7.

The urbanization process is taking place all over the developing and less developed nations but at a
different rate. Some are being urbanized faster than the others are. This is because of the policies
adopted by various governments.
The urbanization process is becoming a serious issue in the population policy than the rate of
population growth itself. This is so because of certain reasons:
1. The urbanization process calls for rural – urban migration. This means that the urban dwelling
areas have to accommodate that much increase in the number of people on the limited available
land. Thus, resources are limited in relation to the needs of the people.
2. The increase in the number of people leads to increase in the social costs in terms of pollution,
thefts, and crimes. These costs are to be borne by the population living in these urban areas only.
3. The urban cities face more of increase in the number of labor in informal sector like street
hawkers, labor at construction sites, small grocery shops. This informal sector is not able to
contribute to the GDP of the economy. Thus, development process is at a low pace even though
there is presence of large labor base.
4. The urbanization process is taking place in terms of increasing slums rather than in pukka houses.
The slum population has the best of every facility but their living condition in terms of health and
hygiene is very poor.
5. The urban areas are not able to provide employment opportunities to all the migrated people since
most of them are unskilled labor. On the other hand, the urban areas need more of skilled labor.

7.3

 Neglect of agriculture: industrialization at the expense of agricultural development

 Urban bias development strategies
 investment in urban industrial development
 Job creation in urban areas by government and manufacturing and services industries
 Educational opportunities in urban areas:
 R-U brain drain
 Cash and in-kind subsidies to government
 employees and factory workers
 Eradicate poverty and reduce population growth
 Promote rural and agricultural development
 Create jobs in rural areas: expand small-scale, labor-intensive industries
 Eliminate factor-price distortions and adopt “appropriate” production technologies
 Modify direct link between education and employment
 Reducing population growth
 Decentralizing authority to cities and neighborhoods.

7.7 part 1
The primate cities-capital-are disproportionately located at one place because of the following
reasons:
1. These places have large consumer base due to which industries are also interested in setting up
their base at such place. Thus, we find most of the business located in such cities.
 2. The political base is also set up at such place since the government can enjoy more power at the
capital only.
3. The means of transportation are also available in abundant.
4. Similar industries are located at one place, since the capital provides them good market for raw
material, easy labor, transportation, easy access to the government offices.

7.11

Concentration of major economic activities in cities provide cost advantages to both producers and
consumers. These localized economies often take the form of backward and forward linkages.
Higher transportation costs induce the firms in the same or related industries to work in cluster to
save costs: a forward linkage. Similarly, firms located in same region can all draw on a large pool of
workers with specific skills used in that sector: a backward linkage.
Learning habit among the firms has spillover effects. Firms located in clusters or in industrial districts
can also benefit from the opportunity to contract out work easily when unusually large order
materializes.
Clustering can generate more specialized employment in rural nonfarm sector in traditional
townships.

8.1

 Most of the developing nations are poor. The reasons for sizable school dropout rates in developing
countries can be outlined as:
1. The children in the poor family are sent to work at an early age to support the family income rather
than sending them for studies.
2. The families are poor and thus, cannot bear school expenses.
3. The poor children also fall sick and cannot bear the cost of medical. Thus, it leads to long absenteeism.
The other reason attached to long absenteeism is early marriage of girl child.
4. The children are slow learners and many a times not patiently handled by their teachers. This type of
treatment demotivates them to attend the school and thus, we experience dropouts.

 Step 2 of 2

The governments of the developing nations have to take necessary steps so as to prevent dropouts.
Some of the suggestions are:
1. Introduction of free and compulsory education for children up to the age of fourteen years. After this
age, attractive scholarship schemes can be introduced for further studies.
2. The schools to introduce free mid-day meals, books and school uniform for the children so that they
do not have bear any expenses.
3. The schools should organize regular and free medical checkups for the school children so that
necessary medication can be given to the unhealthy children at the right time.
In order to ensure good attendance in the school, the parents of such children should be given monetary
or non-monetary incentives so that they are motivated to send their children to the school. This step
would also prevent the problem of child labor.

8.3 (oki)
The formal system of education in the developing nations, especially the rural areas, does not cater
to their social and economic needs. I do agree with this statement. We know that rural areas are
mainly composed of farm and non-farm poor population. Such families like to send their children to
work to support the economic activities rather than sending them to school. Thus, the result is
chronic early dropout rate.

