeed, the old response, which had been correct for Ti, may
frequently intrude overtly during the performance of T the
2 Again, .
degree to whieh Ti has been learned is an important parameter.

The rnore thoroughly Tx has been practiced, the less serious the
negative transfer effects are bkely to be (the sign
may indeed be-
come positive when Ti is very well mastered).
These principles can best be demonstrated in
situations which can
be readily analyzed into discrete stimulus and response components
In the area of perceptual-motor tasks, the maze,
with its discrete
entrances and alleys, meets this need. In
one transfer experiment,
for example, rate were trained to withdraw
from an alley in response
to the appearance of a signal (light, sound,
or shock). After the
response had been well established, the
nature of the signal was
changed. For example, if the animals had
been originally trained
w
Ui a light, a sound or shock was
substituted, the
and so on, for
other possible rotations. Invariably the
new association was learned
faster than the original one. The transfer
effects are positive when
an old response is attached to a new
stimulus.
THANSFER OP TRAINING
4,9
Verial matenals learned by the
method of paired assoaates can
also be comemently analyzed
mto stonnlns and response com-
ponents Ti consists of a list of paired
associates A B (where
B may be nonsense syllables or meaningful words) 4 and
Tt again is a
list of paired associates
4C if the stimulus is the same and the
response is changed, C B if the stimulus is ne\v and the response is
unchanged In an experiment using both these arrangements, the
generalization about transfer as a function of change
in stimulus and
in response was venfied Change
in the stimulus without change
m response (C-B) yields positive transfer, change m
the response
wthout change in the stimulus (AC) tends to yield negabve
transfer
The asymmetry of transfei effects produced by changes in the
stimulus and changes in the response suggests that negative transfer
effects may be due at least in part to cotnpehtion among incom
patible responses or “reproductive inhibition “ If m
Ti the assoaa-
tionA B IS established and superseded by the association A-C in Tg
the responses 5 and C are both associated with A and in conflict
with each other Such a conflict between mcompitible tendencies
inhibits, at least temporarily, the response After prolonged practice,
of course, the association ACbecomes stronger than the assoaa-
tion A B, and the negative transfer effects are overcome
Equivalence of Stimuli The physical identity or similanty of
stimulus components in two or more situations is not in itself a
guarantee of positive transfer effects The identical or similar stimuh
must fiinction as cguicalcnt for the organism m order thit transfer

occur There ore, indeed, many identities m
nature which we can
Given
discover only after much training and painstaking analysis
certain conditions in the environment, equivalence
depends on the
attitudes In last anal) sis.
orgamsm, its capacities, needs and tlie
It IS the selective dispositions of the

orgamsm which render stimuli
Equivalence of stimuli can be defined ejpemnenlally If m the

and Si, beharfor remmns
presence of two sbmulus constellaUoos. Si
be considered equivalrat
inore or less unaltered, S. and S, may
with a constellation, S,. we can
stnmdi Starting J
dimensions (such as size, ‘’"Sn^.
. Its diaractenstics along various
stimulus undergoes a significant
weight, etc ) until response to the
430 EXPEBIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
change. The range of differences which can be introduced into Sj
without leading to a specified behavior change defines a range of

equivalence.
It is not always possible to state in exact physical terms on what
characteristics the equivalence of stimuli depends. Consider, for
example. Fig. 104. Monkeys were reinforced for responding to the
square (Si) and failed to be rewarded for responding to the circle
.
^2
Fic 104. Equivalent Stimuli. Having
been
train^ to discriminate between sUnjulus
Sj and
ûlus Sj, monkeys successfully transferred their
disOTmmaUon, choosing S\ over S%. (Courtesy
of
Professor Heinrich Kluver.)
(Si),\yhcn confronted with a choice between S', and S'l, they suc-
^sfully transferred their discriminaUon, choosing S', over S'.. The
inercircc b^cen S'l and S'l is equivalent to the difference be-
tween .Si and S,. the common factor
presumably being a difference
nlong the dimension of angularity^nrcularity.
\Vta renders stoulus constellaUons equivalent
may thus be the
perception of a relotloruhip common
to two sltuatjons. Experiments
TRANSPEn OF TRAINING
wpton of relationships “^y *P™'i 0" He per-

mmmon to different situations are know
05 tooiuposYAon c^nmmu In these espenments. the
phvsical
identity of the stmiuli is changed
while certain relations mong
the stimuh are maintained. In
one espenment, for erample, chiclS
WOT trained to pech food from the
darker of hvo gray pieces of
mrfhoard. After the discrimination was
thorougMy established, the
Chicks were given test trials dunng
which the lighter gray was re-
moved and replaced hy an even darker shade than that
of the posi-
tive stimulus. The design may be
summarized as follows:
Training Trials: Ci and G^, tvhft« was darker than Ci
Test Trials; Cj and Gx, where G% was darker than C3
Confronted with the new stimulus comtellation. the animals chose
Ga which was now the darker one, and not G: which was the identi-
had been reinforced throughout the training penod.
cal shade that
Similar findings have been rgiorted with other organisms and with
other types of rclatlonslups involving relative weight, size, and
sound characteristics. The transposition experiments serve to em*
phaslze the fact that shnilari^ or identity cannot be defined al-
ways in terms of sameness of physical stimulation, but rather
may refer to equivalence of relationships which the organism rec-
ognizes In the environment.
Transfer as Failure to Discriminate. Transfer then may de-
pend on the perception of common features in different situations.
Transfer effects may, however, also be due to a failure to perceive
different situations as different. The pbenomeoon of sensory gener-
effect, will serve
ahzation in conditioning, which is a type of transfer
to iliustrale this point.
When a conditioned response is established, the response is fre-
puently elteited, not only by the speaSc
stunulus used m
the train-
ing bat also by stimuli which differ

more or less from the training
condiUoning crpeiiment for esample, toe galvê
stimuJns. In one
skin response svns condiUoned to a
tone of feed pitch. Tones whd
used la the trammg aiso coked
differed in pitch from the sound
amplitude of the r^nse however,
the galvanic skin response. The
pit* between training stumilus
decreased with the deference in
gradient of gcoadlzolion was oblamed
ind test stimulns. A similar
this procedure requires tlic subject to aim at, and hit, a target re-
difliailt for many
flected in a mirror. This task is initially quite
spatial
subjects. It may take quite a time before the reversals in
direction introduced by the mirror arc fully taken into account. The
task lends itself ideally to the study of bilateral transfer because
(1) it is a task which can be well performed with symmetrical
Fjc. 105. Star Pattern Used in

Experiments on Bilateral Transfer of
Training in Mirror Tracing.
members-hands or feet-and <2) most subjects start at a low level

of skill but improve considerably after some praedee
Oneconventional design uses an experimental
group and a con-
trol group. Tbe experimental group receives
a foretest with the non-
preferred member (e.g., the left hand),
a training period with the
preferred mraber (e g., the right hand),
and an aftertest svith the
nonpreferred member. The control group receives
only the foretest
and aftertest. To the extent that the experimental
group shows a
greater gam from foretest to aftertest. there
has been rmsitive bi-
lateral transfer. Use of a control group, of
course, is necessary to take
into account the practice provided by the
foretest.
THANSFER op TRAINING
8'''™ '“'y '"a the n»h!

hand whde Ihn control group rertcd The gi,ph sho,« fta conê
Fic 106 Transfer m Minor Aiming The dotted

hne represenls the performancs of the etperinieotal
group, the sohd line the performance of die control
group (From C W Bray Trdnsfer of teaming }
Exper Psychol, 1928 II 450 by permission of the
journal and the Amencan P$>chologioal Assoaation )
of performance with the nght foot by the two groups. The initial ad
vantage of the e.tpenmental group is stniing members of this
group make only half as many errors as the controls However, the
transfer group maintains its advantage only over the first block of
ten trials Thereafter, the hvo curves overlap so much as to be
almost indistinguishable ft is ratber îcal of this kind of expen
ment that the advantages (or disadvantages) resulting from transfer
are confined to the early parts of the aftertest If Jt is primarily
modes of attack and attitudes wWch are transferred, we may infer
that the control group makes appropriate adjustments and catches

up with the transfer group at a rather early stage.
Cross-education has been demonstrated with many activities be-
sides mirror tracing and mirror aiming. To name but a few other
perceptual-motor tasks, we have: tracing a maze pattern, ball toss-
ing, tapping, pursuit of rotating target, and so on. The phenomenon
is well established, and to multiply the demonstrations much more,
would have little value.

Cross-education is, of course, not limited to motor activities. In
the sensory field, we have come to take cross-education so much
for granted that its experimental demonstration seems almost un-
necessary. Qose one eye and look at a figure. Then close the other
eye and look at the same figure. Of course you recognize it The
result seems so obvious that the demonstration appears most trivial.
Yet, it is an example of bilateral transfer whch occurs constantly
in the development of perceptual skills. If the perceptual task fa
made more difilcult, the fact of bilateral transfer has seemed less
obvious and has been considered deserving of experimental demon-
stration.
In one experiment, for example, visual recognition was comph'-
cated by exposing the objects peripherally. The subjects needed a
certain amountof training in order to acquire proficiency in this
perceptual task. After practice with one eye, there was 100 percent
transfer to the other eye! Similar results have been obtained in
experiments on tactual sensitivity. Improvement in discrindnating
one-point stimulation from two-point stimulation (the two-point
limen) yields virtually complete transfer effects to corresponding
areas of the skin,e.g., from one hand or arm to the other. Having
learned bow to read Braille with one hand, subj'ects can read it
almost as well with the other.
As we have already pointed out, cross-education is not confined
to bilateral transfer. In mirror aiming, for example, there fa transfer
from hand to foot, both homolaterally and hetcrolaterally. There fa
abundant evidence for iittersensoTy transfer.What we leam with
the aid of the sense of hearing, we can apply in tasks which are
primarily visual, and vice versa. We continually apply what we have
learned about obj'ects hy vision to tactual manipulation. Indeed,
437
the ôperation of visual and tactual
responses has long been be-
lieved c<mtral to the development of space
percepb'on. Such a theory
necessarily imphes transfer across modalities.
There is, indeed,
abundant evidence that cross-education greatly increases
the reper-*
toire of the organism s responses and the
flexibility of its adjustment
to the environment.
The Lesson of Cross-Education. The fact of cross-education
serves to drive home a conclusion to which we have already pointed.
Transfer itom one situation to another does not depend on (he
physical identity of stimuli or on the Identity of responses. When
there is transfer from one eye to the other, different pathways of
stimulation are necessarily involved, and so for other tês of sen-
sory transfer.When a skill is transferred from one limh to another,
different muscle groups are necessarily used. Yet, cross-education
in general, and bilateral transfer in particular, are among the most
common and most reliable types of transfer.
Clearly, stimuli function as equivalent for symmetrical sense
organs, and different parts of the body are more or less equivalent
on the response side. Frequently the equivalence lies in the fact
that general principles, such as correction for mirror distortion or
methods of attacking a mare problem, can be put into effect by
more than one combinalion of response paVems. About the neuro-
logical conditions of such transfer, we can say little, except to point
to the obvious implication that the effects of practice cannot be
limited to afew specific paUiwaj-s and projection areas exercised
during the training.
The important task for the experimenter is to study ranges of
equivalence and their determinants, ^\’hat kinds of stimulus
situ-
response
aUons evoke similar response paltenwf IVhat kinds of
the
patterns are equivalent in the results which they achieve for
organism?
E.TPHUMENTXXV
Transfis of Traeonc in Maze Learnikc
Purpose. To demomlrato Irausfer of tralnlog in mra j"™!”*'-
’J";
a male fadUtatet Ihe learning of a
dCcnlly, to show that learning of
Two rlylos ntaaer, stylus.

Mind/olding " *>*•
”Tfa”Si;is.
stop watch, and record sheets are required. A stylus
maze Is a maze
whose alleys consist of grooves which the subject traces by means of
a
stylus.^ If possible, the two mazes should be

constructed so that some
parts are identical and some parts are different: some alleys are correct
for both mazes, and some alleys arc correct for one but blind for the
other. However, the experiment can be i>crformed adequately without
such structural overlap of the mazes.
For most ciBcient recording, the score sheets should have a plan of the
maze so that the experimenter can easily enter the subject's moves. Some
mazes are equipped with sheets of carbon and white paper underneath
the grooves so that the subject's moves are automatically recorded. Since
such carbon tracings arc someUmes difficult to read, the experimenter
should always keep a record in addition.
Design of the Experiment. For this experiment, members of the
class form groups of three. One serves as the experimenter and two arc
subjects. In this case, it is not advisable for the same person to serve first
as experimenter and then as subject, since watching the performance of

another provides an uncontrolled amount of information about the maze
pallcm. With two experimental subjects, we use one of the designs dis*
cussed above.
Subject 1: Maze 1, followed by Maze 2

Subject 2: Maze 2. followed by Maze 1
This design renders It unnecessary to equate strictly the ability of the
subjects or the difficulty of the two mazes.
Procedure. The seated in front of the maze, blindfolded.
subject is
He is given the stylus and his hand is put at the entrance of the maze.
The experimenter instructs him to work as rapidly but also as accurately
as possible. The subject begins his first trial at a signal from the ex-
perimenter. The experimenter starts his stop watch at the moment of
giving the signal and carefully tones all the trials thereafter.
Shortly (say, SO seconds) after the first trial, the second trial is
started. The trials are continued until the subject has reached the cri-
terion of mastery. A criterion of either one, two, or three errorless runs
may be used.
After mastering the first of the mazes (Maze 1 for Subject 1 and Maze
2 for Subject 2), the subject is given a rest period of, say, 10 minutes.
He then begins to leam the second maze (Maze 2 for Subject 1 and
s Instead cf a stylusmaze, a finger maze may be used. The alleys here consirt
of wires which the subject traces with his Sogers.
TBANSFER OF TRAINING 439
Maze 1 for Subject 2) The procedure w in all respects identical with
that used before, and
the trials are again continued until the cntenon
of
mastery is reached'As «e ha\e indicated,
the duration of each Inal is
tuned by means of a stop watch
How to Score the Subject’s Performance If the record sheet con
tainsa plan of the maze, the expenmenler can enter the subjects
moves
ashe sees them being made On that basis, the number of errors can be
comnuted for each trial If the record sheet does not feature a maze plan,
the experimenter may tally the number of errors The latter procedure
has, of course, the disadvantage that the location of the errors cannot
be
identified
An error is conventionally defined as (1) entrance Into a blind alley,
(2) retracing in the correct path In scoring the subjects performance,
the experimenter should have a clear definition of error in mmd He must
decide, for example, how far the stylus must have been moved into a
blmd alley m order to be classified as an entrance
Treatment of Results The enbeal comparison 1 $ between perform-
ance on the first task and performance on the second task According
to our counterbalanced design, the performance of the hro subjects on
the two mazes is thus pooled
We compare the perfonrumce on die task learned first and os the

task learned second with respect to the follmving scores
1 Number of trials required to reach criterion
2 Total amount of time required to reach critenon
3 Total number of errors made before criterion wis reached
To trace the temporal course of the performance, we obtain
4 Number of errors on each individual trial

5 Amount of time spent on each IndinduaJ tnal
Learning cunes are obtained by plotting time and errors against trial
number
Comparison of the two maze performances wth respect to number or
trials number of errors and amount of time required to resell criterion
significant diff«cnce in
allows us to test for transfer effects If Oiete Is a
are positne If the diffemnce
favor of the second tisk the transfer effects
task the transfer effects are âtiie Finally, if
is In favor of the first
is no signIBcant dtlTerence.
.here » zero tra»te It i*
there
three mens
transfer eSeets revealed by the
to compare and eontrast the
tires Does one o! them
shosv greater elleets than ,
compote the ^ntage of
To ouantify the nmomil ol transfer. *e toeli I£ minutes
,nI^r«bSaHe to trailer (seep 356) Suppose it
to master the first taskand only 8 minutes to master the second task.
The dilFerence minures or M-S iJcrcent of 12. We conclude that the
is
*4
Simdar
amount of transfer, as measured by lime scores, Is 33.3 percent.
saving scores can be computed for trials and errors.
To represent the transfer effects graphically, we plot the learning
of
curves (Vincent curves may have to be used in combining the results
the two subjects; see pp. 284-286). If the time and error scores for the
second task fall more rapidly than for the first, this difference may be
ascribed to positive transfer effects.
It may be instructive to compare scores for specific alleys. If the two
ma zes are structurally similar, some responses could have been directly
transferred (the same alley being correct in both cases), and some re-
sponses had to be changed (an alley being correct in one maze and blind
in the other). It may well be that there arc negative transfer effects for
specific turns althougli the overall effects are positive.
Finally, it may be useful to examine the subject as to the methods he
employed in mastering the mazes. Did he use verbal self-instructions such
as “first left, then right, then left again," etc.? Did he
on a visual rely
scheme of the maze? To what extent did he explicitly verbalize the prin-
ciples which made positive transfer effects possible? A careful examina-
tion of the subject’s report may help to throw light on the factors respon-
sible for the transfer effects.
Exfoumest XXVI
Bilateiial Tbansfer in Mmnon Tracinc
Purpose. To measure the transfer from practicing a novel task with
one hand to performance of the same task with the other hand.
Materials. A typical arrangement for mirror tracing consists of a
board to which the sheet with the star pattern (Fig. 105) can be tacked,
a mirror in which the pattern is reflected, and a hand shield which
prevents the subject from looking directly at the pattern. A stop watch is
needed to time the trials.
Experimental Design. The experimental design calls for an experi-
mental group and a control group. The members of both groups receive
a forctest in which they trace the pattern with their nonpreferred hands.
The members of the experimental group then are ^ven twenty trials
with their preferred hands while the controls rest. Both groups finally
receive an aftertest in which they trace the pattern with their nonpre-
ferred hand.
Procedure. The subject is seated in front of the apparatus. The hand
shield prevents him from looking at the star directly, but he can see the
TRANSFER OF TRAINING 441
pattern reflected ui the minor The
subject slips his hand under the
slueld and places the pomt of his pencil on
the starting point The start
mg point is directly opposite the subject (1 e nearest to the mirror) At
a signal from the experimenter the subject starts traang
the star pattern
keepmg as well as he can wthm the lines The experimenter times the
duration of each trial with his stop ivatch Throughout the tnal
the ex
perimenter watches the subjects work, closely and records all errors
Touching or crossing a line constitutes an error If the subject goes out
side the Ime he must reenter at the same point othenvise the recrossing
constitutes another error
Treatment of Results Each tnal u m
terms of (1) the
scored
number of emus and (2) the time required for completion To show
the course of practice w^th the preferred hand we plot the number of
errors and tune scores against tnal number In this manner we obCam
learning curves for the preferred hand
To gauge the amount of transfer we determine for both groups (1) the
gam (or loss] in errors and (2) the gam (or loss) m tune between
foretest end ^terlest The differences between the gains (or losses) of
the two groups provide us with a measure of transfer The signiflcancc of
these differences should be tested

Certain additional observations are of interest How do the changes to
tone compare ivjth the ehmges one measure shows

In error scores'*
transfer effects to a larger extent than the other m ght be the ex
what
planation of this discrepancy? If there is such a divergence between the
two measures how is it related to the shape of the Jeanung curves for
tune scores and error scores?
CEA-EKAt RErERr*-CXS
katona G OrganUng and memoftdng studies In the psychology of

learning and teaching Newlorfc ColumhU
Vniwmty Press JWO
Long
McGcoeh J A^ The psychology of human learning New York
mans Green and Co^ Chap W
being a aiHûeofThon^
Grata P T The theory of identical elements
re-Merpretatioa of ôb-
dikes theory of identical elements and a
Um of trailer of
troioltie ColumW 0«o Stalt Urirrertiv
S Experlmcolol piuchologa N®"

widivot*
luid Co 1938 Chap 8
Design of TnANsrEn Exi'EniMENTS
Sec General References, esjiccially Woodworth and McGcoch
WiUT Is TnANSFEOnED IN TnANSFEn OF TnAlMSC

Allport, G.W., Personality: a psychological interpretation. New York:
Henry Holt and Co., 1937, Chap- 10,
Cook, T. W., Studies in cross education; V, Theoretical, Psychol. Rev.,
1936, 43:149-178.
Sandiford, P., Educational psychology: an obfecticc study, New York:
Longmans, Green and Co., 1928.
Thorndike, E. L., The psychology of learning, New York; Teachers Col-
lege, 1913.
Thorndike, E. L., and Woodworth, R. S-, Tlic influence of improvement
in one mental function upon the efficiency of other functions. (1.); II.
The estimation of magnitudes; III. Functions involving attention, ob-
servation and discrimination, Psychol. Rev., 1001, 8:247-261; SS4-395;
553-564.
EXPERlXtllNTAL ANALYSIS OF TlWNSFEn

Learning to Perform a Task and Specificity of Transfer
Kline, L. W., Some experimental evidence in regard to formal discipline,
U Cduc. Psychol, 1914, 5;259-260.
Martin, M. A., The transfer effects of practice in cancellation tests, Arch.
Psychol, 1915, No. 32.
Reed, H. D., A repetition of Ebert and Meumann's practice experiment
on memory, /. Exper. Psychol, 1917, 2:315-340.
Renshaw, S., The visual perception and reproduction of forms by tachislo-
scopic methods, J. Psychol, 1945, 20:217-232.

Sleight, W. G., Memory and formal traiiung, Brit. }. Psychol, 1911,
4:386^57.
Woodrow, H., The effect of type of training upon transference, J. Educ.
Psychol, 1927, 18:159-172.
Direction of Associative Change

Bruce, R. W., Conditions of transfer of Uaining, J. Exper. Psychol, 1933,
16:343-361.
Gibson, E. J., Sensory generalization with voluntary reactions, /. Exper.
Psychol, 1939, 24:237-253.
Siipola, E. M., Implicit or partial reversion-errors: a technique of measure-
ment and Its relation to other measures of transfer, /. Exper. Psychol,
1940, 26:53-73.
TRANSFEH OF TRAINING
4 «
cxpenmenlal stndy of transfer of response
in the white
rat. Fcftco Wonoffr,1919 No
3. 16
liw K S , An cxpenmenlal test of the Jaw of assimiJation. / Exper
Psychol 1931, 24 68-82
Cgiiioafenee of Stimuli
AlIpOTt, G W, Personalttrj
a psycfiofogiocf in/erprefahon. New Yorh
Henry HoJi and Co 2037. Chap 10 ,
Kluvcr, H
Behavior mechanisms in monkeys, Chicago University of
,
Chicago Press. 1933

Kohler, , W
OpUsche Untersuchungeo om Schimpansen und am
Haushuhn, Aim Pretws Akad \Viss,Phijs math Kf,1915 No 3
Transfer as a Failure to Discrtminatc
Hovland, C The generalization of conditioned responses I The

I,
sensory generalization of conditioned responses wsth varying frequen
aes of tone, / Gen Psycho? , 1937 27 125 148
Hovland, C 1 , The generalization of conditioned responses 11 The
sensory generalization of conditioned responses wjth vvying intensi
Ues of tone / Genet Psychol, 1037, SI 279 291
Lashicy K S , and Wade Af , The PavJomn theory of generalization
Psychol Rev 1948 S3 72-87
Spence, K W
, The differential response In
animals to stimuli varying
Mthin a single dimension, Psychol Rep, 1937, 44 430-444
Practice With and Without Insight into Principles
Bigle>, \V G, The educative process. New Yorl: The Macmillan Com

pany, 1905
Cor, J W, Some experanents on
formal training m
the acquisition of
skill, Brit / Psychol 1933 24 67 87
Judd, C ,HThe relation of special framing to general intelligence,
Educ Reo, 1908, 36 28-42

Ruediger, W
C The indirect jirprovemcnt of mental function through
,
Educ Reo , 1SD8, 30 3W-37J

ideals,
Educ,
Woodrow, H The effect of type of traming upon transference, f
,
Psychol. 1927, IS 159 172
Cross-Educatian
Psychol, M28 If «IM67
Btoy.C VV, Transfer of kanitos I Biper shape
Cook T W
Studies m cross educabon I Mirror
,
tracing the star
maze, Exper Psychol, 1933, 16 144 160

J
Franz, S. I., Studies In cerebral function: VIII. Training in touch percep-
tion and cross-education, Unh, Califs Los Angeles, Publ. Educ., Philos
Psychol, 1933, 1:121-128.
Franz, S. L, and Layman, J. D., Studies in cerebral function: I, Periph-
eral retinal training and practice transfer, Unio. Calif., Los Angeles,
Publ Educ., Philos , Psychol , 1933, 1:65-78.
Munn, N. L, Bilateral transfer of learning, J. Exper. Psychol, 1932,
15.3434553.
>»» «(«
EMOnONAl BEHAVIOR
The Nature of Emotional States

One of the concepts whfcb psychology has taken over from com-
mon usage but has often found difficuJt to handle analytically and
experimentally is that of etnolion. We
all have, at one time or
another, observed organisms in a highly aroused or highly depressed
state and have described such states as emotional.
Our language
is replete %vith terms thought to descnbe different emotional states.
Many attempts have been made over the years to correlate such
states with specific situations on the one hand, and with specific
bodily changes on the other. The results of these mvestigations
have often been contradictory or, at best, loconclusive.
There is no doubt that under conditions of extreme stress radical
deviations from the normal level of function occur. Thus the physi-
ologist Cannon was able to demonstrate in a long series of experi-
ments that in emergency situations, there occun a widespread syn-
drome These reactions involve êfly the
of specific reactions.
and digestive ^sterns and are mediated
cdrculatojy, respiratoiy,
primarily by the autonomic nervous system and a honnone of the
adrenal glands. Reliable as these reactions are in extreme situations,
abundant experimentation has shown that there is httJe or no cor-
relation between specific stress situations and specific bodily syn-
dromes. Thus in anger, fear, general exdtement, etc, highly sunihr
energy
bodily reactions take place which serve to mobilize the
resources of the organism to cope with the stressful situation.
These
changes in-
reactions are manifold, but some of the most striking
greater readiness of the blood to
clude heightened blood pressure,
dot when the body is wounded, slowing down of digestive activi-
increase in the blood sugar level, a faster puUe,
and general
ties,
446 EXPEHIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
increase in the tension of the skeletal muscles. But none of
tlicse
changes seems to be specific to any particular stress situation.
Differentiation' of Emotional States

How is it language and action,
possible, then, to differentiate in
with some degree of success, among the different emotional states?
The answer seems to lie in the fact that we do not make our differen-
tiations solely on the basis of bodily expressions. Our judgment of
emotion is aided by at least partial knowledge of the stimulus
situation and the knowledge of the type of reaction our culture
expects. Thus when we witness a severe insult, we ordinarily ex-
pect the emotion of anger to be displayed. Wc
are further aided
in our judgment by our inference as to what the purpose of the overt
behavior in a given situation mi^t be, whether it be directed to-
ward flight or attack, for example. Whatever infonnation we may
have about an individual's habits of response will also help in the
interpretation of emotional behavior.
The development of a set of terms designating different emotions
is also anchored in our oxvn responses to stressful situations. Faced
with various stressful situations, wc have learned to employ dif-
ferent verbal responses. When we are insulted, we are prone to
utter invectivesand to describe ourselves as angry. This continuous
use of labels to describe our own reactions contributes to the for-
mation of a highly differentiated language of emotions.
It is dear, then, that what is ordinanly called emotion stands for
a number of dnerse elements; the nature of the stimulus situation,
our verbal responses to it, a series of internal boddy changes, overt
action in the situation, and culturally determined expectations.
Some Measures of Physiological

Chance in Emotion
In spite of the lack of correlations with specific situations, bodily
changes form an important part of our reactions to emotional stim-
uli. Therefore, these bodily changes have, in fact, been widely
investigated. By the nature of the problem, most of these investi-
gations are properly conducted mthe physiological laboratory. Cer-
tain of these bodily expressions can, however, be profitably included
in the investigation of tlie behavioral and judgmental
components
)
EMOTIONAL BEHAVIOR
447
of emoiional reactions Thos respiratory
changes changes in blood
pressure and heart rate and changes
m
the resistance of the slim
haie b^n frequently measured m
psychological studies of emotion
In the discussion which follows we svill
cmphasiae the erpenmental
procedures hy which such measurements are
made
Respinfory Changes Two important phases of the respiratory
cycle are distinguished the inhalation and the exhalation of air
The temporal sequence of inspiration and expiration is described
in Fig 107 Inspiration
is typically characterized by a rapid intalce
of air and followed by a more gradual expiration Both the relabi e
is
amplitude and the relative duration of these two aspects of the
Fio 107 The Respiratory Cycle I denotes in

spiratwn E stands lot exptral/on {Ftom R S
Woodworth Expermentol psycJ ologj J&38 p 262
by permission of Heniy Holt and Company Ine
breathing cycle have been used in quanhtabve invesbgafaoas The

amplitude refers of course to the height of the curve m
Fig 107
The temporal aspect has been quantified by the ratio of duraUon
of inspiration to duration of expiration This rabo I/E is called
tlie lospiraUon-expIrabon rabo

A device to record the durabons of uispirabon and expirabon is
called a pneumograph This instrument consists simply of a rubber
tube fastened around the chest of the experimental subject Vus
tube tlirough an airtight joint continues to a small chamber of
air Stretched across this chamber is a rubber diaphragm
Mo\e-
ments of this diaphragm cause a lever to record on a revoUtng
the nse and fall of the subjects chest. The
combinabon of
drum
is tnosvn as
rubber diaphragm attached lever and chamber of air
movements be-
a tambour The lever is caused to move by chest
I/E ratio
cause the system is an airbght one The semibvify
of the
can be demonstrated in variety of situations. Many sudden
many a
or tension-produdng stimuli cause us to "catch otir breath"
and
thus alter the I/E ratio. An unexpected loud sound, a threat, the
expectation of a noxious stimulus— all these produce measurable
changes in the breathing cycle. Similarly, when we pay close atten*
tion to a stimulus or perform a difficult discrimination, we alter our
breathing. Such activities as speaking and laughing clearly intro-
duce radical changes. Because the 1/E ratio is an indicator of
expectation and tension, attempts have been made to use it for the
discovery of deception. One experimenter found that an individual’s
J/E ratio bebav(^ differently after he told a falsehood than after
be told the truth. These results have not been generally confirmed,
however, and the use of breathing changes for lie detection is still
in doubt
Changes in Blood Pressure, Variations in blood pressure have
often been reported as characteristic of emotional reactions. Meas-
urements of blood pressure arc made by means of a sphygmoma-
nometer. This instrument shmvn in Fig. lOS, consists of an inflatable
lubber bag which is fitted around the subjects upper arm. This
bag is connected to one side of a XJ-shaped tube which contains
mercury. The upper portion of the other side of the U is oacuated.
"When the bag is inflated, it exerts a pressure in the U tube which
causes the mercury to rise in the evacuated side. This pressure is
increased until it exceeds that of the blood. In this way, the blood
stops flowing through the artery. By means of a valve, this pressure
is slowly reduced until the experimenter can just detect the re-
appearance of the pube xvith the aid of a stethoscope. The pressure
at this point is then indicated by the height of the mercury column.
The pressure so read is known as the sysiohe blood pressure. By
allowing mme air to escape from the rubber bag, the pressure is
further reduced until the sounds beard in the stethoscope suddenly
drop in intensity and acquire a muffled quality. The pressure at this
point Is again read and is then known as the diastolic pressure.
Usually, changes in the systolic pressure are measured in emo-
tional situations. The most general statement which can be made is
that systohe pressure tends to rise during exdtement. Our previous
statement that specific bodily changes show little or no correlation
with specific emotional situations certainly bolds true in the case
Fic Sphygmomanometer Used in Measuring Blood Pressure
108
The symbols are as follow m, mercury coJumn and scale b, pressure
buJb needle valve c, cuff (From J P Fulton Houeffs textbook of
o,
physiology 1948 p 672, by pemusslotk of W B Saunders Co and the
W A. Baum Co )
Changes have been recorded in a large variety
of blood pressure.
of experiments. It is not possible to state what specific emotional
determine a rise in blood pressure.
characteristics of a situation
Blood pressure docs not provide the only measure of circulatoiy
reactions in emotional situations. Changes in blood distribution
and in pulse rate, for example, are other variables of circulatory
response. Special instruments are available for the measurement
of each of these types of response, e.g., the plethijsmograph for
gauging changes in the volume of the blood in part of the body
and the sphygmograph for the determination of pulse rate. As in
the case of blood pressure, the general trend of the results indi-
cates changes during excitement, but practically no correlation with
spcdBc emotional situations.
Changes in SI *n Resistance. Among the most widely investi-
gated bodily expressions in emotional situations axe changes in the
electrical resistance of the shin. By passing a weak current through
the skin, it is possible to measure the level of skin resistance and
the changes in this resistance.
For the purpose of measuring skin resistance, two electrodes
(usually consisting of metal disks) arc strapped to the subject’s
flat
hand or to some other convenient part

of the body. Although dif-
ferent types of instrumentation have been used, two items are essen-
tial: a source of current and a device for measuring resistance. Fig.
109 gives a schematic diagram illustrating the basic method of

measurement. In Fig, 109 the source of current is the battery, B.
The circle indicates the subjects hand, and the e*s the electrodes
attached to it The resistors in the dreuit are denoted by R. The
variable resistor, Hj, is adjusted until the galvanometer, G, shows
no Then another variable resistor is substituted for the
deflection.
resistance offered by the subject’s hand, and this new resistance
is adjusted until the galvanometer again shmvs no deflection. The
value of this inserted resistance matches the level of resistance
of the subject’s skin. For more rapid changes, it is not practical to
remme the subject’s hand and to substitute another resistor. To
gauge rapid changes in resistance, the deflections of the galvanom-
eter are calibrated to read skin resistance directly.
As our description of the apparatus has indicated, two types of
measurement are made, measures of the general level of resistance
emotional behavior
, 451
measures of rapid changes.
As Fig, 110 shores, at the becln-
O'gli value. As the e.,perimenla! session progresses

and the subject
Fig. 109. Schematic Diagram of Apparatus

Used in the hfeasurement of (he Gah'anic Skin
Response. B, battery; Jt, resistor; Rj, variabie re-
sistor; G, galvanometer; e, eJectrode; O, subject.
(From R. S. Woodworth, ^pcrimenial psychology,
3938, p. 278, by peimissjon of Henry Holt and
Company, Inc.)
becomes more apprehensive about the purpose of the electrodes.

liis resistance level becomes less and less (Day 1). In the case
of the experiment in which Fig. 110 Avas obtained, a “ready” signal

Nvas given near the end of the 6tli minute and was then followed by
a loud noise. The heightened expectancy induced by the "ready”
•«
MINUTeS
Fic 110 Changes m Skin liestslance Observed
During Experimental Sessions m ^Vhlch Startle Was
Evoked by Means of a Loud Noise As the session
progresses and the subject's expectancy is building
up the skin resistance lowered and drops further
vên the "ready" signal and finally the noise itself
are given The dêrence between the lower curve
(day 1 of the experiment) and the upper curve (day
5 the experiment) shows the effects of adaptation
to the situation (After R C Davis, Modificabon of
the galvanic reflex by daily repetition of a stimulus,
7 Exper Psychol, 1934, 17 510, by permission of
the journal and the Amcncan Psychological Asso-
ciabon )
Signal and the startle caused by the loud noise resulted in a further
rapid decline in resistance That the subject becomes adapted in
this situation is indicated hy the curves for a subsequent day of
emotional behavior
453
the ex^riment. Fig. 110, then,
illustrates relatively slow
changes
*
in the level of skin resistance.
The more rapid change to resistaac6 which
can be readily related
to the presence of certain stimuli is known
as the galoantc sHin re-
spowe (GSR). The more rapid change after the
m the presence of the loud sound represents such"ready’' signal and
a GSR (Fig. 110,
Day 1). Such deflections may be elicitedby a variety of stimuli!
Electric shocks and loud noises are umformly effective. The more
general rule that unexpected stimulation, even though not in-
is
tense, results in the GSR. The more Intense stimuli,

hmvever, elicit
the GSR With higher frequency and with greater amplitude. The
readiness with which the GSR can be ehat^ by a large variety of
stimuli means that it cannot be used to distinguish one emotional
situation from another.
What, then, are the conditions for the appearance of the GSR?
shown that, as typically measured,
Physiological investigation has
the appearance of the response indicates increased activity of the
sweat glands. The presence of perspiration under the electrodes
lowers the resistance to the passage of an electric current. Since
the tympathetic division of the autonomic neiv’ous tystem inner-
vates the sweat glands, the appearance of the GSR indicates that
the sympathetic nervous ^stem is aroused, at least to a certain
degree. Now, it is known that the sympathetic nervous system tends
to act diffusrfy and is thrown into action by stressful situations. It
is, therefore, not surprising to find that the GSR appean in many
situations which, on other grounds as well, we would cbssify as
emotional. On Uie other hand, GSR’s have been recorded in many
situations which, on other grounds, we would classify as only mildly
or not at all emob'onaL
Facial Expression of Emotions

manifestations of emotion
One of the most commonly observed
is facial expression. Facial
expression derives its special importanre
continually used and react^
from the fact that it is a sign of emotioa
investigations have been ad-
to in social relations. Experimental
to two classes of problems: (1)
Are speciBc
dressed
sions coirelated with specific emotional
-the basis of facial expressions?
can individuals judge emotions on
454 EXPERIMENTAL PSTCilOLOGY
Correlation oC Facial Expression witli Specific Emotional
Situations. There are hvo main ways of approaching this prob*
lem. Having subjected individuals to a variety of emotional situa-
tions, we may correlate their facta! expressions either with the type
of situation or with the verbally reported emotions. Both approaches
have, in fact, been used. It has been found that facial expressions
vary too much from individual to individual in a given emotional
situation to make it possible to consider any one expression typical
of any given situation.
Similarly, it Is little or no correlation
has been found that there
between and the verbal report of emotion. These
facial expression
findings are based on studies in which individuals were subjected
to situations primarily stressful in character. Photographs were
taken of their expressions during those situations, and it is on the
analysis of these photographs that the above conclusions were based.
It is jnteresting to note that when subjects were asked to pose, a
much better correlation was found betNvecn the intended emotion
and the posed facial expression. This finding emphasizes that facial
expression serves in part as a means of communication. In a given
society, a facial expression may serve the same function as a verbal
sign to indicate, say, joy, grief, or surprise. Serving as a useful
sign, it quickly becomes stereoêd.
Judgment of Facial Expression. Experiments under this head-
ing have dealt with two interrelated problems; (1) How well do
judges agree among each other in the name they apply to a given
facial expression,and (2) how well do judges agree with the re-
ported emotion or with the intention of the person who poses a
given emotional expression?
In a large number of studies, subjects were confronted with pic-
tures of posed facial expressions and asked either to name them
or to choose among a lirt of suggested names. In general, taking
the subjects' responses at their face value, little agreement has been
found. A wide range of names was used for any given pose. Many
êrimenters have been prone to conclude that agreement in judg-
ing emotions is not much better than chance.
The interpretation of these experiments, however, poses a special
methodological problem. In evaluating the names assigned to the
EMOTIONAL BEHAVIOR
photographs it is necessity to tolo into sctotml
the diiletenl
do
^ces of sfmllanly among the names nssigned to
any one picture
Tims the names rage and enger stirelj denote more
agreement than
nould the too names rage and mrjvbe fVhen degree
of similanty
is tiius takrn Into account much
more agreement among the judges
®
IS obtained
77ie second cipenmental question raised in tins context
concerns
llie correctness of the judgments Jf n pose, for example, %%as
intended to depict anger, what proportion of subjects would de»
senbe it Again (ahng (he names assigned or chosen at their
face >*alue only a small proportion of the subjects are able to make
a correct judgment If, as before the degree of similanty among
the names is taken Into account the percentige of judgments
wlilcli should be regarded as correct is considerably increased
As Woodworth pomtet! out ‘^Vc need to scrutinize the judgments
nsking hou> far urong the) are ^Ve need a scale rough though it
may be for measuring the enor"* Thus In one experiment a pose
intended to depict surprUc, was judged as surprise by 52 percent
of the subjects IIowo or, if to this percentage are added those who
used the names ttondcr, estonUhment, and amazmeni, the per
centage of prcsumabl) correct judgments is increased to 83 Such
findings suggest that posed facial expressions can bo judged with a

fairly high degree of accuracy, which is wlnt we would expect in
Wmv of their social utilit) for communication
As for spontaneous facial expressions recorded in more or Jess
'renl* emotional situations we have alreidy
seen that there are
fol
no unique patterns of facial reactions for a given situation It
veiy successful
lows that judgments of sudi expressions cannot be
conclusion
Experimental invcsUgations ha\c supported this
expression shows little specificity
In summary, spontaneous facial
report Posed facial ex
will respect to cither situation or verbal
pressions on the other hand constituting a type of language are
greater degree
much more uniform and are judged by others with a
of success
Kew Yoiit Hetuy Holt and
ij? S Woodworth.
Co. 1938 p 249
Experimevt XXVIi
Measuhement of Bodily Chance in Emotion
A variety of bodily changes are Included in what we call emotional
be-
for the measurement of two
havior. In this expetimcnl, the techniques
types of bodily changes will be Illustrated.
Fic. 111. Schematic Diagram of Apparatus Used

in the Measurement of Changes in Respiration.
Purpose. To measure changes in respiration and sldn resistance

evoked by stim\di intended to produce emotional reactions—startle and
fear.
Apparatus. A pneumograph, a tambour, connecting tubes, and
kymograph or iwlygraph are required for the measurement of changes in
respiration. The recording system is connected to the pneumograph in the
same manner as described above (p. 447) and is represented schemati-
cally in Fig. m.
If the paper on which the tambour writes does not move
at a constant speed, some provision should be made for a time line.
For measuring changes in skin resistance, a spedally calibrated gal*
vanometer, sometimes known as a psychogatvanomeier or dermaiomei^fy
is reqtiired. This device includes the varioiis parts of the circuit shown in
Fig. 109. If a psychogalvanometer or its equivalent is not available, the
measurements in this experiment may be restricted to respiratory changes.