8.7
apart from economic contributions, education has its own intrinsic values. While economic considerations are
useful for planning and policymaking at a macro level, it may not be appropriate to indiscriminately apply
economic principles in an intrusive way to direct the priorities of institution management and classroom teaching.

8.9
There is a very close relationship between educational system, labor markets and employment
determination in developing nations.
The educational system that is able to make it accessible to all and is need based education; it will
be producing productive labor force in the market. However, the more the labor force, the developing
nations will have to create job opportunities to absorb the productive skilled labor force and that too
at deserving wage rates.
The productive labor force can help in the development of the nations by bringing about
technological changes happening around the world into their nation and develop faster.

8.15
1. Long absenteeism and early school dropouts from the side of poor families
2. Child labor
3. High cost of education at primary level for poor families and low rate of returns for them
4. Gender bias in education ( the ratio of female participation in the education field is less in
developing nations)
5. Inappropriate government Policies for the education system

8.17
most of the developing nations such as North Africa, China, India, Pakistan, West Asia and other
developing nations, it has been found that poor families in these nations do not like to spend on
education and health of the girls. They consider it wastage of money. This is so because a male
child is the long life economic support for the family. He would also bring in dowry on getting
married.
On the other hand, the girl child will have to carry dowry along with her upon marriage. There are
many cases discovered of female foeticide and infanticide as well on account of these reasons only.

8.19

The strategies used for child labor can be listed as:

• There is a need to alleviate poverty from the developing nations and all forms of child labor will
automatically end. (As suggested by World Bank)
• The number of children coming to schools can be increased through introduction of conditional
cash transfers as an incentive to motivate parents to send their children for study rather than work at
such an early age.
• Introduction of strict laws against illegal child trafficking (UNICEF)
• There should be provision of time off schooling at their workplace so that they can earn as well
learn.
• There should be a ban on all forms of slavery like debt bondage, prostitution, or pornography. ILO
has recommended increasing the schooling age to 14 years.
• There can be trade restriction with the countries that permit child labor or banning the goods made
by children.

9.1
In almost all developing countries major proportion (between 60% - 65%) of total population resides
in rural areas. Their main occupation is agriculture that is subsistence or peasant agriculture. Most of
these rural dwellers grind out a meager and often inadequate existence in agricultural pursuits.
This stagnant and often regressive economic life in rural areas breeds the main problems such as
poverty, inequality, and high population growth rate in developing countries and is acting as an
important road block in the path of these countries to achieve economic growth in real meaningful
sense.
With large proportion of population confined to rural areas and engaged in agriculture related
pursuits, developing counties if want real development and also on self – sustaining basis then they
have to include the rural areas in general and agricultural sector in particular in their development
plans and formulate specific policies that address the issues of these two avenues.
So, in view of sheer number of people being located in rural areas and dwelling in absolute poverty
and primarily engaged in subsistence agriculture any analysis of development problems should
place heavy emphasis on the study of agricultural systems, especially peasant agriculture, and the
rural sector because then only the fruits of development could reach the majority of population
around the world.

9.3

Three main systems of agriculture found in the developing world are as follows –
1. First system of agriculture pertains to those countries where agriculture contributes the largest
share of GDP. These countries are generally termed as agriculture – based countries. In these
countries almost two-third population resides in rural areas and is engaged in agriculture primarily
subsistence agriculture.
2. Second system of agriculture pertains to those countries where majority of population resides in
rural areas but agriculture contributes only a small share of GDP. These countries are termed as
transforming countries.
3. Third system of agriculture pertains to those countries where majority of population resides in
urban areas. In fact, majority of poor population itself resides in urban areas. In these countries
agriculture contribution to GDP is very small. These countries are termed as urbanized countries

9.7
Three stages in the transition from subsistence to specialized agriculture is as follows –
1. In first stage, agricultural production is undertaken on the subsistence level. Productivity in this
stage is generally very low. Agriculture practiced in Africa resembles this stage.
2. In second stage, agricultural production get diversified or mixed family pattern of agriculture is
practiced. In this stage, farming family consumes only a small part of the produce and significant part
of production is left for the commercial sector that is sale in market. Agriculture practiced in Asia
resembles this stage.
3. In third stage, agriculture production gets fully commercialized. Farmers are engaged in high –
productivity specialized agriculture with exclusive focus on commercial market. Modern technology
and equipment are used on large scale in this stage. Agriculture practiced in Latin America
resembles this stage.