To produce startle, a loud noise is a very reliable stimulus. A great
variety of instruments may, of course, be used for this purpose. The chief
EMOTIONAL BEHAVIOR
457
rcquêmenb ^dden ome( ot the sttaeta a„d i,gh
are
of the
s^d produced. The effectiveness of the sthmilus
is increased if it Is
administered unespecledly A loud
hell or buzzer may be used nm-
veniently
To produce fear, an electoc sbodong device may
be med For the
dest^pUon of a convenient device, see
pp 305 f This shock is admuus
tered to the hand
Procedure. The subject is seated in a comfortable position pneu- A
mofiraph is strapped around his chest, and adjusted until a
regular
mspiratlon^xpiralion cycle is recorded by the tambour The electrodes
of
the psjcbogalnDometer are securely lasteaed to one hand, and
the
electrodes for shock to the other
1. Startle After all preparations have been comphted, the experimenter
watclies the subject’s breathing record until a regular rhythm is es-
tablished Tlien, without warning, a loud sound a produced, and at
the same time the key for the signal marker is depressed In this way,
it IS possible to locate on the record the exact time at which the
stimulus was given and also to gauge the approximate latency of the
response To get the roost cleareui result, it Is advisable to administer
the sound as closely as possible to the end of in expirabon period A
marked increase in the amplitude of the inspiration is then more likely
to appear Tins procedure should be repeated several times The
degree of unaspectedness will, of course, be reduced after the £rst
tune To offset the subject s habltuatioii, ot least in part, the sound
should be given at irregular intervals The magnitude of the respira
tory response, however, wiU probably decline in the course of the
session
The unexpected loud stimulus will produce not only respiratory
changes but also the GSR Both dianges can be recorded at the same
tune Special, and rather complex, apparatus is required for the
graphic recording of the GSR It wiD be suffiaent for most purposes
if an additional experimenter reads off
the deflections of the galvanom-
eter and records them

announces that
2 Fear To induce the emobon of fear, the eêrunenter
This announce-
he will administer an electnc shock to the subject
ment m itself will probably produce changes m both breathing
and
outhned in Expenment XIX,
sldn resistance Following the procedure
increased unhJ a moderate in-
shocks are administered and gradually
During the procedure of adjusting the intensity of the
tensity IS found
shock, further changes m
breathing and skin resistance xvUl occur
which may or may not be measured To

increase the late- effective-
ness of the shock, the subject Is then misinformed that the Intensity
wall be doubled on the next presentation. This is, of course, not
done
in fact.Having found a working Intensity of shock, the experimenter
and skin resistance arc again stabilized. He
waits until both breatliing
then unexpectedly administers the »hook at the intensity previously
determined. As before, the key of tlic signal marker of the polygraph
is depressed simultaneously with the administration of the shock, and
the deflection of the psycliogalvanometcr is read by another experi-
menter.
As have emphasized, the inducement of emotional responses In the
v-e
laboratory is difficult and often Is not achieved. Tlic chances of success
will be increased if a "naive" subject Is used who is not acquainted snlh
the purpose and tlie procedure of the experiment. In the part of the
expeiimenl using shock, the effectiveness of the stimulus will also depend
on the subject’s tolerance for shock and his previom exposure to It. More-
over, changes in respiration and skin resistance may occur even though
the subjects do not report an emotional response.
Treatment of Results. If the experiment Is intended only as a dem-
onstration, it will be sulBcicnl merely to observe the graphic record of
respiration and to tabulate the magnitude of galvanomctric deflections.
If It is desirable, more thorough quantitative indices may be obtained.
The amplitude of Inspiration can be plotted as a function of lime. The

increase in amplitude following the startle or shock stimulus should be
apparent in such a plot. If the graphic record permits, the I/E ratio-
duration of inspiration over duraUon of expiration-can be determined
and plotted against time. Again the change in the ratio following the
criUcal stimulus would appear in the plot. Finally, it may be interesting to
tabulate or plot the changes produced by successive presentations of the
stimuli in order to show their decreasing effectiveness as the subject be-
comes adapted to the situation.
Extehiment XXVIII
JUDCP^JENT OF FACIAI- EXPRESSION"
be remembered that posed facial expressions can
It will
be Judged with
a fair degree of success and reliability by a group of subjects.
The fol-
lowing expenment demonstrates the typtaa] procedure on
which this
conclusion has been based.
Purpose. To measure the accuracy of judgment of posed
facial ex-
pressions and the amount of agreement among the judges.
MateriaU. A senes of photographs depicting vanous posed facial ex-
emotional BEHAVIOH
4od
pressions usrf In p,j II 2
is
reproduted ersniples from a senes of
^“’',1’'"“"= “ ””»«>ted separately on a cardboard
iTd by a letter or nmiiber The
nnd ideirtiSed back
experimenter is provided rvath
a Key specifying the emotion intended
for each of the pictures A tally
s/ieet IS of course, necessary
Procure The experimenter presents the pictures uj a random

order Each expenmenter detCTmines his
oivn order of presentation The
subject
IS allowed to look at the picture
as long as he hkes and Is in
structed to name the emotion which he
believes is n^presented by the
picture
An alternative procedure is to provide the subject with a list of names
and ask him to check the most appropriate one This procedure modifies
the expenmental situation because it introduces the factor of suggestion
Especially if the judgment is a difficult one the subject may accept one
of the names listed even though he may not consider it an adequate one
To push suggestion to its maximum it would be possible to attach only
one name td each photograph and to require the subject to agree or dis
agree
Treatment of Results The results arc used to ans^-er ftm ques
bons (1) How correctly do the subjects judge each of the photographs’
(2) How well do the judges agree in their use of names’
1 Correciness of Judgment For each photograph the names given by
the subjects axe listed and the frequency wi^ which each name bos
been chosen is tabulated After this prelunimry tabulation the names
should be grouped accordmg to their similarity in meaning Some
groups may be reasonably considered as fully correct some as par
tially correct, and some as definitely incorrect The percentage
of
choices falling into each group is then computed These percentages

provide a quanbtahve index of the accuracy with which the photo-
graphs ha%e been judged The percentage values will of course

depend on the leniency or strictness ivith which the names are
prob-
grouped as synonymous or closely similv Such groupings can
ably best be made by class discussion The percentage
values for
to show that some photo-
different photographs are then compared
Finally a mean index
graphs are more accurately judged than others
entire senes can be stated dividing the
number of
of accuracy for the
choices classified as correct by the total number of choices
Extent of a^ment ai^g

2 Extent of agreement among judges
judgments of a given photograph van«
m
part vviih
acnirately their judgments would
a all subjecU judged a photograph
however, bo
have to be 100 percent ngreement. There may,
in
iudgments. Thus 20 percent o! the
aereement among their inaccurate
for joy, one of surprise or wonder.
indees call a picture intended
may
the intention of the poser is the principle of classilication,
Indeed, if
on an in-
there may be 100 percent agreement among the judges
index of agreement is difficult to
accurate choice. An exact numerical
somewhat rou^, measure is pro-
construct but an adequate, though
Fig. 112. Stimulus Pictures Used in Experiments on Judgments of

Facial Expression. (From J. Frois-Willmann, The judgment of facial ex-
pressions, /. Exper. Psijchoh, 1930, 13:149, by permission of the journal
and the American Psychological Association.)
vided by the number of names or groups of names ascribed to a given
photograph. Again, it will be seen that some pictures lead to a greater
extent of agreement than others.
(Not only are some photographs more difficult to judge than others, but
individuals diSet in their ability to name accurately the emotion intended
by the pose. Some individuals have learned the language of emotional
expression better than other^) These individual differences can be dem-
onstrated by computing for each judge the number of photographs ac-
curately named by him.
emotional behaviob
GEÊnAI, Rbfebbnces
Baid, P lê reur^huaioral basis of emotional reactions
,
son (ed ), A handbook of aeoeral

C Murcbi In
experimental psycAologt/, Worcester
Clark University Press JD34
Landis, C The
expressions of emobon In C Murchison (ed
), A hand
,
book of general experimental psychology, Worcester

CJarJc University
1934
Press,
Landis, C and Hunt.
, W
A, The startle pattern, Ne^v York Farrar and
Rinehart, 1939
Morgan, C T , P/it/sfofog/cal psychology. New York McGraw Hill Book
Co , 1943, Chap 17
Ruckmicfc, C A , The pjycho/ijg!/ of feeling and emotion, New York
hfcGraw Hdl Book Co 1935
Wooduwtb, R S Experimental psychology, Neiv York Henry Holt and
,
Co, 1938, Chap 11

Young P T, Emotion in man and animal Us nature and relation to
attitude arid motiue, Ncnv York John Wdey and Sons, 1943
MCASt/riES O? PnYSIOLOClCAI. CnANCE

Respiratory Changes
Benussi, V , Die Atmungssymplome der Luge, Arch Ces Psychol 1914,

31 244.273
^V E The cardiac respiratory and clectncal phenomena involved
Rlsstt, ,
in the emotion of fear, / Exper Psychol, 1B25, 8 209 232

Landis, Cand GuUetle, B Studies of emotiena) reacbons HI SysfoLc
, ,
blood pressure and inspirabon.oqiiration ratios, / Comp Psychol,

1925, 5 221 253
Totten, E , O'tygen consumption during emobonal stimulation. Comp
Psychol Afonogr, 1925, 3, No 13
Blood Pressure
reactioos before erunina
Brown, C H and Van Gelder, D, Emobonal
tons I Physiological changes, / Psychol, 1938
519
Marston, WM ,
Sex charactenshes of systolic blood pressure behavior,
J Exper Psychol 1923, 6 387-^19

wth sex anger and fear,
Scott, J C ,
Systolic blood pressure Suctuabons
/ Comp Psychol 1930, 10 97 114
Skin Resistance
means of the psycbogalvamc technique.
Bavlev N. A study of fear by
Monogr,1528,38,Ho 376 1-38
Psychol
Davis, R. C., Modification of the galvanic reflex by daily repetition of a
stimulus, J. Exper. Psychol, 1934, 17:504-535.
Haggard, E. A., Experimental studies in affective processes: II. On the
and evaluation of 'measured' changes in slcin resistance,
quantification
/.Exper. Psychol, 1945, 35.45-58.
Landis, C., and Hunt, W. A., The conscious correlates of the galvanic
skin response, /. Exper. Psychol, 1935, lS'505-529.
Patterson, E., A
qualitative and quantitative study of the emotion of sur-
prise, Pstjchol Monogr., 1030, 40, No. 181, 85-108.
Facial Extoessioj; of Emottovs

Felcky, A. M., Feelings and emotions. New York: Pioneer Publishing Co.,
1922.
Landis, C., Studies of emotionaf reactions: 11. General behavior and facial
expression, /. Comp. Psychol, 1924, 4:447-509.
Langfeld, H. S., 'Hie judgment of emotion by facial expression, J. Abn.
Soc. PsycJiol, 1918, 13:172-184.
Munn, N. L The , knowledge of the situation upon judgment of
effect of
emotions from faaal expressions, /. Abn. Soc. Psychol, 1940, 35.324-
338.
Sherman, M
, The differentiation of emotional responses in infants: 1.
Judgments of emotional responses from motion picture views and from
actual observatiem, J. Comp Psychol , 1927, 7:265-284.
Sherman, M., The differentiation of emotional responses in infants: II.
The ability of observers to judge the emotional characteristics of the
crying of infants and of the voice of an adult, J. Comp. Psychol . 1927.
7:335.351.
»»)
20 «(«
BEHAVIOR IN SOCIAL SITUATIONS
THE bod} of this book has been concerned wlh problems

which
may well be descnbed as the expenmental psjchology of
the in
dividual Our mam emphasis has been on the indmdual organism.
Its sensoiy and perceptual capaabes the laws governing
indmdual
learning retenbon, and emobonal behavior But the environment
m which man lives is a social environment and social rebbons
With others are imporbint detennmants of an individuals behavior
It seems hardly necessary to emphasize or illusbate this point
throughout life much of our behavior is mone way or another
conditioned by our fellow men sbmulated by them and directed
toward them It is to the discovery of the ways m
which the general
laws of behavior^mamfesf themselves in the mleracbon of mdi
viduals that social psychology addresses itself
In the broadest sense an) experiment in which a subject and ex
penmentcr face each other consttutes a social situation The mob
vabon of the subject his acceptance of instructions hiscommunica
bon and cooperation with the experuneter-all these could be
legitimate!} labeled social vanables In most experiments however,
such influences can be well controlled and do not contribute ap-
preciably to variations in observed behwior In this cliaptcr we
shall address ourselves explicitly to experiments in which tlie
nature of the soaal sibiabon significantly determmes the behavior
of the individual subjects
jrnE Foilmatiov of Norms

Group InOuences on Percepoon and Judgment In Chapter
11 we emphasized the dependence of
judgments on the suhjecbve
\\Tiat is large and what is small
vanes with
yardsbek of the judge
critena of the judge and depends
on the range of
the subjective
*
453
magnitudes to which he is accustomed, whether or not he is aware
of the nature of his standards. Social influences-thc
judgments and
of
norms of others-significantly affect an individual's standards
judgment. The groups of which we arc meinbers influence our ^r«
ceptions and j^gmenfe, help to build up the subjective yardsticks
which we Srry around with us i^daily Jife.
An Experimental Paradigm for Studying the Fonnation of
Norms. It is possible to study experimentally how an individual's
standards of judgment are acquired in a social context, how they
represent conformity to a social norm. We shall now describe, in
some detail, a well-known investigation which has provided us with
an experimental paradigm for studying the formation of social
norms.*
In an experiment designed to study the formation of norms in
a social context, it is desi rable to create VStiiptidn in^which nonns
acquired outsideê laboratory cannotjunction. In such a situation,

(he growth and ‘development of social noni^can be investigated.
/ôkinelic m ove ment is a phenomenon well suited for this pur-
pose. "When an observer looks at a pinpoint (flight injin oiêrwise
completely da*rk room, the light, though physically stationaiy, wfll
appear to move after a few moments of fixation (see pp.
observers agree on this phenomenon, although the extent and direc-
tion of apparent movement may vary widely from person to person.
The absence of a spatial framework for the localization of the
light makes the extent of the phenomenon very unstable. Certainly,
the observer who expencnces the phenomenon has no well-
first
established standards for judging it.

Although^ observers enter^this situation without standards of
judgment, „they_ quickly acquire them. To gauge the influence of
jisoaal group on the acquisition of standards, the foUowing^^-
perimental design was employed.. The subjects were required to
estimate the extent of apparent movement. Half the subjects first
did so alone (i.e, with only the experimenter present) and then
participated in a group situation in which each person announced
his estimates aloud. The other half of the subjects first served
in a group situation and then worked alone.
' ^ of »onie social factors in perception, Arch Psychol 1935,
behavior in social situations
465
The main findings of the stud/ may non be JummarfrecI First
ot all
the results clearly indicate that each
subject jn this hj-rhly
unstable situation quieWy builds up a subjective
standard of judg
ment Instead of giving an erratic scries of estimates
as one might
expect in the absence of any phjsical movement or
spatial frame-
work each individual settles down to a typical range of estimates
Relative to this range (and the ranges may differ
considerably
from subject to subject) he judges movements as Jong short or
mednim JIovv does a social context affect the formation of standirds
of judgment’ Fig 113 provides the answer As each individual
anaouncesjns judgments in the presence of otfie« the members
oTt^ group converge to^vard a common standard—a soaa! norm
IS established In those cases in which the subject first experienced
the_pKenênon m a group situation the social norm emerged

early and was then earned over into the individual sessions Those
subjects who first established a personal standard and then served
m a group converged more slowly toward a common norm but
finally did so in all cases The subjects whose median judgments m
successive group sessions are plotted (Fig 113) in the graphs on
the served as individuals and then as members of a group
left first
The subjects whose records appear on tlie nght first served as mem
bers of a group and then as individuals Comparison of the two sets
of graphs indicates that convergence to a group norm is slowed doivn
by previous expenence with tlie phenomenon
It IS important to emphasize that the group norms did not seem
to result from the uncritical acceptance of a standard set by a leader
subjects announced their judgments in random order and
dicir
The
influence on each other was cumulative until a nonn acceptable
lo emerged Sometimes Indeed tlie subjects were not aware
all
of the fact that the> were being influenced

by the judgn vnts of
such influences
others or even believed themselves free of
successful paradigm for the
This expenment evemplifies one
m
the laboratory It also drives Jiome an
study of soaal processes
of behauor
important meUiodological point social determinants
profitably through their effects on such mdiviâl
may be sMdied
judgment and thought The
cognitive processes as peireptron
arc our independent variables
cfmractenslics of the social situalioa
BEHAVIOR IN SOCIAI, SITUATIONS
457
-nividuals behavior eg hr per
ceptaal and |udgmg responses are our dependent
varnlles
itobiguKy One more melhodoJogra!
1, ij u point
should be considered in connechon widi this
cxpenment The situ
ation in which the deielopment of perceptual
nouns ivrs studied
may well be described as "ambiguous ” "Ambiguity
refers to the
fact that tiie nature of the stimulus silualton
does not compel sub-
stanfaalagreement in a sample of observers the tj-pc of agreement
occurs 2{ a group of mdtndaals is required to name the objects
of furniture in a room Aufofcinesis ma^
^described as ambiguous
because the extent of movement observed vanes vvideh from sub-
ject to subject Tius particutar situation was cliosen because subjects
enter it without any preestablished standards of judgment We must
not conclude however that social norms arise and function only tn
situations which are "ambiguous” or "unstructured’' Even when tlie
situation IS made fess ambiguous-for example by requiring subjects
^ judge actual physical movement and visual extent in a group

siluatioo-convergence of individual judgments toward a group
nonn taVes place
There is good reason however \vh) ambiguous situations are
frequently used for the demonstration of social influences on pc
ceivrag and judging It is dilBcull m
a br ef liberator) experiment
to countenot well established habits of perceiving and judging The
experimenter may clioose one of two methods of approach (1) he
may work with ambiguous situabons for which there are no well
established norms of judgment or (2) he may v\ork with unam
bjôus situations hut employ subjects with different aibhides and
standards of judgments and demonstrate the effect of such
differ
ences on percephial and judgment bclnvior Both t)q>cs of expert

of
ments can be and have been conducUd to investigate the effects
social vanables The two methods are
not of course mutually cx
elusive nor is ambiguity mall-ot none affair All gradabons of am

differences m subjective attitudes and
biffuity and all gndatians of
standards of iudgairn" ore cacoontecd m this type of ospcnmenUl
work
SuGCESnOV AND SUCCESTmtUTV
and punishments pro-
Sueeestion Our system of soaal rewards
compl) vnth cuirent norms, to
vad«®ra .uth strong motivation to
4d8 EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
accept the standards of the majority and of those in authority even
if we had no part in evolving these standards. Often, such conformity
becomes almost automatic, eliminating or severely redudng critical

evaluation. \Vhcn_stimulu£^nditioi« arc created which lead to
uncrjticaL confo rmity,w^speah of^suggeriion, r
mat are the feature's peculiar to suggestion which mark it off
from other processes? Many habits are carried out automatically
and, in that sense, uncriUcally, and yet it would be absurd to label
all such acUvitics the result of suggesUon.
The distinguishing char-
acteristics of suggestionmust be sought in the social situation in
which the behavior takes place. Suggestion involves
the manipula-
tion of one individuals behavior by another.
The suggester wishes
h.s subjed to carry out a certain action.
stimulates his subject-
often with the aid of language and otljer symbols— so that the latter
The subject is often unaware of the
fact that his behavior has been deliberately manipulated. The suff-
pter uUIizcs his subject’s past conditioning
and learning iff order'
to make hirn conform. Advertising and polirical
propaganda pro-
vide many instancy of suggesUon. Advertisers
try to boost their
sales not only by demonstrating the merits
ô by appeahn^g to ertoncous moUves-suchofastheir products
-keeping
but
up with
d«he to buy. Sirnnil^ poli-
Uc2’s”ofL~"'m
Ucians often pi T
not rely too ‘heavily on
rational argummis in
. supp^ of Iherr party but will try to tap atUtudes
and habte which
m
'Whenever such manipulaUon of
.nfproduces conformity,
and
bring out the
behavior is successful
we speak of suggestion.
^-Sgestion. The subject at
whom a suggestion is
w fte subject knows that

the sug-
XImZ SL"* s
te
nature of
Ir.!?
Understanding of the
SSSlresistaniitiiesu^^ “ •
gg , provided the motivation aroused
463
by the seggester-s appeal
is strong enough The
. suggoster may male
no attempt to conceal Ins putposes and yet
cause his sublecls to con
lorm Political campaigners and advertisers
often use direct sug
gestion ^vlth success ®
Indirect stiggesficm occurs when the subject not aware of the

is
me^s by which his behavior is being influenced The suggester
succeeds m concealing his aims and methods from the subjecr Tlie
subject may think that he ts acting lor his oum interest whiJe serv
ing the purposes of the suggester The advertiser, for example
who
argues that to own a musical mstniment is a sign of “culture" and
thus plays on lus reader's aspiration for social recognition, uses
indirect suggestion
Suggestibility The concept of suggestibility is complementaiy
to the concept of suggestion ^Vheêas suggestion refers to the
stimulus conditions which produce conformity, suggestibility de-
notes an individuals tendency to conform, ie to accept the sug
gesbon In any given situabon wide individual differences in
suggestibility may be encountered in a sample of subjects There
will be some who readily and fully accept the suggestion At the
other extreme, there wn!l be those vvho remain completely unaffected
by the suggestion It may indeed happen that the subject will do
exactly the opposite of what the suggester wishes him to do In such
cases, wespeak of countersuggestiMity Between these extremes,
there are many mtennediatc degrees of suggestibility In a specific
situation degree of suggestibility is a function of many variables A
person who is suggesbble in one situation may well resist sugges
tion in another There is indeed, little evidence for a general trait
of suggestibility vVe turn next to « discussion of the vanabJes of
which suggestibility is a function
The DfiirnAHNAtm or Succeshbiuty

be dtaivn readily from
AlthouKli examples o! suggesboD may
d-uly experience our greatest advances
m understanding the
mechanisms mediahng suggesbon hare

come from expenmenta!
on suggesbon is some
""ite dependent vnrrable in experiment
measnre of tlia subjects conformity,
eg . the trequeny and strong^
the suggester wishes to Induce The inde
of the behavior svhich
pendent variables arc the conditions which tlic experimenter selects
and manipulates in order to render the subject suggestible. Tlie
major independent \ariables in the experimental study of sugges-
tion may be grouped under three general licadirigs: (1) the type of
activity subjected to suggestion; (2) the source from which the
suggestion emaciates; and (3) the characteristics of llie subjects at
whom the suggestion is directed.
Types of Acticity Subjected to Suggestion
Ambiguity and Difficulty of Task. A wddc x'ariely of activities
has been used in suggestion experiments-edgnitive functions, such
as perceiving, judging, and problem solv*g, as
well as motor re-
sponses. such as movemenU of the limbs. A
classification of experi-
ments according to the different activities subjected
to suggestion
would be of httlc purpose, for these activities ser\e
only as vehicles
through which process of suggestion is studied.
Instead, it is
newssaiy to isolate those dimensions common
to a wide ranee of
activiUes to which the success of suggesUon
is lawfully related. Such
analysis leads to the generalization
that suggestibihly varies as a
function of the difflÎt)- or ambiguity”
of the task vWlh which the
subject IS confronted. In general, svhen
a situaUon is ambiouous. he..
whm tê_arejm well.establisra standardrSP'^SJaS^-for
It suggestion lm^gqod chance of
juaeedin tt. inias’ier
o.ânge_thâmount o autoldnetic
mosemenTb^êsUorSi.
UsTi or to make a seiy exacting

discnminalion is more prone to suc-
^mbto^suggestiansârdmg methods of solution
|ndj,n^g a problenuyeU wiUiin
than one who is
his range of competen”
aL ex
- amoun of «penmental evidence.

WelkUl hmit ourseW hSfto
the detailed description of
one study which mav w„u
BEHAVIOR IN SOCIAL SITUATIONS 471
by n subject andJiw^ggesUbility to nusleadmg hints during his
attempts to soI\e the problem*
The materials in this experiment consisted of mathematical prob
lems These matenals \vcre eqwcially useful smee they could be
graded in difficult) The subject’s readiness for problems of âiying
difficulty could be roughly gauged by the number of jears of mathe
Frc 114 The Relation of Sogsesfibilily to

Diffi<iuUy of Task The easier the task (the larger
the percent correct) the smaller the number of
successful suggestions (After T G
Coffin Sê
conditjoDS of suggestion and suggcsUbJity Psychol
Monogr, 1841 53 No 4 by pennission of the
journal and the Amencan Psychological Association /
To conceal the purpose of the expeênt the

mabcal training
test Suggeshons
problems were presented as a “number faciliUes
the s^ws Pêdjor
(yere given the form ofhmts penalled m
m the est had
sab|eots were loM ftat
the solution of the pioblems The
suggestions y
a woe ^nge of matheoiaPca! tram
ministered to groups covering
Sons cooiaous rf sugsesh™ «">
•sT P CoBu
illonogr 19-11 S3 No 4
ing. The responses were scored by mathematicians who independ-
ently judged each solution as accepting or rejecting the suggestion.
The subjects had been instructed not to erase any of their work so
that the judges could, in most cases, easily determine whether or
not the hints had been accepted.
I-evel of difficulty was determined independently by presenting
the same test, but without any hints, to control
groups whose mathe-
matical backgrounds were comparable to those
of the experimental
subjects. Difficulty was then expressed
in terms of the percentage of
correct solutions achieved by a control
group equated for matho-
matica training with an experimental group.
These difficulty scores
were then related to the suggestibility scores.
The percentage of
solutions attempted on the basis
of the hints provided a qliantitaUve
index of sugpstibility. Tlie results
appear in Fig. 114 and clearly
indmate that suggestibility increases
with the difficulty of the
are obtained
wWilTliv Tivi ""‘'f
correlated with amount of mathematical train-
f
® mathematics, the less
hTr “ if misleading hints in attempting
pSef to solve the
'Die experimental procedure

which we have just described fflus-
f iw'"*- 'Vhenever sueh variables

“P'^"ment, they must
oe deS^trLfof'®“‘
be ^
aennea in terms of an independent
criferion Tn tkfc •
it will be remembered,
difficulty was
suggestion in terms of th?
mfslred T".T “ r
perfoiânce of cm rol
ambiguity can usually be measured J'mdarly,
at least m l?
bepsed as an <nd%Lentt“
Sources of Suggestion
it
uTrT^rthtTnHut f
brings to bear on his
.bat®it
snTiio/vf
eliminftf or'^Simriy
examine a situation criUcallv
a
“I
which the experimenter
to ffie extent
mS'The^ subjects disposition to
before
penmenter vvjl uUtee h,s subjects hsb.ts ot
response and bamess
them to lus purpose One my
to do so is b> mampulatrng
the sub
jecls set by building up certain
cspectabons m turn which will pre-
vent him from using eSectively his capacity
to discnmmate and
judge The progresstte !me experiment is an
example A senes of
Imes IS exposed one at a tune and the subjects are
required to esU
mate their lengths In the first part of the senes the lines steadily
increase in length each line exceeding the preceding one b) a
certsin amount Thereafter (he hnes aie of voifoim length
Ne\er
theless increases m perceived length are reported by many subjects
(especially children) long after the actual physical increases have
stopped The initial lawful senes of increases has established an
expectation of continuing increases an expectation which impor
tantly afferts the perceptual judgments Similar results ma) be ob-
tained m the judgments of other attributes such as weight The
number of lines or weights judged larger yields a measure of sug
gestibihly There are other situations m which the experimenter
builds up an expectation in the subject and then “tricVs'* hun A
senes of questions may for example be arranged in such a way as
to induce a set fora certain pattern of answers, eg^ an alternation of
yes and no responses The subject gets accustomed to th s order If
he now encounters a question which requues the same answer as
tJie preceding one he may fad to respond corTcct]y although he
would do so ordinarily The number of times that he fails to notice

the change in the order provides an index of suggestibility
this type
It IS important to note that the source of suggestion in
of situation cannot properly be called soaal The eqicrimenter
merely ublizes the fact that perceptual orgaruzation and judgment
set Once the set has
are profoundly influenced by the perceivers
in
been built up or reinforced, ft readily carries over to situations
winch it is no longer appropriate
suggestibility wi^ch are
There are many instances of apparent
When u Mnjiirer goes
duo to the af5usal of hobitiml tespoom
through the motions of throivmg a hull
mto tbo nir nod bis speotntoR
nctiialiy see the bull the> do so
loive '>'™ roTTesf “““
Ihrmvmg nod seeing tlie object tlmiivii f
ented m the past The cenjumr amuses
this
1“.;“^;'
successfully cLies off lus tncl
When sve ciy ball and our sub-
the success of our sugi;cstion is due toâ
ject “involuntarily" stops,
wcU-cstabUshed association between stimulus (the word
“hall")
and response (slopping). , . i
Prestige Suggestion. In a suggestion situation, one individual

attitude
attempts to manipulate Uic behavior of others. Clearly, the
of the subject toward the suggcslcr is a critical variable
on wliich
tlie success or failure of the suggestion may largely
depend. If the
suggester Is able to acli\ate his subjects dibits of obedience and
rinformity, if he can restructure and redirect the subjects percciv
lions and judgments, tlie suggestion is be eileclivc. It is
likely to
in the nature of the suggestion situation that an attitude of sub-

mission to prestige may become one of the most important conditions
of successful suggestion We speak of prcsUf'C sugc^csthn if attitudes
associated with the' acceptance (or rejection) of prestige are
primarily responsible for observed changes in behavior.
Prestige is, of course, a general term under which a varict)' of
attitude patterns is subsumed; nor Is It always possible to make the
nature of the attitudes associated with prestige fully explicit. Pres-
tige is, indeed, not an easy variable to define and quantify in ex-
penmental investigations. In many experiments on suggestion
concerned with factors other than prestige, prestige factors may
nonetheless be an important (and sometimes uncontrolled) variable
due to the presence of the experimenter. In the laboratory situation,
the experimenter, by virtue of bis position of authority, easily be-
comes a source of prestige suggestion whether or not he wishes to
which children serve as subjects— and children
be. Investigations in
have been widely used in suggestion experiments-the experi-
menter s prestige may become a very prominent factor.
We shallhere consider three questions to which experimental
investigationshave given at least a partial answer: (1) Is prestige
indeed an effective agent of suggestion? (2) WTiat kinds of prestige
influences have been found operative and what is their relative
effectiveness? (3) How do prestige factors affect the distribution of
suggeshbility scores in a sample of subjects?
Is prestige an effective agent of suggestion? The experimental
evidence definitely answers this question in the affirmative Experi-
ments on the modification of social and political altitudes, for ex-
ample, have provided striking evidence. We
shall now describe a
r
lypiral expenmentaKparadigm for study,
prestjge raggesbon in bnnging ng the effect.veuess of
about nttifude change
TypicaUy, an experimental group
and a control group are em
ployed A scale measuring attitudes toward some group issue or
inshtutionisadmrnistcredtobothgroups Some time later the
same
scale IS again administered but this
time the hvo groups are treated
dmerently The members of the experimental group
are informed
what answers were given to the atfifude questions by persons
or
groups who command prestige ju the eyes of the subyects such
as
experts m
the field under consideration Or the statements in the
attitude questionnaire are identified as pronouncements of well
known personahbes of prestige The members of the control group
on the other hand receive the same scale but without an) additional
information If the experimental group shoivs a significantly greater
shift in_the.suggested direction than the control group we conclude
ât prestige suggestion lias operated The size of the difference be
tween experimental and control groups provides an index of sug
gestibility Studies concerned with atbtudcs toward a hrge vanefy
oLptoblems-from prohibition to the literary merits of different
witers-havein man) if not in most cases demonstrated significant
shifts attributable to prestige suggestion
Several methodological problems which arise in conneebon with
thistype of experiment should be made explicit First of all the
expenmental an^control group should be initial]) equated with
respect to range and intensity of altitudes Susceptihiht) to sugges
bonTîes with the intensity of the attitude at which the suggestion
is directed.An attitude which is held wth great
intensity and con
viction IS less likely to )ierd to suggestion than one

which is accom
results for
panied by doubt and uncertainty For this reason the
the expenmental and control groups are
comparable only if they
closely similar samples of attitudes i
represent
to gauge
The control group of course serves another purpose
to occur independ^Wy
the shifts m attitude which majjie expected
second admimstohon of the
of HiggesbHT'betweenJhe.ficsf and
group shows shifts in excess
atUtudlVcale Onl) d the expenmental
prestige suggestionê
oniie^ntrol group can the operation of
.hn aU,nE tte ..me .nlena
.nfciL In
oatride tie
EvenU
hvTen ae first and second test are of unportanoe
476 EXPERIMENTAL PSyCHOLOGY
hboiatory, changes in the political or social scene, may in-
e.g.,
as
fluence atUludc of the subjects, cither in the samj; direction
tile
"unc-ontrollcd
the prestige suggestion or away from it. If such
events exert a powerful influence, they may override the
effects of
the prestige suggestion.

of the
Finally, it is important to obtain an independent measure
prestige of the source of suggestion. After all, what the experimenter
wmsiders to be a source of prestige may not be so considered by the
subject. Indeed, the experimental findings suggest that subjects

often react negatively to the source of prestige and move away from
the suggested direction (countcrsuggestibihty). Independent meas-
urements of the degree of prestige of various sources of suggestion
must be related to the degree of acceptance or rejection of the sug-
gestions ascribed to these sources.
The paradigm which we have discussed b, of course, applicable
to a wider range of problems than the investigation of prestige sug-
gestion. Studies concerned with the modification of attitudes by
other techniques, such as various methods of teaching and propa-
ganda, usually employ this experimental design or some modification
of it. Nor is this particular hind of experimental procedure by any
means the only one for the study of prestige suggestion. Whenever
behavior changes are produced by activating the subject’s habits
of conformity and obedience, prestige suggestion operates.
What kinds of prestige suggestion have been found effective? As
we have emphasized, the concept of prestige is an extremely gen-
eral one, and a variety of attitudes are subsumed under it. Only a
few of these attitudes have been isolated and explicitly studied
under experimental conditions. Most prominent among these are
conformity to the majority and acceptance of expert opinion. In the
experimental modification of attitudes it is usually possible to bring
about marked shifts in opinion by indicating the opinions allggedly'"
"
held by the majority of the group to which the subjects belong or
the opinions held by recognized experts in the field. Sexeral in-
vestigations have attempted to compare the relative effectiveness of
these twosources of prestige. Some studies have given prestig e of
^ sL'^t edge over the prestige of experts but the
differences are neither striking nor consistent If^there ate true
differences in that respect, th^ are probably dependent on the
behavior in social situations Art
speciEc atbtude. the nature of the group,
and the status of (he par
ticular expert In any event,
no stible gcnerahzabon about the rek
bye eifectiveness of these t>-pes of prestige
suggeshon is possible at
Iiat IS the influence

of prestige factors on the distribution of sug
gestibihUj scores in a sample
of subjects^ How does prestige sugges
bon compare in effectiveness with other types of
suggestion? We
have disbnguished between suggestion achieved by manipulation
of the subjects habits and expectibons, on the one
hand and pres
tige suggestion, on the other The distincbon between these hvo
types of suggestion is not, of course, a hard and fast one and in
many situations both types of influence are present Nevertheless
the distincbon receives at least parbal confirmahon from an examma
bon of the relative effeebveness of the two fypes of suggesbon
procedures in n sample of subjects
In Fig 215 the distnbutioos of suggesbhiltty scores obtained in
two representabve suggestion situabons are compared In Fig lJ5a
JJie dwtrihubon of suggestibihty scores on a progressive Jwes cx
penmeot with children is shovvm (cf p 473} The x axis represents

composite scores based on the number of bmes lines are judged
larger (in accordance with the suggestion), equal or shorter (in
opposibon to the suggestion) The larger the scon* the greater the
subject s suggesbbilityOn tlie y axis Ae number of cases receiving
each of (he scores is plotted Clearly the distribution of scores is
approximately normal in shape The majonty of the subjects are
somewhat suggestible, but only a few subjects are completely
immune to (Ins type of suggesbon and very few show extreme sug
gestibility (overestimate the lines for a large number of
tnals)
Now, turn to Fig 115b Here the results of a prestige suggestion

experiment are plotted The experimenter suggested to his siibiccts
lighter and
(children) that their hands were getting lighter and
of Fig Hob are plotted
Anally would nse in the air On the x axis
movement
sugceobbihty scores (based on the extent of hand raising
the experimenter was able to induce),
on the y axis die number of
This tune, with the prestige factor
cases receiving each of the scores
anything hut normal raUier it
present, tlie distribution of scores is
the majont) of cases at the
mav be descubcd as “U shaped" with
middle Subjects seem either to
two extremes and a few cases in the
SUGGESTIB'UTY
SUGGESTIBILITY
b
Fjc 115 Distnbution of Suggcshbjbty Scores in Two Suggestion
Situations In a are shown the distnbutions of suggestibility scores ob'
tamed from samples of children in a nonprestige suggestion expenment
(progressive lines test), in b the distributions of suggestibility scores in the
same samples of cbiidren m a prestige suggestion experiment (band
levitation) (From F Avelmg and H L Hargreaves, Suggestibility with
and without prestige in children, Brit J Bsychol , 1921 , 12 67, by per-
mission of the journal )
SOCIAL SITUATIONS 479
succumb to fte influence of the
expentnemer or to Of
resist it
course comparisons of tiislnbutioos
such as those shown m Fie 115
must be made with great caution The
shapes of Uie distnbuhons
depend to a considerable inrtent on the units
of sconug The units
used in Fig IlSa and Fig 115b arc
not tliemselves equivalent, and
diilercnt distributions might Ime tesnlted if different units of
meastiremcnt Iml been cmplo)ed Ntverthefess
there seem to he
real differences in the rclatn e ticquciicy ivith
uhich lanous degrees
Or conformitj are observed in rfie two situations
ho Is Su^cstthle^
One fnct whicliis common to almost all experiments on suggestion
IS the wide range of indmdual differences in suggestibilitj A large