9.9
Comprehensive or integrated rural development implies the range of activities pertaining to overall
development of rural areas.
These activities include –
1. Efforts undertaken to increase agricultural productivity in rural areas especially of small farmers.
2. Efforts undertaken to augment rural incomes especially non-farm income through job creation by
creating non-farm working opportunities and rural industrialization.
3. Efforts undertaken to increase the provision of various social and welfare services such as
education, health, and housing etc.
4. Efforts to bring in a reduction in inequality pertaining to distribution of income in rural areas and
correcting the disequilibrium in rural-urban areas with respect to income and economic opportunities.
5. Efforts pertaining to prevention of the use of harmful chemicals and fertilizers in agricultural
operation by farmers and sustaining and accelerating the pace of the improvements achieved in
rural areas over time.

9.13
Analyzing of the agrarian system in the developing world put forward an important but often
overlooked fact that it is the women that play most important role in agricultural production.
As per the various studies, women undertake most of the agricultural work. In most cases they
perform 60 percent of work and in some cases up to 80 percent of work as well. Women are typically
responsible for almost all agricultural operations such as sowing or planting, weeding, harvesting,
and preparing crop for storage or consumption. In production of cash crops also women plays
important role.
All strenuous jobs such as weeding and transplanting as associated with cultivation of cash crops
are performed by the women. Apart from this, women cultivate small vegetable gardens for family
consumption as well.
Not only in terms of work done in agricultural operations, women also plays important role with
regards to ensuring food security of the family. This they do by supplementing the household income
by generating additional income through cottage industries and raising livestock to augment the
assets of the household.

9.15

The agricultural extension program in Kenya remains contentious for a number of reasons and one
among them is its treatment with women. In sub-Saharan Africa, women are responsible for well
over sixty percent of staple food production. Yet the design of program has reflected a clear bias
against women. The basic issues involved with their appalling status are:
• Education: The extension programs appear to be biased to train the more educated spouse and
since women in Kenya are less educated than men, on average, their condition has been
exacerbated.
• Technology: Most of the technological development has been focused on activities of men. And
these men in turn have not trickled-across such training to their wives.
• Credit: Agricultural extension programs usually consider men to be the primary beneficiary and
hence credit facilities to women are limited.
• Diversification: A move towards growing more cash crops and less subsistence crops has not
gone well within the structural adjustment programs.
 .
8.5 (k)
In the developing countries, the cost of education is very high due to which the deserving talents
belonging to lower middle income families or poor families are not able have an access to these
facilities. One of the objectives of the developing nations has been achieving an hundred percent
literacy due to certain reasons:
1. A literate nation is able to develop faster as the ability to understand the changes taking place
around the world is more amongst its population and they easily adapt to these changes.
2. If there is more number of educated working class, the number of working population grows due
to which the government is able to generate more revenues from them in the form of taxes. The
revenue so generated is used for infrastructural development of the nation and making investments
elsewhere.
3. The educated labor force brings in more technological advancements due to which the
development takes place at a higher rate than usual.
4. The educated nation bring the social benefits as well like equal status between males and
females, female contribution to the workforce, educated generation, better care of health, and so on.
5. The educated population is able to make right choice of the government and utilize their voting
power efficiently.
The reasons so discussed attract the government to financially help the students in the form of
subsidized loans, scholarships for the talented ones, more subsidies to economically weaker section
of the population and so on.

10.1

 Step 1 of 4

Sustainable Development –
Sustainable development refers to a pattern of development which stresses on the fact that while
meeting the needs of the present generation, needs of the future generation should not be compromised.
In other words, natural resources should be utilized in such a manner that not only needs of present
generation gets fulfilled but sufficient resources remain for the usage of the future generation as well.
In fact, sustainable development talks about the minimum environmental protection for future
generations.

 Step 2 of 4

As we know that environmental degradation slowdown the pace of economic development by imposing
high costs in terms of health related expenses and reduced productivity especially on the developing
countries.
Since, economic development is an outmost necessity for the developing countries because of large scale
poverty and low income. This environmental degradation will severely hit these countries in terms of
achieving required economic development.
Thus, need of the hour is to find solution to various environmental problems and restrict or reverse
environmental degradation. Some of the respective solutions are enhancement in productivity of
 resources and improvement in living conditions of poor etc but these solutions could only be achieved if
environmental friendly sustainable growth is achieved
Thus, in their own interest (achieving economic development, enhancing standard of living, and
increasing productivity) sustainable development is not only feasible and practical but a necessary goal
for nations especially developing nations.