scatter of suggestibility scores such as those shown in Fig 115 is
tj'pically obtained hfuch effort has been directed at the discovery
of those personal charactenslics which ore correlated with degree
of suggestibility If the personal dianctenstics associated with high
•wd low suggestibility were tally faroira much light could he
thrown on the specific ps)chologicat meclianisms responsible for
the phenomena of suggestion Although a few such correlations have
been established they Inve not been extensive enough to contribute
significantly to a theory of suggestion The most stable correlat ons
are between age and sex on the one band and degree of sugges
tibility on the other
Age Many erpenmenlal investigations have shown that chil
dren are more suggestible Oiao adults The suggestibility of very
young cluJdren cannot bFêteniTned readily since their under
standing of instructions may be faul^ There is however evidence
for mcreasing suggestibil t> between the ages of x bout five and pe,
after which susceptibility to suggestion
begins to decrease CMdfen
they have fewer
are probably more suggestible than adults because
well-established habits and standards of judgment
which they can
bring to bear on the suggestion For a
chi d many situabons are
difficultand ambiguous DifflcuUy
and3!^^.,.aswe_hav^^^^
<» soMcssf^gg^n Atorcover
Jire condiUcns li.KMy fmoraWc
end if*
ihe chjri^beenJreqnentlTjewi£*jy^b_^^^^
m.sJSrt5TI57dult This tendeng- to^bey
feed to thelTtotion m whicb the Juggemon is
suggestibility
Sex. Experimental results lend to show greater
among^women_than among men. However, the distributions of
suggestibility scores of men and women usually overlap to a con-
siderable extent. There is far morevariation in suggestibility within
each sex than there is between the two sexes. Any explanation of
such differences in terms of biological constitution is highly ques-
tionable. Differences ijn cd\ication, Itainjng, and experience ar c
probably largely responsible for whatever sex diffcrenccs in sugges-
have been found. For example, subjects in suggestion experi-
"tibility
ments are often asVed to handle some bind of mechanical equip-

ment Women may have fewer habits and skills to cope with such
tasks and, hence, may be more susceptible to misleading sugges-
tions which they cannot evaluate properly. In addition, there may
be social pressures at work here. Girls are rewarded for submissive
and compliant behavior more often and for a longer time than arc
boys, and on that basis should be expected to be more suggestible.
Behavior Mechanisms in Suggestion
The term suggestion does not refer to any unitary process of be-
havior. Suggestion is a purely descriptive term and denoteâ variety
of behavior mechanisms which make it possible for one individual

to manipulate the behavior of others. It is not possible to enumerate
all the habits and tendencies which may operate in a suggestion
situation. Certainly_p^t learning and conditioning play an_impor-
-tantpart. When we point at an imaginary airplane in the sky and
somebody thinks he sees it quite vividly, we say he is ‘‘suggestible.”
It would be more accurate to say that the stimuli of pointing and
pronouncing the word "airplane” evoke a well-established per-
ceptual liabit— seeing the airplane. Similarly, in the progressive lines
experiment, success of the suggestion is due to the operation of a
habit. The assodation between the appearance of the lines and the
seeing of an magnitude continues to function even when
increase in
the lines have become
physically equal. The behavior mechanisms
operating in suggestion, then, are special instances of learning and
conditioning. It is the suggester's task to provide the stimuli that
will activate the learned response which he desires to occur.
The mechanisms operating in prestige suggestion should ulti-
mately lend themselves to a simffar analysis. The presence of an
BEHAVIOn IN SOCIAL SITUATIONS
481
individual of piestigo or llio
dlation of-an expert opinion throws
into action patterns of responses
which were reinforced in the past
in similar situations. Such patlenis
of responses may include per-
cophia! reorganization of the situaUon and
changes in verbal re-
sponses. The emotions which the
presence of the individual of
prestige arouses probably sene to
facilitate and strengthen the
activation of such patterns of response. The point
which we should
like to empliasize here is that in studying
suggestion, we in\’estigate
the results of past learning and conditioning as they
manifest them-
selves in a special tj-pe of soda! situation.
Work in’ a Group Situation

Our discussion in this chapter
is focused on the experimental
analysis of behavior as detennined bi/ the actions of others. We
it is
have considered the formation of norms in a group situation and

some conditions under which conformity behavior is evoked. In
(his section, we be concerned with the ways in which an in-
shall
dividual’s work and prodoctivi^ are aHected by the presence of
otliers and their actions. Tlie influence of a group on individual
performance will be discussed in reference to four types of experi-
mental situations: (1) the effect of an audience; (2) the effect of
the presence of coworkers; (3) work in a competitive situation;
(4) the results of group discussion and cociperah’on.
Audience Effects
Typical Experimental Procedures. In experimental investiga-
of an
tions of the effects of an audience on the performance
condition are
individual, a control condition and an experimental
In the control situation, the subjects work alone
usually employed.
on some task, such as mental multiplication
or a test of motor dex-
perform the same task
terity.In the experimental situation, they
the hvo
in the presence of an audience. Their perfonnances under
behveen them are ascribed
conditions are compared and diSereoces
to the effect of the audience.
provided the t%vo condiUons
Tills e.xperimental design is adequate
all respects other than
the prerenco of an
have beei equated m
preoaul.ons .s ;>
audience. One of the most tapoitant
subjects’ level of pracUce in the two
situations. If ^
the suojects enter
482 EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGV
training, differences in
the two situations with different amounts of
performance will be due, to an indeterminate extent, to differences
training, and the effect of the audience cannot be
evaluated
in
adequately. To equalize practice level, one of two procedures may
be followed: (1) if the same subjects serve in both situations, they
should be given a task which they have thoroughly mastered and
in which no further improvement may be expected, (2) if different
subjects are employed m the two situations, the controls and expen-
mentals should first be equated in training. While the experimental
subjects work in front of an audience, the control subjects continue
to work alone. Thus both groups start from the same level of pro-
ficiency and have an equal chance to benefit from further practice.
If they fail to do so, the effect of the audience is probably respon-
sible for the discrepancies in performance.

The terms "alone” and "audience” need, of course, to be defined
clearly.In some experiments, performance of subjects working in
the presence of the experimenter is contrasted with their perform-
ance in front of a larger group. In other experiments, the subject is
all alone in one situation and works in front of a group in the other.
Obviously, the experimenter is an "audience,” and sometimes an

exacting audience with considerable prestige. Experiments using
different definitions of the "alone” situation cannot be expected to
yield comparable results.
"Audiences” may also vary in many ways. First, th«^ may differ
in size. A vanety of relationships may exist between the subject and
the members of the audience. The audience may consist of friends or
strangers, of the subject’s peers or of his superiors in rank. The
members of the audience may be passive in their albtude toward
the subject, they may actively encourage and support him, oi they
may be hostile. Clearly, each of these characteristics may radically
affect the influence of the audience on the subject's performance.
Not only the attitude of the audience toward the subject,
but also
the subject’s attitude toward the audience is of importance.
Much
willdepend on hmv much expenence the subject has had
in public
performance and how much be values the approval of
the audience.
Experimental Results. Considering the many ways
in which
the nature of an audience can vary, it is not surpnsing
that there are
no clear-cut gcncrahzaUons about the effect of an audience
on an
individual s performance In comparisons of worlc in an alone

situ
ation and in front of an audience both facilitating and

inhibitory
effects have been reported As far as a trend

can be distinguished it
best possible
appears that a passive audience is not conducive to the
this rule men
performance Although there are many exceptions to
of better performance
the exceptions are not clearly in the direction
in some experiments that
in front of an audience Thus it was found
spectators spurred the subjects on to greater speed
the presence of
accuracy of performance The
but at the expense of quality and
subjects more cautious and
presence of an audience may also reader
Leumspect, as for example mthe reproduction of >oem°-T
“Imcl so much repeuTonX mdividual
vidual differences In the pr«e

others
« For this reason the
subjects improve svhile
ooeragmg of
Opposite rfecU on individual
subjects
meaningless Important but pp . used statistical
may cancel out Hence to evaluate
the
indices other than showing an
Thu perintage of subjects
effects of an audience decrements can be com
improvement and the êrce K absolute amount
of shift
pared It “ other (le disregarding the direc-

of wor not
from one condition nuesUon of whether or
in order
tion of the shift) effect
any significant
the audience has
Presence of Co ivorJcers
of our daily
worh-
Much
Typical Experimental done m the presence
in th? factory
in ^ “ an important feature of the stimulu
be does
co-workers than
sign calls for a comparison of performances under two conditions:
working alone and working in the presence of others who ore
engaged in the same task.
The controls and precautions which wc have discussed in connec-
tion with experiments on audience effects must be observed again.
Valid comparisons between the two work situations can be made
only if such factors as training and familiarity have been equated.
If diesame subjects serve in both situations, it may be advisable to
use a counterbalanced design: half the subjects serve first alone
and then in the group situation, with the sequence of conditions
reversed for the other half of the subjects.
In this section, when wc speak of the effects of co-workers, we
mean the influence which the sheer physical presence of others
^he same task has on the performance of an individual.
The and sound of others, their movements and activities, are
sight
stimulus conditions the importance of which for
individual per-
formance and productivity can be experimentally determined. It
is exwedingly difficult, however, to isolate
the effects of the sheer
physical presence of others. When indMduals work alongside each
other, Important motivational factors come into play: attitudes of
competition and cooperation arise, some individuals
become leaders
who set the pace for the group, and so on. Experimenters interested
m studying the faalitaUng or inhibiUng influence
of the sheer
presence of co-workers have usuaUy tried to
minimize motivational
changes by remoîng all incenUves for rivalry.
In such experiments,
^bjec^ are «plidlly warned against assuming
a compeUtive atti-
^de, the results of their work are not announced,
and care is taken
to prevent one subject from finishing
before the others. By such
m^res, the factor of rivalry can, indeed, be
reduced in im-
S *0
Urdn *ey do alone Increases in
P-=^““ of “-workers
P'ôrmance of an individual? First of aU,
there is good
Peater spaed in a group situation
output have been shmvn with a
“ multiphcation. word association, cancella-
toTonett
“'hors increases the sheer amount
nrodnl^l
produced-a T'
T’phenomenon described as “social facilitation.” This
BEIIAVIOn IN SOCIAL SITUATIONS 485
result IS fairly typical but by no means universal Some slow down

rather than speed up in a group situation In general, those inibally
who
slow show tlic greatest increase m speed, whereas
subjects are
little faster m the group
fast worVers to begin with work onl) a
to the limit of their
situation The latter may be working close
always clear to what estent this
capaat) to begin with It is not
is a "regression plie-
diHercntial effect on slow and fast workers
nomenon ,
.
work gmiip situation

Along witl, increases in speed,
in a
^y
performance
often result in poorer quaht, of
be attempted b> a subject m
a gmup than ™
of
'f In the presence o
them correcUy
but he actually do f<^\er
mav
will typ^l'l
co-workers! his performance
for high quality prfoimance >"

alone situation The 8'“*" the decrement
.
thinking, the
may be
logical and systematic
presence
in quality caused by the ^'7'X,„a,e motivational
it IS Unlikely that
it
the are assured
mb, ecu
entire >,
factors, such as rivalry, individual performances
compamo
that there are tn be no ^8^ which
illustral^
The following espenment .uvestigator used
two
rivalry may operate m
S'”"? „„e of the alone situations,
a group SI
that there were
alone situations and . jgjj jjut knesv
each subject worked
a m , wortang on the same
task
sub, ecu other rooms

m to the laboratory
two alone
In the second alone alone The
*^’e,ely
and in
at different tunes ,|,âie group ivork conitwn,
Brst of the atoe
Situations were Uiea
speed and aOTracy P were working
others
regard to
which the group
duallons. m roems. and the
imultaneously on
the
“^“ôter speed and less a^m^
of
Clearly, analysu
situatron gave
than m
the completely
V wosfs.h.ah°"
'“Ûa"
j
See
naalysis w some i, r
„
F DashleJ,,^^
SJ
group terms of the sheer physical stimuli provided by the
effects in
presence of others must remain inadequate. The analysis of tlic
motivational factors which the presence of co-workers brings
into play is indispensable for an understanding of Uic determinants
of performance in a group situation. To the ubiquitous problem of
competition we turn next.
Competitive Work Situations
Typical Experimental Procedures. The experimenter who

wishes to study tlie effects of competition upon performance faces
several methodological problems. First of all, he must find ways to
vary systematically his independent variable-degree of competition.
How can degree of competition be varied experimentally? Carefully
worded instructions provide a first method. By such instructions,
competitive attitudes may be considerably intensified, especially if
they are given by a person in authority, such as a teacher in a school-
room situation. The instructions can be supported by various tech-
niques: prominent publicaUon of the scores
achiev-ed by the com-
peting individuals or groups, pointed comparisons
of achievements,
commendations to the successful
compeUtors, and exhortaUons to
those lagging behind. Finally, prizes may
be offered to the winners
as additional incentives to compete.
Having created a competiUve work situation,
the experimenter
needs, of course, a noncompeUUve svork
situation for purposes of
comparison. It is probably more difficult to
create in the laboratoiy
a truly noneompeUtive work situaUon
than it is to create a com-
petitive one- hlany experimenters
perforce rely heavily on instruc-
tions to their subjects to ehminate or reduce the motivation to
compete CompetiUveuess is also mitigatedby avoiding publication
“"'’"g individuals. Nivertheless,
® probably present
irnll^n
n all group r K
situahons. Many experiments, moreover, hLe been
compeUUon for grades
and reeog-
daborate
1 ^J
instructions will probably
psychological climate that cvli
fall short of eliminaOng rivalry.
group work, the experimenter may
^ some success vary the Intensity

compeUUve social environment such
of competiUve altitudes. In a
as ours, it is doubtful that it is
competitive attitude
quality of performance. The deforce to which a
affects the level of work depends, of course, on a
number of param-
eters. few of these variables will be briefly considered next.
A
Indicidual cs. group success. There may be competition
among
or
groups and among individuals. Class may be pitted against class
student against student. Several experimental studies have compared
the effectiveness of competition for individual rewards and com-
petition for rewards given to the group, of which the individual
workers are members. The experimental results indicate that in-
dividuals work harder and better when competing for individual
reward and recognition than when the success of a group is at stake.
The and group incentives become
differential effects of individual
especially pronounced if is carried on over a pro-
the experiment
tracted period of time. Those working for individual success sustain
their effort longer and show less variability of performance than
those working for group success. An independent check on the
greater incentive value of individual rewards may be obtained by
permitting workers to divide their time freely between work for
individual and group reward. Subjects choose to devote the bulk
of their time to ôrts in their own behalf and work more effectively
while working for themselves than when working for the group
Such are the experimental findings. To what extent such “egobstic*
tendendes arc modifiable by training is another question.
Nature of the task. What effect the creation of a compeb'tive
atmosphere will have depends in part on the nature of the task in
winch the subjects are engaged. If the task is in itself interesbng
and pleasant, subjects may wwk close to the top of their capacity
and the additional incentive of competition can have only very
limited effects. On the other hand, if the task is dull and the sub-
ject is poorly motivated, the introduction of competibon may boost
the output lev’el considerably. The av’ailable experimental data have
tended to confirm these expectations.
Indicidual differences. Some subjects are more responsive to the
introduction of competitive conditions than are others. As in the
studies of social faciUtafa'on, those whose work is initially poor,
show greater improvement under compebUon than those whose
work isgood to begin with. When the jôrmance level is already
high, there is, as it were, htUe room for improvement Furthermore,
those whose initial perfonnance is infenor are often poorly mob-
vated, and the introduction of competitive conditions provides them
®
with the incentive to worh on a level representative of their abihty
Coopcratice Work Groups

Cooperation and competition are twin mobves sustaining and
regulating the aspirations and activities of an individual in a social
context In many of our daily enterprises, both mobves are oper-
ative In experimental studies, we usually by to study each of these
either com
mobves individually, to create sihiabons which are
are concerned with the
pebbve or cooperabve In this section we
analysis of cooperabve work
important expen-
Typical Experimental Procedures Several
mental invesbgabons have focused on the question of whether the
group are mpenor to the
achievements- of a cooperatne gioiip qua
wortang
achievements of the mdividual members
aHorfe
Do the opportunities for mteraction and cooperation y
combined productivity of the indmdua!
a gmup sitaation add to the
studies of this question

call f-
"S^^êntal
panwn of espenmental and control groups “”“3^'
bimseU,
«ch individual attacks a task by
arranging words tr'eê'ltmrc^Sio'u. a
of facts, judging a ?“**'* ' the results of
committee collaborates on the
problem and y
an^presents
pre
Its common labor to the filled in by choices

gs
This general eiipenmentay*mej^jn_^^^^^^
of specific tasks and
specmc p °
treatment There are some
will vary in their
suswptib and
_l^îscussion or cooperation
^
allow mu
tasks which do not jne^jbers are simply added
rf the in d j
in which the products synenjms or
together Thus when “ F ^ member will find a cer-
OTup
antonyms for a senes other members is
acbvity of
tain n7mher of
ni».t>ec»l..^
to prowe’
shall Umit ounelves
the
limited to the checking of occasional mistakes. In addition,
presence of co-workers may produce ‘‘social facilitation" (see pp.
483 f.). On the whole, howevci, such tasks do not lend themselves to
significant analysis of cooperative svork. On the other hand, there arc
tasks, the solution of which involves a series of choic-es and de-
cisions, inwhich the give and lake of group decision may radically
affect the course of solution and its eventual success. Analysis
of
problem solving in cooperative groups may help to throw light on

those variables which determine the behavior of committees, juries,
administrative boards, and similar collaborating groups.
The size and personnel of committees may vary in an almost be-
wildering number of ways. The more specifically the experimenter
has formulated his problem, the less haphazard will the choice of
the committee be. If we are interested in studying tlie leader-
follower relations which develop in cooperating groups, we may
want to choose members of unequal ability in order to facilitate
the emergence of a leader. On the other band, if our main concern
is wth studying the critical function performed by the group, we
do well to choose members of about equal skill and competence to

maximize the opportunities for interchange of ideas and criticism.
The optimal size of the group will depend on how intensively we
wish to study the behavior of each individual member. Moreover,
the nature of the problem to be solved \vill impose a limit on tlie
number who can effectively cooperate in its solution.
In comparing individual with cooperative performance, we must,
of course, equate difficulty of tasks and ability of subjects in the t^vo
situations. Counterbalanced design^ in which the same subjects
serve in both situations, may be employed. Half the subjects should
work first individually and then in a group; the other half follow
the reverse sequence.
The significance and fruitfulness of such an experiment may de-
pend in large measure on the experimenter*s choice of specific
categories of behavior to be observ’cd and recorded during the
cxpenmenL A
mere tabulation of the number of tasks solv'cd by
individuals working alone and in a group does not do justice to the
problem. The ways in which group discussion develops, and the
type of interaction among members are often the most revealing
results of the experiment. Careful observation of the group at work
and detailed records of group discussion and work procedures are

of the essence. These records &n then be ordered into such cate-
gories as “number of suggestions made by each member,” “number
of correct and incorrect suêstions accepted and rejected,” etc. In
•
this manner, the particular types of work procedures characteristic
of a cooperating group can be described and analyzed.
Experimenlal Results. There is no question, on the basis o(
the experimental evidence, that cooperative groups are more effec-
tive and productive than individuals. As
we have emphasized
due to the opera-
above, the superiority of the group is not alivays
high perfoimance of a
tion of the same factors. Sometimes the
individual perfonnances;
group represents merely the summation of
for discussion and couechon
of
in other cases, it is the opportunity
mistalces which is mainly responsible for
the supenonly of ^“P.
degrees from
Different tasks benefit to varying
tasks wore solved by rob erts
ono investigation, a series of different
In
working individually and in groups.
these tasks are Usled and ranked
according f ?'P'"°'
performance.
over mdividual
ily of the group performance
to Depee of Group Superionty

Bank Order of Tasks Atcording
quaiiiy)
(Total .oMevement, inclodme .
Task
opposite oiK'w"'
Finding words meaning
Solving a cipher
given lacu
Draw-ing conclusions from
Sentence completion
solve a problem
Listing steps to
Composing limerick
Comparison of numbers
Reading comprehension
internee
problen^
Original
m.aybc_^f"0|;f
mentioned before
rinlincnce
Both types of group
i
rS^tâtSkffinding
highest rank is
inX; Se^Tle
.r.-, u H Watsoo. Do
< Prom o.
r-rom
pii/riioiogy.
C.
New Indirfdoab. /•
^
Ai»
Fsydml-. 193a
efiinenuy
groups think more
21 : 79 - 109
.
antonyms) in which the group results represent the addition of
individual achievements In the second nnd third phcc, we find tasl^
the solution of which by a group of workers is advanced by public

discussion, acceptance and rejection of methods of solution
Careful analysis of tlic procedures by which a cooperating group
solves aproblem has sho\vn that one of tlie most important functions
of the group is the elimination of errors and the rejection of false
suggesbons for solubon Statistical anal) sis of the trends of group
discussion has sho\vn that incorrect suggesbons are much more
likely to be rejected by one or the other member of the group tlian
arc correct suggestions Morco\cr, erroneous suggestions are mucli

more frequently rejected by other members of the group rather
than by their originators As a result, group superiority is cspeaally
pronounced when the solubon of a problem depends on a senes of
steps or choices, each of which can be considered, discussed, and
voted upon by the members A group is likely to soKc more such
problems than an individual If the group fails to solve the problem,
the error responsible for the failure will probably occur later in the
course of the solubon than is typically the case with indivnduals
%S 0 Tlang alone The early errors to which an individual may^ fall
vicbm have a good chance of being checked by group discussion.
Expeiument XXIX
The Formation or Norms*
Purpose. To study the formation of norms in
judgments of auto-
kinebc movement
Apparatus The diagram shown m Fig 116 shows
the apparatus to
be used in this expenmenc For a full explanaUon,
see the legend of the
figure
Expenmental Design. The basic design of this
ejpenment caBs for
the use of two groups of subjects The
members of Group A first serve
individually and then m
groups of three The members of Group B first
make then observations in groups and then individually,
thus
Group A Individual sessions followed by group
sessions
Group B Group sessions followed by individual sessions
The hire mterval between sessions should
Group B
be the same for Group
^ A and
A study of some social factors in percepUon Arch. Psychol,

B -Signal button
E “Experimenter
K “Rc«ttonkejr
Ms-Movable screen
S -Subject
Sc -Screen
Sg-Signal light
Sh“Shuttcr
St —Stimulus light
T -Timer
W -Stop watch
members of the groups. If
Care should be exercised in selecting the
among the members should not
possible, the nature of the relationship
inadvisable to have one group
vary too much from group to group. It Is
strangers.
consisting of close friends, the other of
The subject is blindfolded, led into
Procedure: Individual Sessions.
The experimenter reads the fol-
the dark room and seated in bis chair.
lowing inslruclicns to the subject: ^
‘‘%Vhen the room is completely dark, I shall ^vc you the siâl
BEADY and then shosv you a point of li^t. After a short lime, the
light will begin to move. As soon as you see it move, press the key.
A
few seconds later, the light will disappear. Then tell me the distance It
moved in inches or In fractions of an inch. Make your estimates as

accurate as possible."
The experimenter removes the blindfold and allows the subject some
time to dark-adapt. He then pves the first "ready” signal and switches on
the pinpoint of light. As soon as the subject has pressed his key to indi-
cate that movement has begun, the experimenter begins to time an in-
terval of 2 seconds. At the end of the 2-second interval, the bght >5
switched oS, and the subject makes h!s estimate of the extent of ap*
parent movement. This procedure is repeated for twenty trials. (A larger
number of trials is desirable but may prcA*e too time-consuming if the

whole experimental design is to be carried cut in the course of one
laboratory session.) At the end of the first series of trials, the subject is
allowed a brief rest interval in the dark room, and, thereafter, another
series of twenty {or more) fudênts is obtained. All the estimates are
recorded by the experimenter. Since the room is totally darl:, the experf'
menter wall do well to note each estimate on a separate sheet of paper.
Procedure: Group Sessions. The same baric procedure is followed
as in the individual session except, of course, for the simultaneous presence
of three subjects. The subjects arc instructed to announce their judg-
ments in any order they wish. The subjects are encouraged to change the
order mwhich they ^vc theis iwdgjromts Itom â\ to trial instEid of
adophng a set order. IVhenex'era subject announces his estimate, he
presses a signal button which activates a light on the experimenter’s
table. In this manner, the experimenter can identify the subject without
relying on recognition of his voice.
Treatment of Results: Group A. The members of this group first
ma^ their observations individually and then in groups of three. ex- We
îne the data with a view to answenng two questions:
(1) Did the
judgments which the subject made individually tend
to become increas-
ingly stable, Le., did the subject establish
a range within which his
'
responses tended to and a central tendency around «hicli the judg

fall
ments clustered? (2) Did the membas of the group each of whom had
had some experience willi the autolcmetic phenomenon con%erge upon a
common norm^
To answer the question of whedier an fndividinls judgments in this
unfamiliar and “ambiguous" situation tend to stabilize within a limited
range and around a central \alue we examine tlie two senes of twenty
sucwssive
uidividual observations Fust we divide the judgments into
blocks we
blocks of 6 \e-a total of eight blocks For each of these eight
compute the median and the range We may determine by
Inspôn
medians of su^
whether the ranges tend to stabJize We then plot the
establuhed
cessi%e blocks of five judgments U the subject has indeed
succesme medians
a personal norm ihe curse oWauied by plotimg
should level off as the experiment proceeds
touairl a
Did the intbnduals in the group converge
judgments
For the group situation we again divide the
five determme ‘"j
ofVand
blocks
mnge We may
for each block of
out by mspeetron whether

find
three members become more and more
abkem
or not
>1;
awur 7
8 “^
, j
the
plot the medrans of
In addrtton we
common nonn is es i i
i” Sans S
successive blocks of five If a
the three subjects judgmenu should

“funnebng shown
effect " such as that
w ig
jn U e medians
siî
sirahlc to apply tests of statistical with obseraa
s|,|,„c|s start
Treatment of ^jments md.wdually There
are
tions a group and then
111
"J
P™ jj.j 1,0 members ,
a
again two quesbons which the (2) Did the norm
cs
of the group converge
tiblished in tlie group
carry
®
^ individual sessions’
.. „pup conicrged toward
The qnesbon of whether „ was suggested
a common norm can be anssver for successive blocks
Jmd ranges
for Group Atom terms of medians
“I ‘nab established cany

over Jnlo *e in
if m
,r „,.i,
whether
Did the group norm „u«ton we determine (a)
dividual sessions’ To wathin the same
m the “‘J'"
mdi “fJsmns leiwl >’ Is a s gnificant shill
the judgments „|,ether there
range as m
Ihe group mdunduvl session A f.jr ansvver
in L median ludP”'”'’
to these questions
ean
in toe P
V
”,^ “”>«n"8
7^"p'^twn.on will, successive blocks of
km block of Judgments
.
490
EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGT
judgments in the individual situation. To
represent the results graphically,
we again plot the medians for successive blocks of judgments.

Comparisons of Group A
and Group B. Comparison of the results
Group A and Group B wdl yield the answer to an interesting question:
lor
common
Do the members of Group B converge more readily toward a
norm than the members of Group A? The members of Group B, it
svill
be recalled, have their first experience wth autokinetic movement

in a
group situation, whereas the members of Group A may enter the

group
situation \vith personal standards of judgment already established. We
should expect, therefore, convergence toward a group norm to be slo%ver
in Group A than in Group B. We can tabulate, for each block of trials
in
the group situation, the average difference betiveen the median judg-
ments of the three members. In the case of any given block of trials, is
the average difference larger for Croup A than for Group B?
Experiment XXX
Problem Solving in a Group Situation®
Purpose. To compare the problem-solving behavior of subjects work-
ing alone and in a group situation.
Materials. Two sets of problems (say, three problems in each set)
are needed. The most suitable are those which require a series of suc-
cessive steps for solution.Such problems easily lend themselves to group
discussion since each step b considered and taken up separately by the
group. A such
series of problems, which were successfully used in this
type of experiment, may be found in Shaw's paper, cited in Footnote 9.
The experimenter needs prearranged score sheets for recording hb ob-
ser\’ations. On thb score sheet should be listed the categories of behavior
which he wishes to observe, e.g., suêstions made by each individual,
types of criticisms advanced against the suggestions,method of arriving
at a decision, etc. If equipment b avaflable, the ideal procedure b to
record the discussion of the group on a wire recorder or similar instru-
ment. In conjunction with notes based on vbual observations, such rec-
ords will constitute a full and permanent record of the activities of the
group.
Experimental Design. Thb experiment can be best carried out %vith
the aid of a counterbalanced design. Each subject serves both individually
and in a group (groups of four or five are suitable). Half the subjects
first work alone and then in a group; for the other half of
the subjects,
• Tliis experiment U based on a paper by M. E-'Shaw,
A comparison of
indinduali and small groups In the rational solution of complex problems. Amer.
^
1032. 44 m-SM.
‘
J. Ptychd
reversed The two sets of pro^ms-Set

A
the sequence of condibons is
The total ex
and Set B-should be used also in a counterbalanced order
penmental design may be summarized bnefly
on
Group I Half the subiects m this group tot work mdmduallyhalf
and then work as a group on Set
B te ota
Set A
indmdually on Set B and then as
of the subjects Eist work
Group If STeTubjecte first work

half of fte
as a ^p “ ^'t A ^d then
mhjeots tost
indiwduaUy on Set B the other
and then mdniduafiy on
work as a ôup on Set B
This design controls both

the ease of solving the two P”
H^rablv
considerably We may for example
We^mayJ
design of course oiay be simpWled
simply divide the members of the
olaK P P get B
wink J”
is *e^êt^''^^
workers Half of the indiwduj ^ get B
Similarly, half ™ -r jadividual difierences m problOT
In this simplified design ** ,™riinenter roust hope that
a
solving abihty is not controlled .
resiilte
restii of the espen
tint affect the
such ifferenis will be random and
roent systematically nibiect is handed the problems
Procedure Individual Wor quickly and as ae
wiji the proper instructions
He “ “S mdicate the
curately as he can to record
hu be urged to
jubject may
he used m solving the P™*’ hu mefiieds el
;be"Id
aloud- so that the o*P"™“'“,Xn is recorded A tune limit
by step The time needed
iiipnsed and the problem
for sol^ d..,mg
^
com.d^^fj^^^„ „( j., groap are seated
*
Prrmedure Croup following die
fan 4.erim»V‘“S“w.Ti^^^^^
problems Ûido»-^;5r?fm
^
hons as a <»dP'™“ „t the P™’’'''”
j. ^ gold, the group
The actlvibes " . - Hje note-taker »h

^ ijjj eiperJrocnU
the expenroenter
"“'r°dmn^»fpad‘'‘P“':J^^<fSSl
uously ana m no JV yision screen
u
o*'
of land a
may watch members arc not aware that they are
the group while the
under observation.) The time taken to solve each problem is noted and
again a time limit is imposed. In both individual and group situations, the
time limits should be generous so as to afford full opportunity for various
methods of solution to be tried out.
Treatment of Results. The two basic sets of data are: (1) the
number of problems solved by subjects working alone and the number of
problems solved in the group situation, f2) the average time required to
solve a problem in the two situations- Group and individual work can be
compared with respect to tlicse two scores and the significance of tlie dif-
ferences tested.
The analysis of the qualitative data is, of course, a challenge to the in-
genuity of the experimenter. Some questions, however, immediately sug-
gest themselves:
1. At what stage in the solution of the problems did individual workers
and cooperating groups commit errors? Did the group serve the
function of staving off mistakes?
2. How many correct and ho-Af many incorrect suggestions were made in
the group discussion? What percentage of each was
accepted and
what percentage rejected? What percentage of rejections originated
with the author of the suggesUon, and what
percentage with other
members of the group? In other words, does the group serve to facili-
tate self-criticism as well as provide criUcal
evaluation by others?
3. What role did the chairman play in the discussion?
Did he serve
merely as a moderator or did he take an active
part in guiding the dis-
cussion? Did the leadership shift to a
member with greater sfaH in the
manipulation of the material? Did the group
divide into active and
passive members’
^ to relate their
f"r:Sh ft”' •
ca„ be ruwHLted'by qXtSS

”rtft°“‘’
Generai. Reperes'Ces
Imi Appletmi-Ceahny -1940.

^' P’yrhology of modern life. New Yoiki'F^Co..
and Rine-
h^’ 1941.
, , ,
Muiphy, G , Muipl)y> L and Newcomb, T Expcrirnenful social
psychology. New York Harper & Brothers, 1937,
Foumation of Norms
Schonbar, R A,, The modification of judgments m a group situabon,
/ Exper Psychol 1947, 37 69-80

Arch ppjchol
Shenf M
, A stud^
of some social factors fn percephon
1935 No 187 .
_ .
lork Harper & Brothers

Shenf M, The psyc/io/ogyo/ social nornw. New
1936
SOCCESTTO*i AND ScCCEailBlUTy

H L. Suggesl.bd.ty_mtl. aad withoat
Avelmg. F. and Hargreaves
prestige m children, Bnt I FsychU
1921, 12 53 lo
Ceahay Co IMO
Bad crsranrdpsvefaifegp NevvVorh D Appleton
,
Cal./
in suggestiMity Unto
Ilr^‘’w, Individual aad sea dtfereoces
TM Psychol , 1916 2 m-4i0 „,„„bbllity Psychol
and suggesUbility
syc
Coffin T E Some ,
conditions of suggestion
Appleton Cenhiry
CcoC Psychol 1930

IMociT ol chddren 1
B ,
The sugge^bdity
llS,^”^nd CmtchBeld B
chology. New York McCraw three age Ic\els
to the
comparative susceptibdiV
, ^pf
Maxple, C H
, Hie
opim
ptychol^ 1933
suggeshon of group versus expert
4 176-186 , , , T
1 JDrperfmcntflZ social
M
Murphy, G Murphy, L B . and
,
4
acceptance of d^
piychology New York
Saadi, M, and Famssvorth P
atecrces of
*^'Sp^sed
for tteu Pi”
maken * I Mo-
uatio statements and preferences
Sec Psychol, 1934 29 15“ goe Psychol'
st.seoW« j
of
Slenf M , An esperunental stud,
1B3S 29 371437S
SrruAsro’^
Wonn irt a Gaoua
Gancrol Rcfcscoce ^ otuations
(ed.).
Dashlell, J F ,
Eipemnental “to C Kutohison
On the behavnor of individiul
A handbook of general expcrimenfal psychology, Worcester: Clark
University Press, 1934.
Audience Effects
Gates, G. S., The effect of an audience upon performance, /. Abn. Soc.
Psychol, 1924, 18:334.342.
Laird, D. A., Changes in motor control and individual variations under
the influence of ‘razzing,* /. Exper. Psychol., 1923, 8:236*246.
Pessm, J , and Husband, R. W., Effects of social rtlmulatlon on humari
maze learning, /. Abn. Soc. Psychol, 1933, 28:148-154.
Travis, L. E., The effect of a small audience upon eye-hand cofjrdination,

/. Abn. Soc. Psychol,, 1925, 20:142-146.
Presence of Co-uôrkers
Allport, F. H., The influence of the group upon association and thought,
J. Exper. Psrjchol, 1920, 3:159-182.
Dashiell, J. F., An experimental analysis of some group effects, J. Abn.
Soc. Psychol, 1930, 25:190-199.
Compefltioe Work Situations
Hurlock, E. B., ‘The use of rivalry as an incentive, J. Abn ‘Soc. Psychol,

1927, 22:278-290.
Mailer, J. B., Cooperation and competition, Teach. Coll. Conir. Educ.,
1929, No. 384.
Sims, V. M., The relative influence of two types of motivation on im-
provement, J. Educ. Psychol, 1928,'J9:480-484.
Whittemore, I. C., The influence of competition on performance,
J. Abn
Soc. Psychol, 1924, 19.236-253.
• Codperatloe Work Situations

Shaw, M. A
comparison of individuals and small groups in the ra-
E.,
tional solution of complex problems, Amer.
J. Psychol, 1932, 44:491-
504.
South, E. B Some psychological aspects of committee work, /. Appl
,
Psychol, 1921, 11:348-368, 437-464.

Watson, G. B., Do groups think more efficiently than individuals?
J. Abn.
Soc. Psychol, 1928, 23:828-336.
Namf Index
Btomi. J F, 208. 215

Aâis, E D , 145
Brown, A , 349M
F 100. 104
Alien,
Allen. J
,
B 204
Brown. , 31, W
499
Bruce. B W.442
.
Allport, F H , 500
Bninswik, E , 204
AUport. G W. 237. 397, 58, 399.
Burtt. H E ,
218
404. 400. 416, 442 Buxton. C E . 391. 394
Alper, T. G , 394
AnastasI, A., 391 Cain.L F.391
Andrew, DM,391
Campbell A A 309
Andrew. T G . 8 Carbon H B 343 .
Aveling. F . 478. 499 Carmichael 399 416

Cait H A 181. 203, 2M S4S
Baglcy, W C 443 ,
Carter, H H, 349
Ba&d.J W.204 ^ Cartrvnght, 21B 234,
238
BalhriP B, 386. 394 Caron E B ,
273
Boniater, H . 83 84 Cason H .
273 349
CarteU, ] McE .273
tM, 408, 416 M. 144
Chose, A 124.
Biotlq’.S 11,142.145 Chave. E Je 32
Bayley, N.481 Clark A B, 144
Bazrtt, H 0 ,
SO
BeiuI, a J ,
145 S:^B%92 4.6
Benussi. V 461 ,
Bernstein, A L 310 , at'T^"47..499

Berry. W ,
144 C^n M B 8
Biddulph, H, 59, 82 Cole. I- E. 019,,
Bindra. D . 74 o-
498,499
Bird, 0.351,391 S‘tw!^443.443
145.350
giJi^v%5
.274
Crane, H 1'
205, 215, 216 89.104 133,

Bowditcb.H P.21S gS;^^',':’50.
Boynton, P
BraV.C 'V, 4K,4« 82 SW
Breitweiser, H E , 27d Culler, E A-.
Britt, S 11,392. 498 M 43 50. 392

. I. X'
Brocklehurst. B J , 50
Brogde»,W 1.3® gSr^V,33.,393
BtoCT. C H.461 501
502
NAME INDEX
485, 499-500 Haggard, E. A., 462
DashleU, J. F.,
Haig, C., 124, 144
Davis, H., 61, 65, 67, 81, 82, 83
Hall, C. S.. 215
Davis, R. C.. 216, 452, 462
Hanawalt, N. G., 402, 417
Davis, W. A., 145
Derbyshire, A. J., 82
]Iarden,sI^ M., 393
Hardy, A- C., 143
DeSitva, H. R-, 215
Hargreaves, H. L., 479, 499
DeWeerdt, E. H., 351
Dimmiclc, F. L., 104, 216
Hartmann, G. W., 163, 170, 175, 176,
Dulslcy, S. G., 394 392
Hebb, D. O., 417
Hechl, S., 124, 131, 135, 143, 144, 243
Ebbinghaus, H., 279. 359, 360. 390 Henmon, V. A. C., 272
Edvmds, A- L., 392
Henninger, L. L., 349
Egan, J. P., 72. 84 Heron, W. R., 349, 391, 393
Ellis, W. D., 166
Hess, W., 50
EUbetg, C. A., 104 Higginson, G. D., 216
Erickson, M. H., 274
Hilgard, E. R-, 292, 308, 809, 310
Ewert,P.H.,203
Hogan, H. P., 399, 416
llollingworth, H. L.,237
Farnsworth, P. R., 499 Holway, A. H., 50. 104, 204
Feleky, A. M., 402 Hovland, C. I., 310, 333. 335, 349,
Finch, G., 309 350351, 391, 894, 443
Firestone, F. A-, 83 Hughes, J., 49
Fisher, R. A., 8 Hull. C. L., 242. 274, 279, 281, 292,
Fletcher. H., 69. 81, 82. 83, 84 308, 309, 325, 347, 348, 349. 499
FooriE. N., 417 Humphrey’s, L. C., 309, 310
Franz, S. I, 444 Hunt, W. A., 237,461,462
FroebWg, S., 272 Hunter, W. S., 288, 309, 348
Frois-Willman, J., 260 Huxlock, E. B., 487, 499, 500
Fry, G. A.. 144 Hurvich, L., 104
Fidton, J. F., 499 Husband, R. W., 500
Huston, P. E., 274
Galambos, R., 67, 83
Garrett, H. E , 262, 3Sl Irwin, F., 31
Gasser, H. S , 49 Irwin, J. McQ , 393
Gates, A- 1., 330, 500
George, S. S., 31 Jenkins, G., 350, 392
J.
Gerbrands, R., 82 JenJdns, \V. L., 49, 50
Gibson, E. J , 393, 442 Jerome, E. A., 104
Gibson, J. ] , 350, 393, 398, 416 Johannsen, D. E., 32
Gilbert, R. W., 145 Johanson, A. M., 272, 273
Gilliland, A. R., 350 Johnson, D. M., 237, 238
Glaze. J. A., 279, 347, 348 Jones, H. E., 349, 351
Graham, C. H., 143 Judd, C. H., 443
Granit, R^ 145 Jung, D. G., 206, 267, 273, 274
Grant, D. A., 310
Grinêy, G. C., 50 Kaplan. H. L., 373, 391
Guilfoii J. P., 19, 31, 50, 237, 238
Guflette, R., 461
Kappaiif, W
E., 310
Katona, G., 348, 390, 416, 441
.
503
NAME INDEX
Katz, D , 160 Maitm, M A
442 ,
Matthews, 145
KeUogg. \V. N 32
Kemp, A 82
.
May, M
A, 273
J
McDonald \V T , 393
,
Kennelly, T. W , 393
McGarvey, H R , 237
Kent.G H 261-263. 274
W
,
G A 292. 294, 309 McGeoch,G 0.350.394