 Step 3 of 4

Some difficulties in path of achieving sustainable development are rising consumption level world wide
as well as high rates of population growth. Both these challenges or difficulties are putting enormous
pressure on the natural resources and are leading to their unsustainable use.

 Step 4 of 4

Slowdown of population growth rates, strengthening of institutional framework especially in developing

countries with respect to security of land tenure rights, availability of credit, inputs, and information so
that poor people can make resource augmenting investment and help in preservation rather than
destruction of environmental assets from which they derive their livelihood.
These are some tradeoffs which are required to achieve sustainable development.

11.1

 Step 1 of 2

So many developing countries were convinced of the necessity of development planning because these
countries surely believes that development planning is their most direct and surest way to achieve
economic progress.
In fact, up to 1980s, development plans are the way of economic and social life of most developing
countries. Every five years or so, latest development plans are released with great pomp and show.
It was widely believed in many developing countries that it is through national planning that they can
develop the institutional and organizational mechanism which can help then in overcoming the major
obstacles to development and achieving high rate of economic growth in sustained and continuous
manner.
Also, to lift their economies in comparable terms with their former rulers, these countries believe that
they require comprehensive national plan.
Even though, result across countries with regards to performance of development plans is not
encouraging but few countries have in fact utilize the framework of development planning in effective
manner in accelerating growth, reducing poverty, and reaching human development goals.

 Step 2 of 2

It is true that governments in developing countries have used the development planning in mobilizing
and channelizing the scarce resources to the areas which can help the country in achieving long-term
objectives. However, not always that development planning is utilized to achieve economic goals only.
Countries utilize development planning in terms of achieving social objectives as well.
Development plans also include policies and framework pertaining to achievement of social goals such
as improved standards of education and health etc.
 Apart from this, development plans are also used to control private economic activity so that a
harmonious relationship between desires of private business operators and social objectives of
government could be maintained.

12.1

 Efficiency
Efficiency in economic sense implies use of scarce resources by a country in optimal manner. In other
words, this means that respective country is utilizing its resources in such a manner that production of
goods and services is maximized.
Relation with theory of international trade
This is related to the theory of international trade in the sense that by indulging in international trade, a
country can utilize its comparative advantage in more effective terms. It can specialize in production of
that goods and services which it can produce at lower opportunity cost whereas it can import those
which it cannot produce efficiently. In such scenario, wastage of resources in terms of inefficient
production could be stopped and each and every resource could be utilized in efficient manner.

 Step 2 of 4

Growth
Growth in economic sense implies increment in per capita income, output produced, and general
standard of living as achieved by a country.
Relation with theory of international trade
This is related to the theory of international trade in the sense that by participating in international
trade, market for a country especially developing countries get expanded. This enables the firms of the
respective country to take advantage of scale of production. Increase in income due to export raises the
per capita income whereas availability of more variety of goods and services due to imports implies
rising standard of living.

 Step 3 of 4

Equity
Equity in economic sense implies distribution of goods, services, and scarce resources in just and fair
manner. This also implies gains as appropriated through production, distribution or trade should be
distributed among different stakeholders in equitable manner.
Relation with theory of international trade
This is related to the theory of international trade in the sense that gains associated with the free trade
should be distributed among trading partners in just and fair, and equitable manner. In other words,
during trade between poor or developing countries and rich or developed countries majority of gains
from trade should not be appropriated by the developed countries alone and developing countries
should also get the fair share as well.

 Step 4 of 4

Stability
Stability in economic sense refers to the situation of constant growth and low inflation in tandem with
increased productivity and improved efficiency prevailing in the economy. Stability is also characterized
by the prevalence of lower unemployment rate generally around the natural rate of unemployment.
Relation with theory of international trade
It is related to the theory of international trade in the sense that increased participation of a country in
international trade makes the economic environment of a country somewhat dependent on the situation
prevailing in international markets. In fact, many developing countries are following the export-led
growth strategy.
Any adverse happening in international markets leads to serious setback for the country concerned. For
example, if major trading partner of the country experiences recession then this will leads to decreased
export order which in turn affect domestic industry in terms of fall in production which give rise to
unemployment and affect the stability of the country.