Kimble, ,
317.
417 C MeCeoeh, J A, 278, 286,
Kiikpatndc, ,
374,
S22, 323 325, 337. 348, 349,
Kline, L. W
442 ,
390, 39I4J92. 393, 402. 416,
441
Kluver, H . 430. 443
McClone, B , 50
Knudsen, V. 0 , 82
KoSka, K , 158. 178, 203. 205,
21S, McCour^, M .237
McKinney, F ,
392
390, 416
Kohler, W. 162, 394. 443 Melton, A W , 286, 348, 393, 394
Meltzer, H , 349
Korte, A , 216
Miles, W R. 126,273
Kiech, D ,
499
Miller, D C 82
Krueger, W. C F .
391
Minami H ,
392
Mintz. E U ,
144
Laird, D A„ 500 Moncneff.R 'V.IM
C ,
461. 462 Morgan, CT. 49
07,81,143,481
lit 30,49,87,103.143.
o'r2S3,273
188, 215, 462 Mimn, N L, 184, 244, 444, 462
Lamer, L H ,
273
loUey,!C 3.310.443 274, 049, 392.
S:Sry;c.t,273
Layman, J 11..444
Lemmon, V 273 W . Wuîy. L B , 8, 491,
499
Lenley, W
M , 319
M. 349 392 Male. J P.40.50
LlclWet.J C R ,74 Nagel E. 8
Liddell, H S.310
LIpman, E A ,
309 “»mb_T Mj8,491,499
Lorge, 1 , 351 Kcwman, E B 83 391 ,
LoveweH, 50 E M .
274
Lowell, F, 263
274 o Connor,J, 2®,
Ludciesh, ,
144 M Orata.P T.44I
Lugoff, L. S , 274
LuheC W.S91 Pan C,394
Lund. F H ,
273 Parker, C H., 104
Lurie. M H.|2 83g ralt.M.l«

D 0 320. 349
Lyon. .
MacLean, A. 134 . T
L- *
A-. -wo
Pf^cstein
MacLeod. R C T , 310
Petia,
Mailer. J lUlf
Mandelbaum J
Peskin J
Pessin, J R-.
“
^
^
peters, C. G»
504 NAME INDEX
Pfaffman, C., 99, 104
Siipola, E. M.,442
Pirenne, M. H., 143 Sims, V. M., 500
'Poffenberger, ^ T., 272 Sindra, R. H., 144
Sivian, L. J., 82
Pollack, L, 74
Skaggs, E. B-, 373-375, 393
Postman, L., 373, 391, 394, 398, 399,
Skinner, B. F., 8, 286, 302, 303, 309
404. 406, 417
Pratt, C. C., 8 Sleight. W. S., 442
Priest, I. G., 144 Snow, W. B., 83
South, E. B., 500
Purdy, D. M., 144
SouthdU, J. P. C., 143, 184, 188, 189,
Pyle. W. H.. 351
190, 204
Spence, K. W.. 309, 31S, 443
Raffel, G.,391
SteinbCTg, G., 83
Rawdon-Smith, G. F., 84 J.
Razran, G. H. S., 310

Steimnan, A R., 248, 273
Stem, W., 417
Reed, H, B., 442
Stevens. S. S.,'8, 61, 62, 65, 81, 82,
Renshaw, S., 428, 442
83.216
Restorfi, H. v., 392
Stone, L. J., 49, 50
Richter, C. P., 104
Stratton, G. M., 203
Riesz, R. R., 82
Swenson, E. 392
Robinson, E. E., 145 J.,
Swenson, H. A, 204
Robinson, E. 286, 349, 374-375,
Symonds, P. M., 238
391, 393
Rodnick, E. H., 273
Rogen, G., 237 Thomson, C. H., 31
A. J., 261-263, 274
RosaztofF, Thorndike, E. L., 237, 337, 350, 351,
Roseozwelg. S., 392 442
Rubin, E., 176 Thouless, R. H., 176, 205
Budonick, C. A, 461 Thujstone, L. L., 29, 32, 238
Buediger, W. G., 443 Titchener, E. B., 32
Rugg, H. O., 237 Todd, J. W., 273
Totten, E„ 461
Saadi, M., 499 Travis, L. E., 500
Sandiford, P., 442 Troland, L. T., 108, 112, 120, 129, 143
Schlosberg, H., 309, 310 Twining, P. E., 393
Schneirla, T. C., 145
Scbonbar, R. A, 499 Underwood, B., 393
Scott, J. C., 401 Upton, M., 82
Scott. T. C., 349 Urban, F. M., 32
Seeleman, 392
Sells, G. B.. 233 Van Gelder»D^481
Seward, 238 Van Onaer, E. B., 393
Sbakow, D., 273, 274 Van Voorbis, W. R.. 8
Sharp, AA, 892 Volkmann, J., 62, 82, 237, 238
Sliaw, M. E., 490, 500 Von Lackiim, W. T., 394
Sheehan, M. A, 176, 205
Shellow. G. M., 350
Voth, A C„ 215
Shenf, M„ 464, 466, 492, 433, 499 Wade. M., 443
SberTTian,hL, 462 Wald. C„ 144
ShUer, S. S^ 143 WaDach, H.. 83
Shock. N. W., 349
Shower, E. G, 59, 82
Walter. A A, 399, 418
Walzl, E. 83
NAME INDEX 505
Ward, L B , 322 349 381, 394 WolSe, H M., 310

Watson, J B 306, 392, 500 ,
Wood, A. B 82 ,
Watson. W
S , 392 Woodrow, H 250 251, 263. 273, 274,
.
Wegel,R L,83 442, 443

Weinberg, M
, 99, 100, 104
Woodworth, R. S 32, 37, 50 92, KM.
,
Weld, H P 36. 49, 97. 103, 143, 186.

,
174, 17S, 203 2(M. 264 265 272,
215 273 274, 348 390, 401, 416, 425,
Wells. F L.. 273 274 441,442,445 447,451.461
Wertbeimer, 178, 218M ,
Wools^ C. £,, 83
Wever, E G 81 83. 178, 237 Wooster, M
, 20i
Whipple, G 417 M
,
.
Wnght, W
D 144 .
WhitwuTch A K 216 ,
Wylie,H H,443
White, S D 82 .
\Vhlttemore, I C 500 Young P T, 461

Wightman, E R 83 route. R E P.309,391
,
Wilcox, n DeV,S91 Ytmi. K S,443

Wilhams, 0 . 394
Zeigamilc B 392
Wilhams.R E 143
Wilhams, S B 309 Zener K . 237
WJsoB, F T„ 351
,
M
Zigler, J 50
Zwaardemaker, H , 104
Wolf, E , 138. 145
Subject Index
Absolute toboli cmsto.

210
detoll
denniaon, ii
pbi,
stroltfscopK^ 211
Qieaûrement, 15 19
Articulation t«ts, speech, 74-76
ixunimal changes, 15-17 Assimilation, memory, 298-299. 400
Accommodabon, 183 185 407, 412, 4IM16
Adirotnatic color, 107-108 Association, age, 362
Acousbcs, see Audiwm concept, 258, SIS
33{KWi
Active reatation, learning. contiguity, 258
Acuity, see Visual awty definition, 277 278
Adaptabon, dark, 123-128 intrasenal, S23-326
definitioo, 37 learning, 313
light, 123. 128-129
remote, 323-328 .e^H/w, OJ
nf
pam, 89 Assooation experiment,
pressure, 37-38 associations, 261-285
imell. 90 clmieal use, 255-268
taste, 98-97
.,ort,a complex incLcaton. 2^268
Affective judgment,
21W19 content analysis, 28^2®*
Affecbvlty, learning 3
ly
Aftenmages, Emmerts law, 199

movement, 209
negabve, 122-123
posibve, 122
size, 199-200
visual, 122-123
Age, color constancy,
heanng. 78-77 265-287, 270-272
'0-2T11
judgment. 228
Atmosphere effect,
learning. ^7-^ cc.
A«tu<!inai)acton^conditic^
ittituQinal factors,
296
sucgesbbihty, 479
learning, 326-331
Albedl. 148-149 ^9-256
reaction time.
retention, 365-368
Audience effects.
r^ÎS
231-
ASSrn^
234 S54
work to group,
Audiogram.
481-4SJ
M
meth^. 313414, 210
,
Audiometer, 70
Anticipation 77
nea" Audition, age.
Apparent movement, attributes,
delta. 212 70
*urj harmonics.
507
508 SUBJECT INDEX
Audition— ( Continued ) Behavior, forms, 6
beats, 68 Bezold Bnicke phenomenon, 111-112
di£Ference tones, 68-69 Binocular vision, convergence, 188,
discrimmation, 56-60 194-195
Experiment III, 78-80 diplopia, 192-193
Experiment IV, 80-81 distance, 185-195
external environment, 76 field. 186
fatigue, 71-73 fusion, 189, 192
feeling, threshold of, 56-57 images, 193
l^ts of hearing, 56 line of regard, 186
localization, 70-71 parallax, 188-189
^
loudness, 63-65, 67 retinal points, corresponding, 167-
masking, 69-70, 80-81 188; noncorresponoing, 1^
noise, 64, 71-73, 74-77, 80-81 stereoscopic vision, 189-192
pitch, 60-63, 66-67 Bisection,method, 29
simple harmonic motion, 51-54 Blade, 156-157
stimulus, 51-55 Blood pressure, diastolic, 448
theory, 66-67 emotion, 44^50
thresholds, 56-61 sphynnomanometer, 448, 449
volume, 63 ^tobc, 448
Auditory area, 57 Brightness constancy, $ee Color con-
Auditory movement, 212-213 stancy
Auditory stimulus, complexity, 54 Brightness contrast, see Color contrast
cycle, 52-54 Brilliance, definition, 108
decibel. 54 discrimination, 112-117
Fourier’s theorem, 54 Intensity,112-113
frequency, 53, 54 Purldnje effect, 116
intensity, 54-^ visibihty curves, 114-116
phase, 53 wave length, 114-116
pure tone, 52 Bulky color, 147
sensation level, 55-56
simple harmonic motion, 51-52 Central tendency. Judgment, 226-227
sine wave, 52-54 Chemical sense, commera, criteria, 102
sound-pressure level, 54, 55 quality, 101
Auditory theory, frequency theory of smell, tee Smell
pitch, 66. 67 stimulus, 101-102
multiple-fiber hypothesis, 67 taste, tee Taste
place theory, 66 Chromatic color. 107-108
Aural harmonics, 70 Chicraoscope, 243-244
Autoldnetic movement, definition, 213- Classical conditioning. 296-297
214 Closure, 164, 168
Social norms, 464-467, 492-496 Cc^nitive processes, continuity, 409
Average error, method, 25-28 Cold Temperature senses
sense, tee
Avoidance training, conditioning, 298 Colcff,achromaUc, 107-108
364, 305-308 attributes, 107-109
Bezold-Brucke phenomenon, 111-
Badeward conditioning, 292 112
Basflar membrane, 66
briHiance, 108, 112-110
Beats, audition, 68
bulky, 147
rouglmess, 68 chromatic, 107-103
509
SUBJECT INDEX
Complexity auditory stimulus 53
Colcff- ( Continued)
visual sbmulus 107
cotnplementanes law 119 1^0 219
Conceptual judgment definition
complemenlaiy 159-160 220
constancy, 148-155 159-160 thinking 220
contrast 155-158 160 Conditioned response acquisibon
Elxpeninent VIII 159 160 curve 295
Experiment K 160
amplitude 301
film 146 289
deMbon 288
hue IVr lOS 109 112 delayed 292
Intermediates law 119 139-140 form SOO
luminous 147 frequency of occurrence
3W
lustrous 147 latency 301
mixture tee Stimulus n^«
modes of appearance 146-H/ SutL« to extmcbon 300-501
object 146-148 trace 292
-25 a
primary 109 uncondibonedrespoiue
definibon -88
Purklnje effect, 116 _ Condiboned stimulus
intensity 299
solid 109 nature 291 299 290
298
surface CooAuomm .mretotfatM"
badcwaia 292
elaSBcal, 296-297
m
Color circle HO
diswiminaboD 289-290
disinhibidoD 296
age IM distributed practice
»5
Color constancy 296-2^ typ
experiment types of
alô 148-149
fCTutf" E.^S.XIX SOWM
152-153^^^
iW
achromatic. 155
Color contrast 302
black
^
extmctioD 289
28^90
„
chromatic, generalizaHw
definition13® |divldual^«298
,57
determinants Iw
simultaneous IW
f
Color mixture,
M
te$
Sttoolos
0“*
ml*®"
Color Bohd. 109 456-489

Compebbon in 488-489
taivldualv,
8
nature of t«k J 40
Complcoientaries “
presentation m ^srSudSS J88 ««»
Complete
biff 313 366-368
300 361
510
SUBJECT INDEX
148-155, Cutaneous sensibvity— (Contfnu#’d)
Constancy, objects, color,
warmth, 89-45, 48 {see also Tem-
159-160
perature senses)
fonn, 169, 174-175
movement, 208
si2 e, 195-200 Dark adaptabon, 123-128
Constant erroTS, 13 cones, 124-127
Constant stimuli, absolute thiesbold, deffruhon, 123
17-19 determinants of rate, 127-128
method, 17-19 foveal, 125
Constant stimulus differences, differ- peripheral, 125
ential threshold, 22-25 rods, 124-127
method, 21 25 wave length, 125
psychometric functions, 23-25 Decibel, 55
Content analysis, associabons, 263-265 Delayed condiboned response, 292
Contrast, color, 155-158, 160 Delta movement, 212
simultaneous, 155 Derived lists method, learning, 823-
successive, 155 324
Convergence, 186, 194-195 Dermatometer, see Psychogalvanome-
Cooperation m
work, 489-492 ter
Experiment XXX, 496-198 Determining tendency, 260
group, contribubon of, 490, 492, Difference tones, 68-69
498, size of, 490 Differential forgettmg, distributed
nature of tasks, 490, 491-492, 496 pracbee, 836
Corresponding retinal pomts, 187 reminiscence, 383-384
Crltenon of Teaming, complete mas- Differential threshold, constant sbmu
tery. 315-316 lus differences, 22-25
definitloD, 361-362 deffnlbOD, 12
retenbon, 361-362 measurement, 19 25
Cnbcal fusion frequency, Ferry-Porter minimal changes, 19 21
law, 135 Dimensional analysis, auditory stimu-
taste, 100 lus, 54 55
vision, 135-137 hearing, 60
Cross-education, bilateral bansfer, 433- learning materials, 317
434,436-437, 440-441 response in nerve, 65-67
defimbon, 433 sensation, 7
mirror tracmg, 433-434, 440-441 vision 107-109
reference expenment, 433-437 visual stimulus, 105
Cutaneous sensiUvity, cold, 39-45, 48 Diplacusis, 62-63
(tee also Temperature senses) Diplopia, 192-163
Experiment 1, 4^7 Discnmlnabon, brilliance, 112-117
Experiment II, 47-49 conditioning, 289-290
mapping skin, 30, 44, 47-49
loudness, 60
pain, 3W9, 47-48 pilch, 57-01
pressure, 35-38, 47 smell, 88-00
punctate distribution, 34-35, 37, 41- taste, 05-96
42 transfer of training, 431-432
recepton, 45-46 two-point, 427
ftablllly of spots, 44, 49 Disinhiblbon, 206
511
SUBJECT INDEX
Disnmctive reaelian time, 240, 2-48* EmcAlon- ( Continued)
gals-amc shn response, 450453,
219, 255-250
456458
Distance, acconimodation, 183-185
guilt detection, 448
binocular field of vbion, 180
Equal-appeanng mtervab, method, 29
binocular fusion, 189, 192
Equal-linidness contoun, 65
binocular parallax, 18S-189
Equivalent stimuli, 429431
clearness, 183
Errors, constant. 13
color dianges, 183
space, 14
convergence, 186, lM-195
185-195, time, 13
determinants, binocular.
varbble. 13
monocular, 182*185 Escape training, conditioning, zys
diplopia, 192-193 Esthesiometer, 47
Emmcrt'i law, 199
images, 193 = 0.^08
Interposition, 182 Extinction, definition,
289
Leonardo's paradox, 194 resistance, SOO-301
line of regard 188
movement. 207-203 emotion, Judgment.
Facial expression,
movement parallax, ItM a«ial.
.
454455. 458460
jH^^êflincar, 182. IW. posed. 454.455,460
jpeafic situations, 4W
reawl points. fpontaneeus. 4M. 4»
71-78
Fatiê, hearing.
'8<
.ppurel, 182. learning, 276
Izc constancy, noise, 71-73
sound localuation. 71
stereoscopy, 189-10-
condiUcmng. 295
Distributed practice. I«-l®
definition. 332-333 b'JLess Ulmnct,
339 closure, 164
differenUal forgetting.
learning. 331-3?®'
334
nature of activities,
Tcminbcencc, 384
retention. 363
effects.
3354139. 341*
serial posiUon IK
hue iffcscBCC.
time rebtionsliips. 334^
19 <
Duplicity theory, visloo. 164 ..ice
(SpS dcvclopmo''- le
«lze. .
Emmert's law, 199

Emmert’s .jojso
Emotion, blood P‘'*®“^'7io.450 c
F
chances. circu\t(^. ‘‘IsiMSs!’
changes. >“
iBlBhlh™ 114-175
450-453
Esperimw X. 17^
Exjwrlmenl XI. 182-167
ground,
Sgure and
facial expression,
453
( )
5J2 SUBJECT INDEX

Form— Continued Images, afterimages, 122-123, 109
illusions, 169-172 crossed, 103
perceptual grouping, 167-109, 172- uncrossed, 103
174 Incidental learning, 328
Fourier’s theorem, 54 Individual differences, competition in
Fractionation, loudness, 63 work, 488-489
method, 28 29 conditioning, 296
pitch, 60-63 learning, 338-339, 340
Free nerve endings, 45 reaction time, 258-257
Frequency distortion, hearmg, 74 Induced movement, 213-214
Frequency hypothesis, intensity, 60, 67 Insight, 432-433
Frequency tables, assoaatlon experi- InspiraHon-cxniratlon ratio, 447-448
ment, 261 263 Instructions, learning, 326-328, 339-
Kent Rosanoff, 201-263 340
O’Coimor, 263 Instrumental conditioning, definition,
Woodrow Lowell, 263 297
Frequency theory, pitch, 67 305-
training, avoidance, 298, 304,
308, escape, 298, reward, 298,
Galvanic sldn response, apparatus, secondary reward, 298
450, 451, 458 tynical experiment, 297-298
conditions, 450-453 Intelligence, learning, 339
measurement, 450-453, 456A58 Intermediates, law, 1 19
Gamma movement, 212 Intenupted tasks, retention, 366-368
Generalization, conditioning, 289 290
graênt, 290, 431-432 Jost’s law, 302-363
transfer of trainlag. 431-432 Judgment, affective, 218-219
Clare, vision, 132 anchoring. 224-220 231-234
Grouping, see Perceptual grouping atmosphere 228
effect,
Guilt detection, assoiÛon expenment, conewtuah 219-^0
266-287, 270-272 confidence, 228-230
emotioo, 448 Expenment XV, 231 234
Gustatory stimulus, tee Taste Expenment XVI, 234 238
expression, 220-221
Halo effect, Judgment, 227-228 eneral principles, 226-230
Hearing, see Audition falo effect, 227-228
Heat, 43 nonverbal behavior, 221
Heteroohromatic photometry, 107 of intervals, 28-29
Horopter, 187 perceptual, 218
Hue, Bezold Bruclce phenomenon. 111 relahvity, 223-224
definition, 107-108
reliability, 230-231
response scales, 221-220
intensity, 111-112
single stimuli method,
photochromatic mterval, 111
wave length, 109 110 Social norms, 463-467, 492-498
stimulus scales, 221-228
tendency, central, 226-227, round-
Identical elements, 424-425
number, 227, time, 223-230, 234-
niumination, color constancy, 149-152
237, 240-242
jpuslons, 169-172
types, 218-220
direction, 171 172 validity, 231
extent, 171
verbal report, 220-221
)
SUBJECT INDEX 513

Judgment time. 228 230, 234 237, Learning— ( Continued
2-10-241 rate, 280
confidence, 223'230 reinforcement, 329-330
difficulty, 228-230 retention 276,352
serial, S12-3I3
Kiscsthesis, 177-178
serial position effects, see Serial po
KooHledge of results, learning, 330-
SitlOQ
331 826-329
set,
Kories bws, 210-211
sex,33S4»9
Krause’s end bulbs, 45
stunuli and responses, 276-277
Latency, conditioned response, 301 success and failure, 329-330
trial and error, 280-281
leamlog strength, 241, 2S3
reaction time, 2-10, 241 243 verbal, 278-280
recall, 55S Learning cunes, accelerahon 283 284

retroactive Inhibition, 372, 373
determinants 284
sensitivity, 241 S-shape4 283 284
Law Vincent, 284 286
of effect, 329
1-eaming acthe recitation 330-331 Learning matenab, affectiwty, 319
age. 537-338 amount. 320321. 346347. 363.
377378
assocfatlon, 313
crowded, 364
oUitudinal facton, 323-331
dimensional analysts 817
basic variables. 316-317
conations, 326*336 3®
2IP-2S0. SI8-319.
criterion, 315-316
curves, 283 286 318, 3474M8
tof«ni?278 280.
defidUoo, 275-276
environmental conditions, 340 duratien of, 340, or-
presenUbon
Experiment XX, 341-340 of. 315. rate of.
610
der
Experiment XXI, 343-347
fatigue, 276
incidental. 828
840
Jiidivldnal differences, 336-339, 123,128-129
Llswilp^w
InstrueUons. 326-328. 339-340
Umen, 20
intelligence, 339 Lorallzatjou, olfactory,
94
intent to learn, 326-327 sound, 70-71
knowledge of results, 330-331 Loudness. discxiiruMhon.
eo
law of effect, 329 equal contours 63
matcilak 317-321 , fractionation, 83
measurement, see Measurcinen frequency. 63
intensity. 83
nerve Impubes, 67
plrtepr«»MUon,313 sone, 63
port. 331-33-,
iodato. 3I4J515. Lnmen, 103
whole, 331-332
IW
motivation, 329-331 Macbeth Ulumlnonietef.
motor skills, 280 . o,,
practice, distributed, «<« Marbe’j bw. 263
841-316. 76
346. massed 332-^6, Masking of noise
69 7U
methods of, 613-318 of pure tones
problem solving, 280--83
)
514 SUBJECT INDEX

Maslang— (Con/fnucd) Movement— ( Conrin wed
of smell, 93-94 induced, 213-214
of speech, 76 Korte’s laws, 210*211
Massed pracbee, tee Distributed prac- moving stimulus, 207-209
tice
Maze learning, 437-440
Meaning in learning, tee Learning
E ial,210
tom sound, 213
phi, 210
materials rebtivity, 208-209
Measurement of learning, frequency stationary sbmulus, 209 212
of response evocation, 282 stroboscopic, 211
latency, 283 213
tactile,
relearning, 282-283 threshold, 207

resistance to forgetting, 282 Mulbple-Cbcr hypothesis, intensity, 0*
Mel, 61
Memory, tee Retention Nerve, auditory, 66-67
Memory drum, 341-643 gustatory, 99
Memory span method, recall, 353-354 modes of variation, 66-67
Memory trace, comx-pl, 305 Kerve fibers, types, 46
fate in time, 396-401 Ncuba! zone temperature, 40
Microstructure, contrast, 156, 157 Noise, fatigue, 71-73
^Szubon, 147-148 masking, 76
Middle ear distortion, 69 pitch, 64
Mfllilambert, 106 Nonsense syllables, 318
Mmimal changes (limits), absolute assodabon value, 279
threshold. 15-17 constnicbon of lists, 347*348
differential thresliold. 19 21 of consonants, 280
method, 15-17, 19 21
Monocular vision, accornmodabon, Object color, 146-148
183-184 albedo, 148
apparent size, 182 bnghlness differences, 348
clearness, 182-183 constancy. 148-155, 159-160
color changes, 183 illuminabon, 148
loteipontioa, 182 microstructure, 147
parallax, 183 Object-word association, 259 260
penpecbve, aenal, 184, linear, 182, OlfacUe, 87
184 Olfactometer, 86-87
relative size, 184 Olfactory stimulus, tee SmeD
Xfobvation, conditioning, 290, 290, Optimal movement, 210
303-304
learning 329-331 Pain, adaptabon,
39
retenbon, 385-368 Expenment IL 46-17
Motor sldlls, 280 punctate distribution, 38-39
Movement, afterimages, 209 receptors, 45
apparent, 209-211, 214 216 spots, 38-39, 47-48
auditory, 212-213 stimulus 38
autokinetic, 213-214, 464-487, 492- threshold, 39
496 Paired associates method, learning
constancy, 203
314-315, 354
ihstance, 207-203 Paradoxical cold, 43
Expenmenl XIV, 214-216 Paradoxical warmth, 43
SUBJECT INDEX 515
Parallax, binocular 188-189 Efychophj-sics-fContiniied)

monocular, 183 errors 13 14
movement 1S3 ^dgment of intervals 28-50
Paranieler definition, S methods 1829 average error,
Part metliod m
learning, see Whole 25-28 bisection 29 constant
metliod stimulus differences 21 23 con-

stant stimuli 17 19 equal ap-
Perceptual grouping closure 169
peanng intervals 29 fractiona
direction 168 169 172 173
tjon 2829 roimmal changes
proximity 167 168 172-173
similarity 168 172 173
(limits) 1817 1821
point of subjective equaht) 12 23
Perceptual judgment 218
Penpective aerial 183 184 28
problems 9 10
linear 182, 181
psycl ometne functions 23 25
resersible 163 differential,
sensitivity absolute 11
Phantom sound 213
Phase sound was es 53 IS 19 dif
threshold, absolute. II
Phi movement 216-211
ferential, 12 19 25
Pholochroniatic interval 111 spots 41
Punctate distsibuhon cold
Photometer 106
42 41 48
Photon 107 p;»in spots 38-59 47-43
Physiological zero 39-41 SM6 4
pressure spots
Pitch, complex sounds 53 4M2, 44 48
wurm spots
diplacusis 62-63 I5S
Pupillary area bngl tness
discnmination 57 60
Purkmje effect 116
fractionation60-63
frequency 60-M
Intensity 63 63 Bate, realL 358-359
mel 61 Diction Bin,
seiisorj
noise 64 Attitude molor S54 -So
Place theory p tch 60 2Sî-2o5 ^
Plethysmo^ph ^^0 *tennln.-uils -18.^ oetosa
Preumopaph.'447,4o6
-1“'*')’
Point of iubi«ti«
Prreuro adaptoB"
recepton 05-36
jidgment
spots 35-36 47
l^shold,Sfr37
4
Presbge suggest.^ 248250^
«jt
Primary colors
Pnsm smell 91 U«l!) .to.'-
Problem solving. 219 Jiratioo
tensde*.
Pseudo-condilionnC 21824S Jocalior* 2i ,
tensitv
Pseudoscope IJ- ^so-tSl 456 sfw 317
Ps)-ch0ba«v4..>-
P*)C
- ^ 23.3a
cl
Recall latencv 55S
antiapHon 354 tnem^
wmparuoo oietbods
516 SUBJECT INDEX
Recall, methods— (CimJlnued) Retention—"t Conf fntied)
span, S53-354; paired ^scxdates. latency, 358
354; retained members, 353 learning, 276, 352; conditions of,
rate, 358-359 560-368; criterion of, 361-362;
threshold, oscillations, 354 degree of, 301-382
Recognition, 354-356 leveling, 398, 400, 405-400, 412,
Reconstruction method, retenhon, 357- 415-416
35S limits, 360
Reduction screen, 153 measurement, 352-359
Reinforcement, frequency, 300 methods, saving, 356-357; serial re-
heierogeneoas, 297 production, 403-408, 414-426;
homogeneous, 297 single recognition, 402-4(KJ; single
informab'on, 330 reproduction, 401-403; successive
law of effect, 329 recognition, 403; successive repro-
learning, 329-330 duction, 401-403
success and failure, 329-330 motivation, 365-368
Relearning, 282-283, 356-357 practice, distributed, 863; massed,
Reliability, Inlerjudge, 230 363
Judgment, 230-231 rate, 358-359
\*ahdity, ^1 recall, 352-354
Reminiscence, definition, 381 recognition, 3544156
degree of learrUng, 3K reconstruction, 3574158
determinants, 383-387 relearning, 3564J57
differential forgetting. 383-384 reminiscence, 3814587
equated groups, 382^3 retroactive inhibition, 868-381, 387'
ezperunent procedures, 331-3^ 383
measurement, 385-386 rumor, 412-414, 414-416
practice, distributed, 384; massed, set, 364-365
384; method of, 384-355 sharpening, 398, 400, 405-407, 412,
rate of presentabon, 384 415-416
rehearsal, 382-383 stimulus concept, 380-381
retention, 381-387 success and failure, 366-368
successive test performances, 381- tasks, completed, 366-368, 3834590;
382 inlemipled, 3664568, 389-390;
Respiratory cycle, 447-448 nature of, 363-364
Response scales, 221-226 test situation, 380-381
variabflity, 227 testimony, 409-412
Responses, learning, 276-2T7 trace, 39^96, 401
Retained members method recall, 353 Retina, cones, 121, 124-125, 137
Retention, amount of material, 363 corres ponding points, 187
assimilation, 298-299, 400, 407. 412. disparity, 188-189
415-116 dupLcity theory, 137
attitudmal factors, 365-360 xhodopstn, 116-117
baste variables, SOT rods, 116-117, 125, 137
curves, 359-360
Retinal image, 178
definition, 276 Retinal mosaic, 132
.
Experiment XXII, 387-389 Retroactive inhibihon, definition. 369-
Experiment XXIII. 389-390
371
Experiment XXIV, 414-410
determinants, 371-379
Jort'f law, 362-363
experimental paradigm, 370-371
SUBJECT INDEX
Retroacbve inIubibOD-{ ConHnued) Serial reproduction method, memotj,
Interpolated learning, 377*378, change. 404-403, loss, 404-403
strength of, 877-378 nature, 403-404
latency, 372, 373 rumor, 412, 414-416
measurement, 371-373 succcsdic reproductions, 407-40S
original learning, amount of, 877- Set, learning. 328-329
378. strength of, 377-378 reaction time, 249-258
set, 876^77 retroactive inhibition, 376677
similarity of activities. 373-377 similarity, 376-377
SIcaggs-Robmson hypothesis, 373- suggestion, 472
375 Sex, leanuDg, 338-339, 320629
sleep and wakmg, 368-369 suggesbb^ty, 460
temporal pomt of intorpolation. 378- Shape constancy, tee Form constancy
379 Sharpening, memory, 598, 400, 405-
two-factor theory, 379-380 407. 412, 415-418
Reward training, conditioning 293 Sunilanty, learning activities, 373677,
Rhodopsm, dark adaptation, 125 337688
vuibihly, 116-117 set. S76677
Roscoe-Bunsen law, 133-13-1 Simple harmonic motion. 516’t
Rote learning, 280 Simple reaction time, 240, 256 £0S*
Round number tendency, judgment. 270
227 Simultaneous contrast, 155
Rumor, audience 415
effects, Sine wave, 52-53
lahontoty study, 412-414, 414-416 Single recognJticn method, 402-403
serial reproduction method. 412, Single reproduction method, nsture,
414-416 40M03
See also Suecesavt reproduo-
Saturation, definlbon, 108-109 ticm method
Sioê method. 223
stimuli
118-119
Intensity,
Size, afterimages 199-200
wa\e length. 117-118
constanty, 195-200 202-203
Saving method, retention, 356-357
distance, 197-199
Secondary reword traini ng, condition-
Emmert’i law, 199
ing, 298 retinal image, 1^196
Sensation level, sound, 55-50 visual angle, 195-196
Sense modality, concept, 33-34
Stags, noblasim
Sensitivity, absolute, 11 emotion, 450-453,
Sfan resislaDce,
dciimdon, 10-11
differential, 11 eenera) level 450-453
See also Threshold rapid changes 450-453 ..
Serial learning, 312-313

^ See o/jo Galvanic skin ftip<»»
Serial position, associabons, inlraserial, SIdnner bos, 302
Smell, adaptation,
90
323-326. remote. 323-326
curve, 821-322 cla^Scation, 9(V93
deriv^ compensation, 93
lists method, 323-324
errors, antiapatoiy. 824, persevera
Eiperimect V, 102
ft)S(on,&3
tjve, 324
localization. 94
practice, distributed, 335-338, 341*
masking. 03 Of
340. massed, 335-336, 341-346 00
niodulstion,
reminiscence 334
SUBJECT INDEX'
518
Sphygmograph, 451
Smell-(Conf(nuetI) Sphygmomanometer, 448, 449 r
prism, 91-92 Spontaneous recovery, conditionmg,].
quaLUes, 90-93 289
receptors, 85 86
Stereoscope, 189-192
sensitivity, 102-103
mirror, 190
stimulus, 85-M
86-88 pnsm, 190-191
techniques of stimulatiôn,
differential, pseudoscope, 192
threshold, absolute. 88, tclcslereoscope, 191-192
88-90 192
484-486 uses.
Social fadhtaUon, Stereoscopic vision. 189-190
Social norms, 463-467 Stimuli, leammg, 276-277
ambiguity, 467
464-4b/, Stimulus, cold, 3940
autokmeUc movement,
general, 2
492496 ,
exnenmental paradigm, 464-457
_ ncanng, 51-58
pain, 38
Expenment XXIX, 492496
pressure, 33, 47
Juoênt, 463467, 492496 smell, 85 88
Sone, 63 , -ri
71 taste, 94 95
Sound localization, distance,
vision, 103-107
intensity, 71
warmth, 3940
phase, 71
Stimulus mixture, vision, compl«men-j
time, 71
lanes, 119 >
Sound pressure Iwcl. 55 law, of complementaries, 140.
o*
Space. accomrnodaliOT, 18-^185 mtermediatcs, 139
basic visual conclibons,
17o-i/a
three-component, 120-122
binocular parallai, 188-189
two-component, 119-120
convergence. 186, 194-195
185-19&, Stimulus scales, ^1-226
detenninants, binocular,
Stroboscopic movement, 211
monocular, 182-185
Successive contrast, taste, 98
distance, 181-19o
vision, 155
Experiment XII. 200-201
Successive recognition method, 403
Experiment XIII. 202-203
Successive reproduction method, entr
framework, 179-181
183
parallax,
asm, 400401
movement nature, 396
retinal image, 178-179
progressive changes, 396400
aensoiy systems, 177-176 rcproduclfoi
See aUo Serial
shadow, 183 method, Single reproductioi
size, 195-200
stereo- method
vision, binocular, 186-195,
Suggestibility, age, 479
scimic, 189-190 469
counter-suggestibility,
visual acuity, 179
visual angle, 179, 195-198
deflnition, 4^
distnbution in population, 47748'
Space error, 14 480
sex,
Spatial framework, 179-181
See also Suggestion
flexibility, 180 181
Suggestion, ambiguity, 470
main lines or organization, 180
tridimensionality, 179-180
behavior mechanisms, 480481
Speech, articulation, 74 definitions, 468469
frequency distortion, 75-70 difficulty, 470472
masking, 76 direct, 468469

2015.139033.experimental Psychology An Introduction - Text PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

2015.139033.experimental Psychology An Introduction - Text PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Under (he Editorship

All rtghii In this book are reserved

Peprinied In India by arranggn ent with Harper & Row

Ludhiana and Primed by Mohan Makhijanl at ReJeha

1 TlIE SroPEOPECra/MEN-TM. FSTaiOT/XTir

Studied in Espenmental ps) Oology

The Basic Probfems of Psychophysics-The Basic Con

PEnCEFTlON OF COLOR 148

enCEmoN OF space 177

PERCUmOX OF MO\*EMENT 208

12. REACnON* TIME AND ASSOCUTIOS 239

perij«ents-The Determinants of Reaction

/I5 EXTEBIMENTAL STUDY OF MUJlA^LtEAElONC 812

IT.-'-'imTOmov ANm FORcrrriNc-n ijoianxtTfEtauoviis

18. thansfer of traininc 418

19. EMOTIONAL BEIlAVIOn 445

20. BEIIA\TOR IN SOCIAL SITUATIONS 463

VIII Color Constancy 159

X Perceptual Grouping 172

XI Form Constancy 174

XII Discrimination of Visual Depth -J — 200

xiri Size Constancy 202

XIV Apparent Movement 214

XV Tlie Anchoring of a Response Scale 231

XVI Judgment TimeasaMeasureofDifficultj ofDecision 234

xvn Simple and Disjunctive Reaction Time 268

XVIII Detection ofGuilt Through Word Association 270

XIX Conditioned Hand Withdrawal 305

XX. Serial Position Effects Under Massed and

XXII. Retroactive Inhibition 387

XXIV. Memory Change in Serial Reproduction 414

,^/XXV. Transfer of Training in Maze Learning 437

for a moment we have come anywhere near treating all

field might be unduly burdened bv the large number of references

We can repeat the e^nment using different values for s, u, and u,

and obtain a hew functional rclntion between y and x The vana-

iMifer may object that wo do rot htoic all of the i

of each list. We trust that the magnitude of illumination changes

away many phenomena of perception by describing the attributes

A, n/chologuls we need to make the distinction beh, een descrip-

of Behavior Studied in Experi mental Psychology.

experimental Investigation. There are no cut*and*dried rules for

their use of color names in response to different

Of course, verbal report provides us with information other than

Murphy, C.. Murphy, L.

THE PSYCHOPHYSICAL METHODS

ONE of the oldest problems m psjchology is the relation behveen

theoretical as well as pncticnl miporttnce What are the lawful

Tiir B \sic PnonLEMs of Psvnronnsics

The Basic Concepts of Psychophysics

Suppose we wish to measure a subject’s absolute sensitivity to

to under^timale or overestimate the

Experimental ant> Quantitative Methods

The Method of Mmimal Changes

we decrease the intensity by a given physical amount

longer hear a sound

several series, brrtfa

Ascending Scries Descending Series

an ascending series, the threshold is given by the mid-point between

a function of \ c.r|)enmental conditions

The Method of Constant Stimuli

Basic Procedure The method denves

that anumber of fixed (constant) stimuli is presented to the subject

experimental Investigation. There are no cutanddried rules for